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Singapore - A Review of Waku Ghin (late November 2012)
I've been on the record elsewhere on this board saying I was unwilling to spend S$400++ of my dosh at Waku Ghin because of a particularly ordinary experience at Tetsuya's some years ago. Well, I was forced to eat humble pie a few weeks ago, and it tasted pretty good!
Photos are courtesy of Ian Lee. More photos at http://julianteoh.blogspot.sg/2012/12...
Waku Ghin is one of the unfortunately-named "Celebrity Chef Restaurants" at Marina Bay Sands. Located next door to Guy Savoy on a terrace overlooking the main gaming hall, it aims to recreate the intimate atmosphere of a Japanese counter restaurant, with four separate counters / private rooms accommodating a total of 25 diners per sitting. Like Tetsuya's, you have no control over the menu, so you pays your S$400++ (roughly US$385 including tax and service) and you eats your food. Unlike Tetsuya's, there is a far more Asian bent to the cooking here, along with the greater access to the international larder allowed by Singapore's permissive quarantine regime.
Amuse Bouche: Japanese Bonito Tataki, Soy Caramel, Orange
Wine Match: Billecart-Salmon Rosé NV
The red iron-rich hue of the bonito promised a big meaty flavour and duly delivered, and the reduced soy caramel added a rich, sweet-saltiness. The fresh acidity of the orange supremes cut it all through beautifully. Great start.
Entrée 1: Egg Custard, Uni, Botan Ebi, Oscietra Caviar
Sake Match: Masuizumi Platinum Nama for Tetsuya's, Junmai Daiginjo
If there's a single dish on which Waku Ghin built its reputation, this is it. The quality of the ingredients was amazing, with the gently sweet bass notes of the custard washed over with the nuggets of raw Japanese sweet shrimp, the creamy brininess of the sea urchin and salty bursts of caviar. It is very good, but perhaps a little rich for me at this stage of the meal. The sake is a brilliant pairing with the various seafoods - dry, clean and cleansing.
Entrée 2: Anago (Sea Eel) with Confit of Zucchini and Seared Foie Gras, Freshly Grated Japanese Wasabi and Sansho
Wine Match: 2010 J J Prüm Riesling Kabinett
I've had this now classic / hackneyed combination on various occasions, most recently at Au Jardin with Sebastien Lepinoy. But whereas Lepinoy gave both components equal billing, the star of the show here was clearly the eel and its kabayaki-style marinade. The anago (the less oily sea-going cousin of the river eel unagi) was grilled just so it achieved a lightly smoky caramelisation, while the thin tranche of foie gras provided a bit of textural contrast. The Prüm had enough zippy acidity to work with the fats in the eel and foie, and pronounced stone fruit on the palate which complemented the marinade beautifully.
Entrée 3: Salt-steamed Alaskan King Crab Leg, Extra Virgin Olive Oil with Lemon Juice and Lime Zest
Wine Match: 2011 Domaine Vacheron Sancerre
Our chef brought out the raw legs for our inspection, before steaming them on a base of rock salt. The crab does not absorb any saltiness from the base, which acts merely as a conduit for higher temperature steam to cook the crab. The final product was anointed with nothing more than citrus-infused extra virgin olive oil, and it needed nothing more. The flesh was sweet, tender and set off by the citrus and herbaceous notes in the olive oil, a triumph of simplicity and ingredient quality. The original wine pairing (I forget now what it was) was flawed; the sommelier thought otherwise, but he very kindly offered to replace it with the very easy-drinking Sancerre.
Entrée 4: Tasmanian Abalone, Fregola, Rocket and Chicken Consommé
Wine Match: 2008 Pierro for Tetsuya's Chardonnay
Wakuda is a champion of Australian produce, particularly from the southern island state of Tasmania. With this course, each guest gets one whole abalone, which reclines on a bed of fregola (Sardinian pasta balls), rocket and French cherry tomatoes. The abalone is sweet, chewy and almost unctuous without being rubbery or cardboard-y, and thanks to the light acidity of the tomatoes and bitter crunch from the rocket, it's all very fresh tasting. Wonderful stuff, and my Dish of the Month for December 2012.
Main Course 1: Slow-braised Canadian Lobster, Shellfish Stock, Tarragon, Preserved Lemon
Wine Match: 2010 Felton Road for Tetsuya's Pinot Noir
I'm not really a lobster person, but this dish made me sit up and take notice. Claws and tails are slow-braised in copper pots on the induction stove (yep, those aren't really grill plates), and watching the chef baste the succulent claws in the rich, dark broth in front of us adds to the anticipation no end. I remarked to the chef on the intensity and complexity of the stock. Do you remember the botan ebi in the sea urchin course, he asked? Well, he took the shells and heads from the sweet Japanese shrimp and boiled them down. Unfortunately, the Pinot Noir was waaaaay too green and tight even with food, and needed a good hour in the glass before its fruit and spice notes started to show.
Main Course 2: Ohmi-gyu (marbling score A5) from Shiga Prefecture, Spring Onion, Garlic Chips and Citrus Soy Daikon Dipping Sauce
Sake Match: Isojiman M for Waku Ghin, Junmai Daiginjo
Because a meal here is as much about the ceremony and interaction as it is about the food, chef grates some fresh Shizuoka wasabi on a sharkskin grater. Only in a circular motion, of course, as demanded by tradition in order to optimise the texture of the wasabi. We are also presented with the raw rolls of ohmi-gyu; check out the contrast of the marbling against the striking red of the beef.
The beef was lightly heated against the residual heat of the induction stove, just enough to brown the exterior. As one expects from top-grade Japanese beef, it was tender, melted in your mouth, and had only a subtle meaty flavour (go grass-fed if you want the full in-your-face beef flavour). There is a very light hand behind the beautifully golden and uniformly cut garlic chips, which I put away like Pringles on a lazy afternoon. The daikon dip added freshness but really isn't necessary. The Isojiman M sake, the first time Isojiman has produced a private label for a restaurant, is full, structured and foursquare, perhaps the most masculine junmai daiginjo I've had the pleasure of tasting. It's a single-estate sake from a specific rice paddy plot, much in the same way as a great single vineyard wine.
Rice Course: New Zealand Snapper, Chicken Consommé, Yuzu, Rice
I mentioned earlier that Waku Ghin has a stronger Asian influence than Tetsuya's, and nothing illustrates this better than a soupy rice course to finish our savouries, much as would be done in a traditional Japanese kaiseki meal. The freshness of the seafood in the previous courses is such that despite the intensity of flavour, you don't feel weighed down at all. It is only when you have something as homely and cleansing as this that you realise your palate has been working overtime.
Bonus Course: Cold Somen, Yuzu, Junsai Lily Bud, Dashi
This was a bit more of a challenge for me. Loved the noodle, loved the touch of yuzu, loved the umami of the dashi, but the junsai lily buds are coated in a natural jelly (the less charitable would call it mucus) which reminded me of something from Prometheus. The taste was rather neutral, but the texture was rather difficult to stomach.
Tea: Gyokuro
A ceramic cup of gyokuro (Japanese green tea brewed from leaves grown in the shade of the tea tree) finishes our savoury repast. The tea itself has a very unusual rounded, savoury flavour, almost like the umami from seaweed.
A Short Walk down the Corridor...
After tea, we are kindly requested to take our desserts in a special room with a floor-to-ceiling vista of Marina Bay. Now every press release, every sycophantic blog you read proclaims how wonderful the view is from the dessert room. It's not. Actually, it is a rather ordinary second floor view of Marina Bay. It also didn't help that Psy was doing a free concert on the Sands forecourt the following day and the ordinary view was further downgraded by masses of scaffolding and stage cloth.
So yes, I do prefer the teppanyaki rooms and with hindsight, the move appeared symbolic of the ending of the first, and the start of a new (and I must say, far less convincing) phase of the evening.
Dessert 1: Cold Strawberry Soup, Lychee Granita, Coconut Sorbet
Wine Match for All Dessert Courses: 2009 Casa del Inca Pedro Ximénez
It was OK, but I had a few issues with this dish. Firstly, the too-pronounced vanillin flavour of the coconut stuck a discordant note with the fruity-sweet strawberry and lychee. Secondly, the sugar level was a bit too amped up given the very Japanese flavours on which we concluded the savouries. Thirdly, the PX overwhelmed the fresh-fruitiness of the dish. I would have thought that an Alsatian Gewurztraminer Sélection de Grains Nobles or something similar would have been a better match.
Dessert 2: Cold Soup of Dates, Tonka Bean Ice Cream, Candied Orange Peel
Better than the previous effort, this dessert had a rather Middle Eastern feel to it with the dates and candied orange. However, this is the second dessert in a row which has deviated from the concept and flavour profile of the savoury courses, and my palate is not particularly receptive to the change.
Dessert 3: Chocolate Mousse Cake with Vanilla and Macadamia
The best dessert of the night, but I can't say that it's any better than Christophe Grilo's very similar (in ingredient terms, at least) "Le Royale" at Canelé Pâtisserie. The chocolate brings out some herbal notes in the PX, which are reminiscent of the Chinese herbal-medicinal paste pei pa ko (this is not a good thing). I was surprised because I do like a good PX with chocolate, but I couldn't help thinking also that a Tokaji Aszú 6 putts would have worked wonders with this dessert.
Mignardises: Macarons, Choux with Amaretto cream, Matcha Crispie, Hazelnut Meringue and Chocolate Truffles
Competent, much like the other dessert courses.
A few comments about the incidentals. Because this is for the most part a counter-style meal, thanks to our articulate and knowledgeable chef, the level of service is excellent. Crockery and cutlery are cleared with precision, and beverages are conscientiously topped up. While the wine list has a welcome emphasis on great Australian vintages and Japanese sake, and is better priced than Sky on 57 (i.e. identical vintages for less money), a couple of the selected wines were too young and were therefore not drinking particularly well on their own, let alone with food.
I'm having a tough time believing that the genius who composed the savoury courses is the same person who designed the desserts, because there doesn't seem to be any sensible thematic consistency between the two parts. To transition from Japanese green tea and wagyu beef to a strawberry soup and coconut sorbet, with its very Western sweetness quotient, struck me as being rather naive. Which is a damned shame because the savoury courses (the Engineer spawn aside) are some of the finest I have eaten anywhere.
That said, I thought the dinner overall was still amazingly strong, and that Waku Ghin better merits its $400++ price tag than Tetsuya's did its A$195 all those years ago. Waku Ghin was ranked No. 39 on the World's 50 Best Restaurants List for 2012, and it very much deserves that accolade.
Now, if only they could put a little more work into the desserts...
The Shoppes at Marina Bay Sands, Atrium 2, #02-02
10 Bayfront Avenue
Singapore 018956
Tel: +65 6888 8507
Email: firstname.lastname@example.com
Reservations required, at least a month in advance. Two sittings per night at 6.00 pm and 8.30 pm.
Very well written review Julian
Glad that you enjoy the food
It's among the best restaurants in Singapore for me
Food looked simple, but delicious though some people expect more 'complicated preps' given the price tag
However, the dishes seem to be 'vacuum in time' - I hardly see different varieties ever since the restaurant opened
By the way, who's your counter chef? The Singaporean or the Japanese gentleman?
re: Bu Pun Su
Thanks Bu Pun Su. Agree with your assessment entirely.
My counter chef was a Malaysian gentleman. There should be at least four, no, given there are four rooms? Why do you only give the choice of two? ;)
I think the dishes here have evolved a fair bit since its opening. I saw a couple of old posts from 2010, and I think around half the courses have changed? That said, I learnt that some 60% of the clientele are foreign visitors who presumably would be once-off or irregular patrons at best, so the impetus to change the menu would not be as great.
Julian - you say S$400 but wasn't that just for the food? How much was the wine pairing?
I do agree the food there is very very good, my gripe is that whilst good it is massively overpriced for what it is. There is clearly some great technique in some of the dishes but a lot of it is very simply cooked, very high quality ingredients....but why this expensive? And whilst the service is good enough our servers were a bit condescending - we were drinking the cheapest wine on the list! - which I don't expect at this price point.
I also don't like the little rooms, I suppose they work well if your fellow diners are OK, but we had a couple of wine wankers sitting with us which was overbearing in such a small intimate place. Give me the big grand rooms of Europe any day!
re: PhilD
That's correct Phil. The wine pairing cost another $150++.
I can't comment on the dodgy service you put up with, but in casino-era Singapore, prices don't bear much correlation to the cost of delivering the experience. Certainly, I don't think the Waku Ghin tasting menu ($400++) gave anything away to Robuchon Sentosa's ($565++ for 13 courses).
I can totally see how having to listen to the pontifications of wine wankers could very easily detract from your enjoyment!


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Dexter Morgan talks to himself a lot in this episode, and has a lot of visions of his deceased dad, and if you've been a fan to these past six-plus seasons then you know this is saying something. ht More »
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Spoiler alert: Do not read on if you haven't seen Season 7, Episode 6 of " Dexter ," titled "Do The Wrong Thing." Well, that on-the-table sex scene was a hell of a way to end an episode, wasn't it? More »
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Pet form of Judith, recorded from the 17th century. It was the name adopted by the singer and film star Judy Garland (1922–69, original name Frances Gumm), and has since increasingly been used as an independent name.
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From Wikiquote
(Redirected from Harmonies)
Harmony is a word which originates in the Greek ἁρμονία (harmonía), meaning "joint, agreement, concord" and is commonly used to denote forms of mathematical, musical or social concord and accord.
- O Plato! O Pythagoras! ages ago you heard these harmonies, surprised these moments of inward ecstasy, — knew these divine transports! If music thus carries us to heaven, it is because music is harmony, harmony is perfection, perfection is our dream, and our dream is heaven.
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In perfect harmony
I'd like to hold it in my arms and keep it company.
I'd like to see the world for once
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And hear them echo through the hills "Ah, peace throughout the land."
That's the song I hear...
- Billy Davis (working with Bill Backer, Roger Cook, and Roger Greenway) in "I'd Like to Teach the World to Sing" - Video of The New Seekers rendition at YouTube (with lyrics).
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- Virtue is harmony, and health, and universal good, and God; on which account everything owes its existence and consistency to harmony.
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- Relativity does set limits on what humans can ultimately do. But the universe is not required to be in perfect harmony with human aspirations.
- Carl Sagan, Cosmos (1980) p. 201.
- There is a spirit in man and in the world working always against the thing that destroys and lays waste. Always he must know that the contradictions of life are not final or ultimate; he must distinguish between failure and a many-sided awareness so that he will not mistake conformity for harmony, uniformity for synthesis. He will know that for all men to be alike is the death of life in man, and yet perceive harmony that transcends all diversities and in which diversity finds its richness and significance.
- Howard Thurman, The Search For Common Ground : An Inquiry Into The Basis Of Man's Experience Of Community (1971), p. 6.
- Each and every master, regardless of the era or the place, heard the call and attained harmony with heaven and earth. There are many paths leading to the top of Mount Fuji, but there is only one summit — love.
- Morihei Ueshiba, as quoted in You Can Save the Earth: 7 Reasons Why and 7 Simple Ways, a Philosophy for the Future (2008) by Hatherleigh, Sean K. Smith, and Andrew Flach, p. 92.
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Sony SLT Alpha 99 review: New full-frame sensor is Sony's best yetBy Janice Chen - Friday December 21 2012 Sensor Review
The new Sony SLT Alpha 99, Sony's first full-frame DSLR equivalent in three years, combines the company's latest and greatest 24.3-megapixel Exmor CMOS sensor with its SLT (Single Lens Translucent) technology to deliver impressive image quality combined with fast and continuous autofocus while shooting still images and videos.
When Sony released its first full-frame DSLR, the Sony Alpha 900, back in 2008, it was the highest-resolution DSLR to date and held its own when compared with competitors such as the Nikon D700 and Canon EOS 5D Mark II from the more established DSLR vendors. In 2009, Sony followed up with a lower-end full-frame model (the Sony Alpha 850) but since then has been focusing its efforts on cameras with smaller sensors, including its popular NEX line of compact interchangeable-lens hybrid cameras as well as its SLT line of cameras that utilize a stationary semi-transparent mirror rather than the flip-up mirrors in conventional SLRs.
Because there's no need for the mirror to move up and down between shots as there is with a traditional SLR, the Alpha 99 and other SLT cameras can display live-view images constantly and autofocus works quickly and continuously while images are shot rather than needing to focus between frames.
This not only helps the A99 achieve continuous shooting speeds of up to 10 fps, but it also means that the camera can produce smoother results when using autofocus while shooting video, a feature that also benefits from the A99's new dual phase-detect AF system (which combines a 19-point AF system with 11 cross sensors and a 102-point focal plane phase-detection AF sensor overlaying the main image sensor). It also means you can't have an optical viewfinder, but the A99 compensates with an impressive 2.4-million-dot OLED electronic viewfinder with 100-percent coverage. (You can read more about the Sony SLT Alpha 99's new features here.)
Sony Alpha 99 sensor performance
Sony Alpha 99 versus competition
Further readings for the Sony SLT Alpha 99 review: New full-frame sensor is Sony's best yet
To provide photographers with a broader perspective about mobiles, lenses and cameras, here are links to articles, reviews, and analyses of photographic equipment produced by DxOMark, renown websites, magazines or blogs.
Finally, a Sony full-frame DSLR: the last one was the Alpha 850. But though the new full-format 24Mpix camera shines with all of its new technology and features, it now belongs to the family of cameras with electronic viewfinders instead of with the Alpha 900 and its traditional DSLR viewfinder. With this new positioning, Sony stands out from among the leading lights in this market segment.
Added by inspiredbynature | March 07 , 2014
Lenses to Test
I know it would be difficult, but is there any chance you guys can get your hands on the older Minolta glass? It is much more integral for the Sony mount since the Minolta mount is still very much a part of our system. So if you ever get your hands on the following lenses (I am a bit biased as a wildlife photographer), can you please test them as many alpha shooters still use them.
Minolta 200/2.8 G APO
Minolta 300/4 G APO
Minolta 400/4.5 G APO
Minolta 600/4 G APO
Minolta 80-200/2.8 G
Hopefully you can get your hands on some of these lenses and test them.
Added by voigtkampff | December 18 , 2013
still no tests for many lens
Any news regarding the tests of broader range of high-end lens for Alpha system? The Sony 50/1.4 ZA SSM was supposed to be tested in the summer and it's still not there. People often ask for testing Sony 135/1.8 ZA or 24/2.0 too, are there any plans for them? And the new 70-200/2.8G SSM II? These are probably the lens the professionals are most interested in.
Reply | Read all replies for this comment
First replies for this comment
Added by Emilie_DxOMark | January 07 , 2014
Re: still no tests for many lens
No news for now as we did not get hand on one sample :(. But these 2 lenses remain in our wish list for this winter. The 70-200mm SSM II should be done too.
Best regards,
The DxOMark team
Added by timtom | December 05 , 2013
test lens
numbers don't talk to me that much... but this is not the point here. However i think the prime lens ranking is going to be bothered when you will review the 135f1.8 sony zeiss. and... the 50f1.4 sony zeiss planar! just purchased it, It's my 4th 50mm among every brands and this is stellar, contrasty as f*** straight from widest aperture. SSM crazy fast and accurate, way above all others CaNikon. Not flawless (distortion, CA f1.4), but almost, it's a must have and indirectly a must test. you must do it!
Added by ripper77 | August 01 , 2013
a99 and D600
i'm a beginner in these dslr cameras, can you suggest to me what to choose between a99 and D600 because im so confuse about the two.
also, what's the best standard lens for nikon D600? at first id like to choose a99 with sal2875 and for nikon lens that i dont know..
please help me..
Added by rtrechow | July 11 , 2013
Sony 300/2.8 SSM scores much too low...
from my rather long experience with the predecessor, the still "current" 300/2.8 SSSM, there has to be a mistake in the testing of the new Sony lens - it will not be worse than the old version (or will it?).
And the current 300/2.8 SSM is at least on par with the Zeiss 85/1.4 AF or the 135/1.8 AF which I use, and A LOT (and I mean: A LOT!) sharper than the Sony 35/1.4, for example - it is one of or even the best lens in the Sony system (for an impression, just look at Sony´s MTF charts).
Almost everybody in the Sony forums who has access to that lens says the same... - so could there have been a mistake?
A focus problem or a "faulty" lens, for example?
I would LOVE to see a retest with a second item - Sony company should be interested in putting the result right and proving the 300/2.8 SSM to be the "stellar" lens it is... - the current version is indeed!
Thank you,
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Added by Emilie_DxOMark | July 22 , 2013
Re: Sony 300/2.8 SSM scores much too low...
Thanks for your interest in DxOMark.
Sony lenses we analyzed were provided by Sony itself. About your remark on the 35mm f/1.4, DxOMark results confirm what you noticed (please check the comparison here Sony 300mm vs 35mm f/1.4).
If you only look at the Sharpness score, the 300mm is far higher rated than the 35mm f/1.4. However the DxOMark score is performed in lowlight condition. In such illumination, the larger aperture of the Sony 35mm f/1.4 enables a lower noise on the SLT A99 sensor. That means that you will finally get a similar IQ on both couples: on one side (300mm), you have a sharp image but with an higher level of noise, on the other side, the image is softer but without noise.
Best regards,
The DxOMark team
Added by Hawaii-Geek | July 03 , 2013
Zeiss 50mm f1.4 ZA SSM Test ?
When will you have the new Zeiss 50mm f1.4 ZA SSM on this Test list ?
Would also like to see the side by sides with all the best 50mm
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Added by Emilie_DxOMark | July 17 , 2013
Re: Zeiss 50mm f1.4 ZA SSM Test ?
Thanks for your comment.
We should receive a sample this summer… Stay tuned :)
Best regards,
The DxOMark team
Added by Kuau | June 29 , 2013
Zeiss Manual focus lenses
I use Zeiss manual focus lenses on my A99 and the results are amazing.
Basically I purchased Nikon mount ZF.1 lenses and easily changed the mounts with Leitax mounts, now I have the best of both worlds, class leading glass, fantastic EVF with focus peaking.
I did a comparison of the Excellent Sony 24/2 lens and Zeiss 25/2.8, I preferred the look of the Zeiss 25.
Added by trainerKEN | June 28 , 2013
PLEASE test the Carl Zeiss 135mm f1.8!
I really wish you guys would do some test with this lens... A lot of us a-mount shooters feel that it could possibly be the best a-mount (prime) lens... and even the best 135mm prime on the market. I would love to see how it does (in terms of scoring)
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Added by Emilie_DxOMark | July 08 , 2013
Re: PLEASE test the Carl Zeiss 135mm f1.8!
Thanks for your comment.
ZEISS 135mm is planned on Canon and Nikon mount soon, we will ask for the Sony mount too but we can not give you a precise date, stay tuned…
Best regards,
The DxOMark team
Added by LeCoq | January 22 , 2013
A99 and D600
Hi I have a quick question. Does the d600 has built-in body image stabilization when shooting video? I am getting either the d600 or the a99 primarily to shoot field video for documentaries, then the body image stabilization is very important to me, but it disappoints me the price and the loss of light that the a99 has, any one knows if the d600 has any type of body image stabilization when shooting video? thanks in advance!
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Added by drummerpcr | January 24 , 2013
Re: A99 and D600
The Sony a99 has in-body stabilization whereas the Nikon d600 does not. Nikon does not provide image stabilization in any of its camera bodies, while Sony does use image stabilization in every SLT camera body. Hope that helps!
Added by ferrera | January 08 , 2013
Sony A99
What is the source to mention that in A99, 50 to 60% of light is spent to drive the dual AF system ?
If so, why doesn't it affect the color depth & dynmanic range (both scores same as D600) ? after the tranmission of light is reduced by half ?
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Added by Preter | January 16 , 2013
Re: Sony A99
To avoid embarrassing yourself, at least try to get your facts right? Where did you find the ridiculous 50-60% figure?
The light loss is a rather negligible 1/3 *stop* loss of light only, a difference most people can't even tell with their naked eyes.
However, camera shake and mirror vibration is completely conspicuous to the naked eye. There is in-body image stabilisation of up to 4.5 stops with ANY LENS and the total elimination of mirror vibration shake at ANY SHUTTER SPEED. Whereas you wouldn't shoot handheld at 1/8th or 1/15th of a second previously, it'll end up being your favourite range of low light setting on a mirrorless setup (ask the NEX & m4/3 users who similarly do not have mirror limitations).
Its a massive leg up over a D600 or any other conventional DSLR.
DXO can never take those factors into consideration can it?
Added by lapero | February 22 , 2013
Re: Sony A99
and here we have the biggest sony fan boy directly from sar ;-)
Added by Preter | July 09 , 2013
Re: Sony A99
& here in the form of @Lapero - the biggest example of pointless posts by those who have nothing to offer...


text:
ngx_echo - Brings "echo", "sleep", "time", "exec" and more shell-style goodies to Nginx config file.
This module is not distributed with the Nginx source. See the installation instructions.
This module is production ready.
This document describes echo-nginx-module v0.37 released on 13 January 2012.
location /hello { echo "hello, world!"; }
location /hello { echo -n "hello, " echo "world!"; }
location /timed_hello { echo_reset_timer; echo hello world; echo "'hello world' takes about $echo_timer_elapsed sec."; echo hiya igor; echo "'hiya igor' takes about $echo_timer_elapsed sec."; }
location /echo_with_sleep { echo hello; echo_flush; # ensure the client can see previous output immediately echo_sleep 2.5; # in sec echo world; }
# in the following example, accessing /echo yields # hello # world # blah # hiya # igor location /echo { echo_before_body hello; echo_before_body world; proxy_pass $scheme://127.0.0.1:$server_port$request_uri/more; echo_after_body hiya; echo_after_body igor; } location /echo/more { echo blah; }
# the output of /main might be # hello # world # took 0.000 sec for total. # and the whole request would take about 2 sec to complete. location /main { echo_reset_timer; # subrequests in parallel echo_location_async /sub1; echo_location_async /sub2; echo "took $echo_timer_elapsed sec for total."; } location /sub1 { echo_sleep 2; echo hello; } location /sub2 { echo_sleep 1; echo world; }
# the output of /main might be # hello # world # took 3.003 sec for total. # and the whole request would take about 3 sec to complete. location /main { echo_reset_timer; # subrequests in series (chained by CPS) echo_location /sub1; echo_location /sub2; echo "took $echo_timer_elapsed sec for total."; } location /sub1 { echo_sleep 2; echo hello; } location /sub2 { echo_sleep 1; echo world; }
# Accessing /dup gives # ------ END ------ location /dup { echo_duplicate 3 "--"; echo_duplicate 1 " END "; echo_duplicate 3 "--"; echo; }
# /bighello will generate 1000,000,000 hello's. location /bighello { echo_duplicate 1000_000_000 'hello'; }
# echo back the client request location /echoback { echo_duplicate 1 $echo_client_request_headers; echo "\r"; echo_read_request_body; echo_request_body; }
# GET /multi will yields # querystring: foo=Foo # method: POST # body: hi # content length: 2 # /// # querystring: bar=Bar # method: PUT # body: hello # content length: 5 # /// location /multi { echo_subrequest_async POST '/sub' -q 'foo=Foo' -b 'hi'; echo_subrequest_async PUT '/sub' -q 'bar=Bar' -b 'hello'; } location /sub { echo "querystring: $query_string"; echo "method: $echo_request_method"; echo "body: $echo_request_body"; echo "content length: $http_content_length"; echo '///'; }
# GET /merge?/foo.js&/bar/blah.js&/yui/baz.js will merge the .js resources together location /merge { default_type 'text/javascript'; echo_foreach_split '&' $query_string; echo "/* JS File $echo_it */"; echo_location_async $echo_it; echo; echo_end; }
This module wraps lots of Nginx internal APIs for streaming input and output, parallel/sequential subrequests, timers and sleeping, as well as various meta data accessing.
Basically it provides various utilities that help testing and debugging of other modules by trivially emulating different kinds of faked subrequest locations.
People will also find it useful in real-world applications that need to
- serve static contents directly from memory (loading from the Nginx config file).
- wrap the upstream response with custom header and footer (kinda like the addition module but with contents read directly from the config file and Nginx variables).
- merge contents of various "Nginx locations" (i.e., subrequests) together in a single main request (using echo_location and its friends).
This is a special dual-role module that can lazily serve as a content handler or register itself as an output filter only upon demand. By default, this module does not do anything at all.
Use of any of this module's directives (no matter content handler directives or filter directives) will force the chunked encoding to be used for the HTTP response due to the streaming nature of this module (unless HTTP 1.0 is enforced by the client and the Content-Length header will be set to the size of the first handler directive that generates contents).
Technially, this module has also demonstrated the following techniques that might be helpful for module writers:
- Issue parallel subreqeusts directly from content handler.
- Issue chained subrequests directly from content handler, by passing continuation along the subrequest chain.
- Issue subrequests with all HTTP 1.1 methods and even an optional faked HTTP request body.
- Interact with the Nginx event model directly from content handler using custom events and timers, and resume the content handler back if necessary.
- Dual-role module that can (lazily) serve as a content handler or an output filter or both.
- Nginx config file variable creation and interpolation.
- Streaming output control using output_chain, flush and its friends.
- Read client request body from the content handler, and returns back (asynchronously) to the content handler after completion.
- Use Perl-based declarative test suite to drive the development of Nginx C modules.
Content Handler Directives
Use of the following directives register this module to the current Nginx location as a content handler. If you want to use another module, like the standard proxy module, as the content handler, use the filter directives provided by this module.
All the content handler directives can be mixed together in a single Nginx location and they're supposed to run sequentially just as in the Bash scripting language.
Every content handler directive supports variable interpolation in its arguments (if any).
The MIME type set by the standard default_type directive is respected by this module, as in:
location /hello { default_type text/plain; echo hello; }
Then on the client side:
$ curl -I 'http://localhost/echo' HTTP/1.1 200 OK Server: nginx/0.8.20 Date: Sat, 17 Oct 2009 03:40:19 GMT Content-Type: text/plain Connection: keep-alive
Since the v0.22 release, all of the directives are allowed in the rewrite module's if directive block, for instance:
syntax: echo [options] <string>...
default: no
context: location, location if
phase: content
Sends arguments joined by spaces, along with a trailing newline, out to the client.
Note that the data might be buffered by Nginx's underlying buffer. To force the output data flushed immediately, use the echo_flush command just after
echo, as in
echo hello world; echo_flush;
When no argument is specified, echo emits the trailing newline alone, just like the echo command in shell.
Variables may appear in the arguments. An example is
echo The current request uri is $request_uri;
where $request_uri is a variable exposed by the HttpCoreModule.
This command can be used multiple times in a single location configuration, as in
location /echo { echo hello; echo world; }
The output on the client side looks like this
$ curl 'http://localhost/echo'
Special characters like newlines (
\n) and tabs (
\t) can be escaped using C-style escaping sequences. But a notable exception is the dollar sign (
$). As of Nginx 0.8.20, there's still no clean way to esacpe this characters. (A work-around might be to use a
$echo_dollor variable that is always evaluated to the constant
$ character. This feature will possibly be introduced in a future version of this module.)
As of the echo v0.28 release, one can suppress the trailing newline character in the output by using the
-n option, as in
location /echo { echo -n "hello, "; echo "world"; }
/echo gives
$ curl 'http://localhost/echo'
hello, world
-n in variable values won't take effect and will be emitted literally, as in
This gives the following output
$ curl 'http://localhost/echo' -n hello, world
One can output leading
-n literals and other options using the special
-- option like this
location /echo { echo -- -n is an option; }
which yields
$ curl 'http://localhost/echo' -n is an option
syntax: echo_duplicate <count> <string>
default: no
context: location, location if
phase: content
Outputs duplication of a string indicated by the second argument, using the times specified in the first argument.
For instance,
location /dup { echo_duplicate 3 "abc"; }
will lead to an output of
Underscores are allowed in the count number, just like in Perl. For example, to emit 1000,000,000 instances of
"hello, world":
location /many_hellos { echo_duplicate 1000_000_000 "hello, world"; }
count argument could be zero, but not negative. The second
string argument could be an empty string ("") likewise.
Unlike the echo directive, no trailing newline is appended to the result. So it's possible to "abuse" this directive as a no-trailing-newline version of echo by using "count" 1, as in
location /echo_art { echo_duplicate 2 '---'; echo_duplicate 1 ' END '; # we don't want a trailing newline here echo_duplicate 2 '---'; echo; # we want a trailing newline here... }
You get
This directive was first introduced in version 0.11.
syntax: echo_flush
default: no
context: location, location if
phase: content
Forces the data potentially buffered by underlying Nginx output filters to send immediately to the client side via socket.
Note that techically the command just emits a ngx_buf_t object with
flush slot set to 1, so certain weird third-party output filter module could still block it before it reaches Nginx's (last) write filter.
This directive does not take any argument.
Consider the following example:
location /flush { echo hello; echo_flush; echo_sleep 1; echo world; }
Then on the client side, using curl to access
/flush, you'll see the "hello" line immediately, but only after 1 second, the last "world" line. Without calling
echo_flush in the example above, you'll most likely see no output until 1 second is elapsed due to the internal buffering of Nginx.
This directive will fail to flush the output buffer in case of subrequests get involved. Consider the following example:
Then the client won't see "hello" appear even if
echo_flush has been executed before the subrequest to
/sub has actually started executing. The outputs of
/main that are sent after echo_location_async will be postponed and buffered firmly.
This does not apply to outputs sent before the subrequest initiated. For a modified version of the example given above:
The client will immediately see "hello" before
/sub enters sleeping.
See also echo, echo_sleep, and echo_location_async.
syntax: echo_sleep <seconds>
default: no
context: location, location if
phase: content
Sleeps for the time period specified by the argument, which is in seconds.
This operation is non-blocking on server side, so unlike the echo_blocking_sleep directive, it won't block the whole Nginx worker process.
The period might takes three digits after the decimal point and must be greater than 0.001.
An example is
location /echo_after_sleep { echo_sleep 1.234; echo resumed!; }
Behind the scene, it sets up a per-request "sleep" ngx_event_t object, and adds a timer using that custom event to the Nginx event model and just waits for a timeout on that event. Because the "sleep" event is per-request, this directive can work in parallel subrequests.
syntax: echo_blocking_sleep <seconds>
default: no
context: location, location if
phase: content
This is a blocking version of the echo_sleep directive.
See the documentation of echo_sleep for more detail.
Behind the curtain, it calls the ngx_msleep macro provided by the Nginx core which maps to usleep on POSIX-compliant systems.
Note that this directive will block the current Nginx worker process completely while being executed, so never use it in production environment.
syntax: echo_reset_timer
default: no
context: location, location if
phase: content
Reset the timer begin time to now, i.e., the time when this command is executed during request.
The timer begin time is default to the starting time of the current request and can be overridden by this directive, potentially multiple times in a single location. For example:
location /timed_sleep { echo_sleep 0.03; echo "$echo_timer_elapsed sec elapsed."; echo_reset_timer; echo_sleep 0.02; echo "$echo_timer_elapsed sec elapsed."; }
The output on the client side might be
$ curl 'http://localhost/timed_sleep' 0.032 sec elapsed. 0.020 sec elapsed.
The actual figures you get on your side may vary a bit due to your system's current activities.
Invocation of this directive will force the underlying Nginx timer to get updated to the current system time (regardless the timer resolution specified elsewhere in the config file). Furthermore, references of the $echo_timer_elapsed variable will also trigger timer update forcibly.
See also echo_sleep and $echo_timer_elapsed.
syntax: echo_read_request_body
default: no
context: location, location if
phase: content
Explicitly reads request body so that the $request_body variable will always have non-empty values (unless the body is so big that it has been saved by Nginx to a local temporary file).
Note that this might not be the original client request body because the current request might be a subrequest with a "artificial" body specified by its parent.
This directive does not generate any output itself, just like echo_sleep.
Here's an example for echo'ing back the original HTTP client request (both headers and body are included):
location /echoback { echo_duplicate 1 $echo_client_request_headers; echo "\r"; echo_read_request_body; echo $request_body; }
The content of
/echoback looks like this on my side (I was using Perl's LWP utility to access this location on the server):
$ (echo hello; echo world) | lwp-request -m POST 'http://localhost/echoback' POST /echoback HTTP/1.1 TE: deflate,gzip;q=0.3 Connection: TE, close Host: localhost User-Agent: lwp-request/5.818 libwww-perl/5.820 Content-Length: 12 Content-Type: application/x-www-form-urlencoded hello world
/echoback is the main request, $request_body holds the original client request body.
Before Nginx 0.7.56, it makes no sense to use this directive because $request_body was first introduced in Nginx 0.7.58.
This directive itself was first introduced in the echo module's v0.14 release.
syntax: echo_location_async <location> [<url_args>]
default: no
context: location, location if
phase: content
Issue GET subrequest to the location specified (first argument) with optional url arguments specified in the second argument.
As of Nginx 0.8.20, the
location argument does not support named location, due to a limitation in the
ngx_http_subrequest function. The same is true for its brother, the echo_location directive.
A very simple example is
/main gets
hello world
Calling multiple locations in parallel is also possible:
/main yields
$ time curl 'http://localhost/main' hello world took 0.000 sec for total. real 0m2.006s user 0m0.000s sys 0m0.004s
You can see that the main handler
/main does not wait the subrequests
/sub1 and
/sub2 to complete and quickly goes on, hence the "0.000 sec" timing result. The whole request, however takes approximately 2 sec in total to complete because
/sub1 and
/sub2 run in parallel (or "concurrently" to be more accurate).
If you use echo_blocking_sleep in the previous example instead, then you'll get the same output, but with 3 sec total response time, because "blocking sleep" blocks the whole Nginx worker process.
Locations can also take an optional querystring argument, for instance
/main yields
$ curl 'http://localhost/main'
Foo Bar
Querystrings is not allowed to be concatenated onto the
location argument with "?" directly, for example,
/sub?foo=Foo&bar=Bar is an invalid location, and shouldn't be fed as the first argument to this directive.
Due to an unknown bug in Nginx (it still exists in Nginx 0.8.20), the standard SSI module is required to ensure that the contents of the subrequests issued by this directive are correctly merged into the output chains of the main one. Fortunately, the SSI module is enabled by default during Nginx's
configure process.
If calling this directive without SSI module enabled, you'll get truncated response without contents of any subrequests and get an alert message in your Nginx's
error.log, like this:
[alert] 24212#0: *1 the http output chain is empty, client: 127.0.0.1, ...
Technically speaking, this directive is an example that Nginx content handler issues one or more subrequests directly. AFAIK, the fancyindex module also does such kind of things ;)
Nginx named locations like
@foo is not supported here.
This directive is logically equivalent to the GET version of echo_subrequest_async. For example,
echo_location_async /foo 'bar=Bar';
is logically equivalent to
echo_subrequest_async GET /foo -q 'bar=Bar';
But calling this directive is slightly faster than calling echo_subrequest_async using
GET because we don't have to parse the HTTP method names like
GET and options like
This directive is first introduced in version 0.09 of this module and requires at least Nginx 0.7.46.
syntax: echo_location <location> [<url_args>]
default: no
context: location, location if
phase: content
Just like the echo_location_async directive, but
echo_location issues subrequests in series rather than in parallel. That is, the content handler directives following this directive won't be executed until the subrequest issued by this directive completes.
The final response body is almost always equivalent to the case when echo_location_async is used instead, only if timing variables is used in the outputs.
Consider the following example:
The location
/main above will take for total 3 sec to complete (compared to 2 sec if echo_location_async is used instead here). Here's the result in action on my machine:
$ curl 'http://localhost/main' hello world took 3.003 sec for total. real 0m3.027s user 0m0.020s sys 0m0.004s
This directive is logically equivalent to the GET version of echo_subrequest. For example,
echo_location /foo 'bar=Bar';
is logically equivalent to
echo_subrequest GET /foo -q 'bar=Bar';
But calling this directive is slightly faster than calling echo_subrequest using
GET because we don't have to parse the HTTP method names like
GET and options like
Behind the scene, it creates an
ngx_http_post_subrequest_t object as a continuation and passes it into the
ngx_http_subrequest function call. Nginx will later reopen this "continuation" in the subrequest's
ngx_http_finalize_request function call. We resumes the execution of the parent-request's content handler and starts to run the next directive (command) if any.
Nginx named locations like
@foo is not supported here.
This directive was first introduced in the release v0.12.
See also echo_location_async for more details about the meaning of the arguments.
syntax: echo_subrequest_async <HTTP_method> <location> [-q <url_args>] [-b <request_body>] [-f <request_body_path>]
default: no
context: location, location if
phase: content
Initiate an asynchronous subrequest using HTTP method, an optional url arguments (or querystring) and an optional request body which can be defined as a string or as a path to a file which contains the body.
This directive is very much like a generalized version of the echo_location_async directive.
Here's a small example demonstrating its usage:
location /multi { # body defined as string echo_subrequest_async POST '/sub' -q 'foo=Foo' -b 'hi'; # body defined as path to a file, relative to nginx prefix path if not absolute echo_subrequest_async PUT '/sub' -q 'bar=Bar' -f '/tmp/hello.txt'; } location /sub { echo "querystring: $query_string"; echo "method: $echo_request_method"; echo "body: $echo_request_body"; echo "content length: $http_content_length"; echo '///'; }
Then on the client side:
$ echo -n hello > /tmp/hello.txt $ curl 'http://localhost/multi' querystring: foo=Foo method: POST body: hi content length: 2 /// querystring: bar=Bar method: PUT body: hello content length: 5 ///
Here's more funny example using the standard proxy module to handle the subrequest:
location /main { echo_subrequest_async POST /sub -b 'hello, world'; } location /sub { proxy_pass $scheme://127.0.0.1:$server_port/proxied; } location /proxied { echo "method: $echo_request_method."; # we need to read body explicitly here...or $echo_request_body # will evaluate to empty ("") echo_read_request_body; echo "body: $echo_request_body."; }
Then on the client side, we can see that
$ curl 'http://localhost/main'
method: POST.
body: hello, world.
Nginx named locations like
@foo is not supported here.
This directive was first introduced in the release v0.15.
-f option to define a file path for the body was introduced in the release v0.35.
See also the echo_subrequest and echo_location_async directives.
syntax: echo_subrequest_async <HTTP_method> <location> [-q <url_args>] [-b <request_body>] [-f <request_body_path>]
default: no
context: location, location if
phase: content
This is the synchronous version of the echo_subrequest_async directive. And just like echo_location, it does not block the Nginx worker process (while echo_blocking_sleep does), rather, it uses continuation to pass control along the subrequest chain.
See echo_subrequest_async for more details.
Nginx named locations like
@foo is not supported here.
This directive was first introduced in the release v0.15.
syntax: echo_foreach_split <delimiter> <string>
default: no
context: location, location if
phase: content
Split the second argument
string using the delimiter specified in the first argument, and then iterate through the resulting items. For instance:
location /loop { echo_foreach_split ',' $arg_list; echo "item: $echo_it"; echo_end; }
Accessing /main yields
$ curl 'http://localhost/loop?list=cat,dog,mouse' item: cat item: dog item: mouse
As seen in the previous example, this directive should always be accompanied by an echo_end directive.
echo_foreach_split loops are allowed, but nested ones are currently forbidden.
delimiter argument could contain multiple arbitrary characters, like
echo_foreach_split '-a-' 'cat-a-dog-a-mouse'; echo $echo_it; echo_end;
Logically speaking, this looping structure is just the
foreach loop combined with a
split function call in Perl (using the previous example):
People will also find it useful in merging multiple
.js or
.css resources into a whole. Here's an example:
location /merge { default_type 'text/javascript'; echo_foreach_split '&' $query_string; echo "/* JS File $echo_it */"; echo_location_async $echo_it; echo; echo_end; }
Then accessing /merge to merge the
.js resources specified in the query string:
$ curl 'http://localhost/merge?/foo/bar.js&/yui/blah.js&/baz.js'
One can also use third-party Nginx cache module to cache the merged response generated by the
/merge location in the previous example.
This directive was first introduced in the release v0.17.
syntax: echo_end
default: no
context: location, location if
phase: content
This directive is used to terminate the body of looping and conditional control structures like echo_foreach_split.
This directive was first introduced in the release v0.17.
syntax: echo_request_body
default: no
context: location, location if
phase: content
Outputs the contents of the request body previous read.
Behind the scene, it's implemented roughly like this:
if (r->request_body && r->request_body->bufs) { return ngx_http_output_filter(r, r->request_body->bufs); }
Unlike the $echo_request_body and $request_body variables, this directive will show the whole request body even if some parts or all parts of it are saved in temporary files on the disk.
It is a "no-op" if no request body has been read yet.
This directive was first introduced in the release v0.18.
See also echo_read_request_body and the chunkin module.
syntax: echo_exec <location> [<query_string>]
syntax: echo_exec <named_location>
default: no
context: location, location if
phase: content
Does an internal redirect to the location specified. An optional query string can be specified for normal locations, as in
Or equivalently
Named locations are also supported. Here's an example:
But query string (if any) will always be ignored for named location redirects due to a limitation in the
ngx_http_named_location function.
Never try to echo things before the
echo_exec directive or you won't see the proper response of the location you want to redirect to. Because any echoing will cause the original location handler to send HTTP headers before the redirection happens.
Technically speaking, this directive exposes the Nginx internal API functions
ngx_http_internal_redirect and
This directive was first introduced in the v0.21 release.
Filter Directives
Use of the following directives trigger the filter registration of this module. By default, no filter will be registered by this module.
Every filter directive supports variable interpolation in its arguments (if any).
syntax: echo_before_body [options] [argument]...
default: no
context: location, location if
phase: output filter
It's the filter version of the echo directive, and prepends its output to the beginning of the original outputs generated by the underlying content handler.
An example is
location /echo { echo_before_body hello; proxy_pass $scheme://127.0.0.1:$server_port$request_uri/more; } location /echo/more { echo world }
/echo from the client side yields
hello world
In the previous sample, we borrow the standard proxy module to serve as the underlying content handler that generates the "main contents".
Multiple instances of this filter directive are also allowed, as in:
location /echo { echo_before_body hello; echo_before_body world; echo !; }
On the client side, the output is like
$ curl 'http://localhost/echo' hello world !
In this example, we also use the content handler directives provided by this module as the underlying content handler.
This directive also supports the
-n and
-- options like the echo directive.
This directive can be mixed with its brother directive echo_after_body.
syntax: echo_after_body [argument]...
default: no
context: location, location if
phase: output filter
WARNING this directive does not work for nginx >= 0.7.65.
It's very much like the echo_before_body directive, but appends its output to the end of the original outputs generated by the underlying content handler.
Here's a simple example:
location /echo { echo_after_body hello; proxy_pass http://127.0.0.1:$server_port$request_uri/more; } location /echo/more { echo world }
/echo from the client side yields
world hello
Multiple instances are allowed, as in:
location /echo { echo_after_body hello; echo_after_body world; echo i; echo say; }
The output on the client side while accessing the
/echo location looks like
i say hello world
This directive also supports the
-n and
-- options like the echo directive.
When this directive is used in a location accessed by a subrequest, it replies on the
sync flag set in a chain buffer to indicate the end of the output for nginx >= 0.8.7. This is a hack because Nginx does not provide a reliable way to determine the end of the output chain in a subrequest's output filter. Use it in subrequests with care.
This directive can be mixed with its brother directive echo_before_body.
This is a "topic variable" used by echo_foreach_split, just like the
$_ variable in Perl.
This variable holds the seconds elapsed since the start of the current request (might be a subrequest though) or the last invocation of the echo_reset_timer command.
The timing result takes three digits after the decimal point.
References of this variable will force the underlying Nginx timer to update to the current system time, regardless the timer resolution settings elsewhere in the config file, just like the echo_reset_timer directive.
Evaluates to the current (sub)request's request body previously read if no part of the body has been saved to a temporary file. To always show the request body even if it's very large, use the echo_request_body directive.
Evaluates to the HTTP request method of the current request (it can be a subrequest).
Behind the scene, it just takes the string data stored in
Compare it to the $echo_client_request_method variable.
At least for Nginx 0.8.20 and older, the $request_method variable provided by the http core module is actually doing what our $echo_client_request_method is doing.
This variable was first introduced in our v0.15 release.
Always evaluates to the main request's HTTP method even if the current request is a subrequest.
Behind the scene, it just takes the string data stored in
Compare it to the $echo_request_method variable.
This variable was first introduced in our v0.15 release.
Evaluates to the original client request's headers.
Just as the name suggests, it will always take the main request (or the client request) even if it's currently executed in a subrequest.
A simple example is below:
location /echoback { echo "headers are:" echo $echo_client_request_headers; }
/echoback yields
$ curl 'http://localhost/echoback' headers are GET /echoback HTTP/1.1 User-Agent: curl/7.18.2 (i486-pc-linux-gnu) libcurl/7.18.2 OpenSSL/0.9.8g Host: localhost:1984 Accept: */*
Behind the scene, it recovers
r->main->header_in on the C level and does not construct the headers itself by traversing parsed results in the request object, and strips the last (trailing) CRLF.
This variable was first introduced in version 0.15.
Evaluates to the parsed form of the URI (usually led by
/) of the current (sub-)request. Unlike the $echo_request_uri variable, it is cacheable.
See $echo_request_uri for more details.
This variable was first introduced in version 0.17.
Evaluates to the parsed form of the URI (usually led by
/) of the current (sub-)request. Unlike the $echo_cacheable_request_uri variable, it is not cacheable.
This is quite different from the $request_uri variable exported by the HttpCoreModule, because
$request_uri is the unparsed form of the current request's URI.
This variable was first introduced in version 0.17.
It is a counter that always generate the current counting number, starting from 1. The counter is always associated with the main request even if it is accessed within a subrequest.
Consider the following example
/main yields
main pre: 1 sub: 3 sub: 4 main post: 2
This directive was first introduced in the v0.18 release.
Evaluates to the status code of the current (sub)request, null if not any.
Behind the scene, it's just the textual representation of
This directive was first introduced in the v0.23 release.
You're recommended to install this module (as well as the Nginx core and many other goodies) via the ngx_openresty bundle. See the detailed instructions for downloading and installing ngx_openresty into your system. This is the easiest and most safe way to set things up.
Alternatively, you can install this module manually with the Nginx source:
Grab the nginx source code from nginx.org, for example, the version 1.0.8 (see nginx compatibility), and then build the source with this module:
$ wget 'http://sysoev.ru/nginx/nginx-1.0.8.tar.gz' $ tar -xzvf nginx-1.0.8.tar.gz $ cd nginx-1.0.8/ # Here we assume you would install you nginx under /opt/nginx/. $ ./configure --prefix=/opt/nginx \ --add-module=/path/to/echo-nginx-module $ make -j2 $ make install
Download the latest version of the release tarball of this module from echo-nginx-module file list.
Also, this module is included and enabled by default in the ngx_openresty bundle.
The following versions of Nginx should work with this module:
- 1.1.x (last tested: 1.1.5)
- 1.0.x (last tested: 1.0.8)
- 0.9.x (last tested: 0.9.4)
- 0.8.x (last tested: 0.8.54)
- 0.7.x >= 0.7.21 (last tested: 0.7.68)
In particular,
- the directive echo_location_async and its brother echo_subrequest_async do not work with 0.7.x < 0.7.46.
- the echo_after_body directive does not work at all with nginx < 0.8.7.
- the echo_sleep directive cannot be used after echo_location or echo_subrequest for nginx < 0.8.11.
Earlier versions of Nginx like 0.6.x and 0.5.x will not work at all.
If you find that any particular version of Nginx above 0.7.21 does not work with this module, please consider reporting a bug.
Modules that use this module for testing
The following modules take advantage of this
echo module in their test suite:
- The memc module that supports almost the whole memcached TCP protocol.
- The chunkin module that adds HTTP 1.1 chunked input support to Nginx.
- The headers_more module that allows you to add, set, and clear input and output headers under the conditions that you specify.
- The
echomodule itself.
Please mail me other modules that use
echo in any form and I'll add them to the list above :)
By design, all of this module's directives do not inherit between nested locations. So nginx's
if may not be used this way:
Report Bugs
Although a lot of effort has been put into testing and code tuning, there must be some serious bugs lurking somewhere in this module. So whenever you are bitten by any quirks, please don't hesitate to
- create a ticket on the issue tracking interface provided by GitHub,
- or send a bug report, questions, or even patches to the nginx mailing list.
Source Repository
Available on github at agentzh/echo-nginx-module.
January 13, 2012
- bugfix: data truncation might occur with echo_after_body in not-so-good networks (we should be prepared for
NGX_AGAINreturned by downstream output filters). thanks 林青 (Kindy Lin) for reporting it.
- bugfix: we no longer check
syncbuffers for subrequests because it is incorrect.
- bugfix: fixed a bug when sending out response headers: we did not take into account the
NGX_ERRORerror code returned by
- bugfix: we did not work with HEAD http requests before.
- bugfix: now we carefully eliminate empty flush buffers in echo_after_body to work around a long-standing bug in the standard HttpGzipModule.
- bugfix: we might send empty chain link in echo_after_body because it may trigger the infamous
"the http output chain is empty"alert in
error.logwhen the standard HttpSsiModule is disabled. thanks Sparsh Gupta.
- bugfix: we did not set subrequest's
Content-Lengthrequest headers which could cause problems in the backends.
- bugfix: echo_exec + named locations might cause weird issues and now we explicitly clear all the modules' contexts before calling
- bugfix: echo_exec might hang when running after echo_sleep (or other I/O interruption calls): we should have called
NGX_DONEto decrement
- bugfix: there was a memory issue in both echo_sleep and echo_blocking_sleep: we should not pass
ngx_str_tstrings to
atof()which expects C strings.
- bugfix: some users report that this module cannot be compiled with Nginx 1.0.x on their systems due to
ngx_time_update(as in github issue #7). this is a blind attemp to fix it because we could not reproduce it on our side.
- bugfix: fixed places in the source code that we did not check null pointers returned by the memory allocator.
July 08, 2011
- now we back-ported the subrequest mechanism of ngx_lua to ngx_echo. this also helps some crazy test cases of mixing echo_location and echo_location_async pass now.
- now echo_location and its friends can work with ngx_xss (as well as other output filter modules) completely. thanks wd for reporting this issue.
- done some minor optimization when modifying subrequest's content-length header.
- now we always pad a trailing \0 to filepath in "echo_subrequest(_async) METHOD /path -f filepath" because ngx_open_cached_file requires a C string file name. thanks dr-dr xp.
- made our filter optimization works with nginx HUP by clearing the ngx_http_echo_filter_used flag at nginx pre-config callback. thanks Marcus Clyne.
February 07, 2011
- added the
-f /path/to/fileoption to the echo_subrequest and echo_subrequest_async directives to allow POST/PUT a disk file in the subrequest. thanks Bernd Dorn.
September 14, 2010
- we no longer use the problematic
ngx_strXcmpmacros in our source because it may cause invalid reads and thus segmentation faults. thanks Piotr Sikora.
June 08, 2010
- fixed compatibility with nginx 0.7.66+ because the ngx_time_update macro's parameter list has changed. thanks Guang Feng (蔡镜明).
June 04, 2010
- we should have used
ngx_calloc_bufinstead of
ngx_alloc_buffor the last chunk generated for echo_after_body. thanks valgrind's memcheck tool.
- we should initialize flags before feeding it into
ngx_http_parse_unsafe_uri. thanks valgrind's memcheck tool.
- fixed a minor issue in the echo_location/echo_subrequest implementation, which used to have race conditions.
May 24, 2010
- the echo wev handler should not proceed if it is still waiting for some sequential subrequest or has just processed one to avoid bouncing issues.
- fixed a segfault for echo_exec for 0.7.x: we should check
r->donebefore proceeding.
- no longer explicitly set
ngx_http_request_empty_handlerbecause it's totally wrong for the state machine.
- fixed the sequential subrequest model bugs: we should ensure the
pr->write_event_handlergets called immediately after the
post_subrequestcallback when the subrequest finalizes.
May 06, 2010
- fixed the echo_exec directive for nginx >= 0.8.11. we didn't get the
r->main->countright in the previous version.
May 05, 2010
- refactored the core of this module. now the implementation of echo_location, echo_subrequest, echo_sleep, and echo_read_request_body finally fit well with the nginx event model and Igor Sysoev's way of thinking.
May 03, 2010
- added support for the
--options to the echo, echo_before_body, and echo_after_body directives.
April 02, 2010
- applied the patch from Sergey A. Osokin to work with nginx 0.8.35.
January 26, 2010
- bug fix: we should bypass upstream filters in our echo filters. an output filter should ever call
January 15, 2010
- now we register a request cleanup handler to ensure our sleep event's timer will always get properly deleted even if the request is quit prematurely. this affects the echo_sleep directive.
- use ngx_null_string whenever possible in the source.
- sync'd the bundled test scaffold to Test::Nginx 0.07.
December 28, 2009
- various source file name and coding style fixes. (the code now looks more like Igor Sysoev's.)
December 04, 2009
- now the subrequest can read the client request body directly (for the main request) because we made subrequests inherit its parent's
r->header_inas well. This affects the echo_read_request_body directive.
- fixed echo_after_body in subrequests by using a hack (checking
cl->buf->syncfor the last buf) for nginx 0.8.7+ only.
- added new varaible $echo_response_status to help testing the status code of a subrequest. (The memc module makes use of it.)
- use the
ngx_calloc_bufmacro to allocate new bufs in the code rather than explicit
ngx_pcalloccalls for safety.
November 25, 2009
- Now we allowed all the directives appear in the rewrite module's if block. But so far I've only tested the echo directive.
November 23, 2009
- Added a new directive named echo_exec which does internal redirect to other (named) locations.
November 20, 2009
- Fixed a bug in echo_sleep's
r->main->counthandling for nginx 0.8.x. This bug will cause the server to hang when proxing a location with echo_sleep.
- Applied the
ngx_str4cmp, and
ngx_str6cmpoptimizing macros to the
parse_method_namefunction, as suggested by Marcus Clyne.
- Added TODO items regarding
echo_repeatsuggested by Marcus Clyne.
November 19, 2009
- Fixed the CPS-style chained subrequest model for the echo_location and echo_subrequest directives. they are now working perfectly and will not hang the server with the recent nginx 0.8.21 ~ 0.8.27 releases. To be specifically, the chained subrequest should call
ngx_http_finalize_requeston its parent request if the content handler of the parent request does not return
- Undeprecated the echo_location and echo_subrequest directives.
November 15, 2009
- Fixed the "zero size buf in output" alerts in error.log.
- Added the new directive echo_request_body.
- Now we use the
ngx_http_parse_unsafe_urifunction to check the locations to echo_location_async and its friends. Thanks Arvind Jayaprakash for suggesting this fix.
- Deprecated the echo_location and echo_subrequest directives.
- For HTTP 1.0 clients, use the buf length of the first chain link as the output header Content-Length.
- Implemented new variable $echo_incr.
October 26, 2009
- Added new directives echo_foreach_split and echo_end. Also introduced a "topic variable" named $echo_it.
- Added new variables $echo_request_uri and $echo_cacheable_request_uri.
October 25, 2009
- Now the subrequests issued by the echo_location_async and echo_location directives no longer inherit cached variable values from its parent request. (The underlying
ngx_http_subrequestfunction, however, does automatic cachable variable value inheritance.)
- Added an undocumented variable echo_cached_request_uri to help testing of this module.
October 24, 2009
- Added new directives echo_subrequest and echo_subrequest_async for the full nginx subrequest API.
- Removed the
echo_client_request_headersdirective, and provided the $echo_client_request_headers variable instead.
- Added new variables $echo_request_method and $echo_client_request_method.
October 22, 2009
- Added new directive echo_read_request_body to explicitly read client request body so that the HttpCoreModule#$request_body variable will always have non-empty values.
- Now we shuffer test cases automatically in .t files and fixed bugs in the tests themselves which are hidden by config reload fallback in failure.
October 21, 2009
- Fixed the special cases when the outputs of a echo_duplicate directive is empty.
- Now we explicitly clear content length and accept ranges headers in the content handler.
October 21, 2009
- Implemented the echo_location directive, which can issue chained GET subrequests in the Continuation Passing Style (CPS), rather than the parallel subrequest issued by the echo_location_async directive.
October 20, 2009
- Implemented the echo_duplicate directive to help generating large chunk of data for testing.
October 20, 2009
- Fixed compilation regression against Nginx 0.7.21. This bug appears in version 0.09.
- Refactored the codebase by splitting source into various small files.
October 19, 2009
- Reimplement the echo_sleep directive using per-request event and timer; the old implementation uses the global connection's read/write event to register timer, so it will break horribly when multiple subrequests "sleep" at the same time.
- Added the echo_location_async directive which can issue a GET subrequest and insert its contents herein.
October 18, 2009
- echo_sleep: now we delete our
write event timerin the
- Added
doc/manpage.wikiwhich tracks changes in the wiki page.
- Added the
util/wiki2pod.plscript to convert
- Disabled the
DDEBUGmacro in the C source by default.
Test Suite
This module comes with a Perl-driven test suite. The test cases are declarative too. Thanks to the Test::Nginx module in the Perl world.
To run it on your side:
$ PATH=/path/to/your/nginx-with-echo-module:$PATH prove -r t
You need to terminate any Nginx processes before running the test suite if you have changed the Nginx server binary.
Because a single nginx server (by default,
localhost:1984) is used across all the test scripts (
.t files), it's meaningless to run the test suite in parallel by specifying
-jN when invoking the
prove utility.
Some parts of the test suite requires standard modules proxy, rewrite and SSI to be enabled as well when building Nginx.
- Fix the echo_after_body directive in subrequests.
- Add directives echo_read_client_request_body and echo_request_headers.
- Add new directive echo_log to use Nginx's logging facility directly from the config file and specific loglevel can be specified, as in
echo_log debug "I am being called.";
- Add support for options
-tto echo_subrequest_async and echo_subrequest. For example
echo_subrequest POST /sub -q 'foo=Foo&bar=Bar' -b 'hello' -t 'text/plan' -h 'X-My-Header: blah blah'
- Add options to control whether a subrequest should inherit cached variables from its parent request (i.e. the current request that is calling the subrequest in question). Currently none of the subrequests issued by this module inherit the cached variables from the parent request.
- Add new variable $echo_active_subrequests to show
r->main->count - 1.
- Add the echo_file and echo_cached_file directives.
- Add new varaible $echo_request_headers to accompany the existing $echo_client_request_headers variable.
- Add new directive echo_foreach, as in
echo_foreach 'cat' 'dog' 'mouse'; echo_location_async "/animals/$echo_it"; echo_end;
- Add new directive echo_foreach_range, as in
echo_foreach_range '[1..100]' '[a-zA-z0-9]'; echo_location_async "/item/$echo_it"; echo_end;
- Add new directive echo_repeat, as in
echo_repeat 10 $i { echo "Page $i"; echo_location "/path/to/page/$i"; }
This is just another way of saying
echo_foreach_range $i [1..10]; echo "Page $i"; echo_location "/path/to/page/$i"; echo_end;
Thanks Marcus Clyne for providing this idea.
- Add new variable $echo_random which always returns a random non-negative integer with the lower/upper limit specified by the new directives
echo_random_max. For example,
echo_random_min 10 echo_random_max 200 echo "random number: $echo_random";
Thanks Marcus Clyne for providing this idea.
Getting involved
You'll be very welcomed to submit patches to the author or just ask for a commit bit to the source repository on GitHub.
Zhang "agentzh" Yichun (章亦春) <firstname.lastname@example.com>
This wiki page is also maintained by the author himself, and everybody is encouraged to improve this page as well.
Copyright & License
Copyright (c) 2009, 2010, 2011, Taobao Inc., Alibaba Group ( http://www.taobao.com ).
Copyright (c) 2009, 2010, 2011, Zhang "agentzh" Yichun (章亦春) <email@example.com>.
This module is licensed under the terms of the BSD license.
Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:
- Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
- Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
See Also
- The original blog post about this module's initial development.
- The standard addition filter module.
- The standard proxy module.
- The ngx_openresty bundle.


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Steph chats with fans and Tally Hall at Lucky's Pub as the USA's amazing World Cup run comes to a heartbreaking end vs. Belgium.
Wow, what a fantastic World Cup so far for the U.S.A. and for our friend Brad "Bradzil" Davis. For the first time ever, the U.S. qualified for the knockout stage for the second consecutive World Cup, and for the first time ever, a Houston Dynamo player started for the US in a World Cup game. Fantastic.
We at Dynamo Charities are right there with the team – combining with the Houston SPCA on "World Pup", hosting viewing parties to collect toys for B.I.G. Love Cancer Care, working with Tommy Bahama's Woodlands and Woodlands Shooting Stars Special Olympics for the Ninth Annual Island Cowboy Classic Golf Tournament just this past Monday.
In addition to more viewing parties, the next big Dynamo Charities event is the annual Armed Forces Appreciation Night supporting Brad and Tally's Banded Brigade. You can purchase and donate tickets to the event here that come with the official Banded Brigade tshirt as a thank you – plus everlasting thanks from those service men and women that get to attend the Dynamo game due to your generosity. You also have the ability to bid on signed items from Brad and Tally – including Brad's U.S. Men's National Team Centennial Jersey – autographed by the World Cup man himself. The auction is open now, bid at auctions.houstondynamo.com.
Dynamo Charities and Brian Ching dedicated the second House that Ching Built on June 20th for the Garcia-Andrade family. We are only a few thousand dollars away from having raised enough money for a third House that Ching Built Habitat for Humanity house – we WILL raise the needed money and are planning to do the next one in early 2015. We also combined with BBVA Compass and the Houston Dash for a Build a Better Houston project along with Rebuilding Together Houston. And our annual Bald is Beautiful event meant lovely hairdos for several of the players and Theron Enns, the Dynamo athletic trainer, as well as yours truly. We did not break the world record at the shave event at the game, but next year….
Lastly for now, we have the annual BBVA Compass Dynamo Charities Cup on Saturday July 26th against Aston Villa, an English club with a very long history. Villa recently signed Joe Cole, a past England international player, and will prove a good test for the Dynamo. Tickets are available now, and we will be announcing some Dynamo Charities events leading into the match as well.
Follow us on twitter at @dynamocharities and @dynamochrtytony for more updates.
Go behind the scenes of the Dynamo's Open Cup loss to FC Dallas with Dynamo TV.
Steph chats with Tally Hall, Giles Barnes, Sebastian Salazar and a bunch of people skipping work about Thursday's USA match with Germany
Dynamo broadcaster Glenn Davis is back on the air tonight with a new episode of Dynamo All-Access, presented by Houston Community College. The show will air on Yahoo! Sports Radio 1560 AM from 7-9 p.m.
Glenn will be joined in studio by Dash goalkeeper Bianca Henninger and feature interviews with Dynamo players Corey Ashe and Omar Cummings.
Call in and give Glenn your thoughts on the Dynamo, Dash and more.
The call-in number for the show is 713-439-1560.
Brad Davis, Jermaine Jones, Aron Johannson and Brad Guzan already have one championship in hand while in Brazil: USMNT soccer tennis champions. Could we see Davis and Guzan team up to challenge the indominatable soccer tennis duo of Dominic Kinnear and Steve Ralston when Guzan and Aston Villa come to town on July 26?
Steph brings you the sights from Sunday's USA vs. Portugal viewing party at Lucky's Pub in EaDo. There's convertibles, face paint, sparkle wigs, Dynamo and Dash players. The usual.