text:
|Publication number
|Publication type
|Publication date
|Oct 23, 1956
|Filing date
|Jun 7, 1951
|Priority date
|Jun 7, 1951
|Publication number
|Rockwell Ronald J
|Original Assignee
|Crosley Broadcasting Corp
|Export Citation
|BiBTeX, EndNote, RefMan
|Patent Citations (9), Referenced by (4), Classifications (8)
|External Links: USPTO, USPTO Assignment, Espacenet
2,768,249 ICALLY\GOVERNING DYNAMIC LEVEL RANGE IN AUDIO FREQUENCY CIRCUITS Oct. 23, 1956 R. J. ROCKWELL.
DEVICE FOR AUTOMAT 5 Sheets-Sheet 1 Filed June 7, 1951 H R. m K W0 m .J .D m N 0 P Jada @QM ATTORNEY.
2,768,249 L. RANGE Oct. 23, 1956 R. J. ROCKWELL DEVICE FOR AUTOMATICALLY GOVERNING DYNAMIC LEVE IN AUDIO FREQUENCY CIRCUITS 5 Sheets-Sheet 2 Filed June 7. 1951 H EEEQQ 33 53 INVENTOR. RONALD J. ROCKWELL nrromve-r.
Oct. 23, -1956 ROCKWELL 2,768,249
1 DEVICE FOR AUTOMATICALLY GOVERNING DYNAMIC LEVEL RANGE ,IN AUDIO FREQUENCY CIRCUITS Filed June 7, 1951 5 Sheets-Sheet 5 JNVENTOR. RONALD -J. ROG/(WELL.
Oct. 23, 1956 R. J. ROCKWELL 2 DEVICE FOR AUTOMATICALLY GOVERNING DYNAMIC LEVEL RANGE I IN AUDIO FREQUENCY CIRCUITS Filed June '7, 1951 5 Sheets-Sheet 4 mes C+ 64 6.9 62 //v our 63 l068- s (-D a 1i'!g 5 A v 1066 -2- 69 70 I E l "-(M) I our ,5 A. 62 I 63 I068 .n .9 I373 gal 66 A 67 70a CONTROL VOLTAGE 5 7 INVENTOR.
RONALD u. Roe/(WELL, BY J' g 5 B am 0.21%
Oct. 23, 1956 J ROCKWELL 2,768,249
DEVICE FOR AUTOMATICALLY GOVERNING DYNAMIC LEVEL RANGE IN AUDIO FREQUENCY CIRCUITS Filed June 7. 1951 SSheets-Sheetfi PERGE/V 11465 M RELATIVE SIG/VAL AMPLITUDE.-
0 23 456789/OIl/2/3/4l5/6/7/8/920 RELATIVE SIG/VAL AMPLITUDE.
United States PatentO DEVICE FOR AUTGMATICALLY GOVERNING DYNAMIC LEVEL RANGE IN AUDIO'ZFRE- QUENCY CIRCUITS vRonald J. Rockwell, Cincinnati, Qhio, assignor to Crosley Broadcasting Corporation, Cincinnati, hio,-a corporation of Ohio Application-June 7, 195l1, Serial-No. 230,382
44 Claims. (Cl. 179171) governing the dynamic volume range of an audio frequency channel. My invention has particular utility in microphone or transducer circuits as well as in audio channels which are operated in conjunction with. a transmitter modulator.
As is well known, overloading on high intensity peaks can not be tolerated in practical transmitter circuits. Also, it is broadly old to compress transducer output signal volume range in order to increase the percentage modulation allotted to low intensity signals and thereby improve the recevied signal to noise ratio on the fringe of the normal reception area. In other words, volume compression circuits, per se, are not new to the. art. However, the vast majority of prior art circuits seem to attack the problem of volume compression, peak limiting and automaticvolume control from the viewpoint of controlling bi-as on one or more non-linear amplifier stages, thus ,controlling amplifier gain directly. Such methods obviously limit thelmagnitude of input signal which canbe handled in the tube and linearly amplified, because the lack of conducting range linearity allows the use of only small incremental sections of the amplifier. characteristic. The theory generally followed depends upon thefact' that very small increments of any curve can be considered essentially linear. Thus a rapid shift of operating point --on .a nonlinear characteristic curve can be tolerated,
circuits, it would be desirable to have an automatic dynamic volume level controlled amplifier-which could handle relatively large amounts of power without harmonic distortion and without feedback of the distortion correction type.
Therefore, it becomes an object of my invention. to provide a signal attenuation network capable of. handling push-pull type signals and capable of being varied by either a slowly changing A.-C. signal, a rapidly changing A.-C. signal, or both.
It is another object of my invention to provide an electronically controlled resistance type signal attenuator suitable fior attenuating a push-pull signal.
It is also an object of my invention to provide a completely automatic gain control system which limits peak signal amplitude without inserting perceptible harmonic distortion.
It is still another object of my invention to provide an automatic gain control and volume peak limiter circuit 2,768,249 Patented Oct. 23, 1956 2 which acts tocompress signal volume range gradually over a desired range in lieu of the conventional abrupt method.
It is still another and further object of my invention to provide an automatic gain control system capable of "handling high level signal surges without introducing transient voltages into the signal.
it is also an object of my invention to provide an automatic gain control circuit in which all A.-C. signal amplitiers operate linearly around :a fixed optimum point on their characteristic curve, in lieu of .an operating point that depends upon signal intensity.
Briefly, my invention comprises two cascaded signal attenuation networks. In the first or so called slow acting attenuation network, I provide a source of push-pull signals which are fed through apush-pull amplifier using a novel resistance bridge signal attenuator in the anode cathode circuits. This attenuator comprises, in the main,
.a network of resistances connected on the order of a bridge circuit with electron tubes acting as the variable resistance arms. In order to supply the D.-C. potential "for controllingthese vacuum tube resistance arms, I provide a rectifier system which has an output vcoltage of one polarity for input signal voltages below a given inconjunction with the signal rectifier 1am able to provide signal attenuation which is related to the average signal strength over a relatively long and selectable period.
The second or fast acting signal attenuation circuit has input terminals which are coupled to the output terminals of the slow acting attenuatornetwork. Similar to the slow acting attenuator, the circuit includes a rectifier and a time constant or integration circuit for averaging out the input signal voltage to provide a D.-C. potential which is related to signal intensity over 'a selectable time period. In the case of the fast acting network however, it is dessirableto select a relatively fast acting integration circuit, in order that a D.-C. signal may be developed which is .very closely related to instantaneous signal intensity. The output from this time constant circuit provides a voltage which is --fed through an exponential amplifier for controlling a resistance type bridge which is similar to the bridge used in the slow acting attenuation network. 7 In order .to eliminate the possibility of transient voltages belog inserted into the signal and to speed up, relatively, the effective control action, I incorporate a delay line between the output of the slow acting network and the input of the fast acting attenuation network. The input of the 1 signal rectifier which supplies the control potential for the fast acting attenuator is also connected ahead ofthe lahovementioned delay means. Thus the fast acting resistance attenuator is automatically adjusted before the signal can reach the attenuator input. As a result, I have found that little if any transient voltage is inserted into the signal even though control action is very rapid.
For a better understanding of the present invention, to-
v gether with other and further objects, advantages and attenuator network which is connected in tandem with the circuit of Fig. 1A, and
Figs. 2A, 28, 3A and 3B are equivalent circuit diagrams to be used in explaining circuit operation of Fig. 1A and Fig. 1B; and
Figs. 4A and 4B are attenuator characteristic control curves.
In Fig. 1A and Fig. 1B I have illustrated the preferred embodiment of my invention. Transformer of Fig. 1A couples a supply of push-pull signals to the grids of class A amplifiers 11 and 12. The cathodes of these two amplifiers are connected to ground through a common resistance 13 while the anode potential is supplied by a source of B+ (not shown) connected to the center tap on resistor 14. As can be seen, the specific resistance type attenuator used in the preferred embodiment is symmetrically arranged relative to ground and forms a part of the anode circuits of amplifiers 11 and 12. For example, resistors 15 and 16, which have similar values, are connected between the anodes o-f amplifiers 11 and 12 and the anodes of vacuum tubes 17 and 18, respectively, while resistors 19 and 20, which have similar resistance values, are connected between the anodes of vacuum tubes 17 and 18 and the end terminals of resistor 14. Diagonal bridge resistor 21 is connected between the anode of amplifier 11 and the terminal point at which resistors and 14 join. symmetrically, diagonal bridge resistor 22, which has a resistance value similar to resistor 21, is connected between the anode of amplifier 12 and the terminal point at which resistors 19 and 14 are joined. Symmetry of the network with respect to ground is completed by connecting the cathodes of vacuum tubes 17 and 18 to ground through a common variable resistance 23. The cathodes of these two tubes are biased above ground by the voltage divider action of resistor 24, which is connected to a source of 13+ potential, not shown, along with resistor 23. Coupling capacitors 25 and 26 supply the attenuator output signal across series connected resistors 27 and 28. Control potential is tapped off across load resistor 28 and fed to the input of a two stage amplifier 29. The output of amplifier 29, in turn, is coupled through capacitor 41 to the cathode of diode rectifier 40 and also through coupling capacitor 30 to the anode of rectifier 42, which is biased below ground by a connection through resistor 43 to a voltage dividing potentiometer 44. The cathode of diode 40 is connected to ground through resistor 45, and the cathode of diode 42 is connected through resistance 46 to a time constant or integration network 47. The anode of diode 40 is also connected to integration network 47 through a resistor 48. The common connection between resistors 46, 48 and network 47 is connected to the grids of control vacuum tubes 17 and 18 in the resistor attenuator network. As will become apparent, the circuit thus far described comprises what can be defined as the slow acting resistor attenuator network. Referring to Fig. IE, it will be seen that I have provided a preferred embodiment of a fast acting resistance attenuator network which is connected in tandem or cascade with the slow acting circuit of Fig. 1A.
Taps 49 and 50 on resistors 27 and 28, shown in Fig. 1A, are used to impress the push-pull output voltage of the slow acting attenuator on the grids of class A operated amplifiers 51 and 52 of Fig. 1B. The cathodes of these amplifiers are connected to ground through resistors 53, 54 respectively to form a cathode follower type of push-pull output which is fed to delay line 55 and also coupled through capacitors 56 and 57 to resistors 58 and 59, which have their common terminal connected to ground. The output of the delay line 55 is coupled through transformer 60, and on through push-pull amplifier 61 to coupling transformer 62 which in turn is coupled to the input of a resistance attenuator network similar to the one shown in Fig, 1A. For example, major bridge arm resistors 63 and 64 are selected to have similar resistance values. Also, major bridge arm resistances 65 and 6.6
are selected to have similar resistance values. Diagonal bridge resistors 67 and 68 have similar resistance values and are connected in circuit symmetry. Vacuum tubes 69 and 70 are connected between the junctions of resistors 63 and 65, and resistors 64 and 66, respectively, to complete the symmetrical relationship. Load resistors 80, 81 are connected to a source of potential B-|-, not shown. Control potential for vacuum tube resistance arms 69 and 70 is tapped oif of resistances 58 and 59, amplified in push-pull amplifier 71 and fed through rectifier 72 to the fast acting integration network 73. The output of the fast acting integration network 73 is fed through a conventional exponential amplifier 74, comprising cathode followers 101 and 102 having variable resistors 104 and 103 connected into their cathode circuits. The output from amplifier 74 is fed to the grids of vacuum tube resistance arms 69 and 70. The final attenuated output signal is taken off of the secondary of coupling transformer 75.
Considering operation of the illustrated embodiment just defined, it can be seen that push-pull signals fed through transformer 10 in the circuit of Fig. 1A will be amplified by tubes 11 and 12 and presented across load resistors 27 and 28. The A.-C. signal voltage across one half of resistor 14, which may be caused by current flow in either amplifier 11 or amplifier 12, is dependent, from an amplitude viewpoint, upon the setting of the attenuator network connected as part of the anode load resistance between the end terminals of resistor 14 and the anodes of these tubes. Before complete circuit operation can be appreciated, it is necessary to understand the function of the resistance attenuator network, per se, and in order to understand the operational theory of the resistance attenuator network, it is helpful to consider two possible limiting conditions, viz., first where the vacuum tube resistance arms otter very high or maximum impedance and second where the vacuum tube resistance arms are conducting at maximum thus presenting a minimum impedance. Referring to Fig. 2A, an equivalent circuit diagram which I find helpful in explaining operational theory for the first of these limiting conditions, it will be noted that the vacuum tubes 17 and 18 are not shown. Their elimination from present consideration follows from the assumed limiting condition because if these tubes are blocked, their contribution to circuit action can be assumed insignificant, at least for explanational purposes. Still referring to Fig. 2A, further assume that the audio signal presented in push-pull to class A amplifiers 11 and 12 is just starting a positive going excursion on the input of vacuum tube 11 and a negative going excursion on the input of vacuum tube 12. At that time, the major portion of plate current flowing through amplifier 11 is drawn through the upper half of resistor 14, down through major arm resistors 19 and 15, through the plate circuit of amplifier 11 and thus to ground. A small portion of amplifier 11 plate current is also drawn through the lower half of resistor 14 and up through diagonal resistor 21. It is to be noted that the great majority of the current is drawn through resistors 19 and 15 since these resistors are selected to have a much lower impedance than resistor 21. At the same time, the majority of the plate current flowing through amplifier 12 is taken through the lower half of resistor 14, up through resistors 20 and 16 through the plate-cathode path in amplifier 12 and thus to ground. symmetrically, a small portion of amplifier 12 plate current is taken through the upper portion of resistor 14 down through the relatively high impedance of diagonal arm resistor 22. Thus the potential impressed between the left hand plate of capacitor 25 and ground has two components. Under assumed signal conditions the first component is a large negative going potential brought about by the relatively large increase in current flow through resistors 19 and 15, and the second component is a relatively small positive going potential resulting from decreased current flow through the upper half of i r sist r 14 down through resistor 22, through theanodev and through the plate circuit of amplifier 12.
cathode path of amplifier 12 =to: g-round. Fhus-=it-now should; beapparent, thatwhen the vacuumtube-resistance arms are b1ocked,-' -the uppertialf ofl-resistance 14 along with-vresistors 19 and =15 acts as 1 an ordinary voltage divider as faras the-signal-presented between the left 'hand plate of capacitor 25 and groundis concerned, and the-contribution from resistor 22- is' -rela-tively unimpor- -tant. Also, it should beapparent that the potential variation presented between ground and the left hand-plate of capacitor-26-brought about by amplifier 12 plate current can beconsidered to'arise primarily from the voltage di- --vider action of'resistors 14, 16 and -20.
Considering the --second -lim'itin g condition, -Where vacuum tube resistance arms-17-and- 18 are assumed to offer essentiallyaero impedance it-will be seen from *-the equivalentdiagrarn-ofFigsZBthat the junction betweenresistors-19 and 15 and the junction between resistors 16 and 20 can betassumed to-be ettectively grounded.
Again further assumingthatthe input signal is juststart- -ing a positive going excursion-at the grid inputof class- 'A- amplifier 11,-it follows that the-resulting-plate-current fiow-must bedrawnentirely through-diagonal resistor 21 down through the lower half of resistor 14.
"Amplifier 11 can not draw plate current throughmajor arm resistorlS as it did in the previous case, shown in Fig.
2A; because the junction between resistors 19--and 15 is noweffectively grounded. Comparing this casewith the one'illustrated in Fig. 2A it-will be remembered thatthe increased current flowthrough -resistor. 21 in Fig. 2A
-was sosmall; as to be insignificant, with the great majority of the increased current flow being drawn through resistors 19 and '15 toimpress a-negative drop on-the left hand plateaof capacitor 25. --Nownote that under the conditions assumed in Fig. 2B, increased current-flow through amplifier 11- results in a negative drop on'theleft hand *plate of capacitor 26, with the-potential on the left hand plate of capacitor 25- moving in the 'positive-going-direcapparent that as the resistance of vacuum tubes 17' and "18 decreases, the amplitude of the output signal also decreases. Also, it should be clear that there must-be a point at which the impedance value of these tube resist- -ance arms can be set where there will be zero output 1 signal audit the tube impedance is decreased still further the amplitude of the output signal-increases but .in the opposite polarity direction. In other words, I have provided a resistance type attenuator network having elec- --tron tubes acting as variable resistor arms wherein it is possible to vary not only the amplitude of a push-pull signal across output load resistors 27 and 28 but also, if desired, the polarity of the signal. Though I do not intend to be limited thereby, it is to be noted that the polarity reversal function of the network isnot utilized in the specific embodiment illustrated. To control the attenuation factor of the network and thus the amplitude of the output signal, I provide a control circuit designated in Fig. 1A by the dashed line rectangle 100.
' The signal voltage fed to the control circuit 100.is taken .fromthe outputof the attenuator. across output resistor :28 and impressed across the input of a two stage amplifier'29. Amplifier 29 could be any conventional type .of amplifier and could be connected in push-pull if so desired. ,The output from amplifier 29 is in turn fed through coupling capacitors 41 and 30 to the cathode of diode 40 I and the anode of diode 42. These two diodes are connected in such a manner as to form what might be defined as a thresholdbiased rectifier system. "Before consideriugthe manner'in which this rectifier circuit operates it a should be noted. that resistor46 which is connected. to the cathodeof I diode 42 must: be selected so as: to -have a much lower value than resistor 48. which is connected :to the anode of diode 40. It has been found' that a relationship on the order of approximately ten to one between 5 these resistor values allows thecontrol circuit to function satisfactorily. Other designs may require considerable change in this relationship; however, it is believed that such selection is fully within the scope of any one skilled in the art who understands the-operational theory of the 10 disclosed embodiment. Also, resistor 43,'which is-connected between the anode of diode 42-and potentiometer 44, and resistor 45, which-is connected between the cathode of diode 40 and ground, are preferably selected to have the same resistance value .in order to provide essen- 15 tially a balancedparallel load on: the output of ampli- Mfier 29.
The A.-C. signal voltage componentuimpressedacross :-output load resistor 28- is amplified in class A- operated amplifier 29, andcoupledthrough coupling capacitors 30 -20@-and 41 to the threshold biased rectifier circuit. Thus positive .and negative voltage values, bothproportionalto "the signal impressed across resistor 28, are impressed on the anode of diode 42 and on the cathode of diode 40. For purposes of explanation, assume that the input signal 5 -voltage taken from the output of amplifier 29 has an amwplitude which is less than the bias setting on potentiometer L144. Under this condition the anode of diode 42 can not .be drivenpositive relative to the cathode of ,diode'42 and thus the diodecan not conduct. On the other hand, diode 3014i starts conducting almost immediately, being so driven by the negative portion ofthe signal impressed across resistance 45. This. voltage causes current to flow through resistorA-S and through diode 40. -However, as soon as :the input signal voltage amplitude increases to. a:-point sufiicient to overcome the bias established on potentiometer 44, current starts flowing through diode42 and resistor 46. .As previously mentioned, resistor 48 is selected to have a much higher value than resistor 46. Thus it will ,be seen that any signal :which is strong enough to overcome the thresholdbias potential set-on the anodeof diode 42 will cause a greater current to how through resistor 46 than will be caused to flow through resistor 48 t by action of the same signal on diode 40/ In order to Y integrate the'rectified-output potential, Iprovidea time 46 constant circuit- 47 connected between ground and the junction of resistors 46' and 48. The polarity as well as the magnitude of the charge impressed on the integrator capacitor is basically dependent upon whether-or not di'ode 42 is conducting, which, as previously stated, hap- 50 pens whenever the input signal amplitude is able to overcome the bias established on potentiometer 44. In other words, if the input signal has an amplitude below the potential established on potentiometer 44, diode 40 conducts, charging this capacitor so as to make its ungrounded plate negative with respect to its, grounded plate. On the other hand, when the signal amplitude is sufiicient to overcome the bias potential, then current flows through diode 42 so as to charge the ungrounded plate ofthe capacitor .positiverelative to its grounded. plate. Obviously, the time constant of the integrator circuit 47 may be selected in accordance with the period over which it is desired to have the attenuation network respond.
Since integration network. 47 is coupled. to the grids of control tubes 17 and- 18, signals having a lower amplitude than the threshold potential set on the anode of diode- 42 bias control tubes 17 and 18 negatively or in otherwords toward cut-off. As a result, it follows that less current flows through control tubes 17 and" 18 and a larger signal is impressed across load resistors 27. and 28. However as soon as the signal amplitude becomes sufiicient to overcome the bias on diode 42, current flow through resistor.46 reverses the charge; on the ungroundedplate of the. integrator capacitor to place amorepositive bias on the grids; of control tubes 17 and 18, which as has been explained, acts to decrease the signal amplitude across load resistors 27 and 28.
- Thus, it will be seen, I have provided an automatic signal attenuator capable of controlling signal amplitude with relation to the average signal realized over a given integration time period.
In Fig. 4A I have shown two curves which illustrate the controlling action of the specific embodiment shown in Fig. 1A. Percentage modulation is plotted on the ordinate and relative signal amplitude is plotted on the abscissa. Dotted curve 301 is intended to show the characteristic of a completely linear amplifier without volume control while idealized curve 302 shows the characteristic control curve for the slow acting attenuator. It will be noticed, comparing these two curves, that as the volume increases from zero, the curves coincide for a short distance. Then, when sufficient signal is fed into control circuit 100 so as to cause diode 40 to conduct, the resultant negative charge placed on integrator 47 increases the resistance of vacuum tubes 17 and 18, thereby decreasing the attenuation impedance of the network. At that point, shown at C, characteristic curve 302 breaks away from and rises more rapidly than the characteristic curve of the linear amplifier. At point B on cure 302 the signal amplitude becomes great enough to overcome the bias established on the plate of diode 42 and it conducts current, thereby overcoming the charge placed on integrator 47 by current flow through diode 40. As a result, vacuum tubes 17 and 18 start to conduct more heavily to increase the attenuation of the network. As the signal increases in amplitude,
diode 42 conducts still more heavily and the attenuation of the network increases still further. Thus the characteristic curve 302 bends or starts to level ofi at a desired level which in the illustrated embodiment was somewhere in the neighborhood of one hundred percent modulation. It seems apparent that the combined action of all of the components in the slow acting attenuator circuit provides a slow gentle control over average signal level, somewhat analogous to the action of an operator varying general signal level by manual control.
So far I have explained how the signal has been attenuated to remove gradual intensity changes, leaving to be considered the tandem connected fast acting circuit. The fast acting automatic signal attenuator illustrated in Fig. 1B functions in a manner somewhat analogous to the slow acting attenuator but at a much faster rate. The sole purpose of this second attenuator is to take care of exceedingly rapid signal surges realized across the previously mentioned load resistances 27 and 28, shown in the output of the slow acting attenuator circuit of Fig. 1A. The signal impressed across these load resistors is first amplified by amplifiers 51 and 52, which may be of the cathode follower type, as illustrated, and then fed to the input of delay line 55. The output of cathode-follower amplifiers 51 and 52 is also coupled to a rectifier system through push-pull amplifier 71, Where it is rectified and impressed across a time constant circuit or fast acting integration circuit 73. It is to be noted that the charging rate of the integrating network 73 is controlled, in the main, by the impedances of the rectifying diodes and their input circuit in conjunction with the capacitance of the integrator capacitor. By using low impedance diodes, the charge time constant can be made practically instantaneous. The discharge time constant of the network is controlled by the value of the resistor shunted across the integrator capacitor, which is selected with several factors in mind. First, the charge across the integrator should not exactly follow decreasing signal intensity values but rather should lag slightly in time phase. This criterion has been established by tests and proved to be more satisfactory because it allows the attenuating action of the circuit to be averaged out rather than drop off abruptly after a high intensity surge has been attenuated. Second, the time constant of this integration circuit dictates the'amount of delay necessary in delay line 55 and obviously a short delay period can be more readily supplied than a longer one. The resultant integrated control signal is fed through a D.-C. exponential amplifier 74, the purpose of which will be explained, and the output used to control the resistance of tubes 69 and 70 in a manner similar to that described in connection with the circuit of Fig. 1A.
The input to the fast acting resistance bridge type attenuator is taken from across the output of push-pull connected amplifier 61 which in turn is coupled to the output of delay means 55. The purpose of delay means 55 is to delay the input signal for a period long enough to allow a control potential to be developed and applied to the fast acting resistance bridge type attenuator. Thus the attenuation offered by the network is adjusted before the signal to be attenuated is placed across its input terminals and it should be noted that the delay period is selected to be substantially equal to the time required for the control circuit to adjust the fast acting resistance bridge attenuator. If the delay is too long, control action will be apparent on signals which are ahead of the high intensity surges in time phase and obviously such action must be minimized. On the other hand if the delay period is too short a portion of the high intensity signal will pass through the network without proper attenuation. Thus the basic points to be considered in selecting the optimum delay period are first, the charging time constant selected for the integrator circuit, and second, the time period required for the attenuator bridge to assume a controlled position once a control potential is impressed on the grids of the control tubes. The purpose of the exponential amplifier will now be explained.
Though the bridge networks used in the slow acting attenuator circuit and the fast acting attenuator circuit have a control characteristic such that equal incremental changes in control potential do not exactly produce equal incremental attenuation changes, this is of no importance when a rectified feed-back type circuit is used as is shown in Fig. 1A. However, this factor enters importantly into the choice of amplifier characteristics necessary in exponential amplifier 74, as used in the fast acting attenuation circuit. In order to understand this it must be remembered that there is a given control potential which completely balances the bridge type attenuator, causing one hundred percent attenuation of the input signal. Further, it must be realized that this action can not take place in the slow acting circuit because the vacuum tube resistance arms are controlled by a signal which is taken from the output of the slow acting attenuator itself. In other words, since it takes a maximum signal to drive the attenuator bridge to one hundred percent attenuation, the fact that the control potential for the vacuum tube resistance arms is taken from the output of the bridge, in the slow acting circuit of Fig. 1A, eliminates any possibility of of one hundred percent attenuation because if one hundred percent attenuation were realized, there would be no control signal. Such a condition is patently impossible. In the fast acting attenuator, however, the control action is taken from a point ahead of the bridge, which means that the fast acting bridge has no control over its own control potential, the magnitude of the fast acting bridge control signal being entirely independent of the setting of the fast acting bridge network. It follows, then, that an input signal could have sufficient magnitude to drive the fast acting attenuator bridge network to one hundred percent attenuation if a control potential linearly related to the input signal were used. To get around this, an exponential amplifier is connected into the control signal channel and an exponential characteristic is selected, by test, such that the control potential is always less than the potential required to balance out the bridge over the operating range of the circuit. Variable resistors 103,
-104 are supplied in the cathode circuits of theexponential--amplifier.74 forvarying the output characteristic ofthe amplifier. Alsopotentiometers-SS and-59 are supplied -to control the grid drive and thus the output of push-pull amplifier 71. 'for" these controls can beselected from data taken in a simple: operating test. First, atest signal is impressed across -potentiometers-- 58 and 59. Potentiometers 58 -and='59 along with the exponential amplifier cathoderesistors arethen incrementallyvaried and an output vs. input characteristic-curve is plotted for various settings oi-the controls. The-controls are then adjusted from the curve data-so-that the attenuator'works along a curve "similar-tocurve 462 of Fig. 43 without ever driving the bridge 'toone hundred percent attenuation.
The resistance bridge used'in'the fast acting circuit is symmetricallyarranged'in the same manner as the slow -acting-resistance bridge, symmetry being maintained with respect to themajor arms andthe' diagonal arms. How- -ever, the fast-actingbridgeis not directly connected into "an amplifier anode-cathode circuit as is the slow acting bridge andthus-the action is slightly'diiferent. .In Fig. 3A I have shown an equivalent diagram of the fast acting-attenuator bridge'circuit which can be used to ex- -plain-operation under various control signal conditions.
-It will be -noticed,'by comparing Fig; 3A and Fig. 1B, -that-vacuumtubes 69 and 7t) have been replacedwith 1 variable resistors inthe equivalent circuitofFig. 3A. Also-it will be noticed'that a switchmeans S has been 1 included. The purpose of'the switch is to simulate ac- -tual*circuit conditions realized whenthe vacuum tube --resistance arms are biased above or below cut-olf. To
understand operation, first assume that an A.-C. signal voltage- Em is impressed across the input transformer, 62s,- .with an instantaneous polarity as indicated. Also assume that the arms'of switch- S are -open; -in other words vacuum-tubes 69 and-70 are assumed to be cut- -=ofi. I Under these conditions, A.-C. signal current will flow from the-positive side to the negativeside 'of-trans- 'former6-2s over two paths, viz., (1) through resistor 63, .resistor 65 andresistor 68 and (2)- alsothroughresistors 67, 66 and 64. 'Since the-total resistance represented -byresistors 63-and 65-is less than that of-resistor- 67,
"there is: a larger drop across resistor 67 than there is Therefore, terminal A, on,
. across resistors'63, 1 65. the 1 output transformer, is made positive relative to :terminal B, signal current flowing from terminal-A to terminaljB. Now 'ifit be assumed that 'both'arms'of switch' S are-closed so-asto connect the variable'resistors w to eachother, -it can be seen that a third current path is drop across resistors 63 and 64. It will also be apparent what-this current flowsvinto the junctionwof; resistors 63 '-.:and 67 up through resistor 63, through resistorst69, 70. and 64 back to the negative side of input; transformer i 62s, producing a drop across resistor 63 having a polarity such as to lower the potential at the junction of resistors 63- and 65 relative to the potential at the junction-ofresistors 63 and- 67. It-follows,---then,--that there is a re- 7 sistance -setting,--to-which variableresistors-69 and 70 =-may-be-adjusted, which will-produceenough additional drop across resistor-63 so as-tomake--terminal-' A have zero potential relative to-terrn-inal B. It also can be seen --that ifsuflicient-currentis taken'through-this third path- :the drop across resistor63 will become large .enough and ,have the correct polarity so as to make terminalA negative with respectto terminal'B. At this point signal current. will of necessity flow from terminal B :through 1 the -output transformer to terminal A. 1 From-this it fol- The proper operating point -lows that-the fast actingattenuator bridge is capable of varyingthe output signal from a maximum potentialof one-polarity *down through zero potentialup-through a -maximum potential of opposite polarity. In otherwords, the bridge has two functions, viz., a signal attenuation function and a polarity reversal functionmuch the same as has 'been explained with regard to-the slow acting attenuator bridge. As has been said, in the specific embodiment disclosed the-polarity reversal function is not utilized; however, it is possible to take advantage of this action and I do not intend to be limited to -the specific embodiment shown.
In Fig. 3B I have shown a rearranged schematic circuit diagra-Inof the fast acting'attenuator bridge laid out in a-form so as to make a-comparison between the equivalent circuit of Fig. 3A and the actual fastacting attenuator circuit readily understandable. Referring to Fig. 313, if it be assumed that vacuum tubes 69 and"-7t) are cut-off, it can be seen that the circuit of-fFig. 3B functions in the same'manner as does the -circuit ofFig. "3A when switch S is open. in other words, if an'A.-C. inputsignal has an instantaneous polarity as indicated onthe drawing, terminal A of the output transformer will be driven positive relative to terminal B because the signal current drop'through diagonal resistance arm 67 is greaterthanthe; potential drop through major-arm resistors 63, .65. Also,it will be apparent that'the polarityofthe output signal reverses when the polarity of the input signal reverses.
"Considering operation of the circuit of Fig. 38 when vacuum tubesg69, 70 present a finite impedance to the A.-C. signal to be attenuated, it will be seen, by comparison to Fig. 3A, that it is necessary for the vacuum tube resistance armsto have a substantially constant A.-C. plate resistance, r for eachsetting of the control grid voltage taken from the output exponential amplifier 74. In order to keep'the A'.-C. plate resistance of the vacuum tube bridge arms substantially constant it is necessary to supply a D;-C. plate potential which has a magnitude on the order of ten timesthe magnitude of the. maximum A.-C.,signal to be impressed across the plate cathode paths of the tubes. This plate potential is connected between ground and the junction of resistors 80,"'81,'the combination being connected across output terminals .A,"B. The DC. current that'fiows in the circuit can be, ignored, in so. far as the "the A.-C. drop acrossresistors .63 and 64 in much the was ,same manner as has been explained with regard to the circuit of Fig. 3A. Also when the polarity of'the input signal voltage changes it will be apparent that the polarity -ofthe=A.5C.-d rop across resistors 64 and 63 will also change. It can now-be seen that the attenuator bridge circuit offFig. 1B,.is as capable of varying the output signal from a maximum of one polarity down through -zero-potential-and up "through a maximum potential of -oppositepolarity, as is the equivalentc-ircuit of Fig. 3A, 'and' that'the action of the attenuator br'idgecircuit of Fig.
- 1A isverysimilar.
'iOperation of the'circuits, of Fig. 1A and Fig. 1B when cascaded will now be considered, with reference, to 't'he curves of Fig-.1 4A and Fig. 4B, which are idealized characteristic curves of the slow actingand the fast acting cir- -cuits respectively. Assuming that my novel circuit combination is connected into a broadcast transmitter, before adjusting the circuitit is necessary to determine, as accurately-asis possible, the estimated programvolume -range. I For example, the program volume range might be t similar to range-A shown in'Fig. 4B. From this ;.can--be determined the maximum signal volume to be impressed on the input of amplifiers 11 and 12. Next, the bias on the vacuum tube resistance arms is set so that the slow acting attenuator is operating at approximately point B along the curve 302 of Fig. 4A at maximum signal intensity. Then the input of the fast acting attenuator, on load resistor taps 49 and 50, is adjusted so as to place the anticipated maximum signal swing at M on curve 402 of Fig. 4B. If the program volume range is similar to range A, and the peak is at point M on curve 402, it follows that the minimum range should strike curve 402 approximately at 0.
When the actual signal is fed into the circuit, after it has been adjusted in the manner described, the slow acting attenuator will take up its normal operating position along curve 302, while the fast acting attenuator will take up a nOrrnal operating position between the limits of M and O on curve 402. If a fairly rapid signal surge, i. e., one which is too rapid to be handled by the slow acting network, because of its inherently slow time constant, hits the circuit, the slow acting network will fail to respond and the signal will be a amplified in this network along a curve shown by the dashed line tangent to point B on curve 302 in Fig. 4A. However, the fast acting attenuator, having a very short time constant control circuit, rapidly responds to limit the signal amplitude along curve 402 somewhere above point M, if the signal is outside of the anticipated volume range. As has been explained, because of the delay line shown at 55 in Fig. 1B the control action of the fast acting attenuator circuit responds very rapidly. Since the control action is not one which varies over the cycle of the signal, per se, but rather takes up a setting and holds it so long as the signal remains at a constant peak volume, the only harmonic distortion that results is introduced from one or two signal cycles at the most.
If the circuit has been adjusted in the manner described, essentially no distortion will be realized. If this signal strength is maintained for a period long enough for the slow acting time constant circuit to charge up, the amplification characteristic of the slow acting network will be slowly moved back along the dashed line and assume a position on curve 302. The resulting increased attenuation, which is ahead of the fast acting circuit, forces the output signal in the fast acting circuit to be moved back down along characteristic curve 402, until the attenuator takes up its normal position, attenuating the signal between the limits of M and 0. Thus it can be seen that the cascaded circuit combination acts as a unit to control signal volume swing over a dynamic range, limiting the peaks of instantaneous signal surges.
Referring again to the curves of Fig. 4B, with respect to the linear amplification curve 401, it can be seen that a program volume range having a swing equal to A would result in a full expression output swing between one hundred percent modulation and twenty percent modulation. Using my novel circuit the same volume range is made to swing between point M and point on curve 402, resulting in a compressed volume range output varying between approximately sixty percent modulation and one hundred percent modulation. Volume compression has a decided advantage over full expression. With full expression transmission, i. e., linear amplification, receivers at some given distance from the transmitter would obviously have a difficult task in discriminating against background noise, and weak parts of the modulation would be so intermingled with noise as to be practically useless. However the same receiver at the same given distance from the transmitter, assuming that the same amount of power is used at one hundred percent modulation, would be able to receive the volume compressed signal without noise dilficulty, because the minimum modulation point would be somewhere around sixty percent, considerably higher than the twenty percent modulation point of full expression." In other words, it is possible to increase the area of reception of a transmitter having a given amount of power by compressing the volume range of the transmitted signal so that the minimum average signal swing is always held at a fairly high percentage modulation point. The economics of the situation are so obvious that further explanation of the advantages of volume compression seems unnecessary.
Even though fringe area reception is improved, regardless of the type of volume compression used, I have found that a volume compression curve similar to curve 402 has the decided advantage of making volume compression so gradual that it is practically impossible for an average listener to tell the difierence between the volume compressed reception and the ideal full expression. This is to be compared with prior art curves such as curve 403 of Fig. 4B which use an abrupt limiting curve that can be quite noticeable because of the sudden shrinkage of the dynamic characteristic at one hundred percent modulation.
It will now be apparent that I have provided an automatic volume control circuit comprising a slow acting dynamic volume control circuit (Fig. 1A) and a fast acting dynamic volume control circuit (Fig. 1B) connected in cascade, said slow acting dynamic volume control circuit comprising a push-pull amplifier (11, 12) having an input circuit (transformer 10) connected across a source of push-pull signals, and two anode circuits, a resistance bridge having a major arm (15, 19 and 16, 20) connected in each of said anode circuits, diagonal resistance arms (21, 22) for said bridge, symmetrically connected D.-C. controlled variable resistance arms (17, 18) for said bridge, control means (29, 40, 42 and 47) connected between the output of said bridge and said variable resistance arms (17, 18) for supplying a control potential to said variable resistance arms which varies in response to gradual volume level changes in the pushpull output (28) of said bridge; said fast acting dynamic volume control circuit comprising a second resistance bridge having major resistance arms (63, 65 and 64, 66) diagonal resistance arms (67, 68) and symmetrically connected D.-C. controlled variable resistance arms (69, 70) control means (71, 72, 73 and 74) coupled between the output of said slow acting dynamic volume control amplifier and the D.-C. signal controlled variable resistance arms (69, 70) in said second resistance bridge for supplying a control potential which varies in response to instantaneous changes in push-pull signal volume level, delay means (55) coupled between said second resistance bridge and the output of said slow acting dynamic volume control amplifier, said delay means providing a signal delay substantially equal to the time period required for a signal fed to said control means to change bridge attenuation.
While I do not desire to be limited to any specific parameters, such parameters varying in accordance with requirements of individual designs, the following circuit values have been found to be entirely satisfactory in the specific and successful illustrated embodiment of the invention:
Tubes: Type 11, 12, 17, 18, 29, 51, 52, 61 6SN7G 69, 70, 72 6AS7 101, 102 6SK7 40, 42 6J5 Resistors: Values 15, 16 ohms 25,000 19, 20 do 27,000 21, 22 do 100,000 43, 45 do 100,000 46 megohms 1 48 do. 10 63, 64 ohms 1,068 65, 66 do 1,373 67, 68 do 2,708
While there has been shown and described what at present is considered the preferred embodiment of the ..present invention, it will now be obvious to those skilled initheartthat various changes and modificationsmay 'bejmade therein'without'dc arting from the invention as defined in the appended claims.
I claim: 1. A controlled volurnecompressor comprising: a slow- --act-ing signal attenuatingunitincluding an outputcircuit, aan input circuit.coupledto a;push-pul1 sourceof: audio frequency signals, and electron valve means of the type responsive to a control voltage of negative polarity to decrease attenuation and of positive polarity to increase attenuation; a rearward-acting level control unit coupled between said output circuit and said valve means for producing a control voltage which is of negative polarity for input signals below a predetermined level and of positive polarity for input signals above said level, said control unit comprising a high impedance diode circuit for providing the negative portion of such control voltage and an opposing delayed low impedance diode circuit for providing the positive portion of such voltage, a slowacting integrating circuit connected to and providing a load for both of said diode circuits, means for coupling both of said diode circuits to the output circuit of said attenuating unit, and means for coupling said integrating circuit to said valve means to apply the control voltage thereto, the slow-acting attenuating unit and its valves and the level control unit and its diodes and integrating circuits being so proportioned as to hold the output signals of the attenuating unit near such predetermined level; a fast-acting signal attenuating unit including an output circuit, an input circuit, and electron valve means of the type responsive to a control voltage to vary attenuation; an audio signal delay network coupled between the last-named input circuit and the output circuit of the slow-acting attenuating unit; a forward-acting control unit including a rectifier, a fast-acting integrating circuit and an exponential amplifier coupled in cascade between the output circuit of the slow-acting unit and the electron valve means of the fast-acting attenuation unit, said fastacting attenuating unit and said forward-acting control unit being so proportioned as to produce an exponential volume compression characteristic having a region in which power output gradually and smoothly varies from 60% to 100% when plotted as ordinates on a Cartesian frame of coordinates against input signal levels varying from to 100% plotted as abscissae, the components of the slow-acting attenuating unit and the control unit for same being proportioned to maintain the above-mentioned predetermined level in that region of such compression characteristics.
2. A controlled volume compressor comprising: a slowacting signal attenuating unit including an output circuit, an input circuit coupled to a push-pull source of audio frequency signals, and electron valve means of the type responsive to a control voltage of one polarity to decrease attenuation and of opposite polarity to increase attenuation; a rearward-acting control unit having diode and integrating circuits coupled between said output circuit and said valve means for producing control voltage which is of one polarity for input signals below a predetermined level and of opposite polarity for input signals above said level, the components of the attenuating unit and the control unit and its diode and integrating circuits being so selected as to hold the mean intensity of the output signals of the attenuating unit near such predetermined level; a fast-acting signal attenuating unit including an output circuit, an input circuit, and electron valve means of the type responsive to a control voltage to vary attenuation; an audio signal delay network coupled be tween the last-named input circuit and the output circuit of the slow-acting attenuating unit; a forward-acting control unit coupled between the output circuit of the slowacting unit and the electron valve means of the fast-acting unit, said fast-acting attenuating unit and said forward-acting control unit being so proportioned as to pro- 'duce an exponential volume. compression characteristic having a region in which power output graduallyand smoothly varies from 60% to when plotted as ordinates on a Cartesian frame of coordinates against input signal levels varying from 0% to 100%plotted as abscissaepthe slow-acting attenuating unit and its valves and the control 'unitfor'same being so-selected and proportionedas to maintain ,the' above-mentioned predetermined level in that region.
3. In combination, a source of audio frequency signals, an attenuating network having an input circuit and an output circuit, said input circuit being coupled to said source, said network being of the type whose attenuating characteristic is governed by a control voltage, and a rectifying system for developing said control voltage, said rectifying system comprising a pair of diode tubes each having an anode and a cathode, a relatively high resistor connected to the anode of one of said diodes, a relatively low resistor connected to the cathode of the other of said diodes, an integrating network comprising a parallel combination of resistance and capacitance conductively connected to the junction of said resistors, means including resistance-capacitance networks for coupling the output circuit of said attenuating network to the remaining electrodes of said tubes, a source of biasing potential having a positive terminal conductively connected to the cathode of said one diode and its negative terminal conductively connected to the anode of said other diode, said source furnishing a negative charge to the integrating network through the high resistance path of the circuit of said one diode when the output of the attenuating network is insuflicient to render the other diode conductive, the output of the attenuating network furnishing an opposing positive charge to the integrating network through the low resistance path of said other diode when the output of said attenuating network is of sufiicient intensity to overcome the negative bias on the anode of said other diode and to render it conductive, and a conductive connection from said integrating network to said attenuating network for applying to said attenuating network the control voltage developed in said integrating network.
4. In combination, a source of audio frequency signals, an attenuating network having an input circuit and an output circuit, said input circuit being coupled to said source, said network being of the type whose attenuating characteristic is governed by a control voltage, and a rectifying system for developing said control voltage, said rectifying system comprising a pair of diode tubes each having an anode and a cathode, a relatively high resistor connected to the anode of one of said diodes, a relatively low resistor connected to the cathode of the other of said diodes, an integrating network comprising a parallel combination of resistance and capacitance conductively connected to the junction of said resistors, means including resistance-capacitance networks for coupling the output circuit of said attenuating network to the remaining electrodes of said tubes, a source of biasing potential having a positive terminal conductively connected to the cathode of said one diode and its negative terminal conductively connected to the anode of said other diode, said resistance-capacitance networks including equal individual resistors connected between the positive terminal of said biasing source and the cathode of said one diode and between the negative terminal of said biasing source and the anode of said other diode, said source furnishing a negative charge to the integrating network through the high resistance path of the circuit of said one diode when the output of the attenuating network is insufiicient to render the other diode conductive, the output of the attentuating network furnishing an opposing positive charge to the integrating network through the low resistance path of said other diode when the output of said attenuating network is of sufiicient intensity to overcome the negative bias on the anode of said other diode and to render it conductive, and a conductive connection from said integrating network to said attenuating network for applying to said attenuating network the control voltage developed in said integrating network.
References Cited in the file of this patent 16 Aubert Oct. 23, 1934 Pulvari -2 Ian. 24, 1939 Davis June 18, 1940 Rockwell Nov. 25, 1941 Scherbatskoy Sept. 14, 1943 Hadfield Sept. 25, 1951 Moe Jan. 1, 1952 Appleman Jan, 20, 1953
|Cited Patent
|Filing date
|Publication date
|Jun 25, 1929
|Dec 20, 1932
|American Telephone & Telegraph
|Variable gain circuit device
|May 4, 1931
|Oct 23, 1934
|Automatic volume control
|Oct 2, 1935
|Jan 24, 1939
|Karl Pulvari-Pulvermacher
|Means for avoiding disturbances in the reception of electric oscillations
|Oct 20, 1938
|Jun 18, 1940
|Collins Radio Co
|Limiting amplifier control means
|Aug 28, 1936
|Nov 25, 1941
|Crosley Corp
|Expander and limiter circuits
|Sep 7, 1937
|Sep 14, 1943
|Engineering Lab Inc
|Automatic volume control
|Mar 24, 1945
|Sep 25, 1951
|Automatic Elect Lab
|Frequency selective circuit
|Jul 23, 1947
|Jan 1, 1952
|Time Inc
|Alternating-volatge compression network
|Mar 8, 1946
|Jan 20, 1953
|Mason Kolehmainen
|Signal-operated variable-gain amplifying system
|Citing Patent
|Filing date
|Publication date
|Dec 11, 1957
|Aug 9, 1960
|Affelder Charles J
|Audio level governing device
|Jan 22, 1970
|Dec 21, 1971
|Blaupunkt Werke Gmbh
|Multichannel dynamic level control circuit
|Dec 3, 1984
|Feb 17, 1987
|Carter-Duncan Corporation
|Variable power amplifier for audio frequency signals and method
|Jan 16, 1996
|Sep 16, 1997
|Peavey Electronics Corporation
|Tube type power amplifier with distortion control
|U.S. Classification
|330/120, 381/107, 330/122, 330/145
|International Classification
|Cooperative Classification
|European Classification


text:
Austin, TXUSA
June 25, 2008
My grandmother taught me how to do both as a child and I picked up knitting again from a book in my mid twenties.
A blanket because I am always cold.
I always go back to knitting. It is relaxing and does not impede good conversation.
I have been knitting for years but my purling could use some help. I am ready to move past the single stitch scarf onto bigger and better things. I also miss celebrating other people's crafty accomplishments.
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subset: commoncrawl


text:
February 13, 1991:
Any new hires must earn a minimum of $5000.00 per year and work a minimum of twenty (20) hours per week to be eligible for membership into the Norwood Retirement System. (Traffic and Cafeteria Workers are exempt).
December 31, 1984:
1. Service Credit for Employees on Provisional Basis.
Employees who are employed on a full-time regular basis and wish to receive credit for the time they spent on a provisional or part-time basis will be given credit for each month worked prior to becoming a full-time regular employee. Any part of a month is to be considered a full month.
2. Part-time employees:.
The minimum salary for acceptance of part-time workers into the Norwood Contributory Retirement System shall be $1500.00 yearly. Anyone earning less than $1500.00 will not be accepted as a member.
In each and every case concerning part-time workers the board shall determine what service credit shall be for each individual permanent part-time position. The basis for a full year's credit shall be 2000 hours.
The Board has determined that this policy on part-time workers shall apply to all part-time workers now in the system as well as those who join the retirement system in the future.
3. Police Traffic Supervisors and Cafeteria Workers:
Police Traffic Supervisors and School Cafeteria Workers shall receive a full year's credit for each year worked. (Amended February 13, 1991. See Membership).


text:
28 Mar
Marvelous AQL's upcoming rhythm game for the Playstation Vita, entitled 「IA/VT Colorful」, features 60 songs from Vocaloid's IA. The first promotional video for the upcoming game is available for view after the cut.
The Playstation Vita game IA/VT Colorful is slated for release July 31st, 2014. It will be available in two editions; a normal version (4,800 yen) and a limited edition (9,420 yen).
*Tracklist: (confirmed so far)


text:
* required fields
The American Institute of Architects (AIA) and National Council of Architectural Registration Boards (NCARB) conducted an Internship and Career Survey that revealed that there is a steady rise in employment for intern architects, along with a general sense of optimism in the future of employment prospects for the architecture profession. This is an interesting development as news from the industry during recent economic times can be less than promising. Could this be a sign of an industry bounceback?
Interested parties can check out the full report here, but here are some quick highlights -
• 78% of respondents reported being employed in professional architecture work – an 8% increase from 2010
• 6% of respondents reported that they are unemployed – an 11% decrease from 2010
• 70% of respondents said that they would remain in the architecture profession after having been laid off
• 62% of interns indicate it taking three to five years to complete the Intern Development Program (IDP)
• 53% of interns were able to complete all 17 IDP experience area requirements at one firm
• 40% of interns are taking the Architecture Registration Examination concurrent with IDP
There were more than 10,000 responses to the survey that was executed in 2012 by The Rickinson Group, an independent third-party marketing research supplier.
Visit our website today to learn about the design flexibility of a Morton building and the endless possibilities of partnering with our designBUILD team.
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Mitsubishi Electric's CITY MULTI L-Generation features unique HexiCoilÔ zinc-aluminum heat exchanger technology that delivers an up to 50% reduction in required refrigerant charge. Learn more at MitsubishiPro.com/Ready.
Need portable cooling? Sunbelt Rentals offers the largest fleet of cooling, heating and dehumidification equipment. 24/7. Nationwide.
DSX Access Systems – An industry leader in the design and sales of integrated access control products from single-door to enterprise-wide systems. www.dsxinc.com.
CustodianTM Paint Maintenance Manual. Custodian adds value to every project with easy-to-use documentation of all paint products and colors used to simplify future maintenance. Meet CustodianTM.
Spot Coolers commercial portable heating & cooling. Nationwide Emergency service 24/7. Your source for portable air conditioning rentals and sales.
The BUILDINGS brand serves commercial building owners and facilities management professionals for commercial real estate. BUILDINGS brand offers its audience of commercial building owners and facilities management professionals information on the development, construction, modernization, management and operations of commercial buildings as well as the products and services needed to support such commercial buildings and facilities management. With the information we offer, we help facilities management professionals make smarter decisions for commercial buildings.
BUILDINGS delivers relevant and timely information that equips commercial building owners and facilities management professionals with the knowledge and support they need to solve critical issues; energy management, lowering operating costs, new products for commercial buildings, security, and much more.
BUILDINGS provides facilities management professionals commercial buildings tips and trends trough online webinar events (BuildingsVIP), monthly newsletters, whitepapers and case studies.
In addition to content, BUILDINGS features a comprehensive list of products and services and is your link to the companies that provide these valuable facilities management and commercial buildings resources.
You also have the opportunity to maintain your commercial buildings certifications with BUILDINGS. Continuing Education Units are available with approved content from BOMI.
©Copyright 2014 Stamats Communications, Inc. All rights reserved / BUILDINGS


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With 1.7 million freelancers, we'll match you with the perfect talent.
The client has made the following changes to the job.
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Hello, I'm looking for someone to help me meet a deadline. I will need to have this completed no later than January 25, 2013 in order to allow for me to create if need be.
I am in charge of doing a multi-media presentation, and have done them for the past 8 years. I'm having a bit of a design block and am looking for some fresh idea/design. I have very minimum budge for this, but am hoping someone will find this to be a very simple project and we can help each other out!
Here is are links to the parts that were made for last year. Obviously it was a "cartoon" theme. This year we are doing mardi-gras.
[obscured] /dealerfair12/flash/sioux-falls/introduction.swf
(awards - there will 3 separate files for this part, as we show this in 3 different towns)
[obscured] /dealerfair12/flash/sioux-falls/awards-SFW.swf
(advertising and open house)
[obscured] /dealerfair12/flash/sioux-falls/adv-openhouse.swf
I will need the files built in Flash CS3 with Act...
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text:
Theatre of War Walkthrough 2 - Theatre of War Walkthrough 2 Page 3
[img]ww2 2 (3)[/img]
The second line
One down, two more to go, and the second trench line already will prove a much more formidable task. This time there is not only more open ground to cover, the German defenders additionally have a couple of anti-tank guns at their disposal.
[img]ww2 2 (4)[/img]
They need to be dealt with first before the tanks can gain freedom to maneuver, which will be needed because the ground to cover is simply too wide and too open for the same frontal approach that worked with the first trench.
[img]ww2 2 (2)[/img]
Simply advancing infantry and tanks side by side and duelling with the anti-tank guns on the move does not yield the amount of suppressive fire needed for this approach, and rifles are not effective at this distance against an entrenched enemy.
[img]ww2 2 (1)[/img]
Therefore we order the infantry squads to cautiously and slowly advance in line, moving in short bursts, and firing back, while the tanks target the anti-tank guns from a fairly safe distance.
[img]ww2 2 (20)[/img]
With success! The three tanks with experienced crews take out the two German light anti-tank guns one by one. Keeping their front armor towards the enemy guns and usng the distance to their advantage as the guns were not able to more than scratch the armor at this range (this changes dramatically later in the war as heavy anti-tank guns such as the dreaded 88mm enter the scene on more frequently), the tanks win this brief duel. This teaches an important lesson - knowing the strengths and weaknesses of the
opposing armies for a given battle allows to make sound tactical decisions about the proper course of action. (Which is why TOW comes with an exhaustive interactive in-game encyclopedia, containing countless historical and technical facts about the equipment you will find in the game!)
[img]ww2 2 (21)[/img]
Resistance remains - although without the support of their guns, it will be much simpler to crush. The secret to clearing out a fortified position like this is to not fall into the trap of thinking of one's own tanks as immobile pillboxes only. Tanks have tracks - use them for maneuver!
[img]ww2 2 (22)[/img]
Using their newly gained freedom to maneuver after the two German guns are silenced, we order two of the tanks forward and keep one back for infantry support and overwatch.
[img]ww2 2 (5)[/img]
The attacking tanks will attempt to close the distance and flank the trench line from the left, while the infantry and one remaining tank will keep up the pressure from the front.
[img]ww2 2 (6)[/img]
Flanking is only useful when you continue applying frontal pressure, otherwise the enemy can easily shift his defenses and morph his flank into a new front.
[img]ww2 2 (23)[/img]
The infantry alone would not have the firepower at this distance to keep up enough frontal pressure, which is why the remaining tank plays an important role in this concept.
[img]ww2 2 (24)[/img]
With its MG and main gun it can keep up an accurate stream of fire, forcing the defenders to keep their heads down, thereby protecting the accompanying infantry.
[img]ww2 2 (7)[/img]
A pre-arranged artillery strike on the enemy positions supports the advance of the infantry, and gives the signal to start "leapfrogging" or "bounding overwatch" to advance towards the trenches.
[img]ww2 2 (8)[/img]
Despite the loss of its AT guns, the enemy is far from broken this time, and incoming fire from the intact machineguns and well aimed rifles causes the first wounded and casualties on the advancing infantry.
[img]ww2 2 (9)[/img]
Some of the soldiers seek cover close to the advancing tanks.
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text:
Welcome to NHS Health Scotland's
This space hosts a wide range of eLearning modules, event information, resources and forums.
Whether you'd like to find the right approach to mitigating health inequalities in areas such as alcohol and drugs, healthy weight or suicide prevention – or if you want to understand more about preventing health inequalities – these learning opportunities will give you the confidence to take the right action within your own area of work.
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Physical Activity Health Behaviour Change eLearning Scotland's Mental Health First Aid: Young People Choose Life Healthy Working Lives customer courses Health Scotland Staff Area


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Pricing is aggressive, suggests TSLA wants to move serious volume
Save some big bucks during these sales
Join the NASDAQ Community today and get free, instant access to portfolios, stock ratings, real-time alerts, and more!
Midway through trading Friday, the Dow traded up 0.37 percent
to 16,156.70 while the NASDAQ surged 0.52 percent to 4,065.70.
The S&P also rose, gaining 0.31 percent to 1,812.82.
Top Headline Wal-Mart Stores (NYSE:
) reported record-breaking Thanksgiving Day results. The company
processed more than 10 million register transactions in its
stores between 6 p.m. and 10 p.m. on Thanksgiving Day. Walmart
also recorded nearly 400 million page views on its website.
Wal-Mart sold 2.8 million towels, 1.9 million dolls, 1.4 million
tablets, 2 million televisions and 300,000 bicycles that day.
Equities Trading UP Rio Tinto plc (NYSE:
) shot up 4.95 percent to $53.46 after the company announced its
plans to suspend alumina production at Gove alumina refinery.
Shares of Telecom Italia SpA (NYSE:
) got a boost, shooting up 5.68 percent to $9.68 after HSBC
upgraded the stock from Neutral to Overweight.
eBay (NASDAQ:
) was also up, gaining 2.60 percent to $50.58 ahead of Cyber
Equities Trading DOWN Shares of Fortinet (NASDAQ:
) were down 12.88 percent to $17.11 after the company appointed
Nancy Bush as interim CFO.
Renren (NYSE:
) shares tumbled 11.19 percent to $2.98 after the company
reported downbeat Q3 revenue and issued a weak Q4 revenue
forecast. Jefferies downgraded the stock from Hold to
Underperform. Organovo Holdings (NYSE:
) was down, falling 5.51 percent to $8.67 after announcing it may
sell up to 4 million shares through an equity distribution
agreement via JMP Securities.
Commodities In commodity news,
oil traded up 1.53 percent
to $93.71, while gold traded up 1.30 percent to $1,254.00. Silver
traded up 2.10 percent Friday to $20.10, while copper rose 1.02
percent to $3.22.
Eurozone European shares
were mostly higher
today. The Spanish Ibex Index rose 0.04 percent, while Italy's
FTSE MIB Index declined 0.08 percent. Meanwhile, the German DAX
surged 0.29 percent and the French CAC 40 fell 0.05 percent while
U.K. shares rose 0.14 percent.
(c) 2013 Benzinga.com. Benzinga does not provide investment
advice. All rights reserved.
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text:
updated 04/30/2012 AT 8:00 AM ET
•originally published 04/30/2012 AT 9:00 AM ET
You might not get the chance to personally hang out with Jennifer Lopez backstage on her upcoming tour. But at the new JenniferLopez.com, you'll feel like you did.
The pop superstar and American Idol judge, 42, is re-launching her website Monday as a new online community featuring a "backstage pass" so fans can get closer than ever to the singer when she hits the road.
Registered users will get free access to the site's "Tour Feed" section, which will feature ticket giveaways for each show, interviews, messages, photos and more behind-the-scenes content from backstage. Fans will also be able to post messages to Lopez and to one another, and be guest bloggers.


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Join us at Art Unraveled 2016
August 1 - 9 in Phoenix, AZ
Website opens December, Registration in January 2016
Thanks for being with us at
Art Unraveled 2015
Website will close on September 1st
ENTER Art Unraveled
Adorn Me! 2016
Houston, TX March 1 - 6
Registration opens October 1, 2015
|We highly recommend you join the Yahoo group - it serves as our email list and is the way that news is sent to registrants. Post messages for a roommate, join swaps or communicate with others attending. Join our group!


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Sarah 's Library tagged → View Popular, Search in Google
Dec 07, 12
Columbia Benton Springs Long Hoodie (8-Colors) just $29.99 shipped... http://t.co/GPxIVqIz #Winter #Xmas #Christmas
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Skyway Drive-InSeptember 17, 2011Burgers • Fairlawn, United States
Good food, iffy service.
Check FUNFLICKS.com for movie listings.
Just opened. Based on previous experiences with Guys Pizza, this staff is quite a bit slower. If they say 15 minutes, think more like 30.
Phoelos has the best wings. They are huge! Get the sweet chili, it's the best.
Get the vegetarian chili. Ask for a side of hot sauce for an extra kick.
Best Pizza in Cleveland, get the pizza. Duh.
Their desserts are so pretty! The chocolate mousse is to die for.


text:
Offseason of change begins for Brewers
Counsell expects new GM to chart course for overhaul
MILWAUKEE -- "Embrace the change."
That was Craig Counsell's message from the moment he took over as Brewers manager on May 4, and it still echoed Sunday as a 3-1 loss to the Cubs capped a 68-94 season. It will continue to be Counsell's message moving forward, considering he characterized Sunday's season finale not as an ending, but as a beginning.
Adam McCalvy is a reporter for MLB.com. Follow him on Twitter @AdamMcCalvy, like him on Facebook and listen to his podcast. This story was not subject to the approval of Major League Baseball or its clubs.


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This Hama DS Magic-Docking stand is suitable for use with the Apple iPad. The 2-part set is comprised of a MagicStand and a charging/sync cable for the Apple iPad. The elegant docking station for the iPad, iPhone and iPod can also bed for charging and synchronisation. It also allows the device to be used horizontally and vertically.
Catalogue Number: 513-5512
- 2-part set comprising of a MagicStand & a charging/sync cable for iPad
- Elegant docking station for the iPad/iPhone/iPod
- Allows the device to be used horizontally & vertically
Sorry, there are currently no sellers for this product.


text: Causes of stress Category page Create Classic editor Talk0 This page needs content. You can help by adding a sentence or a photo. Add to this page!orSearch for "Causes of stress" "Assessment| Biopsychology| Comparative| Cognitive| Developmental| Language| Individual... Causes of stress Pages in category "Causes of stress" This category contains only the following page. C Causes of stress Retrieved from "http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Category:Causes_of_stress"