text:
|Publication number
|Publication type
|Application number
|Publication date
|Feb 23, 2012
|Filing date
|Oct 13, 2011
|Priority date
|Jul 11, 2001
|Also published as
|Publication number
|Gary A. Demos
|Original Assignee
|Dolby Laboratories Licensing Corporation
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|BiBTeX, EndNote, RefMan
|Patent Citations (3), Classifications (52), Legal Events (1)
|External Links: USPTO, USPTO Assignment, Espacenet
This application is a continuation of, and claims the benefit of priority to, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/986,220, entitled "Interpolation of Video Compression Frames," which was filed on Jan. 7, 2011, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/644,953, entitled "Video Image Compression Using Unequal Weights," which was filed on Dec. 22, 2009, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/567,161, now allowed, entitled "Interpolation of Video Compression Frames," which was filed on Sep. 25, 2009, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/831,723, entitled "Interpolation of Video Compression Frames," which was filed on Jul. 31, 2007, and which is a divisional application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/187,395, entitled "Interpolation of Video Compression Frames," which was filed on Jun. 28, 2002, and issued as U.S. Pat. No. 7,266,150 on Sep. 4, 2007. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/187,395 is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/904,203, entitled "Interpolation of Video Compression Frames," which was filed on Jul. 11, 2001, and which issued as U.S. Pat. No. 6,816,552 on Nov. 9, 2004. The disclosures of all of the above applications are incorporated by reference in their entirety.
This invention relates to video compression, and more particularly to improved interpolation of video compression frames in MPEG-like encoding and decoding systems.
MPEG-2 and MPEG-4 are international video compression standards defining respective video syntaxes that provides an efficient way to represent image sequences in the form of more compact coded data. The language of the coded bits is the "syntax." For example, a few tokens can represent an entire block of samples (e.g., 64 samples for MPEG-2). Both MPEG standards also describe a decoding (reconstruction) process where the coded bits are mapped from the compact representation into an approximation of the original format of the image sequence. For example, a flag in the coded bitstream may signal whether the following bits are to be preceded with a prediction algorithm prior to being decoded with a discrete cosine transform (DCT) algorithm. The algorithms comprising the decoding process are regulated by the semantics defined by these MPEG standards. This syntax can be applied to exploit common video characteristics such as spatial redundancy, temporal redundancy, uniform motion, spatial masking, etc. In effect, these MPEG standards define a programming language as well as a data format. An MPEG decoder must be able to parse and decode an incoming data stream, but so long as the data stream complies with the corresponding MPEG syntax, a wide variety of possible data structures and compression techniques can be used (although technically this deviates from the standard since the semantics are not conformant). It is also possible to carry the needed semantics within an alternative syntax.
These MPEG standards use a variety of compression methods, including intraframe and interframe methods. In most video scenes, the background remains relatively stable while action takes place in the foreground. The background may move, but a great deal of the scene often is redundant. These MPEG standards start compression by creating a reference frame called an "intra" frame or "I frame". I frames are compressed without reference to other frames and thus contain an entire frame of video information. I frames provide entry points into a data bitstream for random access, but can only be moderately compressed. Typically, the data representing I frames is placed in the bitstream every 12 to 15 frames (although it is also useful in some circumstances to use much wider spacing between I frames). Thereafter, since only a small portion of the frames that fall between the reference I frames are different from the bracketing I frames, only the image differences are captured, compressed, and stored. Two types of frames are used for such differences—predicted frames (P frames), and bi-directional predicted (or interpolated) frames (B frames).
P frames generally are encoded with reference to a past frame (either an I frame or a previous P frame), and, in general, are used as a reference for subsequent P frames. P frames receive a fairly high amount of compression. B frames provide the highest amount of compression but require both a past and a future reference frame in order to be encoded. Bi-directional frames are never used for reference frames in standard compression technologies. P and I frames are "referenceable frames" because they can be referenced by P or B frames.
Macroblocks are regions of image pixels. For MPEG-2, a macroblock is a 16�16 pixel grouping of four 8�8 DCT blocks, together with one motion vector for P frames, and one or two motion vectors for B frames. Macroblocks within P frames may be individually encoded using either intra-frame or inter-frame (predicted) coding. Macroblocks within B frames may be individually encoded using intra-frame coding, forward predicted coding, backward predicted coding, or both forward and backward (i.e., bi-directionally interpolated) predicted coding. A slightly different but similar structure is used in MPEG-4 video coding.
After coding, an MPEG data bitstream comprises a sequence of I, P, and B frames. A sequence may consist of almost any pattern of I, P, and B frames (there are a few minor semantic restrictions on their placement). However, it is common in industrial practice to have a fixed frame pattern (e.g., IBBPBBPBBPBBPBB).
In MPEG-2 and MPEG-4 (and similar standards, such as H.263), use of B-type (bi-directionally predicted) frames have proven to benefit compression efficiency. Motion vectors for each macroblock of such frames can be predicted by any one of the following three methods:
Mode 1: Predicted forward from the previous I or P frame (i.e., a non-bidirectionally predicted frame).
Mode 2: Predicted backward from the subsequent I or P frame.
Mode 3: Bi-directionally predicted from both the subsequent and previous I or P frame.
Mode 1 is identical to the forward prediction method used for P frames. Mode 2 is the same concept, except working backward from a subsequent frame. Mode 3 is an interpolative mode that combines information from both previous and subsequent frames.
In addition to these three modes, MPEG-4 also supports a second interpolative motion vector prediction mode for B frames: direct mode prediction using the motion vector from the subsequent P frame, plus a delta value (if the motion vector from the co-located P macroblock is split into 8�8 mode—resulting in four motion vectors for the 16�16 macroblock—then the delta is applied to all four independent motion vectors in the B frame). The subsequent P frame's motion vector points at the previous P or I frame. A proportion is used to weight the motion vector from the subsequent P frame. The proportion is the relative time position of the current B frame with respect to the subsequent P and previous P (or I) frames.
With MPEG-2, all prediction modes for B frames are tested in coding, and are compared to find the best prediction for each macroblock. If no prediction is good, then the macroblock is coded stand-alone as an "I" (for "intra") macroblock. The coding mode is selected as the best mode among forward (mode 1), backward (mode 2), and bi-directional (mode 3), or as intra coding. With MPEG-4, the intra coding choice is not allowed. Instead, direct mode becomes the fourth choice. Again, the best coding mode is chosen, based upon some best-match criteria. In the reference MPEG-2 and MPEG-4 software encoders, the best match is determined using a DC match (Sum of Absolute Difference, or "SAD").
The number of successive B frames in a coded data bitstream is determined by the "M" parameter value in MPEG. M minus one is the number of B frames between each P frame and the next P (or I). Thus, for M=3, there are two B frames between each P (or I) frame, as illustrated in
It is also significant to note that P frames carry "change energy" forward with the moving picture stream, since each decoded P frame is used as the starting point to predict the next subsequent P frame. B frames, however, are discarded after use. Thus, any bits used to create B frames are used only for that frame, and do not provide corrections that aid decoding of subsequent frames, unlike P frames.
Aspects of the invention are directed to a method, system, and computer programs for improving the image quality of one or more predicted frames in a video image compression system, where each frame comprises a plurality of pixels.
In one aspect, the invention includes determining the value of each pixel of bi-directionally predicted frames as a weighted proportion of corresponding pixel values in non-bidirectionally predicted frames bracketing a sequence of bi-directionally predicted frames. In one embodiment, the weighted proportion is a function of the distance between the bracketing non-bidirectionally predicted frames. In another embodiment, the weighted proportion is a blended function of the distance between the bracketing non-bidirectionally predicted frames and an equal average of the bracketing non-bidirectionally predicted frames.
In another aspect of the invention, interpolation of pixel values is performed on representations in a linear space, or in other optimized non-linear spaces differing from an original non-linear representation.
Other aspects of the invention include systems, computer programs, and methods encompassing:
The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims.
One aspect of the invention is based upon recognition that it is common practice to use a value for M of 3, which provides for two B frames between each P (or I) frame. However M=2, and M=4 or higher, are all useful. It is of particular significance to note that the value of M (the number of B frames plus 1) also bears a natural relationship to the frame rate. At 24 frames per second (fps), the rate of film movies, the 1/24 th second time distance between frames can result in substantial image changes frame-to-frame. At 60 fps, 72 fps, or higher frame rates, however, the time distance between adjacent frames becomes correspondingly reduced. The result is that higher numbers of B frames (i.e., higher values of M) become useful and beneficial in compression efficiency as the frame rate is increased.
Another aspect of the invention is based upon the recognition that both MPEG-2 and MPEG-4 video compression utilize an oversimplified method of interpolation. For example, for mode 3, the bi-directional prediction for each macroblock of a frame is an equal average of the subsequent and previous frame macroblocks, as displaced by the two corresponding motion vectors. This equal average is appropriate for M=2 (i.e., single intermediate B frames), since the B frame will be equidistant in time from the previous and subsequent P (or I) frames. However, for all higher values of M, only symmetrically centered B frames (i.e., the middle frame if M=4, 6, 8, etc.) will be optimally predicted using an equal weighting. Similarly, in MPEG-4 direct mode 4, even though the motion vectors are proportionally weighted, the predicted pixel values for each intermediate B frame are an equal proportion of the corresponding pixels of the previous P (or I) and subsequent P frame. Thus, it represents an improvement to apply an appropriate proportional weighting, for M>2, to the predicted pixel values for each B frame. The proportional weighting for each pixel in a current B frame corresponds to the relative position of the current B frame with respect to the previous and subsequent P (or I) frames. Thus, if M=3, the first B frame would use 2/3 of the corresponding pixel value (motion vector adjusted) from the previous frame, and 1/3 of the corresponding pixel value from the subsequent frame (motion vector adjusted).
If M is greater than 2, proportional weighting of pixel values in intermediate B frames will improve the effectiveness of bi-directional (mode 3) and direct (MPEG-4 mode 4) coding in many cases. Example cases include common movie and video editing effects such as fade-outs and cross-dissolves. These types of video effects are problem coding cases for both MPEG-2 and MPEG-4 due to use of a simple DC matching algorithm, and the common use of M=3 (i.e., two intermediate B frames), resulting in equal proportions for B frames. Coding of such cases is improved by using proportional B frame interpolation in accordance with the invention.
Proportional B frame interpolation also has direct application to coding efficiency improvement for extending dynamic and contrast range. A common occurrence in image coding is a change in illumination. This occurs when an object moves gradually into (or out from) shadow (soft shadow edges). If a logarithmic coding representation is used for brightness (as embodied by logarithmic luminance Y, for example), then a lighting brightness change will be a DC offset change. If the brightness of the lighting drops to half, the pixel values will all be decreased by an equal amount. Thus, to code this change, an AC match should be found, and a coded DC difference applied to the region. Such a DC difference being coded into a P frame should be proportionally applied in each intervening B frame as well. (See co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/905,039, entitled "Method and System for Improving Compressed Image Chroma Information", assigned to the assignee of the present invention and hereby incorporated by reference, for additional information on logarithmic coding representations).
In addition to changes in illumination, changes in contrast also benefit from proportional B frame interpolation. For example, as an airplane moves toward a viewer out of a cloud or haze, its contrast will gradually increase. This contrast increase will be expressed as an increased amplitude in the AC coefficients of the DCT in the corresponding P frame coded macroblocks. Again, contrast changes in intervening B frames will be most closely approximated by a proportional interpolation, thus improving coding efficiency.
Improvements in dynamic range and contrast coding efficiency using proportional B frame interpolation become increasingly significant as frame rates become higher and as the value of M is increased.
Using embodiments of the invention allows an increase in the value of M, and hence the number of B frames between bracketing P and/or I frames, while maintaining or gaining coding efficiency. Such usage benefits a number of applications, including temporal layering. For example, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,988,863, entitled "Temporal and Resolution Layering for Advanced Television" (assigned to the assignee of the present invention, and incorporated by reference), it was noted that B frames are a suitable mechanism for layered temporal (frame) rates. The flexibility of such rates is related to the number of consecutive B frames available. For example, single B frames (M=2) can support a 36 fps decoded temporal layer within a 72 fps stream or a 30 fps decoded temporal layer within a 60 fps stream. Triple B frames (M=4) can support both 36 fps and 18 fps decoded temporal layers within a 72 fps stream, and 30 fps and 15 fps decoded temporal layers within a 60 fps stream. Using M=10 within a 120 fps stream can support 12 fps, 24 fps, and 60 fps decoded temporal layers. M=4 also can be used with a 144 fps stream to provide for decoded temporal layers at 72 fps and 36 fps.
As an improvement to taking every Nth frame, multiple frames at 120 fps or 72 fps can be decoded and proportionally blended, as described in co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/545,233, entitled "Enhancements to Temporal and Resolution Layering" (assigned to the assignee of the present invention and incorporated by reference), to improve the motion blur characteristics of the 24 fps results.
Even higher frame rates can be synthesized utilizing the methods described in co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/435,277, entitled "System and Method for Motion Compensation and Frame Rate Conversion" (assigned to the assignee of the present invention and incorporated by reference). For example, a 72 fps camera original can be utilized with motion compensated frame rate conversion to create an effective frame rate of 288 frames per second. Using M=12, both 48 fps and 24 fps frame rates can be derived, as well as other useful rates such as 144 fps, 96 fps, and 32 fps (and of course, the original 72 fps). The frame rate conversions using this method need not be integral multiples. For example, an effective rate of 120 fps can be created from a 72 fps source, and then used as a source for both 60 fps and 24 fps rates (using M=10).
Thus, there are temporal layering benefits to optimizing the performance of B frame interpolation. The proportional B frame interpolation described above make higher numbers of consecutive B frames function more efficiently, thereby enabling these benefits.
One reason that equal average weighting has been used in conventional systems as the motion compensated mode predictor for B frame pixel values is that the P (or I) frame before or after a particular B frame may be noisy, and therefore represent an imperfect match. Equal blending will optimize the reduction of noise in the interpolated motion-compensated block. There is a difference residual that is coded using the quantized DCT function. Of course, the better the match from the motion compensated proportion, the fewer difference residual bits will be required, and the higher the resulting image quality.
In cases where there are objects moving in and out of shadow or haze, a true proportion where M>2 provides a better prediction. However, when lighting and contrast changes are not occurring, equal weighting may prove to be a better predictor, since the errors of moving a macroblock forward along a motion vector will be averaged with the errors from the backward displaced block, thus reducing the errors in each by half. Even so, it is more likely that B frame macroblocks nearer a P (or I) frame will correlate more to that frame than to a more distant P (or I) frame.
Thus, it is desirable in some circumstances, such as regional contrast or brightness change, to utilize a true proportion for B frame macroblock pixel weighting (for both luminance and color), as described above. In other circumstances, it may be more optimal to utilize equal proportions, as in MPEG-2 and MPEG-4.
Another aspect of the invention utilizes a blend of these two proportion techniques (equal average and frame-distance proportion) for B frame pixel interpolation. For example, in the M=3 case, 3/4 of the 1/3 and 2/3 proportions can be blended with 1/4 of the equal average, resulting in the two proportions being 3/8 and 5/8. This technique may be generalized by using a "blend factor" F:
The useful range of the blend factor F is from 1, indicating purely proportional interpolation, to 0, indicating purely equal average (the reverse assignment of values may also be used).
The value of the blend factor F can be set overall for a complete encoding, or for each group of pictures (GOP), a range of B frames, each B frame, or each region within a B frame (including, for example, as finely as for each macroblock or, in the case of MPEG-4 direct mode using a P vector in 8�8 mode, even individual 8�8 motion blocks).
In the interest of bit economy, and reflecting the fact that the blend proportion is not usually important enough to be conveyed with each macroblock, optimal use of blending should be related to the type of images being compressed. For example, for images that are fading, dissolving, or where overall lighting or contrast is gradually changing, a blend factor F near or at 1 (i.e., selecting proportional interpolation) is generally most optimal. For running images without such lighting or contrast changes, then lower blend factor values, such as 2/3, 1/2, or 1/3, might form a best choice, thereby preserving some of the benefits of proportional interpolation as well as some of the benefits of equal average interpolation. All blend factor values within the 0 to 1 range generally will be useful, with one particular value within this range proving optimal for any given B frame.
For wide dynamic range and wide contrast range images, the blend factor can be determined regionally, depending upon the local region characteristics. In general, however, a wide range of light and contrast recommends toward blend factor values favoring purely proportional, rather than equal average, interpolation.
An optimal blend factor is generally empirically determined, although experience with particular types of scenes can be used to create a table of blend factors by scene type. For example, a determination of image change characteristics can be used to select the blend proportion for a frame or region. Alternatively, B frames can be coded using a number of candidate blend factors (either for the whole frame, or regionally), with each then being evaluated to optimize the image quality (determined, for example, by the highest signal to noise ratio, or SNR) and for lowest bit count. These candidate evaluations can then be used to select the best value for the blend proportion. A combination of both image change characteristics and coded quality/efficiency can also be used.
B frames near the middle of a sequence of B frames, or resulting from low values of M, are not affected very much by proportional interpolation, since the computed proportions are already near the equal average. However, for higher values of M, the extreme B frame positions can be significantly affected by the choice of blend factor. Note that the blend factor can be different for these extreme positions, utilizing more of the average, than the more central positions, which gain little or no benefit from deviating from the average, since they already have high proportions of both neighboring P (or I) frames. For example, if M=5, the first and fourth B frame might use a blend factor F which blends in more of the equal average, but the second and third middle B frames may use the strict 2/5 and 3/5 equal average proportions. If the proportion-to-average blend factor varies as a function of the position of a B frame in a sequence, the varying value of the blend factor can be conveyed in the compressed bitstream or as side information to the decoder.
If a static general blend factor is required (due to lack of a method to convey the value), then the value of 2/3 is usually near optimal, and can be selected as a static value for B frame interpolation in both the encoder and decoder. For example, using F=2/3 for the blend factor, for M=3 the successive frame proportions will be 7/18(7/18=2/3*1/3+1/3*1/2) and 11/18 (11/18=2/3*2/3+1/3*1/2).
Video frame pixel values are generally stored in a particular representation that maps the original image information to numeric values. Such a mapping may result in a linear or non-linear representation. For example, luminance values used in compression are non-linear. The use of various forms of non-linear representation include logarithmic, exponential (to various powers), and exponential with a black correction (commonly used for video signals).
Over narrow dynamic ranges, or for interpolations of nearby regions, the non-linear representation is acceptable, since these nearby interpolations represent piece-wise linear interpolations. Thus, small variations in brightness are reasonably approximated by linear interpolation. However, for wide variations in brightness, such as occur in wide dynamic range and wide contrast range images, the treatment of non-linear signals as linear will be inaccurate. Even for normal contrast range images, linear fades and cross-dissolves can be degraded by a linear interpolation. Some fades and cross-dissolves utilize non-linear fade and dissolve rates, adding further complexity.
Thus, an additional improvement to the use of proportional blends, or even simple proportional or equal average interpolations, is to perform such interpolations on pixel values represented in a linear space, or in other optimized non-linear spaces differing from the original non-linear luminance representation.
This may be accomplished, for example, by first converting the two non-linear luminance signals (from the previous and subsequent P (or I) frames into a linear representation, or a differing non-linear representation. Then a proportional blend is applied, after which the inverse conversion is applied, yielding the blended result in the image's original non-linear luminance representation. However, the proportion function will have been performed on a more optimal representation of the luminance signals.
It is also useful to beneficially apply this linear or non-linear conversion to color (chroma) values, in addition to luminance, when colors are fading or becoming more saturated, as occurs in contrast changes associated with variations in haze and overcast.
Step 400: In a video image compression system, for direct and interpolative mode for computing B frames, determine an interpolation value to apply to each pixel of an input sequence of two or more bi-directionally predicted intermediate frames using one of (1) the frame-distance proportion or (2) a blend of equal weighting and the frame-distance proportion, derived from at least two non-bidirectionally predicted frames bracketing such sequence input from a source (e.g., a video image stream).
Step 401: Optimize the interpolation value with respect to an image unit (e.g., a group of pictures (GOP), a sequence of frames, a scene, a frame, a region within a frame, a macroblock, a DCT block, or similar useful grouping or selection of pixels). The interpolation value may be set statically for the entire encoding session, or dynamically for each image unit.
Step 402: Further optimize the interpolation value with respect to scene type or coding simplicity. For example, an interpolation value may be set: statically (such as 2/3 proportional and 1/3 equal average); proportionally for frames near the equal average, but blended with equal average near the adjacent P (or I) frames; dynamically based upon overall scene characteristics, such as fades and cross dissolves; dynamically (and locally) based on local image region characteristics, such as local contrast and local dynamic range; or dynamically (and locally) based upon coding performance (such as highest coded SNR) and minimum coded bits generated.
Step 403: Convey the appropriate proportion amounts to the decoder, if not statically determined.
Step 404: Optionally, convert the luminance (and, optionally, chroma) information for each frame to a linear or alternate non-linear representation, and convey this alternate representation to the decoder, if not statically determined.
Step 405: Determine the proportional pixel values using the determined interpolation value.
Step 406: If necessary (because of Step 404), reconvert to the original representation.
As noted above, in prior art MPEG-1, 2, and 4 compression methods, P frames reference the previous P or I frame, and B frames reference the nearest previous and subsequent P and/or I frames. The same technique is used in the H.261 and H.263 motion-compensated DCT compression standards, which encompass low bit rate compression techniques.
In the H.263++ and H.26L standard in development, B frame referencing was extended to point to P or I frames which were not directly bracketing a current frame. That is, macro blocks within B frames could point to one P or I frame before the previous P frame, or to one P or I frame after the subsequent P frame. With one or more bits per macroblock, skipping of the previous or subsequent P frame can be signaled simply. Conceptually, the use of previous P frames for reference in B frames only requires storage. For the low-bit rate-coding use of H.263++ or H.26L, this is a small amount of additional memory. For subsequent P frame reference, the P frame coding order must be modified with respect to B frame coding, such that future P frames (or possibly I frames) must be decoded before intervening B frames. Thus, coding order is also an issue for subsequent P frame references.
The primary distinctions between P and B frame types are: (1) B frames may be bi-directionally referenced (up to two motion vectors per macroblock); (2) B frames are discarded after use (which also means that they can be skipped during decoding to provide temporal layering); and (3) P frames are used as "stepping stones", one to the next, since each P frame must be decoded for use as a reference for each subsequent P frame.
As another aspect of the invention, P frames (as opposed to B frames) are decoded with reference to one or more previous P or I frames (excluding the case of each P frame referencing only the nearest previous P or I frame). Thus, for example, two or more motion vectors per macroblock may be used for a current P frame, all pointing backward in time (i.e., to one or more previously decoded frames). Such P frames still maintain a "stepping stone" character.
Further, it is possible to apply the concepts of macroblock interpolation, as described above, in such P frame references. Thus, in addition to signaling single references to more than one previous P or I frame, it is also possible to blend proportions of multiple previous P or I frames, using one motion vector for each such frame reference. For example, the technique described above of using a B frame interpolation mode having two frame references may be applied to allow any macroblock in a P frame to reference two previous P frames or one previous P frame and one previous I frame, using two motion vectors. This technique interpolates between two motion vectors, but is not bi-directional in time (as is the case with B frame interpolation), since both motion vectors point backward in time. Memory costs have decreased to the point where holding multiple previous P or I frames in memory for such concurrent reference is quite practical.
In applying such P frame interpolation, it is constructive to select and signal to a decoder various useful proportions of the previous two or more P frames (and, optionally, one prior I frame). In particular, an equal blend of frames is one of the useful blend proportions. For example, with two previous P frames as references, an equal 1/2 amount of each P frame can be blended. For three previous P frames, a 1/3 equal blend could be used.
Another useful blend of two P frames is 2/3 of the most recent previous frame, and 1/3 of the least recent previous frame. For three previous P frames, another useful blend is 1/2 of the most recent previous frame, 1/3 of the next most recent previous frame, and 1/6 of the least recent previous frame.
In any case, a simple set of useful blends of multiple previous P frames (and, optionally, one I frame) can be utilized and signaled simply from an encoder to a decoder. The specific blend proportions utilized can be selected as often as useful to optimize coding efficiency for an image unit. A number of blend proportions can be selected using a small number of bits, which can be conveyed to the decoder whenever suitable for a desired image unit.
As another aspect of the invention, it is also useful to switch-select single P frame references from the most recent previous P (or I) frame to a more "distant" previous P (or I) frame. In this way, P frames would utilize a single motion vector per macroblock (or, optionally, per 8�8 block in MPEG-4 style coding), but would utilize one or more bits to indicate that the reference refers to a single specific previous frame. P frame macroblocks in this mode would not be interpolative, but instead would reference a selected previous frame, being selected from a possible two, three, or more previous P (or I) frame choices for reference. For example, a 2-bit code could designate one of up to four previous frames as the single reference frame of choice. This 2-bit code could be changed at any convenient image unit.
It is typical in MPEG coding to use a fixed pattern of I, P, and B frame types. The number of B frames between P frames is typically a constant. For example, it is typical in MPEG-2 coding to use two B frames between P (or I) frames.
The MPEG-4 video coding standard conceptually allows a varying number of B frames between bracketing I frames and/or P frames, and a varying amount of distance between I frames.
This flexible coding structure theoretically can be utilized to improve coding efficiency by matching the most effective B and P frame coding types to the moving image frames. While this flexibility has been specifically allowed, it has been explored very little, and no mechanism is known for actually determining the placement of B and P frames in such a flexible structure.
Another aspect of the invention applies the concepts described herein to this flexible coding structure as well as to the simple fixed coding patterns in common use. B frames thus can be interpolated using the methods described above, while P frames may reference more than one previous P or I frame and be interpolated in accordance with the present description.
In particular, macroblocks within B frames can utilize proportional blends appropriate for a flexible coding structure as effectively as with a fixed structure. Proportional blends can also be utilized when B frames reference P or I frames that are further away than the nearest bracketing P or I frames.
Similarly, P frames can reference more than one previous P or I frame in this flexible coding structure as effectively as with a fixed pattern structure. Further, blend proportions can be applied to macroblocks in such P frames when they reference more than one previous P frame (plus, optionally, one I frame).
(A) Determining Placement in Flexible Coding Patterns
The following method allows an encoder to optimize the efficiency of both the frame coding pattern as well as the blend proportions utilized. For a selected range of frames, a number of candidate coding patterns can be tried, to determine an optimal or near optimal (relative to specified criteria) pattern.
An optimal or near optimal coding pattern can be selected based upon various evaluation criteria, often involving tradeoffs of various coding characteristics, such as coded image quality versus number of coding bits required. Common evaluation criteria include the least number of bits used (in a fixed quantization parameter test), or the best signal-to-noise-ratio (in a fixed bit-rate test), or a combination of both.
It is also common to minimize a sum-of-absolute-difference (SAD), which forms a measure of DC match. As described in co-pending U.S. patent Ser. No. 09/904,192, entitled "Motion Estimation for Video Compression Systems" (assigned to the assignee of the present invention and hereby incorporated by reference), an AC match criterion is also a useful measure of the quality of a particular candidate match (the patent application also describes other useful optimizations). Thus, the AC and DC match criteria, accumulated over the best matches of all macroblocks, can be examined to determine the overall match quality of each candidate coding pattern. This AC/DC match technique can augment or replace the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and least-bits-used tests when used together with an estimate of the number of coded bits for each frame pattern type. It is typical to code macroblocks within B frames with a higher quantization parameter (QP) value than for P frames, affecting both the quality (measured often as a signal-to-noise ratio) and the number of bits used within the various candidate coding patterns.
(B) Blend Proportion Optimization in Flexible Coding Patterns
Optionally, for each candidate pattern determined in accordance with the above method, blend proportions may be tested for suitability (e.g., optimal or near optimal blend proportions) relative to one or more criteria. This can be done, for example, by testing for best quality (lowest SNR) and/or efficiency (least bits used). The use of one or more previous references for each macroblock in P frames can also be determined in the same way, testing each candidate reference pattern and blend proportion, to determine a set of one or more suitable references.
Once the coding pattern for this next step (Step 700 in
DC vs. AC Interpolation
In many cases of image coding, such as when using a logarithmic representation of image frames, the above-described interpolation of frame pixel values will optimally code changes in illumination. However, in alternative video "gamma-curve", linear, and other representations, it will often prove useful to apply different interpolation blend factors to the DC values than to the AC values of the pixels.
As with the other interpolation values in this invention, the appropriate weightings can be signaled to a decoder per image unit. A small number of bits can select between a number of interpolation values, as well as selecting the independent interpolation of the AC versus DC aspects of the pixel values.
Interpolation is a linear weighted average. Since the interpolation operation is linear, and since the pixel values in each image frame are often represented in a non-linear form (such as video gamma or logarithmic representations), further optimization of the interpolation process becomes possible. For example, interpolation of pixels for a particular sequence of frames, as well as interpolation of DC values separately from AC values, will sometimes be optimal or near optimal with a linear pixel representation. However, for other frame sequences, such interpolation will be optimal or near optimal if the pixels are represented as logarithmic values or in other pixel representations. Further, the optimal or near optimal representations for interpolating U and V (chroma) signal components may differ from the optimal or near optimal representations for the Y (luminance) signal component. It is therefore a useful aspect of the invention to convert a pixel representation to an alternate representation as part of the interpolation procedure.
The transformations between representations may be performed in accordance with the teachings of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/905,039, entitled "Method and System for Improving Compressed Image Chroma Information", assigned to the assignee of the present invention and hereby incorporated by reference. Note that the alternative representation transformation and its inverse can often be performed using a simple lookup table.
As a variation of this aspect of the invention, the alternative (linear or non-linear) representation space for AC interpolation may differ from the alternative representation space for DC interpolation.
As with the interpolation weightings, the selection of which alternate interpolation representation is to be used for each of the luminance (Y) and chroma (U and V) pixel representations may be signaled to the decoder using a small number of bits for each selected image unit.
In MPEG-2, one motion vector is allowed per 16�16 macroblock in P frames. In B frames, MPEG-2 allows a maximum of 2 motion vectors per 16�16 macroblock, corresponding to the bi-directional interpolative mode. In MPEG-4 video coding, up to 4 motion vectors are allowed per 16�16 macroblock in P frames, corresponding to one motion vector per 8�8 DCT block. In MPEG-4 B frames, a maximum of two motion vectors are allowed for each 16�16 macroblock, when using interpolative mode. A single motion vector delta in MPEG-4 direct mode can result in four independent "implicit" motion vectors, if the subsequent corresponding P frame macroblock was set in 8�8 mode having four vectors. This is achieved by adding the one motion vector delta carried in a 16�16 B frame macroblock to each of the corresponding four independent motion vectors from the following P frame macroblock, after scaling for the distance in time (the B frame is closer in time than the P frame's previous P or I frame reference).
One aspect of the invention includes the option to increase the number of motion vectors per picture region, such as a macroblock. For example, it will sometimes prove beneficial to have more than two motion vectors per B frame macroblock. These can be applied by referencing additional P or I frames and having three or more interpolation terms in the weighted sum. Additional motion vectors can also be applied to allow independent vectors for the 8�8 DCT blocks of the B frame macroblock. Also, four independent deltas can be used to extend the direct mode concept by applying a separate delta to each of the four 8�8-region motion vectors from the subsequent P frame.
Further, P frames can be adapted using B-frame implementation techniques to reference more than one previous frame in an interpolative mode, using the B-frame two-interpolation-term technique described above. This technique can readily be extended to more than two previous P or I frames, with a resulting interpolation having three or more terms in the weighted sum.
As with other aspects of this invention (e.g., pixel representation and DC versus AC interpolation methods), particular weighted sums can be communicated to a decoder using a small number of bits per image unit.
In applying this aspect of the invention, the correspondence between 8�8 pixel DCT blocks and the motion vector field need not be as strict as with MPEG-2 and MPEG-4. For example, it may be useful to use alternative region sizes other than 16�16, 16�8 (used only with interlace in MPEG-4), and 8�8 for motion vectors. Such alternatives might include any number of useful region sizes, such as 4�8, 8�12, 8�16, 6�12, 2�8, 4�8, 24�8, 32�32, 24�24, 24�16, 8�24, 32�8, 32�4, etc. Using a small number of such useful sizes, a few bits can signal to a decoder the correspondence between motion vectors region sizes and DCT block sizes. In systems where a conventional 8�8 DCT block is used, a simple set of correspondences to the motion vector field are useful to simplify processing during motion compensation. In systems where the DCT block size is different from 8�8, then greater flexibility can be achieved in specifying the motion vector field, as described in co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/545,233, entitled "Enhanced Temporal and Resolution Layering in Advanced Television", assigned to the assignee of the present invention and hereby incorporated by reference. Note that motion vector region boundaries need not correspond to DCT region boundaries. Indeed, it is often useful to define motion vector regions in such a way that a motion vector region edge falls within a DCT block (and not at its edge).
The concept of extending the flexibility of the motion vector field also applies to the interpolation aspect of this invention. As long as the correspondence between each pixel and one or more motion vectors to one or more reference frames is specified, the interpolation method described above can be applied to the full flexibility of useful motion vectors using all of the generality of this invention. Even the size of the regions corresponding to each motion vector can differ for each previous frame reference when using P frames, and each previous and future frame reference when using B frames. If the region sizes for motion vectors differ when applying the improved interpolation method of this invention, then the interpolation reflects the common region of overlap. The common region of overlap for motion vector references can be utilized as the region over which the DC term is determined when separately interpolating DC and AC pixel values.
Thus, for example, in interpolating 4�4 DCT regions of a B frame 1112 backwards to the prior P frame 1104, a 4�4 region 1110 within the union 1108 would use the motion vector corresponding to the 8�16 region 1114 in the prior P frame. If predicting forward, the region 1110 within the union 1108 would use the motion vector corresponding to the 4�16 region 1115 in the next P frame. Similarly, interpolation of the region 116 within the union 1108 backwards would use the motion vector corresponding to the 8�16 region 1114, while predicting the same region forward would use the motion vector corresponding to the 12�16 region 1117.
In one embodiment of the invention, two steps are used to accomplish the interpolation of generalized (i.e., non-uniform size) motion vectors. The first step is to determine the motion vector common regions, as described with respect to
When encoding, it is the job of the encoder to determine the optimal or near optimal use of the bits to select between motion vector region shapes and sizes, and to select the optimal or near optimal interpolation method. A determination is also required to specify the number and distance of the frames referenced. These specifications can be determined by exhaustive testing of a number of candidate motion vector region sizes, candidate frames to reference, and interpolation methods for each such motion vector region, until an optimal or near optimal coding is found. Optimality (relative to a selected criteria) can be determined by finding the least SNR after encoding a block or the lowest number of bits for a fixed quantization parameter (QP) after coding the block, or by application of another suitable measure.
Conventional direct mode, used in B frame macroblocks in MPEG-4, can be efficient in motion vector coding, providing the benefits of 8�8 block mode with a simple common delta. Direct mode weights each corresponding motion vector from the subsequent P frame, which references the previous P frame, at the corresponding macroblock location based upon distance in time. For example, if M=3 (i.e., two intervening B frames), with simple linear interpolation the first B frame would use −2/3 times the subsequent P frame motion vector to determine a pixel offset with respect to such P frame, and 1/3 times the subsequent P frame motion vector to determine a pixel offset with respect to the previous P frame. Similarly, the second B frame would use −1/3 times the same P frame motion vector to determine a pixel offset with respect to such P frame, and 2/3 times the subsequent P frame motion vector to determine a pixel offset with respect to the previous P frame. In direct mode, a small delta is added to each corresponding motion vector. As another aspect of this invention, this concept can be extended to B frame references which point to one or more n-away P frames, which in turn reference one or more previous or subsequent P frames or I frames, by taking the frame distance into account to determine a frame scale fraction.
If a nearest subsequent P frame referenced by a B frame points to the next nearest previous P frame, then again the simple frame distance can be used to obtain the suitable frame scale fraction to apply to the motion vectors.
In general, in the case of a B frame referencing a single P frame in direct mode, the frame distance method sets the numerator of a frame scale fraction equal to the frame distance from that B frame to its referenced, or "target", P frame, and sets the denominator equal to the frame distance from the target P frame to another P frame referenced by the target P frame. The sign of the frame scale fraction is negative for measurements made from a B frame to a subsequent P frame, and positive for measurements made from a B frame to a prior P frame. This simple method of applying a frame-distance or the frame scale fraction to a P frame motion vector can achieve an effective direct mode coding.
Further, another aspect of this invention is to allow direct mode to apply to multiple interpolated motion vector references of a P frame. For example, if a P frame was interpolated from the nearest and next nearest previous P frames, direct mode reference in accordance with this aspect of the invention allows an interpolated blend for each multiple reference direct mode B frame macroblock. In general, the two or more motion vectors of a P frame can have an appropriate frame scale fraction applied. The two or more frame-distance modified motion vectors then can be used with corresponding interpolation weights for each B frame referencing or targeting that P frame, as described below, to generate interpolated B frame macroblock motion compensation.
Each macroblock for the B frame 1400 would be constructed as a blend from:
As with all direct modes, a motion vector delta can be utilized with each of mv1 and mv2.
In accordance with this aspect of the invention, direct mode predicted macroblocks in B frames can also reference multiple subsequent P frames, using the same methodology of interpolation and motion vector frame scale fraction application as with multiple previous P frames.
The weightings for this form of direct mode B frame macroblock interpolation can utilize the full generality of interpolation as described herein. In particular, each weight, or combinations of the weights, can be tested for best performance (e.g., quality versus number of bits) for various image units. The interpolation fraction set for this improved direct mode can be specified to a decoder with a small number of bits per image unit.
Each macroblock for the B frame 1500 would be constructed as a blend from:
As with all direct modes, a motion vector delta can be utilized with each of mv1, mv2, and mv3.
Note that a particularly beneficial direct coding mode often occurs when the next nearest subsequent P frame references the nearest P frames bracketing a candidate B frame.
Direct mode coding of B frames in MPEG-4 always uses the subsequent P frame's motion vectors as a reference. In accordance with another aspect of the invention, it is also possible for a B frame to reference the motion vectors of the previous P frame's co-located macroblocks, which will sometimes prove a beneficial choice of direct mode coding reference. In this case, the motion vector frame scale fractions will be greater than one, when the next nearest previous P frame is referenced by the nearest previous frame's P motion vector.
If the nearest previous P frame is interpolated from multiple vectors and frames, then methods similar to those described in conjunction with
Each macroblock for the B frame 1700 would be constructed as a blend from:
When the motion vector of a previous P frame (relative to a B frame) points to the next nearest previous P frame, it is not necessary to only utilize the next nearest previous frame as the interpolation reference, as in
As with all other coding modes, the use of direct mode preferably involves testing the candidate mode against other available interpolation and single-vector coding modes and reference frames. For direct mode testing, the nearest subsequent P frame (and, optionally, the next nearest subsequent P frame or even more distant subsequent P frames, and/or one or more previous P frames) can be tested as candidates, and a small number of bits (typically one or two) can be used to specify the direct mode P reference frame distance(s) to be used by a decoder.
It is specified in MPEG-1, 2, and 4, as well as in the H.261 and H.263 standards, that B frames use an equal weighting of pixel values of the forward referenced and backward referenced frames, as displaced by the motion vectors. Another aspect of this invention includes application of various useful unequal weightings that can significantly improve B frame coding efficiency, as well as the extension of such unequal weightings to more than two references, including two or more references backward or forward in time. This aspect of the invention also includes methods for more than one frame being referenced and interpolated for P frames. Further, when two or more references point forward in time, or when two or more references point backward in time, it will sometimes be useful to use negative weightings as well as weightings in excess of 1.0.
For example,
In this case, the interpolative weights for P3 are 2.0 for P2, and −1.0 for P1.
As another example,
Thus, in this example case, a prediction of P4 based upon P2 and P1 would be:
P4=P1+3�(P2−P1)=(3�P2)−(2�P1)(weights 3.0 and −2.0)
The prediction of P4 based upon P3 and P1 would be:
P4=P1+3/2�(P3−P1)=(3/2�P3)−(1/2�P1)(weights 1.5 and −0.5)
The prediction of P4 based upon P3 and P2 would be:
P4=P2+2�(P3−P2)=(2�P3)−P2(weights 2.0 and −1.0)
However, it might also be likely that the change most near to P4, involving P3 and P2, is a more reliable predictor of P4 than predictions involving P1. Thus, by giving 1/4 weight to each of the two terms above involving P1, and 1/2 weight to the term involving only P3 and P2, would result in:
1/2(2P3−P2)+1/4(3/2P3−1/2P1)+1/4(3P2−2P1)=1 3/8P3+1/4P2−5/8P1(weights 1.375, 0.25, and −0.625)
Accordingly, it will sometimes be useful to use weights both above 1.0 and below zero. At other times, if there is noise-like variation from one frame to the next, a positive weighted average having mild coefficients between 0.0 and 1.0 might yield the best predictor of P4's macroblock (or other region of pixels). For example, an equal weighting of 1/3 of each of P1, P2, and P3 in
These techniques are also applicable to B frames that have two or more motion vectors pointing either backward or forward in time. When pointing forward in time, the coefficient pattern described above for P frames is reversed to accurately predict backward to the current P frame. It is possible to have two or more motion vectors in both the forward and backward direction using this aspect of the invention, thereby predicting in both directions concurrently. A suitable weighted blend of these various predictions can be optimized by selecting the blend weighting which best predicts the macroblock (or other pixel region) of a current B frame.
In the example illustrated in
If the weightings are selected from a small set of choices, then a small number of bits can signal to the decoder which weighting is to be used. As with all other weightings described herein, this can be signaled to a decoder once per image unit, or at any other point in the decoding process where a change in weightings is useful.
It is also possible to download new weighting sets. In this way, a small number of weighting sets may be active at a given time. This allows a small number of bits to signal a decoder which of the active weighting sets is to be used at any given point in the decoding process. To determine suitable weighting sets, a large number of weightings can be tested during encoding. If a small subset is found to provide high efficiency, then that subset can be signaled to a decoder for use. A particular element of the subset can thus be signaled to the decoder with just a few bits. For example, 10 bits can select 1 of 1024 subset elements. Further, when a particular small subset should be changed to maintain efficiency, a new subset can be signaled to the decoder. Thus, an encoder can dynamically optimize the number of bits required to select among weighting set elements versus the number of bits needed to update the weighting sets. Further, a small number of short codes can be used to signal common useful weightings, such as 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, etc. In this way, a small number of bits can be used to signal the set of weightings, such as for a K-forward-vector prediction in a P frame (where K=1, 2, 3, . . . ), or a K-forward-vector and L-backward-vector prediction in a B frame (where K and L are selected from 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . ), or a K-forward-vector and L-backward-vector prediction in a P frame (where K and L are selected from 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . ), as a function of the current M value (i.e., the relative position of the B frame with respect to the neighboring P (or I) frames).
This same technique may be used to dynamically update weighting sets to select DC interpolation versus AC interpolation. Further, code values can be signaled which select normal (linear) interpolation (of pixel values normally represented in a non-linear representation) versus linear interpolation of converted values (in an alternate linear or non-linear representation). Similarly, such code values can signal which such interpolation to apply to AC or DC values or whether to split AC and DC portions of the prediction.
Active subsetting can also be used to minimize the number of bits necessary to select between the sets of weighting coefficients currently in use. For example, if 1024 downloaded weighting sets were held in a decoder, perhaps 16 might need to be active during one particular portion of a frame. Thus, by selecting which subset of 16 (out of 1024) weighting sets are to be active, only 4 bits need be used to select which weighting set of these 16 is active. The subsets can also be signaled using short codes for the most common subsets, thus allowing a small number of bits to select among commonly used subsets.
As with the simple separation of a DC component from AC signals via subtraction of the average value, other filtering operations are also possible during motion vector compensated prediction. For example, various high-pass, band-pass, and low-pass filters can be applied to a pixel region (such as a macroblock) to extract various frequency bands. These frequency bands can then be modified when performing motion compensation. For example, it often might be useful on a noisy moving image to filter out the highest frequencies in order to soften (make less sharp, or blur slightly) the image. The softer image pixels, combined with a steeper tilt matrix for quantization (a steeper tilt matrix ignores more high-frequency noise in the current block), will usually form a more efficient coding method. It is already possible to signal a change in the quantization tilt matrix for every image unit. It is also possible to download custom tilt matrices for luminance and chroma. Note that the effectiveness of motion compensation can be improved whether the tilt matrix is changed or not. However, it will often be most effective to change both the tilt matrix and filter parameters which are applied during motion compensation.
It is common practice to use reduced resolution for chroma coding together with a chroma specific tilt matrix. However, the resolution of chroma coding is static in this case (such as 4:2:0 coding half resolution vertically and horizontally, or 4:2:2 coding half resolution only horizontally). Coding effectiveness can be increased in accordance with this aspect of the invention by applying a dynamic filter process during motion compensation to both chroma and luminance (independently or in tandem), selected per image unit.
U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/545,233, entitled "Enhanced Temporal and Resolution Layering in Advanced Television" (referenced above), describes the use of improved displacement filters having negative lobes (a truncated sinc function). These filters have the advantage that they preserve sharpness when performing the fractional-pixel portion of motion vector displacement. At both the integer pixel displacement point and at the fractional points, some macroblocks (or other useful image regions) are more optimally displaced using filters which reduce or increase their sharpness. For example, for a "rack focus" (where some objects in the frame are going out of focus over time, and others portions of the frame are coming into focus), the transition is one of change both in sharpness and in softness. Thus, a motion compensation filter that can both increase sharpness at certain regions in an image while decreasing sharpness in other regions can improve coding efficiency. In particular, if a region of a picture is going out of focus, it may be beneficial to decrease sharpness, which will soften the image (thereby potentially creating a better match) and decrease grain and/or noise (thereby possibly improving coding efficiency). If a region of the image is coming into focus, it may be beneficial to preserve maximum sharpness, or even increase sharpness using larger negative lobe filter values.
Chroma filtering can also benefit from sharpness increase and decrease during coding. For example, much of the coding efficiency benefits of 4:2:0 coding (half resolution chroma horizontally and vertically) can be achieved by using softer motion compensation filters for chroma while preserving full resolution in the U and/or V channels. Only when color detail in the U and V channels is high will it be necessary to select the sharpest displacement filters; softer filters will be more beneficial where there is high color noise or grain.
In addition to changes in focus, it is also common to have the direction and amount of motion blur change from one frame to the next. At the motion picture film frame rate of 24 fps, even a simple dialog scene can have significant changes in motion blur from one frame to the next. For example, an upper lip might blur in one frame, and sharpen in the next, entirely due to the motion of the lip during the open shutter time in the camera. For such motion blur, it will be beneficial not only to have sharpening and softening (blurring) filters during motion compensation, but also to have a directional aspect to the sharpening and softening. For example, if a direction of motion can be determined, a softening or sharpening along that direction can be used to correspond to the moving or stopping of an image feature. The motion vectors used for motion compensation can themselves provide some useful information about the amount of motion, and the change in the amount of motion (i.e., motion blur), for a particular frame (or region within a frame) with respect to any of the surrounding frames (or corresponding regions). In particular, a motion vector is the best movement match between P frames, while motion blur results from movement during the open shutter time within a frame.
The amount of motion blur and the direction of motion can also be determined from a combination of sharpness metrics, surrounding motion vectors (where image regions match), feature smear detection, and human assisted designation of frame regions. A filter can be selected based on the determined amount of motion blur and motion direction. For example, a mapping of various filters versus determined motion blur and direction can be empirically determined.
When combined with the other aspects of this invention, such intelligently applied filters can significantly improve compression coding efficiency. A small number of such filters can be selected with a small number of bits signaled to the decoder. Again, this can be done once per image unit or at other useful points in the decoding process. As with weighting sets, a dynamically loaded set of filters can be used, as well as an active subsetting mechanism, to minimize the number of bits needed to select between the most beneficial set of filter parameters.
The invention may be implemented in hardware or software, or a combination of both (e.g., programmable logic arrays). Unless otherwise specified, the algorithms included as part of the invention are not inherently related to any particular computer or other apparatus. In particular, various general purpose machines may be used with programs written in accordance with the teachings herein, or it may be more convenient to construct more specialized apparatus (e.g., integrated circuits) to perform particular functions. Thus, the invention may be implemented in one or more computer programs executing on one or more programmable computer systems each comprising at least one processor, at least one data storage system (including volatile and non-volatile memory and/or storage elements), at least one input device or port, and at least one output device or port. Program code is applied to input data to perform the functions described herein and generate output information. The output information is applied to one or more output devices, in known fashion.
Each such program may be implemented in any desired computer language (including machine, assembly, or high level procedural, logical, or object oriented programming languages) to communicate with a computer system. In any case, the language may be a compiled or interpreted language.
Each such computer program is preferably stored on or downloaded to a storage media or device (e.g., solid state memory or media, or magnetic or optical media) readable by a general or special purpose programmable computer, for configuring and operating the computer when the storage media or device is read by the computer system to perform the procedures described herein. The inventive system may also be considered to be implemented as a computer-readable storage medium, configured with a computer program, where the storage medium so configured causes a computer system to operate in a specific and predefined manner to perform the functions described herein.
A number of embodiments of the invention have been described. Nevertheless, it will be understood that various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. For example, some of the steps described above may be order independent, and thus can be performed in an order different from that described. Accordingly, other embodiments are within the scope of the following claims.
|Cited Patent
|Filing date
|Publication date
|Sep 5, 1997
|Aug 1, 2000
|Sony Corporation
|Picture encoding and/or decoding apparatus and method for providing scalability of a video object whose position changes with time and a recording medium having the same recorded thereon
|Mar 27, 1997
|Jun 11, 2002
|At&T Corp.
|Bidirectionally predicted pictures or video object planes for efficient and flexible video coding
|Oct 27, 2000
|Nov 25, 2003
|Koninklijke Philips Electronics N.V.
|Video encoding-method
|U.S. Classification
|International Classification
|Cooperative Classification
|European Classification
|Nov 2, 2011
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Competing among such world renowned athletes as 2004 Olympic 200m gold medalist Shawn Crawford and 2005 200m world champion Tyson Gay, Rainer was the only collegian to qualify for the semifinals at the nation's premier indoor track event.
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SOA Security Compendium 2.0
BearingPoint created a compendium of security-relevant topics about service-oriented architectures (SOA).
Objectives of the project
To create a comprehensive compendium that supports enterprises and public authorities in the implementation of suitable security measures, providing an important contribution to the general security of service oriented architectures.
Measurable & concrete results
Comprehensive SOA Security reference book for enterprises and public authorities describing all the relevant standards and technologies.
Specific security measures described in detail for supporting persons in charge of realising a suitable security level regarding service oriented architectures.
The risk, compliance and security management and organisational aspects are described – which have a key impact on success and sustainability of security measures.
Future relevant, technologically challenging and innovative SOA security topics and significant trends are pointed out.
Key success factors
Deep knowledge and extensive experience in the area of SOA and SOA-Security, e.g. SOA Governance Framework White Paper, SOA and Web Services Security Framework for New York City, SOA Security Compendium, SOA Middleware Screening.
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You know that moment when you see a shoe you just have to have? You think about it. You Instagram it. You tweet about it. Well, we found 10. Welcome our official pick for the new It shoe designer, Richard Braqo, who will be launching his very own label this fall.
Braqo first came to our attention for his award-winning collaborations with Cesare Paciotti. No wonder, as he's a bit of a prodigy — hailing from Ghana, Braqo (born Richard Kwame Brako) moved to NYC at 18 and studied at Parsons, before going on to work with the likes of Ikram Goldman, Acne Studios, and Helmut Lang. Oh, and his own custom creations are a favorite of Rihanna.
His crazy-unique debut is in line with fall's gothic romantic trend. Talking in advance of the September release, Braqo spills on some of the styles "The premiere collection is about juxtaposing the masculine details of a modern men's brogue with the feminine silhouette of a sharp five-inch stiletto. A fusion of something as classic and timeless as a pointy pump with a touch of the unfamiliar using elements such as 'the ankle bangle' and 'the pearled spear' as ornate details that refashion existing ideas about where accessories are placed." Designing for next-level, luxe shoe lovers — including those of you with fine Italian artisan requirements — expect a sophisticated color palette of sapphire, moss, and cobalt. Though we all know a collection isn't complete without a typical black and gold style, too, we're not expecting anything 'typical' about it — didn't you hear him, "pearled spear"…
Photo: Courtesy of Richard Braqo/Charlene Laidley Luxury Brand Management


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Head 20 miles North of Santa Cruz, and discover a hidden surfing gem! This spectacular poster features a look at the breaking waves at Ano Nuevo, a brilliant spot that, when it is "on", is one of the best on the Pacific Coast. For anyone who has surfed there, who looks forward to tackling it in the future, or who simply loves the power of the ocean wave, this print is for you! With super-sharp photography and classic white-bordered design, this is perfect for the wall of home or office.
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Colorful Tapas Dinnerware
- Overview
Artisans in Portugal press woven surface textures onto terra cotta, then layer them with vibrant glazes. Different colors in each set create a cheerful, casual ambiance.
- Oval Plate: 9.5" wide x 6.5" deep
- Mini Round: 5" diameter
- Snack Bowl: 4.5" diameter, 2.5" high; 8 fluid ounces
- Salt Cellar: 2.5" diameter, 2" high; 2 fluid ounces
- Terra cotta is hand-pressed and glazed in Portugal.
- Embossed woven-burlap textural pattern.
- Set of 4 Cool includes dark blue, light blue, turquoise and green.
- Set of 4 Warm includes bright red, orange, rust and yellow.
- Microwave- and dishwasher-safe.
- Dimensions & Care
- Microwave- and dishwasher-safe.
- Shipping Info
This is a general shipping item.
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At Pottery Barn, we take great pride in the quality and craftsmanship of our products. Attention to design, materials, safety and construction is our priority. We carefully inspect your order prior to shipment. Upon receipt, please inspect your purchase and notify us of any damage; we will arrange for a prompt replacement. If, within 7 days for Quick Ship upholstery and 30 days for all other products, you are dissatisfied for any reason, you may return your purchase for a refund of the merchandise value.
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I have some roof flashinf .050 Aluminum some lap joints and some 90 Degree with lap that I need to weld Using .035 4000 series wire with a alumpro gun suggested settings for the 350P using pulse. This material has been painted but paint has been sanded off. Any suggestions appreciated this material is thin ands difficult.
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02-27-2014, 05:38 PM #1Junior Member
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thin aluminum
That sounds like a REAL challenge...
I tend to TIG the stuff that thin...
will watch to see how this goes...
The more you know, The better you know, How little you know
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Buy the best tools you can afford.. Learn to use them to the best of your ability.. and take care of them...
My Blue Stuff:
Dynasty 350DX Tigrunner
Dynasty 200DX
Millermatic 350P w/25ft Alumapro & 30A
Millermatic 200
TONS of Non-Blue Equip, plus CNC Mill, Lathes & a Plasmacam w/ PowerMax-1000
02-27-2014, 06:20 PM #3Senior Member
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That's going to be tough, fit ups will need to be tight and a backing like steel or copper will def help. I've repaired 16 and 18 gauge aluminum boats which is roughly the same thickness but a boat has a lot more thermal mass than a flashing. Follow the chart on the machine and set the wire speed a little slower and haul azz. Don't ever worry about a whip and pause (bead appearance) just push and don't stop. Post some pics and good luck, Ja
Oh, and I forgot. Running pulse I've found it is very difficult to weld dirty metal. Make sure it is super clean. When you see the black soot show up in your puddle and then the arc becomes erratic, before you know it your feeding wire through your material. Just my experience, don't know if it happens for all
Dynasty 200 DX
Millermatic 350P
30A Spoolgun
Lincoln Pro Mig 140
Hypertherm Powermax 30
14" Rage Evolution dry saw
40 ton press brake
Evenheat Heat treat oven
1x42 / 4x48 belt grinder
02-28-2014, 12:56 PM #5Member
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4047 MAY HELP. MORE Si BETTER ON THIN MATERIAL.


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ComicsAlliance Reviews 'The Rocketeer' (1991), Part Two
Chris Sims: Welcome back to ComicsAlliance vs. the '90s and our review of 1991's The Rocketeer! When we last left off, the daring Cliff Secord was about to jetpack his way across Los Angeles to save his girlfriend, Jenny, who was unknowingly in the clutches of the evil Timothy Dalton. Well. She knows she's in his clutches, ju


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Interpretive Handbook
61657 :
Clozapine, Serum
Clinical Information Discusses physiology, pathophysiology, and general clinical aspects, as they relate to a laboratory test
Clozapine (Clozaril), a tricyclic dibenzodiazepine, is used for the symptomatic management of psychotic disorders and is considered an atypical antipsychotic drug. It is currently used primarily for the treatment of patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorders who are at risk for recurrent suicidal behavior and who have encountered nonresponse or adverse, intolerable extra-pyramidal side effects with more classical antipsychotics (chlorpromazine, haloperidol).
Although clozapine was developed about 30 years ago and the initial results were promising, the development of several fatal cases of agranulocytosis resulted in the discontinued use of this agent. Seizures, an increased risk of fatal myocarditis, and orthostatic hypotension have also been associated with the use of clozapine. The use of clozapine has regained interest for several reasons. Patients who did not respond to treatment with other antipsychotics improved when clozapine was administered. Also, the agranulocytosis that occurs in approximately 1% to 2% of patients can be controlled with close hematologic monitoring. However, because of the significant risk of agranulocytosis and seizure associated with its use, clozapine should only be used in patients who have failed to respond adequately to treatment with appropriate courses of standard drug treatments, either because of insufficient effectiveness or the inability to achieve an effective dose because of intolerable adverse reactions from those drugs.
Treatment is usually started with dosages of 25 to 75 mg/day with a gradual increase to reach a final dose of 300 to 450 mg/day within approximately 2 weeks of the initiation of treatment. Once the desired effect is achieved, the dose may be gradually decreased to keep the patient on the lowest possible effective dose.
Patients being treated with clozapine should be closely monitored during treatment for adverse reactions. Treatment must include monitoring of white blood cell count and absolute neutrophil count. Clozapine treatment should be discontinued in patients failing to show an acceptable clinical response. In addition, in patients exhibiting beneficial clinical responses, the need for continuing treatment should be periodically reevaluated.
Clozapine is metabolized to desmethylated and N-oxide derivatives. The desmethyl metabolite (norclozapine) has only limited activity, and N-oxide metabolite is inactive.
Useful For Suggests clinical disorders or settings where the test may be helpful
Monitoring patient compliance
An aid to achieving desired plasma levels
Interpretation Provides information to assist in interpretation of the test results
The effectiveness of clozapine treatment should be based on clinical response and treatment should be discontinued in patients failing to show an acceptable clinical response.
Cautions Discusses conditions that may cause diagnostic confusion, including improper specimen collection and handling, inappropriate test selection, and interfering substances
No significant cautionary statements
Reference Values Describes reference intervals and additional information for interpretation of test results. May include intervals based on age and sex when appropriate. Intervals are Mayo-derived, unless otherwise designated. If an interpretive report is provided, the reference value field will state this.
Therapeutic range: >350 ng/mL
Therapeutic range: >450 ng/mL
Clinical References Provides recommendations for further in-depth reading of a clinical nature
1. Volpicelli SA, Centorrino F, Puopolo PR, et al: Determination of clozapine, norclozapine, and clozapine-N-oxide in serum by liquid chromatography. ClinChem 1993;39(8):1656-1659
2. Chung MC, Lin SK, Chang WH, Jann MW: Determination of clozapine and desmethylclozapine in human plasma by high performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection. J Chromatogr 1993;613:168-173
3. Perry PJ, Miller DD, Arndt SV, Cadoret RJ: Clozapine and norclozapine plasma concentrations and clinical response of treatment-refractory schizophrenia patients. Am J Psychiatry 1991;40(5);722-747
4. Physicians' Desk Reference (PDR) 2007
5. Fitton A, Heel RC: Clozapine. A review of its pharmacological properties, and therapeutic use in schizophrenia. Drugs 1991;40(5);722-747
6. Package insert: Clozaril. East Hanover, NJ: Novartis Pharmaceuticals; May 2005
7. Mitchell PB: Therapeutic drug monitoring of psychotropic medications. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2001;52 Suppl 1:45S-54S


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6 December 2012Edinburgh Castle has lots of fun activities on offer for all the family over the festive season including a storyteller recounting tales of a Victorian Christmas, Renaissance Music, a Winter quiz for children and Christmas Carols in the Great Hall by pupils from George Heriot's School.
For further information


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MATT & NAT believes that veganism doesn't stop at your dinner plate. The Canadian company designs haute handbags for those who wish to live on-trend yet animal-free (and trust us, that's no small feat). The Motiv is the wallet version of a carryall, with slots aplenty for your credit card collection, a coin pocket, and a window for your ID. Constructed from vegan leather with a lining made from recycled plastic bottles, it's one feel-good billfold.
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The Wagner College Writing Center is located on the first floor of the Horrmann Library. Look for the glass-walled meeting space, directly to the right of the library entrance. We provide one-on-one and small group tutoring, free of charge, for Wagner students working on any college writing assignment. Our goal is to help you become a better writer.
Mission Statement
The Wagner Writing Center provides support for undergraduate and graduate writers of all abilities, in all disciplines, as they cultivate academic and professional writing skills that will serve them for a lifetime. Good writing reflects the work of Wagner College's community of thinkers, readers, and researchers; the center's mission is to foster individual growth as a writer through interaction with friendly, highly trained tutors in convenient tutoring locales. Every student can become a more effective and confident writer.


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Hubble 3D
Experience the gripping story -- full of hope, crushing disappointment, dazzling ingenuity, bravery, and triumph -- in "Hubble 3D", the seventh awe-inspiring film from the award-winning IMAX® Space Team. Through the power of IMAX® 3D, "Hubble 3D" will enable movie-goers to journey through distant galaxies to explore the grandeur and mysteries of our celestial surroundings, and accompany space-walking astronauts as they attempt the most difficult and important tasks in NASA's history. The film will offer an inspiring and unique look into the Hubble Space Telescope's legacy and highlight its profound impact on the way we view the universe and ourselves.
Cast: Leonardo DiCaprio
Produced by: Toni Myers
Directed by: Toni Myers
Written by:
Running time: 45min
Opens: Mar 19, 2010 Limited
|Theaters for Today
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i just want to ask how electrodes in a galvanic cell are connected if it will be used to power a bulb. if the electrodes are soaked in the electrolyte, how are they connected to each other and to the bulb?
thank you very much.
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The AQHA Office is closed Monday, September 7, in observance of Labor Day.
October 30, 2011
Outrunning his 16-1 odds, Yin Your Eyes scored a game victory in the $125,000 Red Cell Distance Challenge Championship (G1) by a nose over 8-1 shot Regal Colors. The Washington-bred gelding closed well and prevailed despite trouble to stop the timer at :45.639 for 870 yards.
"He's a very nice horse," said winning rider J.L. Torres. "I had a little trouble on the turn; the one horse pushed me out a little, but he came smoking at the end."
Yin Your Eyes is a 4-year-old son of Eye Yin You out of the winning Snowbound (TB) mare Apollo Snowbound. Trainer Bill Hoburg bred the gelding in partnership with D. Canfield.
"I am so thankful," said owner Rene Laatsch of Kennewick, Washington. "This horse means the whole world to me. He was given to me as a gift. He has a wonderful pedigree and Bill told me that the last race was a tune-up and we would do well today. He sure did!"
Despite his long odds, Yin Your Eyes came into the race with plenty of experience around the turn, including five straight wins at 770 and 870 yards earlier this year in Washington and Idaho. The last of those victories came in the July 23 Red Cell Sandy Downs Distance Challenge in Idaho to earn him a berth in the Challenge Championships. Yin Your Eyes made just one start after that, a fourth-place finish in the Red Cell Turf Paradise Distance Challenge on October 16.
Yin Your Eyes earned $60,000 for his 11th win in 23 career starts and boosted his bankroll to $102,824.
Stan Young's Regal Colors, who defeated Yin Your Eyes at Turf Paradise, had the lead for much of the race and held on for second. Dark Horse Partnership's Kite Flyer, who qualified for the race at Lone Star Park in Texas, crossed the wire third.
Hez Our Rock, 2-5 favorite Docs Dusty Okie, Apollos First Down and Checotah Dale completed the order of finish.
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JOHNSONBURG – The Johnsonburg Rams (21-2) had no trouble Friday as they cruised to a 66-22 win over Brockway (14-7). With the win, the Rams will play tonight at 7:30 p.m. at St. Marys Area High School against Elk County Catholic (18-5) for the Allegheny Mountain League [AML] crown.
The Rams were led by juniors Cole Peterson and Cameron Grumley, scoring 21 and 19 points, respectively, which was more than enough to topple Brockway.
Johnsonburg jumped out to an early 14-0 lead in the first quarter, topped off by a 3-ball from Peterson; the Rovers, on the other hand, struggled to penetrate the Rams' defense and did not register a 2-point field goal all night.


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Rayuela Hostel Boutique
Run by its owners. Warm and chill out.
Situated in the heart of Buenos Aires Town, Rayuela Hostel provides quality accommodation for travelers of all types.
We have a spacious and comfortable common room equiped with a satellite LCD 37 TV, DVD, Free pool and ping-pong table and tea/coffee making facilities.
All rooms come equipped with air conditioning and central heating and 24 hour hot water access.
Other facilities include security lockers for every guest. TV sets in private rooms. free internet and wi fi and access to a fully equipped communal kitchen.
check in:13:00
check out: 11:00
breakfast included
credit cards not accepted
cancellation policy 48 hours
Availability & RatesTo view availability and prices please select dates and click 'Update Dates'
Hostel Facilities & Policies
- 24 hour reception
- Air Conditioning
- Bicycle parking
- Breakfast Included
- Card phones
- Child Friendly
- Common Room
- Credit Cards Not Accepted
- Curfew
- Elevator
- Free Internet Access
- Internet Access
- Kitchen
- Linen Included
- Lockers
- Luggage Storage
- Pet Friendly
- Taxes not included
- Tours/Travel Desk
- Towels For Hire
Cancellation PolicyThis property has a 2 day cancellation policy. Failure to cancel within this time will result in a cancellation charge equal to the first night of your stay.
DirectionsShow MapHide Map
By car:
1. Head southeast on Avenue Leopoldo Lugones for 0.8 kilometers
2. Continue on to the Pte. Arturo Illia Toll road for 4.2 kilometers
3. Continue on to the Avenue 9 de Julio for 0.8 kilometers
4. Turn right at Avenue Crdoba
5. Turn left at Cerrito and continue for 1.0 kilometer
6. Continue on Lima for 0.5 kilometers
7. Turn left at Avenue Belgrano. The hostel will be on the left hand side after 0.3 kilometers
If you are coming from the airport you will need to taken a taxi. We can pick you up from the airport.
By Bus:
From Retiro bus station, take the C line of the subway which will leave you 1 block from Rayuela Hostel.
Located Near
The hostel is located in the heart of Buenos Aires just in front of the Belgrano subway station and is just a minute's walk from lines A, C, D. and the Republic Park, with its Metropolitan Cathedral and the Cabildo monument.
The hostel is just a few blocks away from the San Telmo district and is 5 minutes walk from the Obelisco, Puerto Madero and Corrientes Av.


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Do you think much about your choice of terms, the language you use? How these influence the ways you think? How the ways you think influences your worldview and the choices available to you? How this leads to the behaviors you choose (consciously or unconsciously)? Linguists have long argued about whether language "causes" us to think in certain ways. Lera Boroditsky (University of California San Diego, formerly of Stanford) has been conducting research for several years on questions such as these. You can find articles by and...
This month I travelled to Finland for a conference on Culture, Values, and Justice. An interesting group of scholars attended who were exploring the many aspects, interrelationships, and applications of ideas that comprise these three areas. To me, these three subjects and their interrelationships suggest three questions that define the nature of being human. Who are we? What do we hold as important? How do we participate in our relationships in a way that upholds our humanness? These are not questions that are easy to...
Summer is approaching, my backyard has come to life with the lush greenery of late Spring in northeast Ohio, our youngest daughter just graduated high school, and as I take a moment to reflect, interrupting my accustomed pattern of research, gardening, and violin practice, it suddenly occurs to me: By this time next week I will be in Milan with my family beginning a long anticipated three-week journey through Bella Italia. Having spent the past few months with my nose in the books, exploring various theoretical constructs and...
My most recent professional experiences have brought me back to think about evolving education. In my previous blog I shared a little bit of the journey that has taken me to this moment. By evolving education I mean both integrating learning into life as well as designing new learing systems. Both are necessary. The first is about supporting a culture that embraces our growth and personal development as an ongoing lifelong process. Such a culture will recognize that as human beings we are always expanding and that in our life time we go...
Is risk encouraged or discouraged in your organization? What happens when someone makes a mistake? When I talk with a potential client with regard to his or her organization, these are questions I like to ask because they provide me with an indication of just how much of a learning organization it may or may not be. Peter M. Senge describes this concept in great detail in his book, "The Fifth Discipline: The Art & Practice of The Learning Organization." So much of organizational health is determined by how these two questions...
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This elegant woven flocking comforter set features floral velour design on silky ground. Comforter and shames have matching cording.3 decorative pillows are included.Features