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Most speleothems are composed of calcite or aragonite, CaCO3. Together, these two minerals probably comprise over 95% of all speleothemic material in caves. In Guadalupe caves the carbonate mineralogy is more complex than that in most other caves due to the effect of the magnesium ion in solution. Besides calcite and aragonite, the magnesium minerals hydromagnesite, Mg3(CO3)4(OH)2. 4H2O, huntite, CaMg3(CO3)4, and dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2, are present. Thrailkill (1971) tabulated the distribution of these five minerals for various types of speleothems in Carlsbad Cavern (Table 30) and found that, for the samples analyzed, flowstone-type speleothems are composed exclusively of calcite and aragonite, whereas moonmilk is composed exclusively of aragonite and the magnesium carbonate minerals. Other speleothems such as popcorn or wall coatings may be composed of one or a combination of these minerals. Tankersley et al. (1983) did a spectrochemical analysis of major and trace elements in a piece of aragonite flowstone from Carlsbad Cavern (Table 31).
TABLE 30Number of occurrences of minerals in speleothems, Carlsbad
Cavern. After Thrailkill (1971).
TABLE 31.Major and trace elements in aragonite flowstone, Carlsbad Cavern. After Tankersley et al. (1983).
The depositional fabric of minerals making up carbonate speleothems takes a variety of forms. Huntite, dolomite, and hydromagnesite always form as extremely fine-grained precipitates of cream-cheese consistency, whereas aragonite usually forms acicular crystals or feathery arrays of crystals. In flowstone and dripstone travertine, the layers are usually composed exclusively of aragonite and calcite (Table 30), the calcite forming either as clear, columnar, "palisade" crystals with small "crystallite" terminations, or as felted bundles resembling coconut meat. In one 3 cm thick flowstone sample collected from Carlsbad Cavern, Folk and Asserto (1976) found that the felted "coconut-meat" crystals occurred at the base of the specimen and appeared to be the first type of material deposited after halts in crystallization, possibly during times when the surface of the speleothem had dried out. The distinctive fabric of palisade calcite crystals is believed to be caused by precipitation from thin water films that flow over the growth surface of the speleothem (Kendall and Broughton, 1977, 1978).
The five carbonate minerals found in Guadalupe caves derive from vadose seepage along joints, bedding planes, and connected pores in overlying bedrock units of limestone and dolomite. Incoming solutions are charged with carbonic acid derived from carbon dioxide in the air and in the soil zone above the cave. Carbonic acid dissolves the limestone and dolomite rock below the soil zone and water entering the caves is enriched in the ions of calcium, magnesium, and bicarbonate (Table 28). Upon entering an air-filled passage, these solutions lose their excess carbon dioxide and precipitate their accumulated load of carbonate material. Thrailkill (1965b) found that the carbon-dioxide content of incoming drip water in Carlsbad Cavern is over 20 times that of the cave air.
The above carbon-dioxide scheme is the exclusive mechanism of carbonate deposition in many or most caves, but in Guadalupe caves another, perhaps even more important, mechanism is at work causing precipitation of calcium- and magnesium-carbonate minerals. Humidity in Guadalupe caves ranges from 34 to 100%, with a mean value of around 85-90% for air equilibrated with the cave environment (Table 4, Fig. 21); therefore, in most cave passages, evaporation of incoming cave water is also a major influence on precipitation. Thrailkill (1965b) calculated that in one area of Carlsbad Cavern as much as 40% of the carbonate deposition was caused by evaporation. Hill (1978b) determined that evaporation was a controlling factor in the deposition of carbonate minerals in Ogle Cave, with respect to both the kind of mineral expected and the speleothem morphology and type. Hill estimated that in a cave of 88% humidity, 10 times more evaporation will occur than in a cave of 99% humidity (as is common for caves in the eastern United States, such as Flint-Mammoth, Kentucky).
Evaporation is an important control on the type of carbonate mineral deposited because, during evaporation, water which remains saturated with respect to calcite will shift toward a relatively higher magnesium concentration. The concentration of magnesium ion in solution is the reason why the usually rare hydromagnesite, huntite, and dolomite are relatively common in Guadalupe caves. The process can be visualized by examining the phase diagram in Fig. 96. Following the dashed line in the dolomite stability field, note how the mineral species changes with a loss of carbon dioxide and an increase in evaporation. As ground water entering the cave degasses carbon dioxide, calcite is precipitated first and the magnesium ion increases relative to the calcium ion (a move down on the vertical axis of the diagram). High-magnesium calcite (Mg-calcite) deposits next, then aragonite, then huntite, and finally hydromagnesite. A Ca++/Mg++ plot of vadose water in Carlsbad Cavern shows that most drip water and practically all poo1 water lie to the right of the Ca++ = Mg++ line (Fig. 97). This relationship suggests a late-stage evolution towards decreasing calcium content at approximately constant magnesium concentration, as would be expected to occur where calcite-saturated seepage is subject to evaporation.
The geochemical shift toward water high in magnesium is reflected in the mineral trends of Guadalupe speleothems on both a small and a large scale. Low to high magnesium-mineral trends (e.g. calcite-aragonite, dolomite-huntite, aragonite-hydromagnesite) within individual speleothems have been reported by several investigators (Thrailkill, 1965b; Hill, 1973c; Folk and Asserto, 1976). Small-scale changes in mineralogical composition are especially pronounced in cave popcorn, where the general sequence of popcorn deposition is rhombohedral calcite surrounded by nodular over-growths of spicular aragonite capped by blebs of hydromagnesite moonmilk on the tips of the aragonite spicules (Fig. 107).
On a large scale, a transition from calcite dripstone to aragonite anthodites to hydromagnesite moonmilk can be followed in Carlsbad Cavern from the Big Room to the Lunch Room to Left Hand Tunnel, respectively. This trend may reflect changes in stratigraphy from reef to forereef (Fig. 18), or be a function of increased temperature and evaporation from the Big Room into Left Hand Tunnel (Fig. 19), or both. Another such transition in mineralogical composition can be seen in the Lake of the Clouds Passage where evaporation again seems to control mineralogy. Bushes of coralloidal calcite surround the Lake of the Clouds where the humidity is relatively high. Directly upslope from the Lake, the bushes grade into blunted aragonite spicules and then, higher upslope, delicate acicular-aragonite frostwork occurs (Fig. 93).
The effect of evaporation and carbon-dioxide loss on the various types of carbonate speleothems deposited can be understood by examining the carbon-oxygen-isotope values of speleothems (Fig. 98). (For an explanation of the carbon- and oxygen-isotope methods see Part I of this paper.) Most of the speleothems in Fig. 98 lie along Slope 1 which represents the deposition of speleothems due primarily to carbon-dioxide loss. Note that only popcorn and moonmilk lie on Slope 2, which represents the deposition of speleothems due primarily to evaporation. These findings agree with Thrailkill's (1971) mineral-occurrence chart (Table 30), where popcorn and moonmilk are composed of aragonite, hydromagnesite, huntite, and dolomite, minerals that are known to deposit by evaporation from solutions high in magnesium. Of some surprise is the occurrence of aragonite anthodites along Slope 1, which implies precipitation primarily by carbon-dioxide loss rather than by evaporation. Evidently, aragonite in Guadalupe caves can form with or without evaporation being directly responsible for its precipitation.
The number of carbonate minerals in Guadalupe caves is small, but the variety of mechanisms that control carbonate deposition causes a large number of speleothem types. Five basic hydrologic mechanisms, dripping water, flowing water, seeping water, pool water, and condensation water, influence the type of speleothem. Examples of primarily dripping-water speleothems are stalactites and stalagmites which are elongate in the vertical direction of dripping. Flowstone forms from thin films of water which uniformly flow over cave walls or floors and deposit thin layers of travertine. Helictites twist in every direction because they grow by water seeping through tiny, internal, capillary canals. Cave rafts are flat, planar speleothems because they form on the surfaces of cave pools, and rims are deposits which form where water is condensing on bedrock or speleothems. Compound speleothemic shapes result where two or more of these basic mechanisms are operating simultaneously. For example, a drapery speleothem is created when a drop of water flows down an inclined ceiling and then drips to the floor. Shelfstone is a morphological extension of a cave raft produced when water moves by capillary action onto the upper surface of the raft, thereby increasing the raft in thickness. Cave pearls form when water drips into a shallow pool. And so on.
Added to these five basic hydrologic mechanisms are other factors, such as bedding, limestone porosity, and evaporation, which influence speleothem type and shape. Bedding can influence speleothem deposition in a number of ways. In Flint-Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, an impermeable sandstone caps the caves so that speleothem-depositing water enters the system only where the sandstone is truncated by valley erosion. The silty Yates and Tansill Formations, on the other hand, are sufficiently fractured and bedded so that surface water easily moves downward along joints and dipping bedding planes. Vadose seepage thus enters the underground throughout the whole Guadalupe Mountain recharge area, the diffuse penetration accounting for the fact that in Guadalupe caves speleothems occur practically everywhere and in great profusion (Palmer, 1975).
Bedding and permeability factors can influence cave mineralogy in other ways. In Carlsbad Cavern the type of speleothem changes as one traverses from the bedded-backreef Tansill and Yates Formations at and near the cave entrance down into the unbedded Capitan Limestone (Hill, 1972). Speleothems found in the impermeable (0.01 millidarcies) Tansill Formation at the cave entrance are primarily travertine depositsdripstone which drips from ceiling joints, or flowstone which issues forth along horizontal bedding planes and flows down along cave walls (Fig. 99). As one descends along the Main Corridor into the unbedded, more permeable (14 millidarcies) Capitan reef limestone (just beyond the Whale's Mouth), popcorn becomes increasingly abundant on cave walls. The pattern of vadose-water flow creating these different types of speleothems can be visualized as follows: water from the surface descends into Guadalupe caves mainly along vertical joints and deposits dripstone (rows of stalactites and stalagmites) wherever the joint intersects a cave passage; or, where water moves along a bedding plane, flowstone can form below where the bedding plane intersects the cave (Fig. 100). But, if solutions move down far enough to reach the massive Capitan Limestone, they no longer intersect bedding planes but instead diffuse through interconnected pores in the limestone and move toward the cave walls where they form popcorn-type speleothems.
Bedding and dip are factors which can control the position and quantity of travertine deposited. Along the joint passage connecting the Main Corridor with the New Mexico Room, a cascade of massive dripstone and flowstone covers the left (west) wall of the passage, whereas the right (east) wall is devoid of speleothems. This distribution of travertine is produced by the intersection of the passage with the eastward-dipping beds of the Bell Canyon(?) Formation. Water moving downdip along bedding planes intersects the west wall and deposits its load of calcium carbonate there. Along the east wall, where beds intersect the passage at an obtuse angle, the water supply is cut off from the wall by the passage void, resulting in absence of speleothems. A similar situation exists both along Left Hand Tunnel and the south end of the Big Room, where dipping forereef beds divert water away from the reef and produce an absence or an uneven distribution of travertine.
The types of carbonate speleothems in Guadalupe caves are discussed in alphabetical order. The classification scheme of Hill and Forti (1986) is used throughout for speleothem types and subtypes.
Anthodites (anthos = flower) are speleothems which consist of clusters of colorless to white, needle or quill-like, crystal sprays. "Frostwork" is the term used for the acicular, needle-like variety of aragonite anthodite that resembles cactus or thistle plants (Pl. 11B). Anthodites are found in practically every Guadalupe cave, but form particularly exquisite arrays in the Medusa Room of Spider Cave and in the Christmas Tree and Bifrost Rooms of Carlsbad Cavern (Hill, 1979, 1982a). In the Medusa Room, a spray of aragonite frostwork almost 0.3 m long rests on top of a ledge. In the Christmas Tree and Bifrost Rooms, aragonite stalagmites up to 1.2 m high look like real Christmas trees, complete with spiny branches and needles. When flashed with a strobe light, the Bifrost Room frostwork displays a green phosphorescence, especially on recently formed growth tips.
Anthodites are believed to form where slowly moving, thin films of water seep between and over the surface of individual crystal needles, thus increasing the speleothem in breadth and height. Stalagmites often take on spiny, Christmas tree-like shapes because drops of water in overhead stalactites precipitate their load of calcite first and become increasingly enriched in magnesium; as the overhead drops fall to the floor and stalagmites are built up, this enrichment favors the deposition of aragonite over calcite.
Balloons, Cave
Cave balloons are roundish, thin-walled speleothems with gas inside of a mineralized, bag-like pouch. The best balloon specimens in Guadalupe caves occur in the Left Hand Tunnel of Carlsbad Cavern. These balloons are composed of hydromagnesite, are up to 2.5 cm in diameter with an approximate wall thickness of 0.1 mm, and are white with a satiny or pearly luster (Hill, 1973b, d; Fig. 101). One of the hydromagnesite balloons in Left Hand Tunnel hangs from the tip of an acicular aragonite needle on a small Christmas tree stalagmite, itself fed by drops from a calcite stalactite. Other, less perfect, deflated or desiccated balloons have been observed on the northeast wall of the New Mexico Room (C. M. Seanor, pers. comm. 1985), in an area about 1 m2 in the Grinder Passage, Virgin Cave (H. DuChene, pers. comm. 1985), and in a number of places in Lechuguilla Cave (Hill, 1986).
Cave balloons are believed to be an extremely short-lived speleothem, transient in the time it takes for their initial growth and also in the time it takes for them to desiccate and disintegrate. Balloons may possibly grow when incoming solutions under pressure inflate carbonate moonmilk material. Moonmilk is usually a cryptocrystalline substance which exhibits a high plasticity when it contains just the right amount of water (Bernasconi, 1961). The plasticity of moonmilk increases when the aqueous phase comprises about 35% of the total mass, attaining a maximum at 37-40% and then decreasing rapidly up to 65%. If water under pressure reaches moonmilk blebs on the tips of popcorn, the plastic moonmilk can blow up in exactly the same manner as does a rubber balloon. In a relatively low-humidity cave like Carlsbad or Virgin, cave balloons can quickly dry, crack, deflate, and change in luster. Between 1973 and 1981, a small hole developed in one of the hydromagnesite balloons in Left Hand Tunnel and, during this time, the balloon also changed from a translucent to a more opaque luster (Hill, 1973d, 1981b).
Boxwork is so named because of its resemblance to a maze of crisscrossing post-office boxes. Thin, compact blades of crystalline material stand out in relief as a network of intersecting fins or plates corresponding to fractures in bedrock. Boxwork is not a common speleothem type in the Guadalupe Mountains because of the general lack of bedrock fracturing in the caves, but one small exposure of boxwork fins a few millimeters in width has been found in Lower Devil's Den, Carlsbad Cavern, near the calcified siltstone-cave rafts. Also, a small amount of boxwork has been noted in Wind (Hicks) and Spider Caves, the latter occurrence with fins 3 cm long and 1 mm thick.
The association of the boxwork with calcified siltstone in Lower Devil's Den may not be a coincidence. The contact zone between the shelf facies and reef core has been an area of past weakness. The calcified siltstone-cave rafts are found along this contact, and breccia deposits are there as well (Figs. 30, 40). A zone of weakness is exactly where one would expect bedrock fractures to develop and boxwork fracture fillings to form.
Coatings and crusts
Perhaps the most non-descript of all speleothems are the light-colored carbonate coatings and crusts which line the walls, ceilings, floors, and pools of most Guadalupe caves. This type of speleothem is formed either subaerially or subaqueously.
Subaerial coatings and crustsSubaerial coatings line cave walls and ceilings, acting as a backdrop for the more showy popcorn or helictite speleothems. Of mineralogical note are the dolomite coatings identified by Thrailkill (1968) in Carlsbad Cavern. The dolomite has acicular crystals of aragonite in the coating and, for this reason, Thrailkill speculated that the dolomite had formed from the aragonite in the presence of high-magnesium solutions.
Floor silt in Guadalupe caves is often covered with a crust of white carbonate material (Fig. 36). These crusts form when carbonate-bearing solutions seep up through the silt toward the dry cave passage and deposit their mineral load at the surface of the silt. The crusts covering the silt are a few centimeters to tens of centimeters thick. Perhaps the best display of this type of crust is in Lower Cave, Carlsbad Cavern, where it overlies some of the thick silt banks (Fig. 34).
Subaqueous coatings and crustsIn the underwater variety the carbonate material lines the sides and floors of cave pools. The most notable example of such pool linings are the "clouds" of the Lake of the Clouds Passage, Carlsbad Cavern (cover photo). The calcite of the cloud linings is fine-grained, having formed from numerous crystal nuclei under supersaturated conditions. Orange clouds also occur at the bottom of Lechuguilla Cave (D. Davis, pers comm. 1986).
A conulite is a conical shell of carbonate material which visually resembles an ice-cream cone with its apex pointing down. Conulites are rare speleothems originating as drip tubes in soft sediment that becomes subsequently lined with calcite. When the sediment (usually mud or sand) is eroded away, the calcite lining is left exposed as a hollow, cone-shaped speleothem.
Two conulite localities are known in Carlsbad Cavern. The most unusual one is in Lower Cave, in the fissure passage leading from the bottom of Mabel's Room toward the Boneyard. This particular conulite is unique because it has formed in moonmilk rather than in sediment (Hill, 1984a). The conulite in moonmilk is shaped like a horn coral (Fig. 102); it is 5-12.5 cm high, 6-7.5 cm wide across its top, and has a wall thickness of less than 1 cm. A piece of light-green, waxy, endellite clay is attached to a lower, outside portion of the conulite.
More typical conulites occur in the Balcony of the New Mexico Room, in sandy floor just past the climb up into the first room. The largest of the four conulites is 25 cm deep and 15 cm across the top. Shifting of the overhead drip point has created vertical flutes on the insides of these conulites.
"Bird baths" are low-angle, bowl-shaped conulites which form in soft sediment. Tiny bird baths, 2 to 3 cm across and 2 cm high, have been found in floor silt at the bottom of the first pit in the Hall of the White Giant, New Section, Carlsbad Cavern.
"Coralloid" is a collective term used for a number of morphological varieties of nodular speleothems. This type of speleothem has been discussed above in Part I, where it was related to late-stage speleogenesis events. Coralloids also relate to other problems, such as air-flow direction (Fig. 24) and past climate. Like coatings and crusts, coralloid speleothems can be either subaerial or subaqueous in origin.
Subaerial coralloidsAn estimated 95% of all coralloids in Guadalupe caves are subaerial. They assume a variety of unusual and fascinating shapes depending on their history of development. Most common are the grape-shaped (Fig. 103), coral-like (Fig. 104), or popcorn-shaped coralloids (Fig. 66, Pl. 11B). Four morphological variations of popcorn coralloids are button popcorn, flat-bottomed popcorn, palm-stem popcorn, and calcite blades.
"Button" popcorn is a type of knobby popcorn with concentrically plicate surfaces which sometimes appear to be twisted or folded (Thrailkill, 1953). Good examples of this type of popcorn occur in Manhole, Virgin, Three Fingers, Mad Russian, Lechuguilla, and Wind (Hicks) Caves (Hill, 1976c).
"Flat-bottomed" popcorn consists of clusters of popcorn which terminate in flat, horizontal tiers. The popcorn in the clusters grows on limestone ceiling and wall pendants, and the clusters get continually thicker down to their horizontal terminations. Flat-bottomed popcorn can be observed in many places along Left Hand Tunnel, the Big Room, Lower Cave, and Secondary Stream Passage of Carlsbad Cavern. This form is best developed where a main passage meets a side passage (e.g. at the entrance to Billing Dove Tunnel, Big Room).
"Palm-stem" popcorn is similar to flat-bottomed popcorn except that the flat surfaces are tilted from the horizontal so as to resemble tiers of cut palm-stems. Palm-stem popcorn often extends out from the sides of walls or stalagmites at angles of approximately 60°. Two of the best places to observe this kind of popcorn are in the Big Room along the trail by the Lion's Tail and along the south wall of Jim White's Tunnel where the passage starts to descend at a steep angle. In the latter occurrence, the popcorn masses are tilted both in the horizontal and vertical direction.
"Calcite blades" are a type of monocrystalline popcorn composed of calcite rhombohedrons oriented at slightly different angles on the blade (Hill et al., 1972; Hill, 1978c; Fig. 106). In Guadalupe caves, "normal" nodular popcorn usually begins its growth as a monocrystalline rhomb (Fig. 105); then, as the shape evolves and becomes increasingly rounder, the popcorn assumes the rosette form of a calcite blade (Fig. 106), and finally the form evolves into a smooth, nodular shape. This gradual transition of form is beautifully displayed in Musk Ox Cave (Hill, 1976b) and in the Lunch Room of Carlsbad Cavern. In the Lunch Room there is, in addition to the first three transitions, an added sequence of aragonite needles overlying normal popcorn and blebs of hydromagnesite moonmilk on the tips of the aragonite needles (Fig. 107).
In Guadalupe caves, subaerial popcorn forms by (1) water seeping through wallrock or speleothems, (2) thin films of condensation water, (3) splash from overhead dripping, and (4) splash from a pool. All four mechanisms have one thing in common: they all involve thin films of water as the critical criterion for popcorn deposition. When thin films of water move over surface irregularities in the limestone, more carbon-dioxide loss and evaporation take place at the apex of the irregularity than at the base, and deposition thus occurs preferentially at the apex and a nodular shape eventually results (Thrailkill, 1965a).
Seeping water (mechanism 1) explains popcorn which has pushed gypsum rinds out from cave walls (Fig. 66). It is probably the most universal mechanism by which popcorn has formed in Guadalupe caves, although this mechanism may have been operative primarily in the past, during or just after the time when the water table descended out of a passage and the limestone was losing its interstitial water. This mechanism, and also especially mechanism (2), is probably responsible for much of the popcorn associated with the condensation-corrosion "popcorn line" of Hell Below Cave and the Left Hand Tunnel-Big Room of Carlsbad Cavern (see Part I of this paper for a discussion of the condensation-corrosion process). Acidic condensation water corrodes the limestone and speleothems on or near the ceilings where CO2 levels are high (Table 5), and the water runs down the side of the wall to form popcorn below the area of corrosion. A good place to view actively forming condensation popcorn is in the Left Hand Tunnel near the second bridge, where water droplets are condensating on the eastward side of a limestone pendant, while flat-bottomed popcorn is growing on the bottom and westward side of the pendant.
Thrailkill (1965b) thought that most of the popcorn in Carlsbad Cavern had formed by mechanisms (3) or (4). It would have been more correct to say that most of the popcorn forming today grows by splash, primarily by mechanism (3), because mechanisms (1) and (2) are probably no longer operative on a large scale. Most actively growing popcorn occurs on the tops and sides of stalagmites where water is dripping from the roof and splashing onto stalagmites. Type (3) popcorn can be seen in the New Year's Eave Gallery of Hell Below Cave and in many places along the trail in Left Hand Tunnel of Carlsbad Cavern. It may also be seen in the Main Corridor by the Whale's Mouth, on the north wall, where dripping water has splashed on the apex of the stalagmite and has created a ring of popcorn on the wall concentric around the stalagmite's apex. Type (4) coralloids are the least common. They can be seen around and just above the edge of the pool at Devil's Spring in the Main Corridor and also in Lower Cave, in the "coral" alcove just below and beyond the Jumping Off Place.
Subaqueous coralloidsThis type displays cauliflower- or grapefruit-like surfaces and shapes. Good examples are at Devil's Spring and about midway along Left Hand Tunnel, Carlsbad Cavern, and in Virgin Cave (Pl. 13B).
Tower coral is a variety of subaqueous coralloid which sticks straight up like so many toy towers (Fig. 108), except in places where constant dripping has caused coralloid growth to incline away from the vertical. Cross sections of tower coral exhibit a radial, layered structure characteristic of all coralloids, but the layers are elongate in the vertical direction rather than symmetrical as in most coralloids. Black (1956) referred to the tower coral in the Chinese Wall section of New Cave as "free, gravel-like accretions with rough granular surfaces." Hill (1978b) reported tower coral in Ogle Cave and also in the Black Forest section of New Cave (Sheet 7), and related both occurrences to high evaporation rates in these caves. According to Hill's interpretation, tower coral forms in shallow pools where the top part of the pool is supersaturated with calcite compared to the less saturated, lower part of the pool; precipitation is greatest along the top of the growing coralloid and a vertical shape is favored.
Popcorn growth and air flowOriented popcorn is popcorn which has grown on walls or speleothems in a direction which either points away from, or towards, the cave entrance or the direction of air flow in a passage. Hill (1978b) related entrance-oriented popcorn in Ogle Cave to differences in evaporation relative to the two cave entrances. Sides of speleothems facing the Ogle entrance and an inflow of dry, outside air have experienced greater evaporation, which in turn has favored slow-moving films of water and popcorn growth. Speleothem sides facing away from the Ogle entrance have experienced less evaporation loss and hence are covered with flowstone deposited from faster-flowing, thicker films of water. Queen (1981) likewise at tributed oriented popcorn to air flow and, based on the direction of popcorn growth in Carlsbad Cavern, constructed a map of atmospheric circulation in the cave (Fig. 24).
Flat-bottomed popcorn and palm-stem popcorn are varieties which are probably also related to air flow. The palm-stem popcorn in Jim White's Tunnel is located where air is ascending from a lower passage; the popcorn, in both its horizontal and vertical components, is oriented in the direction of ascending air. Air flow may move fine films of water to the far end of a growing popcorn nodule, thereby influencing its orientation commensurate with the direction of that flow. Flat-bottomed popcorn seems to be the most pronounced in areas of high air flow and evaporation, or at least in areas transitional between high and low air flow (such as the entrance to Billing Dove Tunnel). Martini (1986) attributed the growth of flat-bottomed popcorn ("trays" he called them) to evaporation and undersaturated solutions where growth is possible only upward and laterally along a rock pendant. In Carlsbad Cavern the undersaturated solutions are probably condensation water.
Popcorn growth and climateQueen (1981) also noted the evolution of popcorn where rhombohedral calcite is overlain by nodular popcorn, acicular aragonite, and berry-like terminations of moonmilk (Fig. 107), and related these growth stages to past climatic events, the rhombohedrons corresponding to wet and humid conditions and the moonmilk blebs to relatively dry cave conditions. Monocrystalline rhombohedral crystals typically form in humid caves, and this first stage of popcorn growth may correspond to an earlier, wetter, climatic episode in the Pleistocene.
While Queen's hypothesis is probably valid, it needs to be tempered by other factors. The stage of evolution of a cave may influence the type of popcorn. In Fiume Vento Cave, Italy, where sulfuric-acid dissolution and condensation-corrosion are going on today, rhombohedral-popcorn growth is the norm, while the other, later types of popcorn have not yet developed (P. Forti, pers. comm. 1985). Also, there is, in real time, a change from high-calcium to high-magnesium concentration in the normal evolution of cave waters. Evaporation will cause chemistry changes in a drop of water so that it shifts from a calcium-precipitating solution to a magnesium-precipitating solution within a short time, producing first calcite and last hydromagnesite.
Coral pipes
Coral pipes are speleothems that outwardly resemble tower coral but differ from them in internal structure, occurrence, and origin. Coral pipes are thin, pipe-like structures which have a soft interior (usually mud) surrounded by a thin shell of calcite. They are essentially calcified pillars that develop where mud has been drilled by dripping water and where the outside calcitic shell has been deposited concurrently with erosion.
The only Guadalupe cave where coral pipes are known to occur is Carlsbad Cavern: in the Rim Room and New Mexico Room (C. M. Seanor, pers. comm. 1985), in the Big Room by the Bottomless Pit, and also in the Mystery Room near the Mabel's Room Overlook. The Mystery Room coral pipes are unusual in that they have formed in bat guano instead of sand or mud. These are 2-4 cm in diameter, about 20 cm tall, and possess a 3-4 mm thick shell of calcite surrounding a reddish interior of bat guano (Fig. 109).
A drapery is a vertically folded, curtain-like speleothem that hangs from an inclined cave ceiling or wall (Fig. 110). When draperies are thin, translucent, and stained in bands, they take on the appearance of bacon; such "bacon" is especially beautiful when lighted from behind so that its translucency and color-banding are accentuated. Most draperies are composed of calcite, but one drapery in Pink Dragon Cave is reportedly composed of calcite and dolomite (B. Rogers, pers. comm. 1979). Draperies are essentially a composite dripstone-flowstone speleothem. When water flows down an inclined surface, it builds up ribbons of flowstone material along its sloping path of descent before it drips to the floor. Severely furled draperies form on steeply sloping walls, whereas fringed draperies form under gentler slopes where slow-moving droplets of water are held between individual serrations along the drapery's bottom edge. A good example of a fringed drapery occurs in the side passage off the Boulder Room in Ogle Cave.
Practically every cave in the Guadalupe Mountains has drapery speleothems, the most notable specimens occurring at the Whale's Mouth and in the Dome and Mystery Rooms of Carlsbad Cavern, and also in Three Fingers, Hell Below, and Virgin Caves. In the Lake Room of Virgin Cave is a composite-drapery-column called the "Peppermint Tree." About a dozen draperies, stained in various shades of brown and tan, adorn the Peppermint Tree, looking like sticks of peppermint candy ready for the picking (Pl. 12). An exquisite lace-like drapery occurs in the very bottom of the Mystery Room, the lace effect having been created by alternating strips of crystalline calcite and moonmilk. When the moonmilk layers dried out and flaked to the floor, the strips of crystalline calcite were left, giving the speleothem the appearance of being edged with lace.
Flowstone is one of the most common speleothem types, covering the floors, embankments, and walls of numerous Guadalupe caves (Fig. 111). Flowstone is usually composed of calcite or aragonite (Table 30), but rarely it can be composed of the magnesium carbonate minerals huntite and dolomite. In caves such as the Flint-Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, or Blanchard Springs Cavern, Arkansas, massive flowstone deposits form "frozen waterfalls"cascades of travertine deposited from solutions which issue out along bedding planes and flow over bedrock ledges. In Guadalupe caves, waterfall-type flowstone is uncommon because the reef and near-reef limestones are usually unbedded or only crudely bedded. One notable exception to this rule is the Chocolate Drop in the New Mexico Room of Carlsbad Cavern, a 7 m high and wide flowstone cascade chocolate-mocha ice cream in color. Other exceptions are the 4-5 m high frozen waterfall of Lake Cave in Slaughter Canyon, the colorful 6 m high Temple of the Fire God in Three Fingers Cave (Pl. 16A), and the 15 m high flowstone cascade in Lechuguilla Cave (Hill, 1986).
Flowstone, as is more typically seen in Guadalupe caves, occurs as a sheet-like deposit associated with stalagmitic travertine, either covering the sides of stalagmites as protruding bulges or extending away from the base of stalagmites along the floor. In some cases, flowstone covers clastic silt or bat guano; when this material is eroded away from beneath the flowstone, a canopy may be left as a projecting travertine sheet. One example of this type of clastic-related canopy flowstone occurs in New Cave where protruding travertine has been undermined of bat guano. A canopy deposit that is not related to clastic material is the "baldacchino canopy," which forms when flowstone reaches the surface of a pool. Baldacchino canopies can be seen along the lower edge of the Crystal Springs Dome stalagmite, next to the trail in the Big Room, and also in Billing Dove Tunnel, Big Room, Carlsbad Cavern.
A prevailing type of canopy-flowstone deposit in Guadalupe caves is the "bell canopy," good examples of which are in New, Ogle, Three Fingers, Pink Panther, Christmas Tree, and Virgin Caves. Bell canopies are essentially flowstone modifications of dripstone stalagmites and columns which assume an odd assortment of shapes, the most common being a bell-like figure (Fig. 112). Bretz (1949, p. 456) was the first to recognize the peculiar bell-canopy form: "differential solution has largely spared the top while eating away the sides, so that the form produced suggests a gigantic canopy umbrella or toadstool, the underside of the cap and irregular stem showing the concentric growth structure." Bretz thought that bell canopies formed when the host stalagmite or column was partly or completely submerged under water, but Black (1954, p. 140) proposed another, non-flood origin for this type of travertine: "a formation alternately spreading and contracting showing beautifully the effect of the increase and diminuation of water falling on them." Black's hypothesis of origin of this type of flowstone speleothem is essentially correct. Hill (1973a) named the form and elaborated on Black's hypothesis, invoking flow rates which equal or just barely exceed preceding flow rates so that new travertine layers deposit directly over previously precipitated layers but not beyond them. In this manner, carbonate material builds up to form laterally protruding ledges or projections of travertine. Hill went on to explain the prevalence of bell canopies in Guadalupe caves as being due to the relatively low humidity and high rate of evaporation.
Infrequently, huntite and dolomite also form as flowstone. The fine-grained, moonmilk-like consistency of these minerals causes the flowstone material to swell and buckle, and then to dry and crack, the whole mass finally resembling a pile of corn flakes or Chinese fortune cookies (Fig. 113). Such buckled-flowstone deposits are called "crinkle blisters" and are best displayed in Wind (Hicks) Cave, in side passages off of Left Hand Tunnel, and in the New Mexico Room and Bifrost Rooms of Carlsbad Cavern (Hill, 1973c, 1976c).
Oddly shaped or textured flowstone may be produced by other factors. In some places, such as near the Chinese Wall of New Cave, flowstone surfaces are covered with microgourstiny rimstone dams which crenulate the surface of the flowstone. Microgoured flowstone may result from pulsating or irregular patterns of incoming water flow rather than from continuous flow that produces smooth flowstone surfaces. A high proportion of silt in the calcite making up flowstone can produce sharply pointed edges somewhat like the teeth of a saw blade (Fig. 114). Examples of this type of silt-laden flowstone exist in the New Mexico Room at the point of descent into the East Annex, and also in Lechuguilla Cave on ledges along the 50 m drop (Hill, 1986).
Folia are speleothems which resemble inverted rimstone dams or interlocking wavy ribs. Named for their resemblance to the rumpled leaves of a book, folia project downward and outward from ceilings and overhanging walls at an angle averaging (with much variation) about 20° from the horizontal. The bottom edges of folia may be horizontal or inclined several degrees.
The origin of folia is uncertain, but is believed to be due to a fluctuating water level. In all known instances, folia coexist with clouds and/or cave rafts. At first, cave rafts form as a thin, scum-like layer on the surface of a body of water. If the water level fluctuates upward so that it reaches a wall overhang or cave ceiling, the "scum" attaches to the ceiling along surface irregularities. As the water level in the pool slowly subsides, the precipitate is continually supplied to the lower edge of the forming folia, creating its usually horizontal bottom ridge, and additional material is pulled up onto the growing ridges by surface tension. Water flowing from above may accentuate the lateral rib shape and can also produce a non-horizontal bottom edge.
Folia are best developed in the Christmas Tree Room of Carlsbad Cavern; less well-developed folia occur nearby, off of the Lake of the Clouds Passage (Davis, 1970). The folia of the Christmas Tree Room have ribs averaging 5.0-7.5 cm in length. They are associated with cave rafts stranded on wall ledges.
A helictite is a speleothem that can twist in any direction. Unlike stalactites, helictites are formed by seeping rather than dripping water. In the center of each helictite is a tiny capillary tube through which water moves under hydrostatic pressure to the outer growth tip. The growth is therefore not controlled by gravity and can proceed in any direction.
Helictites can be divided into four groups based on size and shape: (1) a filiform variety consists of tiny hair-like filaments; (2) a beaded variety is shaped like a string of rosary beads; (3) a vermiform variety is worm-like in appearance; and (4) a twig- or antler-like variety is thick and has straight stems and bifurcating branches. Guadalupe caves have all four varieties. Aragonite alternating with calcite is responsible for the "beaded" or "seaweed" filamental forms; aragonite makes up the radiating, beaded part of the helictite and calcite makes up the straight-stemmed part. Good examples of beaded helictites occur in Musk Ox Cave (Hill, 1976b), in the New Mexico Room of Carlsbad Cavern (Fig. 115), and in the Southern Splendor Passage of the New Section, Carlsbad Cavern, near the Hall of the White Giant.
Vermiform helictites are found in many Guadalupe caves, the "snake dancers" of Hell Below and Virgin Caves being two of the finest examples of this kind of helictite (Pl. 13A, Fig. 116). Other exceptional displays of vermiform helictites are in the Queens Chamber of Carlsbad Cavern, where thousands of helictites interweave on the ceiling above the trail, and at the Wall of Medusa, Spider Cave, where a tangled web of helictites adorns a 12 m long wall (Hill, 1979). Near the Wall of Medusa is the "Plumber's Nightmare," an aggregate of soda straws and helictites so interconnected as to resemble the pipeline under one's kitchen sink.
Antler helictites have bifurcating branches up to 15 cm thick that resemble deer antlers. More often than not, the branches take off in an almost horizontal or vertical direction. The Scenic Rooms, Left Hand Tunnel, and Vegetable Room of the Lake of the Clouds area, Carlsbad Cavern, contain the best displays of this kind of helictite. Antler helictites seem to have a distribution similar to that of moonmilk and of deflected stalactites. The cause of this apparent connection is not clear. While some antler helictites (and deflected stalactites) contain moonmilk layers between crystalline layers, still others seem to be devoid of moonmilk. One cross-sectioned antler helictite was found to contain microscopic channels ("canalicules") radiating away from its central canal and towards the outer surface of the helictite, suggesting that perhaps capillary water seeps from the central canal through the canalicules to the outside of the helictite, thereby thickening it.
This term describes aggregates of microcrystalline carbonate minerals of varying composition. Moonmilk is soft, plastic, and pasty when wet but crumbly and powdery when dry. Wet moonmilk looks and feels like white cream cheese when rubbed between the fingers, while dry moonmilk resembles talc. Texture, not composition, is implied by the term moonmilk. Nine mineral varieties of moonmilk have been described (Hill and Forti, 1986), but only aragonite, hydromagnesite, dolomite, and huntite have been identified in Guadalupe caves (Table 30; Hill, 1979).
Guadalupe caves possess an abundance of moonmilk. One walks through it, crawls through it, and finds it as tufts on the tips of popcorn or anthodites, as creamy-white flowstone, and even as cave pearls. Chalk-white flowstone "rivers" of moonmilk adorn the cave walls in Pink Dragon Cave. In Left Hand Tunnel of Carlsbad Cavern and in Hell Below Cave, moonmilk is so abundant in certain areas that one's boots inadvertently stick to it along the trail.
In Guadalupe caves, moonmilk seems to be most abundant in areas where the Capitan reef is interbedded with the more dolomitic backreef or forereef facies. A perfect example of this is Spider Cave, formed in dolomitic units of the Yates Formation. There piles of dolomite moonmilk are up to 2 m deep and stalactites are sometimes layered with moonmilk between and over layers of more crystalline calcite (Hill, 1979). Left Hand Tunnel, a passage which is developed along the reef-forereef-facies contact (Fig. 18), has such an abundance of moonmilk in reef sections that the trail was constructed with moonmilk in these areas.
Many investigators feel that moonmilk is the product of bacterial action. Gerundo and Schwartz (1949) found denitrifying bacteria in Carlsbad Cavern but did not relate these bacteria to moonmilk generation. G. Moore (pers. comm. 1970) identified possible organic filaments in hydromagnesite moonmilk collected in Left Hand Tunnel, Carlsbad Cavern. While some moonmilk production in Guadalupe caves may be aided by microorganisms, most of it is probably the result of direct chemical precipitation of the high-magnesium carbonate minerals such as hydromagnesite, huntite, and dolomite. It is the finely crystalline nature of these minerals that gives the moonmilk its pasty and plastic-like qualities.
Pearls, Cave
A cave pearl is a banded, pearl-like concretion that forms in shallow cave pools or floor depressions where water is dripping from above. Cave pearls can be spherical, cylindrical, or irregularly shaped, depending on the shape of their nucleus. They are usually polished to a high glow and their appearance is nearly identical to that of real pearls (Fig. 117). Cave pearls form around any nucleus, be it a grain of sand, a bat bone, or another speleothem (Hess, 1929; Baker, 1963). Black (1951a, 1952) speculated that spherical cave pearls require constant turning to maintain their roundness, dripping water being the most efficient turning mechanism. If a pearl cannot turn, then the lower side will grow flat while the upper side will become top-heavy with more precipitate matter. Pearls that are free to turn develop calcite "cups" or "nests" below them (Fig. 117).
Carlsbad Cavern is the classic locality for cave pearls. The Rookery of Lower Cave was lined with hundreds of cave pearl "nests" before the guides in the 1920's and 1930's handed most of the pearls out to visitors as souvenirs. Although the cave pearls in the Rookery are now but a meager remnant of what once used to be there, other occurrences remain undamaged, the most notable being the golf-ball-sized pearls in the Cave Pearl Room. Boyer (1964, p. 18) described these pearls as: "found at the foot of a large flowstone mass, up to 4 cm in diameter, remarkably spherical, and of a bluish-white color, the upper portion of each pearl generally being stained darker. Each one is free, but occupies its own facet, or 'nest,' amongst the others."
Other Guadalupe caves also contain cave pearls, but not in the same profusion as in Carlsbad Cavern. The Cave of the Madonna has its nests of cave pearls (Fig. 117), and so does Hell Below Cave. In Hell Below hundreds of marble-sized cave pearls used to adorn cave floors; the largest pearl was supposedly "as big as a billiard ball" (Nymeyer, 1938, p. 38). Cave pearls composed of aragonite moonmilk have been found in Able Goat Cave (Hill et al., 1972a), and white and dark gray cave pearls have been discovered in Lechuguilla Cave (Hill, 1986).
Rafts, Cave
Cave rafts are thin, planar deposits of crystalline calcite or aragonite that float on the surfaces of cave pools (Pl. 13B). Raft growth is oriented with the c-axes of calcite or aragonite crystals parallel to the water surface. Rafts grow on the surface of quiet cave pools until some force such as dripping water sinks them to the bottom of the pool. Repeated sinking of cave rafts at a drip point results in the rafts piling up on the pool bottom in conical masses called cave cones.
Cave rafts occur in many Guadalupe caves, either as Type I rafts in the cave walls, Type II rafts usually found in cave cones, or Type III rafts floating on the surfaces of small cave pools. The three types have different carbon-oxygen compositions (Fig. 98). Based on their carbon-oxygen signatures, Type I rafts are believed to have formed at the water-table surface during an early stage of speleogenesis (see Part I of this paper for the origin of the calcified siltstone-cave raft sequence). Type II rafts have the same oxygen composition as Type I, but have a higher σ13C value which suggests that when they formed the cave was experiencing more air flow and CO2 loss. Type III rafts are different from Types I and II in both oxygen and carbon composition. Type III formed in pools of meteoric water (rather than at the water table) under conditions of increased air flow and passage dryness.
The best occurrence of Type III rafts is in the Left Hand Tunnel of Carlsbad Cavern. At the end of the Right Hand Fork, a large pool of water is almost completely covered with a sheet of calcite, looking much like a winter pond about to freeze over. Black (1953) reported another small pool with floating rafts of aragonite in Left Hand Tunnel.
Cones up to 4 m high and composed of Type II rafts are present on the Balcony overlooking the Lake of the Clouds, Carlsbad Cavern (Fig. 93). Cones up to 1.2 m high also occur in the East Annex of the New Mexico Room, and cones with exposed sides up to 0.5 m high occur in the Bell Cord Room. In all three instances, the cones are associated with corrosion features and are believed to have precipitated during the time when condensation-corrosion processes were active in these passages. In the Balcony of the Lake of the Clouds, aragonite anthodites are perched on the apices of some of the cones, having formed subaerially from the same drip points that formerly sank the cave rafts (Hill, 1981a). Volcano-like cones are present in the Bell Cord Room, at one locality as a cluster of about 35 separate cones and at another locality in a cluster of about 20 cones (Fig. 93). The cones in the Bell Cord Room are pastel yellow, peach, and brown, with individual rafts oriented at about a 45° angle to the vertical axes of the cones and with layers of dark-gray manganese alternating between calcite raft layers. These cones have drip tubes drilled down their apices. One hole in a 45 cm high volcano cone was plumbed at depth of 1.5 m, showing that the cave cone extends much lower than its visible base. Very large cave cones are known only from Carlsbad Cavern. One 12.5 cm high cone has been observed in a small pool in Three Fingers Cave (C. M. Seanor, pers. comm. 1985), and even smaller cave cones are known to occur in other Guadalupe cave pools.
A rim is a shell of material that lines bedrock or other speleothems and is scoured on the inside and rough and coralline on the outside. Rims may be vent-shaped, rimming aperatures where holes or small passages emerge into a larger passage or room (Fig. 118), or they may be projections of material rimming corroded speleothems (Fig. 63). Carbonate rims are known from a number of Guadalupe caves. The largest rim is about 1 m high and 6 cm thick at the base, and is located where the smallest of three ascending routes meets with the Cavernacle in Virgin Cave (D. Davis, pers. comm. 1985). In Carlsbad Cavern almost all of the carbonate rims are associated with corrosion features, an example of which is the rim on the stalagmite known as the Creeping Ear in the Lake of the Clouds Passage (Fig. 63). The rim lining the Creeping Ear stalagmite is 15 cm wide and 0.5 cm thick, and has faint growth layers parallel to its outer edge which appear to be composed of acicular aragonite. The stalagmite is corroded on the side facing the Lake of the Clouds and the rim projects outward from the corroded part, its smooth inner side being an extension of the corrosion. Several vent-shaped rims 3-4 cm high and 6 cm across occur high on the wall along the trail between Appetite Hill and the Boneyard (Fig. 118).
Davis (1982b) proposed that rims deposit from condensation water where warm, moist air meets with cooler, drier air. Hill (1984b) discussed the factors of temperature, pressure, carbon-dioxide equilibrium, evaporation, and air flow as they relate to the origin of rims, and proposed a model of rim formation for the Lake of the Clouds area where rims line the flanks of corroded stalagmites such as the Creeping Ear. As warm, moist air moved up from the Lake of the Clouds, it collided with the Creeping Ear stalagmite, reached its dew point, and condensed on the surface of the stalagmite. This condensation water had a high dissolved content of CO2 (Table 5) and, due to its acidic nature, corroded the part of the stalagmite facing the Lake of the Clouds. Air flow then moved this condensation water, now saturated with calcium carbonate, to the flanks of the stalagmite where the calcium carbonate precipitated as rim material.
Rimstone dams
Rimstone dams are barriers of calcite or aragonite that impound cave streams or shallow pools. Carbonate material builds up at the point where water overflows the dam and where turbulence and carbon-dioxide loss are the greatest. As dams grow upward, water always seeks the lowest outlet; hence dams build up evenly, with deposition alternating between shallow points on the dam.
Black (1951b) described the rimstone dams at Mirror Lake, Longfellow's Bathtub, and Devil's Spring, Carlsbad Cavern, and Hill (1977b, 1980a) described the 40 cm high rimstone dams in Damn Cave and the 1.8 m high dams in Hidden Cave (Fig. 119). The most impressive rimstone dam in any Guadalupe cave is the Chinese Wall of New Cave. The Chinese Wall is only about 10 cm tall, but it is unique in that it is severely convoluted and furled, some of the individual furls having curved all the way back on themselves so as to form vertical tubes (Fig. 120). If the furls in the Chinese Wall were stretched out straight, it is estimated that they would total about 10 m in length.
The height and convolution of rimstone dams is related to the gradient of slope: the greater the slope, the higher the rimstone dams; the shallower the slope, the lower and more convoluted the dams. Steep dams curve gently length wise, corresponding to topographic contours, and they are convex at spill-over points. Shallow dams curve around and back on themselves much like the meanders of a low-gradient river. Where dams are subject to slightly aggressive water, individual furls may become isolated from the rest of the dam in a manner resembling an oxbow cutoff of a meandering river.
Shelfstone is a flat carbonate deposit that is attached as a ledge or eave-like projection along the edge of a cave pool or other speleothems submerged in a cave pool. When shelfstone lines columns, candlestick-like forms result (Fig. 121); when it forms over the top of stalagmites, lily pad or coke table forms result. Shelfstone begins its growth when cave rafts or other material attach to the sides of a pool. These can build in thickness and width until they partially or completely cover the surface of the pool. Shelfstone ledges always denote a present or past pool level.
Most small pools in Guadalupe caves contain at least some shelfstone. Good displays of shelfstone are in Sand Cave, in the bottom of the Cave of the Madonna, and in the Lake Passage of Cottonwood Cave. One coke table in the Lake Passage used to have a candle-shaped stalagmite in its center, but the stalagmite was vandalized; this was called the "Wine Table" (Hill, 1977a). Alternation of dark-gray manganese with white calcite layers in shelfstone in the Lake of the Clouds Passage, Carlsbad Cavern, shows that shelfstone growth starts evenly on both the bottom and top sides of the shelfstone, but as the deposit thickens, preferential growth occurs along the top side of the shelfstone.
A peculiar, crescent-shaped variety of shelfstone can be seen along the trail by Mirror Lake, Big Room, Carlsbad Cavern, and also in Cottonwood Cave. This type of shelfstone forms in areas where water drips into a shallow pool. The convex parts of the crescent shelfstone point consistently toward the location of the drip, and the crescent shapes are produced by "waves" or ripples of water radiating from the drip point and deflecting off the shelfstone.
Shields, Cave
Shields (sometimes called "palettes") are speleothems consisting of two parallel, spherical plates separated by a medial, planar crack. Viewed from above, a shield resembles a shield of armor; from below, it looks like a column without a top (Fig. 122). Massive flowstone usually hangs from the lower hemisphere of a shield, and if this travertine gets heavy enough, the shield will separate along its medial crack and its bottom part will crash to the floor.
Like helictites, shields grow by water moving under hydrostatic pressure through the speleothem's interior to its outer, growth surface. Unlike in helictites, the water does not move through a capillary tube, but instead seeps through a planar crack and so creates the shield-like shape of the speleothem. It used to be thought that shields were a very rare speleothem, but exploration in the Guadalupe Mountains over the last 20 years has substantiated that shields are common. Pink Palette (the cave derives its name from the shields present), Pink Dragon, New, Madonna, Ogle, Deep, Corkscrew, and Carlsbad are among a number of Guadalupe caves known to contain shields. In Deep Cave, two shields have formed along the cracks in a large stalagmite rather than along cracks in the wall; the shields, 2 and 0.3 m in diameter, are oriented perpendicular to each other (Hill, 1978a). In Pink Dragon Cave, five nearly vertical shields occur at the ceiling, four of which are aligned parallel to the passage direction (along a major joint trend) and one aligned perpendicular to this direction (Hill, 1977b). The Pink Dragon shields are spectacular in that they seem to "hang in thin air."
A "welt" is a nubin-like shield which forms along cracks in a column or a cave wall. Welts have been noted in Hidden Cave (Hill, 1980a), Ogle Cave (Hill, 1978b), and in the Guadalupe Room of Carlsbad Cavern. Welts and shields often grow next to each other, the welts being incipient shields formed along the same crack as the shields and by the same solutions under pressure. Usually the upper sides of welts and shields are covered with helictites.
As discussed in Part I of this paper, spar crystals occur in many Guadalupe caves, either as dogtooth-shaped crystals (Fig. 60) or as nailhead-spar linings. Good localities of dogtooth spar are in Carlsbad Cavern, Cottonwood Cave, Geode Cave, Three Fingers Cave, Crystal Cave, Idono Crystal Cave, Virgin Cave, Frank's Cave, and Pink Fink Owlcove. In Crystal Cave, the walls, floors, and ceilings are covered with dogtooth spar up to 55 cm long, the crystals "bristling in every direction like a million spikes" (Nymeyer, 1938, p. 40). Dogtooth spar crystals up to 35 cm long (some of them twinned) have been reported lining cavities of Idono Crystal Cave (DuChene, 1967). In Geode Cave, spar crystals up to 23 cm long adorn the walls (J. Burke, pers. comm. 1982).
Nailhead-spar linings are best developed in the Nailhead Spar Lining Room, at the very bottom of the Mystery Room, Carlsbad Cavern. Columnar nailhead spar with blunted facets forms as 7.5-10 cm thick linings on the ceiling of this room. In places this lining is still intact, but in other places sections of it have fallen to the floor, leaving a linoleum-like pattern on the ceiling.
Most of the spar crystals and crystal linings in Guadalupe caves are phreatic spar; that is, they formed in the phreatic zone under saturated conditions. Other spar, called "chenille spar" forms in cave pools, usually directly underneath shelfstone. Chenille spar does not have well-developed, external crystal faces, but rather looks somewhat like a subaqueous coralloid. However, these are not layered structures like coralloids, but single crystals of calcite. Chenille spar can be seen in Carlsbad Cavern in the New Mexico Room by the Chocolate Drop, and in the Big Room along the trail in the Polar Regions and near the Top of the Cross. The Park guides call the chenille spar at the Top of the Cross "hula skirts" because of its palisade-like appearance (D. and A. Cordera, pers. comm. 1985).
Small dogtooth spar crystals also exist as surface features on speleothems, causing them to sparkle with a velvety luster. "Velvet" spar crystals are approximately 1 mm from base to tip and grow perpendicular to the surfaces of speleothems. One of the best occurrences of cave velvet in Guadalupe caves is in the Texas Pit Passage of Lower Cave, Carlsbad Cavern.
Stalactites are the most familiar of all speleothem types, readily remembered for their icicle-like pendant shape and the fact that they hang "tite" to the ceiling. Stalactites in Guadalupe caves differ from those in other caves in that they often assume war-club-like shapes where the bottom part of the stalactite is thicker than the top part, or in that they are often deflected from the vertical so as to appear curved at their tips.
All stalactites begin their growth as soda straws, thin walled tubular stalactites with hollow centers (Fig. 123). Water droplets saturated with calcium carbonate collect on cave ceilings and then as carbon dioxide is lost, a thin film of carbonate material precipitates over the surfaces of the water drops. As more water accumulates in each drop, the drop becomes heavier and begins to oscillate. This causes the calcite film to spin up toward the ceiling and to adhere there by surface tension. When the drop falls to the floor, the carbonate film is left on the ceiling as a round rim of materialthe initial ring of a soda straw. Subsequent precipitation extends the straw's length and water continues to move through the hollow tube and to the tip of the growing straw. If the center of the tubular stalactite is blocked, solutions flow down on the outside of the straw and create the carrot shape of a "normal" stalactite (Pl. 11A).
When a stalactite becomes submerged, a war-club shape can result. The "war clubs" in the War Club Rooms of Endless Cave, Hidden Cave, Pink Dragon Cave, and Carlsbad Cavern are related to a back-up of pool water where subaqueous coralloids coat the surfaces of the submerged stalactites. "Spanish moss," a variation of war-club stalactite, is known only from Cottonwood Cave (Hill, 1977a). These moss-like speleothems are milk-chocolate brown, porous, and very fragile; internally, they are composed of an inner stalactitic core overlain by a porous war-club-like covering, itself overgrown by the "Spanish moss" (Pl. 14A).
Deflected stalactites can be seen in many parts of Carlsbad Cavern (the Scenic Rooms, Left Hand Tunnel, Lower Cave; Fig. 124) and also in other caves such as New Cave and Christmas Tree Cave. They start out as curved soda straws and continue growing in this curved mode. The precise cause of deflected-stalactite growth is not known. Queen (1981) suggested that deflected stalactites are related to air flow, but, as Sanchez (1964) pointed out, curvature and orientation may be uniform in a single stalactite, but may differ in adjoining stalactites (within tens of centimeters). If deflection is connected to air flow as Queen suggested, then this connection is very subtle and must be related to extremely localized air-flow patterns. A deflected stalactite thickens by water flowing through the stalactite rather than over its surface, otherwise the deflected bottom would have a drapery build-up of material on its lower end. Perhaps solutions which thicken the deflected stalactite move through the stalactite via tiny channels ("canalicules"), like they probably do in antler helictites.
Stalagmites are convex floor deposits which form when water drips from a stalactite or the cave ceiling. When drops of water impact the floor, carbon dioxide is expelled and calcium carbonate is precipitated. Stalagmites assume a variety of shapes depending on their particular history of development: broomsticks, totem poles, fried eggs, toadstools, and Christmas trees are some forms that occur frequently enough to have earned their own special label. The shape of a stalagmite depends on the drip rate and also on the crystallizing mineral making up the stalagmite. Aragonite forms spiny "Christmas tree" anthodite stalagmites, whereas calcite forms typically smooth-sided stalagmites. Totem-pole or broomstick stalagmites have small or non-existent counterpart stalactites; these stalagmites build up where water drips rapidly into a cave. Good examples of the tall, skinny, totem-pole variety of stalagmite are in Three Fingers Cave, Carlsbad Cavern, and Deep Cave (Fig. 125). Fried-egg stalagmites topped on their apex with a yellow "yolk" surrounded by "white" crystalline calcite can be seen in Pink Dragon Cave, New Cave, and in the New Mexico Room of Carlsbad Cavern. Hollow stalagmites are those composed primarily of aragonite or popcorn. This type is found in areas of pronounced corrosion of bedrock and speleothems, and is believed to be the result of acidic solutions dripping from the ceiling onto the stalagmites.
Stalagmites in Guadalupe caves are often massive. The Monarch in New Cave, according to the Guiness Book of Records, is supposedly the tallest stalagmite in the world, being almost 36 m high. Bell-canopy flowstone can modify the basically convex shape of stalagmites into bizarre and interesting forms. The Christmas Trees of New Cave and Christmas Tree Cave, Snoopy of Ogle Cave (Fig. 126), and the Clansman of New Cave (Fig. 127) are examples of composite stalagmites and bell-canopy flowstone. Burnet (1938, p. 382) made the Clansman famous by describing his first impression of it in these words:
A stalactite joined with its counterpart stalagmite is called a column (Pl. 14B). Columns in Guadalupe caves assume incredibly large dimensionssometimes over 20 m in height and 7.5 m in diameter (Fig. 128). The largest columns are typically aligned along ceiling joints where the greatest amount of water drips into the cave. Hill (1978b) correlated the location of the most massive columns and stalagmites in the Sequoia Room of Ogle Cave with a valley depression on the surface overlying the cave (Sheet 6). The depression has been responsible for directing water in along a ceiling joint and the columns have formed along this same joint.
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The first version of the Bikemap iPhone app was released a few years ago. It was developed using Appcelerator Titanium back then. The new Bikemap app was designed and built from scratch. It's really...Learn More
I guess all iOS app developers know this problem: You have to take (usually 5) screenshots of the app for all devices (iPhone 4, iPhone 5, iPad) in all supported languages for every update and every app. When...Learn More


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Pittsburgh, PA (SportsNetwork.com) - The Pittsburgh Steelers signed former Buffalo Bills linebacker Arthur Moats to a one-year contract Monday.
Moats appeared in all 16 games with 12 starts for the Bills last season and posted a career-best 54 tackles.
Over four seasons, all with the Bills, the 26-year-old Moats has racked up 141 tackles, five sacks, two forced fumbles and one pass defensed in 59 games, including 20 starts.
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6 ways to fight the veterinary competition—without fighting
We were discussing the megapractice down the road. This practice had been amassing negative online client reviews for months—at the same time that my friend's clients were posting glowing reviews of his small startup clinic.
But suddenly, the megapractice had garnered 30 five-star reviews in a matter of weeks, all from "clients" who had all—coincidentally?—given five-star reviews to a slew of other unrelated businesses across the United States. Either these reviewers were traveling cross-country together, reviewing the same random businesses, or the competition was buying their praise. Unbelievable.Now, a little friendly competition can be healthy. It can motivate you to improve both your medicine and your business practices. Plus, the presence of others in your business space pushes you to create better value for clients and patients and keeps you from resting on your laurels.
However, the fear of competition stealing clients can also make for a stressful situation—especially when your rivals play dirty. In my years as a veterinarian—working at a fledgling startup practice, a megapractice, and now at a three-doctor clinic in an area where new practices are constantly opening—I've dealt with many different competitors. I've led strategic planning sessions for veterinary organizations, clinics, and corporations, and dealing with veterinary competition is one of the most frequently discussed topics.
In facilitating these discussions, as well as leading veterinary teams on the ground, I've discovered some excellent tactics for addressing rivals. It's time for the gloves to come off so you can focus your energy on tackling what's most important: your practice. Here are six tips for handling interclinic aggression without stooping to your competitor's level.
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"In Portland, OR, in 1978, a radical form of artistic expression some refer to as "punk" or "new wave" was beginning to take shape, and at the heart of this legendary movement was the powerful all-girl punk group the NEO BOYS. Though they were an active band for just five years (1978-82), teenage sisters Kt (bass) and Kim Kincaid (vocals), Pat Baum (drums) and guitarists Jennifer Labianco and Megan Hengtes forged a place for women in the growing punk rock scene, and redefined gender roles in the 80's movement of rock and roll. They regularly shared bills with THE WIPERS, opened for NICO, and played their first show with TELEVISION. Calvin Johnson has been working with the band members to track down the missing tapes of their recordings through a rabbit hole of Northwest basements and closets, and after twenty years of effort, the result is "Sooner or Later". A comprehensive double LP collection of NEO BOYS recordings from 1977-1982, including the long out-of-print 1980 7" EP (released on Greg Sage's Trap Records), and 1982 self-released EP "Crumbling Myths". "Sooner or Later" also contains recordings, early demos and live sessions that have never before been available to the public." (label info) co-released with K Records. comes in gatefold sleeve, also available on CD
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Virtua Home Health Aides earn $71,000 annually, or $34 per hour, which is 102% higher than the national average for all Home Health Aides at $23,000 annually and 22% higher than the national salary average for all working Americans. The highest paid Home Health Aides work for Alliance for Health at $32,000 annually and the lowest paid Home Health Aides work for Rural/Metro at $15,000 annually. Browse Virtua Salaries by Job Title →
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Yorkshire County Cricket Club news and results | The Press, York
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Yorkshire County Cricket Club
Seven Yorkshire players called up for England Lions touring party
1:03pm Wednesday 29th October 2014
YORKSHIRE have got a magnificent seven players in the provisional England Lions touring party for their New Year trip to South Africa, where they will play a mixture of first-class and one-day cricket.
Yorkshire bowler plots regime to stay in tip-top condition
12:07pm Saturday 25th October 2014
LIAM PLUNKETT has revealed the demanding winter fitness schedule which will leave him in peak physical condition in time for a hectic year of cricket with Yorkshire and England in 2015.
Yorkshire given Royal seal of approval after champion season
12:32pm Friday 17th October 2014
ANDREW GALE has revealed that even Prince Philip is backing Yorkshire to build on this summer's LV= County Championship title success.
Yorkshire's Gary Ballance hopes to gatecrash World Cup party
12:58pm Wednesday 15th October 2014
YORKSHIRE'S Gary Ballance has not given up on his dream of playing in this winter's World Cup.
Winter full of promise insists Yorkshire's Joe Root
12:29pm Friday 10th October 2014
JOE ROOT is confident England can defy their critics and be contenders for this winter's one-day World Cup in Australia and New Zealand.
Tough end of season for Yorkshire's Andrew Gale
12:46pm Tuesday 7th October 2014
YORKSHIRE captain Andrew Gale has described the last month as one of the toughest times in his career.
Yorkshire skipper Andrew Gale handed an extra two-match ban over Ashwell Prince row
6:27pm Friday 3rd October 2014
ANDREW GALE has been handed a further two-match ban by the ECB following his altercation with Lancashire's Ashwell Prince during the Roses clash last month.
Overseas recruits wanted for Yorkshire's 2015 title defence
10:55am Thursday 2nd October 2014
Martyn Moxon says Kane Williamson and Aaron Finch are Yorkshire's top targets when it comes to overseas recruits for their 2015 title defence.
Yorkshire's Adam Lyth and Alex Lees scoop awards
9:25am Thursday 2nd October 2014
Yorkshire's opening pair Adam Lyth and Alex Lees scooped two more awards at last night's Professional Cricketers' Association dinner in London.
Historic campaign for Yorkshire batting trio
4:41pm Wednesday 1st October 2014
YORKSHIRE trio Joe Root, Adam Lyth and Gary Ballance have achieved a rare feat in cricketing history by topping the English first-class batting averages for the summer of 2014.
Sessay Karl Carver's delight at Yorkshire winners medal
2:33pm Wednesday 1st October 2014
SESSAY'S Karl Carver has described his delight at helping Yorkshire win the LV= County Championship title and claiming a winner's medal.
England pace bowler tips Yorkshire for a 2015 repeat
2:28pm Tuesday 30th September 2014
LIAM PLUNKETT knows all about winning back-to-back LV= County Championship titles, and the former Durham fast bowler can see no reason why his current county Yorkshire can't achieve that feat.
Yorkshire youngster Jack Leaning revels in breakthrough season
2:22pm Sunday 28th September 2014
YORK ace Jack Leaning has described winning the LV= County Championship in his breakthrough campaign with Yorkshire as "a dream come true".
Yorkshire glory days
11:20am Saturday 27th September 2014
Yorkshire are top of the tree in county cricket once again. Reporter GRAHAM HARDCASTLE charts a glorious campaign for the White Rose outfit.
Title-winners Yorkshire end season with dramatic draw against Somerset at Headingley
7:52pm Friday 26th September 2014
JASON GILLESPIE says a thrilling third day fightback with the ball during Yorkshire's drawn LV= County Championship match against Somerset proved exactly why the Tykes are champions.
In-form opener plotting a victory flourish for Yorkshire
2:11pm Friday 26th September 2014
IT hasn't all been good news for Yorkshire's Adam Lyth this last fortnight despite an LV= County Championship title win, nearly 1,500 runs in a season and an England Performance Programme call-up.
Yorkshire battle to limit Somerset lead at Headingley
12:35pm Thursday 25th September 2014
Steve Patterson has struck twice and Jack Brooks and Adil Rashid once apiece as Yorkshire attempt to restrict Somerset's first-innings lead on day three at Headingley, the penultimate day of the LV= County Championship campaign.
Somerset have champions Yorkshire facing rare defeat
8:56pm Wednesday 24th September 2014
YORKSHIRE are in danger of ending a special season with a second defeat of term against Somerset at Headingley.
Alex Lees dedicates county cap to late father as Yorkshire battle against Somerset
7:07pm Tuesday 23rd September 2014
ALEX LEES dedicated his county cap to his late father Simon after describing the presentation as his proudest ever moment.
Yorkshire v Somerset - day two tea update
3:28pm Wednesday 24th September 2014
Yorkshire are under the cosh against Somerset at Headingley at tea on day two.
Yorkshire v Somerset - lunch update
2:47pm Tuesday 23rd September 2014
Alex Lees has celebrated being capped by Yorkshire this morning with an unbeaten half-century before lunch on day one against Somerset at Headingley.
Bowling back to breeziest best for Yorkshire ace Adil Rashid
12:03pm Tuesday 23rd September 2014
IT has been one heck of a summer for Yorkshire's Adil Rashid both on and off the field, but the all-rounder is aiming to ensure his career continues on an upward curve.
Bresnan hopes fans will turn out for Yorkshire's finale
12:05pm Saturday 20th September 2014
TIM BRESNAN is hoping Yorkshire's supporters turn out in force to cheer on the champions in their final LV= County Championship match of the season against Somerset at Headingley, starting on Tuesday.
Yorkshire vow to defend Andrew Gale
11:40am Friday 19th September 2014
YORKSHIRE have made it clear they will present a staunch defence of their captain Andrew Gale against a reported charge of a racist offence.
Yorkshire's Rich Pyrah awarded benefit year
12:41pm Thursday 18th September 2014
ALL-ROUNDER Rich Pyrah has been granted a benefit year in 2015 by Yorkshire.
Yorkshire's Jack Brooks hails influence of Ryan Sidebottom
10:36am Wednesday 17th September 2014
JACK BROOKS has hailed the influence of Ryan Sidebottom on Yorkshire's County Championship winning campaign, particularly their title-clinching win against Nottinghamshire last week.
Yorkshire's title win is just the start declares Jonny Bairstow
7:00am Tuesday 16th September 2014
York ace Jonny Bairstow is hoping Yorkshire's LV= County Championship title triumph can be the first of many for a group of players primed for long-term success.
Pyramid ploy came to rescue of Yorkshire CCC
11:44am Monday 15th September 2014
YORKSHIRE chairman Colin Graves has pointed to the change in the club's coaching structure at the end of 2011 as a primary reason for their LV= County Championship title success this year.
Gale-force a key factor in Yorkshire's title triumph - even if the skipper wasn't allowed to lift the trophy
6:40pm Friday 12th September 2014
YORKSHIRE closed ranks behind suspended captain Andrew Gale after the England and Wales Cricket Board prevented him from lifting the County Championship trophy at Trent Bridge.
Sidebottom completes the job early doors to front Yorkshire's charge to the County Championship crown
6:13pm Friday 12th September 2014
RYAN SIDEBOTTOM led Yorkshire's race to the title, claiming a six-wicket haul as they wrapped up victory over Nottinghamshire in just over an hour's play at Trent Bridge, writes Myles Hodgson.
Super Sidebottom helps Yorkshire get one hand on the Championship trophy
7:19pm Thursday 11th September 2014
RYAN SIDEBOTTOM closed in on the fourth LV= Championship title of his remarkable career by helping Yorkshire move to within five wickets of the victory they require over Nottinghamshire to become county champions again.
Nottinghamshire v Yorkshire - tea update
3:40pm Thursday 11th September 2014
Yorkshire moved within eight wickets of becoming county champions for the first time since 2001 today after dominating their match against Nottinghamshire at Trent Bridge.
Tim Bresnan dismisses criticism as Yorkshire take iron grip on Championship clash
12:52pm Thursday 11th September 2014
Tim Bresnan dismissed criticism of Yorkshire's occupation of the crease after they dominated the second day of their crucial championship match against Nottinghamshire and moved within sight of the title.
Nottinghamshire v Yorkshire - lunch update
1:16pm Wednesday 10th September 2014
Former Yorkshire left-arm spinner Gary Keedy claimed two wickets but was unable to prevent his former county progressing towards a dominant first innings total in their crunch match against Nottinghamshire at Trent Bridge.
Coach Gillespie insists Yorkshire opener is ideal for England
1:15pm Wednesday 10th September 2014
JASON GILLESPIE has backed calls for Adam Lyth to become the latest Yorkshire player to be called into the England set-up after his sixth Championship century of the season put them on course for a title victory.
Nottinghamshire v Yorkshire - tea update
3:30pm Tuesday 9th September 2014
Prolific opener Adam Lyth completed his sixth championship century of the summer to help Yorkshire move a step closer towards their first championship since 2001 against Nottinghamshire at Trent Bridge.
Tykes achievement will be up with best - Gillespie
2:12pm Tuesday 9th September 2014
JASON GILLESPIE says winning an LV= County Championship title as coach of Yorkshire would rank alongside his many achievements as an Australian fast bowler.
Gary Ballance back for Yorkshire's title bid
12:50pm Monday 8th September 2014
GARY BALLANCE is confident he returns to Yorkshire's LV= County Championship team tomorrow as a much improved player following an exceptional maiden summer in England Test colours.
Yorkshire to tie up championship crown in Notts
12:58pm Saturday 6th September 2014
ANTHONY McGRATH expects Yorkshire to seal the LV= County Championship title in style by beating closest rivals Nottinghamshire at Trent Bridge, starting on Tuesday.
McGrath: Banned Gale still has big role in Yorkshire's run-in
12:10pm Friday 5th September 2014
ANTHONY McGRATH expects Andrew Gale to still play a significant role in Yorkshire's title run-in even though it won't be with the bat and as their on-field captain.
Yorkshire skipper ruled out of County Championship climax with two game ban
1:42pm Thursday 4th September 2014
ANDREW GALE has been banned from Yorkshire's last two LV= County Championship matches for his part in a heated verbal altercation with Lancashire's Ashwell Prince during Tuesday's third day at Emirates Old Trafford.
Lancashire v Yorkshire - Day 4, lunch
1:36pm Wednesday 3rd September 2014
Yorkshire remain firmly in the hunt for their seventh LV= County Championship win of the season having taken two Lancashire wickets before lunch on day four at Emirates Old Trafford, both going to Adil Rashid.
Yorkshire runs star Adam Lyth ready to bowl Lancashire over
12:46pm Wednesday 3rd September 2014
DOUBLE centurion Adam Lyth has played a significant part with the bat in Yorkshire's dominance of their Roses clash with Lancashire at Emirates Old Trafford, but he expects to have to contribute with the ball as well as they push for victory during today's final day.
Yorkshire's Adam Lyth tipped as future England opener after superb Roses century
8:01pm Monday 1st September 2014
JASON GILLESPIE has backed Adam Lyth to make the step up to Test cricket if called upon after scoring his fifth LV= County Championship century of the season to put Yorkshire on course for a Roses win at Emirates Old Trafford.
Lancashire v Yorkshire - Tea, Day 2
3:58pm Monday 1st September 2014
Adam Lyth has scored his fifth LV= County Championship century of the season to put Yorkshire in a very strong position at tea on day two against Lancashire at Emirates Old Trafford.
Ryan Sidebottom makes crucial early inroads for Yorkshire against Roses rivals
1:10pm Monday 1st September 2014
YORKSHIRE are in control of the Roses match after a healthy opening day with ball and bat against Lancashire at Emirates Old Trafford yesterday.
Gary Ballance keen to be back on county duty
1:48pm Saturday 30th August 2014
GARY BALLANCE is ready and willing to help Yorkshire get over the line in the LV= County Championship title race.
Yorkshire coach Gillespie points finger at top order for Royal London Cup exit
1:12pm Friday 29th August 2014
YORKSHIRE'S top six batsmen must take the blame for yesterday's failure to qualify for the semi-finals of the one-day Royal London Cup, according to coach Jason Gillespie.
Yorkshire v Durham - Royal London one-day Cup quarter-final
3:08pm Thursday 28th August 2014
Steve Patterson and Rich Pyrah shared seven wickets as Durham were bowled out for 237 in today's Royal London one-day Cup quarter-final at Headingley.
Yorkshire skipper Gale declares Rashid 'best spinner'
12:13pm Thursday 28th August 2014
ANDREW GALE says Yorkshire are very lucky to have Adil Rashid in their ranks as the leg-spinning all-rounder continues to press for an England recall.
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text: Happy birthday, Genna! Both John and I warmly wish many your way! ~Audiard Lisette de la Mer On 1/30/06, Lucianna Maria di Boniface <dolce.luce at gmail.com> wrote: > Many happy birthday wishes also need to be directed to Genna, who had a > birthday the day after Queen's Tourney and neglected to let us know so that > we could wish her a happy birthday BEFORE she showed up to fighter practice > on Sunday.... > > Genna, I hope that your birthday was as lovely as you are, and that you > received everything that you wished for > > Lucianna > > -- > Always assume the best about your loved ones. There is a reason that you > love them > _______________________________________________ > Elfsea mailing list > Elfsea at ansteorra.org > http://www.ansteorra.org/mailman/listinfo/elfsea > > > -- "Forget safety. Live where you fear to live. Destroy your reputation. Be notorious." ~Rumi


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We would like to introduce you to the brand new Piano Wizard Academy Virtual Campus – offering free music lessons online.
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Log into your Shareasale account and get your links. When you send traffic to the Campus – although it's free – you'll earn commissions when your visitors purchase Piano Wizard Academy.


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Archived Content
The content on this page is provided for reference purposes only. This content has not been altered or updated since it was archived.
Recalled Infant Formula Badge
Abbott Recalls Certain Similac® Brand Powder Infant Formulas Main Page
|Add this badge to your Web site, blog or social networking site.After you copy and paste the code to your site, the badge will link directly to FDA's searchable database of recalled infant formula. You can submit questions or feedback to firstname.lastname@example.com.
Simply copy the code below onto your Web site.


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1 Lane Of 14th Street Bridge To Close Overnight
May 2, 2012 6:45 AM
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WASHINGTON (AP) — One lane of the 14th Street Bridge over the Potomac River will be closed Wednesday evening as part of a rehabilitation project.
The right lane of the northbound 14th Street Bridge will be closed from 8 p.m. Wednesday through 5 a.m. Thursday.
Officials are urging drivers to stay alert and use caution as a result of the closure.
(© Copyright 2012 The Associated Press. All Rights Reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.)


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Rod Licence - Checks in the Snow Catch Four Illegal Anglers
Four anglers were given offence report forms by Environment Agency officers who braved freezing temperatures for a spot-check on illegal fishing in the Anglian region last Saturday.
The EA report that:
The snow and ice couldn't keep the enforcement officers away from the organisation's planned blitz on illegal fishing and a total of 47 anglers were seen bracing the cold in the Norfolk and Cambridgeshire rivers that were visited. Four (8.5 per cent) did not have a fishing licence.
Lesley Robertson, Environmental Crime Team Leader, said:
"Those issued with offence tickets will almost certainly end up in court. We monitor the river all year round, no matter the weather, and our fisheries enforcement officers were out in the cold last Saturday.
We were pleased to see that most anglers had valid rod licences, as all the money the Environment Agency receives from sales is spent improving fisheries.
Those law-abiding anglers were very happy to see our officers out on the ground and were encouraged by our continued stance against illegal fishing."
The blitz targeted waterways including the River Great Ouse, the River Lark and the River Wissey.
By the Same Author
- Angling Trade Applauds Minister
- Fishing with Emma: Winter Carp - Part Eight
- Angler's Mail 28 October 2014
- Multiple Rod Licencing - Is it Time for a Change?
- Fishing with Emma: Winter Carp - Part Seven
- Angler's Mail 21 October 2014
- Review: How to Flyfish from Newcomer to Improver
- Fishing with Emma: Winter Carp - Part Six
- Regent's Fish Rescue
- Angler's Mail, 14 October 2014
Rate this article
Comments (5 posted):
Quote from article We were pleased to see that most anglers had valid rod licences, as all the money the Environment Agency receives from sales is spent improving fisheries. Is this true?Actually I'd say yes it is true, in fact they spend considerably more on improving water habitats than they generate from sales of rod licences. That said; it's their fault (as a whole entity) that our waters are in such a dire state! They (as an agency) have to big a remit; licencing pollution, licence absraction, responsible for flood control and still improve the environment. A while back they were harping on about how much stock fencing they had erected to stop cattle walking in and next to a river. A complete waste of tax payers money! If current guidelines/legislation is ineffectual; then change it! Going back to Rod Licence checks - I think they're damned if they do, damned if they don't....
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|Proprietary Bose technology delivers quality sound to liven up any room in your home.
Works with many iPhone and iPod models. Requires an Apple Lightning to 30-pin adapter for use with iPhone 5 and other iPod and iPhone models with an Apple Lightning connector.
Remote operates SoundDock system functions and playlist navigation.
Auxiliary input lets you play an additional sound source, such as a tablet, portable DVD/CD player or other MP3 player.


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DURANT, Okla. – More than 100 people turned out in historic Montgomery Auditorium Tuesday afternoon as Southeastern Oklahoma State University and the community celebrated Founders' Day.
Dr. Stacy Weger and the Southeastern Chorale opened and closed the event with "Hymn To The Gold And Blue'' and the "Alma Mater.'' Dr. David Norris, Historian and Professor Emeritus, discussed the founding of Southeastern Normal School.
Dr. Douglas McMillan, Vice President for Academic Affairs, spoke to the vision and future of Southeastern, filling in for president Larry Minks, who was ill.
Durant mayor Jerry Tomlinson read a Proclamation from the City of Durant and spoke of partnership with Southeastern over the years.
Gary Sherrer, Secretary of Environment for the State of Oklahoma and nephew of Durant City Councilman and restaurant owner Leon Sherrer, recalled his days as a student at Southeastern before delivering a Commendation from the Governor's Office.
Vicki Hudson, Chair and Assistant Professor of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, served as MC of the event.
The event then moved to the Glen D. Johnson Student Union Loft for the Peach Cook-Off contest. Judges were Kenneth Furtado, chef of Sodexo, Southeastern Homecoming Queen Amanda Scott and Leon Sherrer, Life Member of the Oklahoma Restaurant Association.
There were two categories to be judged: Pies and Jams/Jellies.
Billie Robinson's Easy Skillet Peach Pie claimed the prize in category one. Kristie Luke's Peaches and Cream Cobbler was second and Teresa Owens' Quick & Dirty Peach Cobbler finished third.
Janet Scribner's entry, Nana's Peach Jelly, took the honors in category two.
Janna Cottingame's Sissy's Peach Jam came in second with Dr. Kitty Campbell's Peach Honey finishing third.
Serving on the Founders' Day committee were Dyanna Bowen, Cathy Conway, Ellen Hendrix, Scott Hensley, Vicki Hudson, Stephanie Makke, Charles Matthews, Ross Walkup, Susan Webb, Stacy Weger, and Sadie Woodruff.


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The "Electric City" one of 16 Communities Selected by Esther Dyson-backed Nonprofit
SCRANTON, Pa. The City of Scranton has been selected as one of 16 semifinalists in The Way to Wellville, a national competition to find five communities to compete over five years for the greatest improvement in five measures of health. The initiative is sponsored by HICCup (www.hiccup.co), a nonprofit founded by angel investor Esther Dyson to encourage community-led innovation that results in healthier people and places.
HICCup's six-person advisory board selected the 16 semifinalists from a highly competitive field of 42 community applications received from 24 states. Semifinalist communities will now submit full proposals by June 27, 2014, detailing their vision and plans for the next five years.
"It sounds trite, but it is extremely difficult to choose," said Ms. Dyson. "The number and quality of applications is a testament to the exceptional places and dedicated leaders eager to make a difference in the health of their communities."
"Benjamin Franklin once said, 'We can do more good together than we can do alone,'" said Thomas Graf, MD, chief medical officer, Population Health and Longitudinal Care at Geisinger Health System. "Our coalition has many partners who are passionate about health and wellness for all of our neighbors. If we can galvanize all the resources in our community, we will make lightning strike in the Electric City. With the support of HICCUP, we can win the race to make Scranton one of the healthiest communities in the nation. Being named a semifinalist reinforces our conviction that we can win this competition. Stand by America, the train has left Steamtown and we are on our way to Wellville."
After reviewing the semifinalist proposals, the HICCup advisory board will next select a smaller number of finalist communities for site visits in July and early August. The selection will culminate in mid-August with the announcement of five Wellville communities to compete in the five-year contest. The Wellville Five will attend the Next Step to Wellville conference, September 16-18, 2014, in Tampa, Florida, to kick off the five-year effort.
The five communities that earn a spot in the five-year contest will receive support from HICCup and a network of partners in the areas of health data/measurement, consumer- and community-based health solutions, and innovative health financing strategies. The effort will measure the impact of coordinated, community-wide initiatives, while creating new models and markets for the production of health.
"The idea behind The Way to Wellville is not just to make a measurable difference in five places, but to design and deliver a comprehensive approach to health that can be replicated broadly," said Rick Brush, CEO of HICCup. "Together with our Wellville partners, five communities will point the way to better health and financial sustainability."
The 16 semifinalists for The Way to Wellville contest are:
- Athens County, OH
- Clatsop County, OR
- Clinton County, NY
- Columbus, IN
- Garden City, KS
- Greater Muskegon, MI
- Jackson, TN
- Lake County, CA
- Lynchburg, VA
- Niagara Falls, NY
- Oxford County, ME
- Scranton, PA
- Spartanburg, SC
- Starkville, MS
- Wilkes County, NC
- Winona, MN
About HICCup
HICCup stands for Health Initiative Coordinating Council. It is a nonprofit supported since mid-2013 through charitable contributions from Esther Dyson, in-kind resources, and extensive field research and development among a growing group of guiding organizations, partners and communities. HICCup is fiscally sponsored by New Venture Fund (www.newventurefund.org). Additional partners, funders and collaborators are encouraged to visit www.HICCup.co and contact email@example.com.
About Geisinger
Geisinger Health System is an integrated health services organization widely recognized for its innovative use of the electronic health record, and the development of innovative care models such as ProvenHealth Navigator® and ProvenCare®. As one of the nation's largest rural health services organizations, Geisinger serves more than 2.6 million residents throughout 44 counties in central and northeast Pennsylvania. The physician-led system is comprised of more than 21,000 employees,including a 1,100-member multi-specialty group practice, eight hospital campuses, two research centers and a 467,000-member health plan, all of which leverage an estimated $7.4 billion positive impact on the Pennsylvania economy. The health system and the health plan have repeatedly garnered national accolades for integration, quality and service. In addition to fulfilling its patient care mission, Geisinger has a long-standing commitment to medical education, research and community service. For more information, visit www.geisinger.org, or follow the latest Geisinger news and more on Twitter and Facebook.