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Analysing gene expression data from microarray technologies is a very important task in biology and medicine, and particularly in cancer diagnosis. Different from most other popular methods in high dimensional bio-medical data analysis, such as microarray gene expression or proteomics mass spectroscopy data analysis, fuzzy rule-based models can not only provide good classification results, but also easily be explained and interpreted in human understandable terms, by using fuzzy rules. However, the advantages offered by fuzzy-based techniques in microarray data analysis have not yet been fully explored in the literature. Although some recently developed fuzzy-based modeling approaches can provide satisfactory classification results, the rule bases generated by most of the reported fuzzy models for gene expression data are still too large to be easily comprehensible.
In this paper, we develop some Multi-Objective Evolutionary Algorithms based Interpretable Fuzzy (MOEAIF) methods for analysing high dimensional bio-medical data sets, such as microarray gene expression data and proteomics mass spectroscopy data. We mainly focus on evaluating our proposed models on microarray gene expression cancer data sets, i.e., the lung cancer data set and the colon cancer data set, but we extend our investigations to other type of cancer data set, such as the ovarian cancer data set. The experimental studies have shown that relatively simple and small fuzzy rule bases, with satisfactory classification performance, can be successfully obtained for challenging microarray gene expression datasets.
We believe that fuzzy-based techniques, and in particular the methods proposed in this paper, can be very useful tools in dealing with high dimensional cancer data. We also argue that the potential of applying fuzzy-based techniques to microarray data analysis need to be further explored.
Microarray techniques allow simultaneous measuring of the expression of thousands of genes under different experimental environments and conditions. They allow us to analyse the gene information very rapidly by managing them at one time. The gene expression profiles from particular microarray experiments have been widely used for cancer classification [1-3]. However, the amount of data produced by this new technology is usually too large to be manually analysed. Hence, the need to automatically analyse the microarray data offers an opportunity for Machine Learning (ML) methods to have a significant impact on cancer research.
The data from a series of m microarray experiments can be represented as an m × n gene expression matrix (see Table 1), where each row represents a sample described by the expression of n genes from one experiment. Each sample belongs to a certain class, i.e., cancer or non-cancer. Compared to some other classical problems in machine learning, microarray data sets pose various problems. The number of features (genes), usually in the range of 2,000-30,000, is much larger than the number of examples (usually in the range of 40-200). In addition, microarray data often brings in multiple missing gene expression values and noisy signals from the experiments. Therefore, classifying cancer mi-croarray gene expression data can be regarded as a high-dimensional-low-sample data problem with lots of noisy or missing data.
Table 1. A typical gene expression matrix X, where rows represent samples obtained under different experimental conditions and columns represent genes
Unsupervised methods, such as Clustering [4], and Self-Organizing Maps (SOMs) [5] were initially used to analyse the relationships among different genes. Subsequently, supervised methods, such as Support Vector Machines (SVMs) [6], Multi-Layer Perceptrons (MLPs or NNs) [7,8], K Nearest Neighbor (KNN) methods [9,10], etc., have been successfully applied to the classification of different tissues. But, most of the current methods in microarray data analysis are black box methods; these models can not satisfactorily reveal the hidden information in the data. This information usually plays a very important role in making a quality clinical diagnosis.
Different from black-box methods, fuzzy rule-based models can not only provide good classification results, but also easily be explained and interpreted in human understandable terms by using fuzzy rules. This provides the researchers or clinician an insight into the developed models. At the same time, fuzzy systems adapt numerical data (input/output pairs) onto human linguistic terms and offer very good capabilities of dealing with noisy and missing data. Compared to other popular rule-based models in the area, such as C4.5 Decision Trees (DTs) [11,12], the linguistic rules generated by our fuzzy-based models are short and easy to be read.
Unfortunately, rule-based methods have suffered some well-known limitations in dealing with high dimensional data. Very high dimensional feature vectors and lack of enough training samples are two major challenges for modeling microarray data in general, hence for the success of applying fuzzy models to this problem too. However, some recent developments in fuzzy systems provide us with some good ways to obtain good diagnosis results. For example, Vinterbo et al. [13] firstly used fuzzy rule bases to classify gene expression data, but this model only allow linear discrimination, and the classification performance is limited; an Adaptive-Network-based Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) was successfully applied for this problem in [14] too; Woolf and Wang [15] developed a fuzzy based model to analyse the relationships between genes, while Ressom et al. [16] used a clustering-based preprocessing method to increase the efficiency of the fuzzy models. All these reported systems are either small models which perform well on small data sets, or huge models which are difficult to be understood by the human experts. Other machine learning techniques, like genetic algorithms (GA) [17] or ensemble learning [18,19] have been adopted to allow fuzzy rule-based models to deal with a relative large number of features, but the obtained rule bases still look very complex to be easily comprehensible. Large model complexity significantly damages the main advantage of applying fuzzy models to this application, i.e., the inter-pretability of the models. The computational cost of constructing these models is generally very high too.
Normally, the accuracy of each fuzzy rule-based classifier is measured by the number of correctly classified training or testing patterns, while its in-terpretability is measured by the complexity of the model, more specifically, the number of fuzzy rules and the total number of antecedent conditions. Whereas both accuracy and interpretability were considered, multi-objective evolutionary based methods are introduced into our systems, hence, the name of Multi-Objective Evolutionary Algorithms based Interpretable Fuzzy (MOEAIF) models. We evaluated our proposed model on some well-known cancer data sets, i.e., the ovarian cancer data set, the lung cancer data set and the colon cancer data set. Experimental results are listed and discussed in the later section. Compared with most previously reported models, accurate and small fuzzy rule bases were obtained.
Gene Selection
A major goal for diagnostic research is to develop diagnostic procedures based on inexpensive microarrays that have enough probes to detect certain diseases. This requires the selection of some genes which are highly related to the particular classification problem, i.e., the informative genes. This process is called Gene Selection (GS), which corresponds to feature selection from any machine learning task in general. Two basic approaches for feature selection used in machine learning and information theory literature are the filter methods and the wrapper methods [9,20,20,21]. In theory, wrapper methods should provide more accurate classification results than filter methods [21]. The main disadvantage of the wrapper approach is its computational cost when combined with more complex algorithms such as SVM for example. The wrapper approach, which is popular in many machine learning applications, is not extensively used in DNA microarray tasks, and in most cases the gene selection is performed by ranking genes on the basis of scores, correlation coefficients, mutual information and sensitivity analysis. More detailed discussions of these two approaches can be found in [9,20,22-24]. As suggested in [25], a Fuzzy C-Mean Clustering based Enhanced Gene Selection method (FCCEGS) is applied in this paper as well for gene selection.
Improved Methods for Obtaining Interpretable Fuzzy Models
An ideal design of fuzzy rule-based models for microarray data analysis is when we find fuzzy rule-based models with good interpretability but with acceptable testing accuracy too. Compared to most popular methods in cancer microarray gene expression data analysis area, rule-based fuzzy models usually have relative high computational complexity. In order to obtain good fuzzy rule-based models, we adopted the following recent techniques to reduce the complexity of fuzzy rule-based models.
Weighted Fuzzy Rules
The fuzzy rules Rq used in our models are in the form of:
• Rq: If x1 is Aq1 and … and xn is Aqn, then Class Cq with CFq.
In the above rule, x = (x1,…,xn) is the n-dimensional input vector, Aqi is an antecedent fuzzy set for the i – th input variable, Cq is a consequent class, and CFq is a certainty degree (i.e., rule weight). The rule weight is a real number in the unit interval [0, 1].
Multiple Fuzzy Partitions
For a high-dimensional problem like microarray data analysis, the antecedent conditions of the generated rules are normally very numerous. Short fuzzy if-then rules with only a few antecedent conditions are obviously easy to understand for human users, and therefore a novel technique has been applied, as explained below. We simultaneously generated 14 fuzzy sets from multiple fuzzy partitions, as shown in Figure 1; "S", "MS", "M", "ML" and "L" denote Small, Medium Small (relatively small), Medium, Medium Large (relatively large) and Large, respectively. The "don't care" (DC) condition has been added as an additional set. There are 15 new fuzzy sets in total, and all of these fuzzy sets are fixed, without any tuning mechanism during the training. After training, some fuzzy if-then rules may have n antecedent conditions (i.e., have no DC conditions), and others may have only a few antecedent conditions (i.e., have more DC conditions).
Figure 1. Membership functions from multiple fuzzy partitions. 15 membership functions from four fuzzy partitions of the domain interval [0, 1]. S, MS, M, ML and L denote Small, Medium Small (relatively small), Medium, Medium Large (relatively large) and Large, respectively. DC denotes "Don't Care" membership function.
Simple Fuzzy Reasoning
Since we have 15 antecedent fuzzy sets for each attribute of our n-dimensional pattern classification problem, the total number of combinations of the antecedent fuzzy sets is 15n. Each combination is used as the antecedent part Aq of the fuzzy rule Rq. Its consequent class Cq and rule weight CFqare specified from compatible training patterns with Aq in the following heuristic manner.
First, we calculate the compatibility degree of each pattern xp with the antecedent part Aq of the rule Rq via a product operation like:
µAq(xp) = µAq1(xp1) ⋅…⋅µAqn(xpn) (1)
where µAq(•) is the membership function of Aqi. Then, the confidence of the fuzzy rule Aq ⇒ Class h is calculated for each class h as follows:
where m denotes the number of training patterns.
The consequent class Cq is specified by identifying the class with the maximum confidence:
where M is the number of classes.
When there is no pattern in the fuzzy sub-space defined by Aq, we do not generate any fuzzy rules with Aq in the antecedent part. This specification method of the consequent class of fuzzy rules has been used in a few studies since early 1990s [26]. It should be noted that the same consequent class as in Equations 2 and 3 is obtained when we use the support of the fuzzy rule Aq ⇒ Class h instead of the confidence degree. The support of the fuzzy rule is calculated as follows:
Different specifications for the rule weight CFq have been proposed and examined. In this paper, we only consider binary classification problem, we can use the following specification because good results were previously reported for that in these papers [27,28]:
Let S be a subset of candidate fuzzy rules, i.e., a fuzzy rule-based classifier. Each pattern xp is classified by a single winner rule Rw, which is chosen from the rule set S as follows:
We only generate short fuzzy rules with a few antecedent conditions, and it should be noted that the DC conditions can be omitted from fuzzy rules. This restriction is used in order to find a compact set of fuzzy rules with high interpretability. As for short fuzzy rules, we only use fuzzy rules that satisfy both the minimum confidence and support as candidate rules for the multi-objective genetic fuzzy rule selection mechanism.
Rule confidence and support can be used as pre-screening criteria for finding a tractable number of candidate fuzzy rules. The generated fuzzy if-then rules are then divided into T groups according to their consequent classes, where T is a user-defined parameter. Fuzzy if-then rules in each group are sorted in the descending order of a pre-screening criterion (i.e. confidence, support, or their product). For selecting Q candidate rules, the first Q/T rules are chosen from each of the T groups, and in this manner, we can choose an arbitrarily specified number of candidate fuzzy if-then rules (i.e., Q candidate rules). It should be noted that the aim of the candidate rule pre-screening is not to construct a fuzzy rule-based system, but to find candidate rules, from which a small number of fuzzy if-then rules are later selected. For using a variety of candidate rules in rule selection, we choose the same number of fuzzy if-then rules (i.e., Q/T candidate rules) for each class. By applying these new techniques, the models complexity and computational cost is significantly decreased.
The Multi-Objective Evolutionary Algorithms based Interpretable Fuzzy (MOEAIF) Model
In this section, we describe how to apply multi-objective evolutionary algorithms (MOEA) to extract fuzzy rule sets considering the balance between model accuracy and model interpretability.
Our task is to select a smaller number of simple fuzzy if-then rules with high classification performance, and this is performed by maximizing the classification accuracy, minimizing the number of selected rules, and minimizing the total rule length at the same time. Therefore, the fitness value of each string S (i.e., each rule set S) in the current population is defined by the three objectives using the following fitness function:
where w = (w1, w2,w3), NCCP(S), NOR(S), and NOA(S) are the weight vector, the number of correctly classified training patterns, the number of selected fuzzy rules in S, and the total number of antecedent conditions in S, respectively. The weights w1,w2,w3 must satisfy the following conditions:
As suggested by [29,30], a rule subset R consisting of the Q candidate rules can be represented by a binary string as:
where rq = 0 means that the q-th candidate rule rq is not included in the rule set R, while rq' = 1 means that rq' is included in R.
To keep the model complexity low, a simple two-points crossover strategy is applied to each pair of parent strings to generate a new string. Biased mutation is applied to the generated string to efficiently decrease the number of fuzzy if-then rules included in each string, that is, different mutation probabilities are used for the mutation from 1 to 0 and the one from 0 to 1. For example, the mutation probability from 1 to 0, , and that from 0 to 1, , are defined as:
where w1,w2,w3 are the user defined weights of the three search objectives in the fitness function, and PA10 and PA10 are two initial fixed parameters. A larger probability is normally assigned to the mutation from 1 to 0 than to that from 0 to 1, in order to efficiently decrease the number of fuzzy if-then rules (i.e., the number of 1s) included in each string. By applying the Equations 11 and 12, the mutation rate can be automatically adjusted according to user different purposes. Our MOEAIF can be summarized as follows:
1. Step 1: Randomly generate Npop (number of individuals in the population) binary strings of length Q as an initial population. Specify the crossover probability pc, two mutation probabilities, PA10 and PA10, and the stopping condition;
2. Step 2: Generate Npop children strings by applying crossover and mutation to the current population;
3. Step 3: Calculate the three-objectives fitness value for each string; unnecessary rules are removed from each string;
4. Step 4: Update the next population by selecting top ranked individuals;
5. Step 5: Stop, if the stopping condition is satisfied or the maximum number of training epochs is reached, otherwise return to Step 2.
Results and Discussion
Cancer Data Sets
We evaluated our proposed MOEAIF models on three cancer data sets, namely the ovarian cancer data set, the lung cancer data set and the colon cancer data set.
• Lung Cancer Data Set
Lung Cancer Classification differentiates between malignant pleural mesothe-lioma (MPM) and adenocarcinoma (ADCA) of the lung. There are 181 reported samples in total, where 31 samples belong to MPM and 150 samples belong to ADCA. The training set contains 32 samples, 16 MPM and 16 ADCA, and the remaining 149 samples are used for testing. The expression levels of 12,533 features were report in each sample. Each feature represents one probe, for example, the feature 1018.at represents the probe 1018 at. The data is available at http://cilab.ujn.edu.cn/datasets.htm webcite.
• Ovarian Cancer Data Set
The ovarian cancer data set was first reported in [31]. The aim of the experiment was to identify proteomic patterns in serum that distinguish ovarian cancer from non-cancer. This study is significant to women who have a high risk of ovarian cancer due to family or personal history of cancer. The proteomic spectra were generated by mass spectroscopy and the raw data can be found at http://clinicalproteomics.steem.com webcite. There are 253 reported samples in this data set, where 91 samples belong to normal and 162 samples belong to ovarian cancers. The normalization is done over all the 253 samples for all 15154 M/Z identities. After the normalization, each intensity value is to fall within the range of 0 to 1. The data is available at http://cilab.ujn.edu.cn/datasets.htm webcite.
• Colon Cancer Data Set
The data set used here was firstly reported in [1]. This data set contains 62 samples, of which 40 are tumour samples, and 22 normal samples. About 6000 genes are represented in each sample in the original data set, out of which only 2000 were selected. The data is available at http://sdmc.i2r.astar.edu.sg/rp/ColonTumor/ColonTumor.html webcite.
Accuracy of the MOEAIF Models
Different sets of w1, w2 and w3 are used to simulate different users' requirements. From Table 2 and Table 3, we can see that when classification accuracy is preferred, we can achieve the highest testing accuracy, at 91.28% on lung cancer data, and 86.71% on ovarian cancer data. When the interpretability of the models is preferred, we can use two rules to classify lung cancer data with 89.26% testing accuracy, and three rules to classify lung cancer data with a testing accuracy of 91.28%. Very small rule bases for the lung cancer data set are obtained. Due to lack of enough training examples, a satisfactory testing accuracy on the colon data set was not obtained.
Table 2. Classification accuracy and interpretability of models on the lung cancer data set.
Table 3. Classification accuracy and interpretability of models on the ovarian cancer data set.
Interpretability of the MOEAIF Models
We further explore the rule base obtained by our MOEAIF approach for lung cancer data set, where w1=0.5, w2=0.3, and w3=0.2.
The whole training process is given in Figure 2. The up left figure shows the fitness value of the best rule base found in the population during the training, the up right figure shows the testing accuracy given by the best rule base, the total number of fuzzy rules in the rule base is given in the lower left figure, and the total length of rules in the rule base is given in the lower right figure. From these figures, a wide fluctuation of testing accuracy (right figure (up)) frequently appears at the early stage of training. By analyzing the population, we notice this phenomenon means there must exist some very strong fuzzy rules which have large effect on the final classification result. Including these rules in the selected rule subset will significantly change the fitness value and classification accuracy during training. In the training stage, this phenomenon can suggest to the users that a small, but useful fuzzy rule set exists in this data set. A good testing accuracy is obtained within the first few generations, which shows that the pre-screening of candidate rules plays a very important role in this case. Multiple fuzzy partition technique also helps us avoid the high computational cost of adjusting fuzzy membership functions like some previously built fuzzy models.
Figure 2. The rule extraction process for the lung cancer data set. Left (UP): The fitness value of the best rule base found in the population; Right (UP): The testing accuracy given by the best rule base; Left (Down): The total number of fuzzy rules in the rule base; Right (Down): The sum of the length of all rules in the rule base.
Compared to the lung cancer data set, it is more difficult to find an efficient small rule subset for the ovarian cancer data, see Figure 3, where the name of features are short for the names of M/Z identities. Ovarian cancer data normally require a large number of genes, a large rule subset and a large number of initial candidate rules to obtain acceptable testing accuracy. The algorithm can not converge when the number of the input genes is smaller than 8. Because the pre-processing stage has already defined a small search space, there is no need to set the number of generations to be a large number. It would not help the algorithm to converge if some useful rules are not in the initial rule base, and the testing accuracy can also be difficult to be further improved during the training.
Figure 3. The rule extraction process for the ovarian cancer data set. Left (UP): The fitness value of the best rule base found in the population; Right (UP): The testing accuracy given by the best rule base; Left (Down): The total number of fuzzy rules in the rule base; Right (Down): The sum of the length of all rules in the rule base.
Rule Extraction
We can easily extract fuzzy rules from the lung cancer data set by using a trained MOEAIF model. This fuzzy rule base can classify the testing data with the accuracy of 0.8993 by using only three rules (see Tables 4). Four input features are used in the model, i.e., the feature 40256.at, the feature 1018.at, the feature 35792.at and the feature 33357.at. From this table, we can see that the rules obtained by our MOEAIF model are linguistically interpretable, for example:
Table 4. The selected rule subset for lung cancer data when testing accuracy = 0.8993; "–" denotes "don't care" condition.
• Rule 1: If the feature 40256.at is "large" and the feature 33357.at is "large", then the sample is Cancer with CF=99.99%.
• Rule 2: If the feature 1018.at is "large" and the feature 33357.at is "medium", then the sample belongs to Normal with CF = 98.29%.
• Rule 3: If the feature 1018.at is "large" and the feature 35792.at is "relatively small", then the sample belongs to Normal with CF = 97.25%.
The membership functions of the feature 1018.at and the feature 35792.at in Rule1 are "dont't care", which can reduce the length of Rule1. The rules generated by our MOEAIF models are shorter than the rules from our previously built models [14,18,25] and some other reported rule-based models [11,32].
Table 5 gives a rule base generated for the ovarian cancer data set by using the MOEAIF approach. The rule bases generated from the ovarian cancer data set are normally larger than the rule bases generated from the lung cancer data set. There are 8 fuzzy rules in this rule base and the average length of the rules is 2. But this eight short rules can classify the testing data with an accuracy of 0.6375. Six features are used in the model, and the feature MZ6880.2 and the feature MZ18871.5 play important roles in most of the rules.
Table 5. The selected rule subset for ovarian cancer data when testing accuracy = 0.6375. "–" denotes "don't care".
In this paper, small and linguistically understandable fuzzy rule bases were obtained from challenging high dimensional cancer data sets by using our proposed Multi-Objective Evolutionary Algorithms based Interpretable Fuzzy (MOEAIF) method. The classification performance obtained by our models is also competitive. We also point out that an ideal design of fuzzy rule-based models for microarray gene expression data analysis includes two important tasks: designing low-complexity fuzzy models, and finding trade-off points between classification accuracy and model interpretability. We believe that fuzzy techniques and, in particular, the methods proposed in this paper can be very useful tools in dealing with microarray data. There also are some important issues that need to be addressed in the future. For example, some microarray gene expression data sets were generated directly from the probes set, and in some cases several probes may correspond to the same gene, or several different genes may hybridise to the same probes (i.e.,cross-hybridisation). If some of the input features (or probes) in a single rule are specific to the same gene(s), then this rule need to be deleted. Due to lack of enough training examples, satisfactory classification results were not always guaranteed in some small data sets, for example, the colon cancer data set in this paper.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors contributions
Zhenyu Wang has done the experiments and drafted the text, while Vasile Palade has contributed in guiding the experiments and checking and improving the text of the paper.
The authors would like to thank to the anonymous reviewers who have reviewed the original conference paper, whose comments were helpful in improving the paper. Zhenyu Wang would like to thank the Computing Laboratory, University of Oxford, for hosting this research while doing his PhD.
This article has been published as part of BMC Genomics Volume 12 Supplement 2, 2011: Selected articles from the IEEE International Conference on Bioinformatics and Biomedicine 2010. The full contents of the supplement are available online at http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2164/12?issue=S2.
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subset: commoncrawl


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Charles Mann watches Washington's Andre Carter and Brian Orakpo rush the passer and smiles, thinking about when he and Dexter Manley terrorized opposing quarterbacks for the Redskins in the 1980s.
Carter and Orakpo have been playing together for only one season, but they are already turning heads while wreaking havoc in enemy backfields. Each player has 11 sacks, and their combined total leads the league and is tied for fifth in Redskins history.
"It's a stretch on the comparisons right now, but if we go into next season and they're still rolling like this, then you can throw out all kinds of comparisons," said Mann, who teamed with Manley for a Redskins record 29.5 sacks in 1985, a year before they racked up 28. "If you have pressure on only one side of the pocket, the passer will go to the other side. You need more of a two-headed monster to be able get the sacks these guys are getting."
With one more sack, the Carter-Orakpo tandem will move up the list behind only the aforementioned Manley-Mann campaigns and Manley and Monte Coleman's 24-sack season in 1984.
"I never imagined we could be this good together," said Carter, who had just four sacks in 2008 when Jason Taylor and Demetric Evans shared the opposite end. "I knew Brian would help us, but this has been phenomenal."
Orakpo - who starts at strongside linebacker but moves to right end on passing downs - and Carter - who starts at right end but shifts to left end on passing downs - reached new heights last Sunday with six sacks at Oakland. Orakpo's four tied a franchise record held by Manley, Harvey, current left end Phillip Daniels and former tackle Diron Talbert.
"[During the] game, I said to Brian, 'You got three, huh? [Darn] it! I'm gonna catch up to you,' " Carter said, laughing. "I love rushing on the right side, but you kinda take one for the team because Brian's better off the right. Rushing off both sides has made me a better player, which I'm very thankful for."
Orakpo, drafted 13th overall in April, is just 3.5 sacks shy of the NFL rookie record set by Tennessee's Jevon Kearse in 1999.
"When Brian got drafted here, he looked like Jevon," said Redskins secondary coach Jerry Gray, who was on the Titans' staff when Kearse was a rookie. "The guys get off the football so fast and they're relentless."
Relentless is also the adjective Mann used to describe Carter, who will start a team-high 61st consecutive game Monday against the New York Giants.
"Great pass rushers - Bruce Smith, Reggie White, Clyde Simmons, whoever you want to throw out there - we all kind of had a go-to move," Mann said. "I don't see Andre that way. I see him as relentless. His tenacity gets him to the quarterback.
"And he's do durable. You can count on him. And something clicked this year for him in terms of his willpower, his get to the quarterback no matter what."
Certainly having free agent addition Albert Haynesworth in the middle has made a difference for Carter, but last week's huge game came with the massive All-Pro tackle out with a sprained ankle. The real difference has been Orakpo.
"Carter has always been a most difficult guy to have to contend with [and] the young player has definitely made his presence felt," Giants coach Tom Coughlin said.
Mann said Orakpo has "the total package" and is the best Redskins rookie he has seen since Hall of Fame cornerback Darrell Green, who debuted in 1983.


text: [ Boston Globe Writer Previews Patriots – Colts [AUDIO] By Armen Williams January 18, 2015 Boston Globe's Shalise Manza Young joined Armen and Levack and previewed the Colts traveling to the Patriots for the AFC Championship game. Read More|Comment Category: Audio, NFL, Sports, Videos Tags: boston globe, Colts, patriots, ravens, Shalize Manza Young Send to a friend! Share on Facebook Share on Twitter Pin it! Reddit This! Share on Tumblr!


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Steven Teuber, Elinor Scricca out as new faces take majority on Lee School Board
LEE COUNTY - There's a new majority in town.
New faces will fill three seats on the Lee County School Board; two of those seats belonged to incumbents who held their positions for nearly eight years.
In the District 4 election, Board Chair Steven Teuber, 47, lost to North Fort Myers plumber Don Armstrong, 39, who emerged with 52 percent of the vote.
In the District 5 election, Vice Chair Elinor Scricca, 79, lost her seat to Tom Scott, 62, director of the Southwest Florida Enterprise Center, a small-business incubator in Fort Myers. Scott, an Alva resident, won with a resounding 58 percent of the vote.
More than 23 percent of registered voters took part in the primary election in Lee County.
In the District 1 race to fill former Board Member Robert Chilmonik's vacant seat, Arnold Gibbs led a three-way race with 41 percent of the vote. Because Gibbs failed to get a majority of votes, the race will go to a runoff in November between him and the next highest vote-getter, Mary Fischer. Fischer had 39 percent of the vote, followed by John Traube with 20 percent.
"I think I'm going to have to work very hard between now and November to illustrate my strengths and qualifications, to gain the confidence of more voters," said Fischer, 67, a retired guidance counselor. "I think that voters are wanting to have their voices heard, so I think they're leaning toward those people who will carry their voices to the table."
Gibbs, 62, a former Cape Coral Police chief, said he had hoped to grab more voters, but he got swept into the anti-incumbent sentiment in Lee County. Gibbs has aligned himself with the current school board, which has been criticized in some corners of the community for being a "rubber stamp" to Superintendent James Browder.
"I think a lot of people who didn't vote for me were influenced by the rhetoric of this 'rubber stamp' idea that has been talked about so much," Gibbs said. "I've always said that I thought they were doing a good job. You can't argue with the fact that they've done a pretty good job."
Traube expressed disappointment at the results of his own race, but said Scott and Armstrong's election to the board is encouraging.
"I think there's some hope," he said. "I'm glad to see them there."
Both Scricca, a former school superintendent, and Teuber, a Cape Coral attorney, were two-term incumbents, first elected to the school board in 2002. Along with sitting board members Jeanne Dozier and Jane Kuckel, who were first elected in 2000, Scricca and Teuber have formed a powerful 4-1 majority that typically aligned to support the recommendations of Superintendent James Browder.
"You can see through all of the elections it looks like there is a huge underpinning of anti-incumbency current in Lee County, as there was in the country," said Teuber. "And, there's going to be a new board in November."
The one-time lone voice of dissent, Chilmonik, stepped down earlier this year to run for election to the Lee County Commission. Chilmonik was a frequent critic of Browder, and counted Traube and Armstrong among his supporters.
"They was tired of the same old thing," Armstrong said of voters. "They was tired of not being told the truth."
Armstrong, Scott and Traube each ran on an anti-incumbent stance, arguing most notably for a return to a neighborhood schools model that would phase out a system that currently allows families to send children to schools that are not necessarily closest to home. Tuesday's election was something of a mixed bag on that front.
Neither Gibbs nor Fischer have expressed support for a complete overhaul of school choice. Regardless of who wins that runoff, there will not necessarily be a majority on the board opposed to school choice.
However, if the will of the voters is the barometer, the election of Scott and Armstrong strikes a blow to the district's stance that school choice remains the best option for Lee County children.
Connect with education reporter Leslie Williams Hale at naplesnews.com/staff/leslie_hale
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Event Details
02/18/2013Location: Visitor Center Time: 9:30 AM to 10:30 AM Fee Information: Free
Mares, foals, stallions, ponies, fillies, colts… where do they all belong on the horse family tree? Every third Monday of the month, come listen to stories, sing songs, and enjoy other activities. This month, come explore farm family relationships with Ranger Steph. Meet in the Visitor Barn.


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Outtake from the Pop Shoppe shoot Add to ...
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MADISON, WI, OCTOBER 27, 2009 -- Worldwide demand for a safe and secure food supply is growing with plant breeding at the forefront of sustainability discussions; however many research programs have seen their funding decrease due to the erosion of traditional public or formula grants. Researchers are now turning to other sources for funding for their domestic and international plant breeding programs.
Stakeholders from public and private sectors of the plant breeding community will share their perspectives on the current funding landscape during the symposium, "Building a Strong Financial Base for Sustaining a Healthy Plant Breeding Community," on Thursday, Nov. 5, from 7:55 to 10:50 am in Room 321, David L. Lawrence Convention Center. The event is part of the 2009 Annual Meetings of the American Society of Agronomy (ASA), and Crop Science Society of America (CSSA), and Soil Science Society of America (SSSA) in Pittsburgh, PA.
Symposium presenters will discuss successes in public-private partnerships; commercialization strategies now driving public programs; the impact of foundations in targeted support for cultivar development; and national and global programs that may help build capacity and provide public support:
David Bergvinson, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, will discuss the organization's Crop Improvement Grants, which allow farmer-preferred and adapted crop varieties to reach small-hold farms in regions of Asia and Africa. From basic research through to delivery, the foundation has developed broad and innovative partnerships to achieve sustainable food production worldwide.
Steve Rhines, The Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation, Inc, will discuss the non-profit's outreach to farmers and ranchers through education, consultation, and research. The foundation's contributions to the improvement of forage crops for agriculture and livestock production systems has enhanced agricultural productivity regionally, nationally
|Contact: Sara Uttech
American Society of Agronomy


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Smash 'n' Survive
- Genre:
- Racing, Extreme, Action Games
- Developer:
- Version2Games Limited
- Gamesite:
- Click Here
See what sort of weapons options are now available for your smashing pleasure.
Views: 2,829 | Posted: 02/22/2012
Choose between 10 unique cars as you race throughout 40 tracks utilizing special weapons that allow you to generate destructive weather.
Views: 3,176 | Posted: 02/06/2012
Watch and see how smashing and surviving is done in this cinematic trailer.
Views: 5,588 | Posted: 01/18/2012
See the metal-crunching hits and explosions in action in this trailer featuring gameplay from Smash 'n' Survive!
Views: 6,790 | Posted: 09/27/2011
Get a better look at the heavy metal collisions of Smash 'n' Survive coming to PlayStation Network!
Views: 8,076 | Posted: 08/05/2011
A glimpse of gameplay from Comic-Con!
Views: 6,194 | Posted: 07/21/2011


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|Batteries Included
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|1.6 Litres
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|Energy Consumption
|1100 Watts
|Energy Efficiency Class
|Filter Type
|lifetime filters
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|12 Metres
|Mini Turbo Brush
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|1100 Watts
|Product Type
|Upright Vacuums
|Vacuum Cleaners
Delivered from £2.95
by Thursday 15 October
by Thursday 15 October
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Returns for UKIf for any reason you are not satisfied with your George Clothing or George Home product, simply return it within 100 days with proof of purchase for an exchange or refund. George branded products only. Excludes watches, jewellery, hair accessories, part assembled flat pack furniture and mattresses. The 100 Day Guarantee only applies to George branded products. Please refer to our terms and conditions for details of our returns and refund process for non-George branded products. Your statutory rights are not affected. UK Mainland stores only. Excludes franchises.
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Rated 4 out of 5 by 501 reviewers.
Rated 2 out of 5 by SueR DC 40 Animal I am so disappointed with the DC40 Animal, I've have bought Dyson on 2 other occasions and have always been very pleased with then. The DC40 is very flimsy and plasticky not like other Dysons I've used. The suction is only just adequate just doesn't seem to have the power like others. I only bought a new one as thought my old DC 14 was looking a little tired, how wrong was I, I've now put the 40 in a cupboard and I'm back to the DC14. The DC 40 was a more expensive model and I thought it would be a good replacement, I really would not recommend this model I am so disappointed. Plastic, flimsy, suction not great, power lead small, etc etc 21 February 2014
Rated 3 out of 5 by Weasel10538 Slightly Underwhelmed Having finally put my Dyson DC01 out to retirement and having been very pleased with the 13 years service it had provided I was hoping for something at least as good if not better. On the positive side I like the easy emptying and the ability to get into tight spaces, on the minus side I cannot get it to reach the top stair like the original, the wand doesn't locate and stay in position as well as the original , the lead seems to be forever under my feet and there is no on-board tool storage so any extra gadgets need to be carried separately, finally you have to make sure it has positively clicked into the upright position or it tips back. 15 April 2014
Rated 5 out of 5 by corinna DC40 Animal Really pleased with my recent purchase. I have a very old Dyson about 17 years old and I was equally satisfied with that one but there was not much suction on the tools side. Bits have started to fall off so time for a new one which had to by another Dyson. I wanted the ball and also wanted a lighter one the DC40 fits all my needs the suction on the tools is really strong as is when vacuuming I had already cleaned my carpets a couple of days before then had to try it out as soon as I got it out of the box and the amount of dust that was still there just shows you how much power is in the newer machines. Lets hope this one lasts as long. 24 February 2014
Rated 1 out of 5 by dysondreader Disappointing Having had a Dyson before, I decided to stick with the brand but as styles and specs had changed I took a long time to select which one to have. Subsequently I'm so disappointed with what I decided on. The main issue is the hose. Whilst its just about long enough to reach up the stairs, its cumbersome, difficult to release and re attach and extremely stiff to use - in fact if you need an upper body work out then this vacuum is the right piece of equipment for you as I can feel the effects in my arms the next day. Really Dyson, you need to sort the design and operation of the upright hoses out. I cannot recommend this product until you do. 20 February 2014
Rated 1 out of 5 by TheCavalierLady Traded in the better Animal I traded in my previous animal for the newer lighter roller ball animal as my old one was in need of a few new parts so decided that it might be more economical to take up the offer at the time and trade in my old Dyson for a newer much advertised one. Well I really wish I hadn't it needs to be emptied very regularly as it is very sensitive and looses suction if too much is in the chamber. It certainly does not pick up dog hairs from one of my utility rugs, where as my old one just kept going and going. I feel as if I have lost my buddy. "Dyson you got it so very wrong this time, can I please have my old cleaner back please!!!! ". :-( 22 April 2014
Rated 5 out of 5 by Goodgriefy Lovely Tool This is my 3rd Dyson and even though I thought about buying a different brand this time, as the price is quite high, I am very glad I didn't. The new Dyson is very agile and easy to use. I bought the DC40 Animal as I have a dog and find it picks up the hairs very well. Its not quite as robust as the old one but time will tell if things need to be replaced. The only thing I can say against it is the handle is quite hard to get back in when you have vacuumed the stairs etc. Its not a big deal and once I have used it for a while I am sure it will get easier. Apart from that I am one very happy customer. Keep up the good work Dyson. 21 February 2014
Rated 5 out of 5 by HMW777 New Dyson I had my first upright, a dyson, for many years and had replaced a few bits. I decided it was time to upgrade my model and choose the DC40 animal as I have a cat. Getting used to the ball was strange for first few minutes-it goes round corners and that felt odd! However, the range of tools is great and I love using this model. It is lightweight and has all the items to clean the house. It is a good idea that you can easily clean the filters-I done it once but didnt really need to. The other thing I like is that when you are using the main head the upright clicks back without having to knock the bottom. Overall, my first couple of months use has been positive. 21 February 2014
Rated 1 out of 5 by Disappointed007 Disappointed Oh dear :( Only buy if you are bald and live in a studio. It can't pick up human hair. It just wraps itself just round the roller. You have to take machine apart to try and cut hair off. The wand doesn't reach the top of the stairs. The hook that you store the cable on gets in the way when you are using the wand. The click facility doesn't hold the machine upright so its always falling over. The cord gets caught on the wheels when using it. The "box" can't hold the dust from a small 3 bedroom house and so you have to keep emptying while trying to clean. Very, very flimsily made. Cheap components. Will probably not last 2 years. The DC07 was so much better. 11 April 2014


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Judge Allows Challenge to Health-Coverage Mandate
A federal judge in Florida refused Thursday to dismiss a lawsuit by 20 states that challenges the constitutionality of the Obama administration's health-care overhaul. Ashby Jones explains the decision and the implications. Download MP3
Now Dominating the Postseason: Onetime Rejects
As the MLB league championship serious starts tonight, a group of unlikely heroes are starting to emerge. WSJ's Matthew Futterman joined Gordon this morning for an extended interview, to discuss how lackluster players of past years are becoming important parts of this years playoff teams. Download MP3
For CC, Weight Is Just a Number
C.C. Sabathia is changing the image most fans have of a dominate baseball player. The Yankees ace weighs in at 305 pounds, making him one of the heaviest baseball players of all time. But Mr. Sabathia, who will start in Game 1 of the American League Championship Series on Friday, has made a career out of dispelling notions of what his size means. WSJ's Brian Costa explains how the doughy south-paw changes the perspective of "fit." Download MP3
Also heard on today's program…
A Red-Hot Sport Leaves Some Folks With a Sour Taste
Foreclosure Crisis Slams Into Banks
In Cities That Battle Wal-Mart, Target Gets a Welcome
New Policy Fuels High-Octane Debate
Chinese Drywall Maker, Others to Fix U.S. Homes
A possible breakthrough in weight-loss technology just cleared the Food and Drug Administration. The two new devices, one that deflates fat cells and another that destroys them, are both incisionless, have no need for anesthesia and have virtually no recovery period. WSJ's Melinda Beck gives us the Skinny. EXTENDED INTERVIEW
Want a chance to share a $10 million prize? You should have designed a car capable of going at least 100 miles on the equivalent of a gallon of gasoline. Three teams of engineers won the prize Thursday in a contest to design such a vehicle. WSJ's Joe White gives us a look at the vehicles, he spoke with the News Hub.
Kevin McCarthy stuns the GOP and drops out of the race for speaker, NATO condemns Russian bombing in Syria and Pittsburgh Pirates fan updates World Series champs tattoo.
U.S. rules out cooperation with Russia in Syria, South Carolina residents rush to higher ground as 14 dams fail and 5 disturbing things dating teens do with technology.
The US commander in Afghanistan now says it was a U.S. decision that led to attack on Kunduz hospital, death toll from South Carolina floods rises to 17 and the U.S. cities with the worst traffic.
Eleven dead in historic South Carolina flooding, debate over who called in airstrike on Afghan hospital and college professor postpones exam for Cubs game.
4 Students Arrested in Northern California, suspected of plotting killings in High School, medical charity urges independent inquiry after Afghan hospital blown apart and what's next for stocks?
Wake up with America's first news – The Wall Street Journal This Morning. Host Gordon Deal and news anchor Gina Cervetti go beyond the headlines with the day's first look at news and business news from the U.S. and around the world; bringing a lively blend of intelligent information, humor, and expert analysis to morning radio.
Gordon Deal Before taking the helm at The Wall Street Journal This Morning in November 2005, Gordon was well-known to New York City radio listeners, having worked at both WINS-AM and WCBS-AM where he honed his writing skills and developed his distinctive on-air reporting style. He also served as New York City bureau chief for Metro Networks where his reports aired on WOR-AM and WABC-AM.
Gina Cervetti has an extensive radio news anchoring and reporting background including several years at Boston NPR affiliate WBUR-FM where she anchored the local production of "All Things Considered" and "Here and Now." Gina is an Associated Press Award-winning broadcaster, whose reports have been heard all over New England, including WRKO Boston and WTAG Worcester. She graduated from Boston University.
Mike Gavin oversees the production of the show which includes coordinating segments with WSJ reporters, editors, and outside newsmakers. He also oversees the sound and content of the show including all music and sound elements. Mike had spent a decade in radio programming and production before finding a home at WSJ Radio in 2007. He lives at the Jersey Shore with his wife and son.


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CANTON SUNY Canton will host the first of three public information sessions on a proposed wind turbine on campus at 6 p.m. April 16 in the Richard W. Miller Campus Centers intramural gym.
The college, in consultation with the New York Power Authority and Sustainable Energy Developments, is considering construction of a wind turbine that would provide electricity on campus along with support for academic programming, including alternative and renewable energy systems and electrical engineering technology.
From 2 to 6 p.m. on the same day as the information session, two balloons will be floated at the proposed wind turbine location. One balloon will represent the maximum height of the structure at the tip of a blade extending vertically and the other the position of the blades center.
If weather prohibits the balloon float on that day, they will be sent aloft at the same time April 17.
Thousands of readers like you have made Northern New York Newspapers the number one ranked website* for local news and sports coverage in the north country.
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1972, San Francisco, and newly out New Yorker Harvey Milk is determined to turn his new home on Castro Street into a gay-friendly refuge. As Milk fights overwhelming odds to be elected to public office, he realises that his local problem has assumed national significance...
Milk thoroughly deserves all of the press ink that will doubtless be spilt over it. Wear your 'Vote Penn' Oscar pin with pride.
Reviewed by Colin Kennedy
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AMC's The Walking Dead Season 1 Discussion & Spoilers
View Single Post
November 3 2010, 03:34 AM
Vice Admiral
Re: AMC's The Walking Dead Season 1 Discussion & Spoilers
RoJoHen wrote:
Cutter John wrote:
I'm very curious to find out how you end a story like this. Other than the usual 'They get overrun and everyone becomes a zombie. The end.'
the G-man wrote:
One thing I wonder about is whether the American public is going to be willing to stay with a show this grim for the long haul.
This is true. I mean hey, its zombies so I'm in for the duration. But if it turns into a weekly:
"I hear theres a safe zone in _____."
"Oh noes! Its been taken over by zombies/crazy survivalists! Run!"
Its not likely to last long.
Yeah. It's definitely going to be interesting if they can continue a zombie for a long period of time without it getting either tedious or completely ridiculous.
Perhaps a short season order is actually a blessing because of this. Helps keep momentum in a season if there's no time for filler.
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Index of content:
Volume 87 (2016)
Volume 86 (2015)
Volume 85 (2014)
Volume 84 (2013)
Volume 83 (2012)
Volume 82 (2011)
Volume 81 (2010)
Volume 80 (2009)
Volume 79 (2008)
Volume 78 (2007)
Volume 77 (2006)
Volume 76 (2005)
Volume 75 (2004)
Volume 74 (2003)
Volume 73 (2002)
Volume 72 (2001)
Volume 71 (2000)
Volume 70 (1999)
Volume 69 (1998)
Volume 68 (1997)
Volume 67 (1996)
Volume 66 (1995)
Volume 65 (1994)
Volume 64 (1993)
Volume 63 (1992)
Volume 62 (1991)
Volume 61 (1990)
Volume 60 (1989)
Volume 59 (1988)
Volume 58 (1987)
Volume 57 (1986)
Volume 56 (1985)
Volume 55 (1984)
Volume 54 (1983)
Volume 53 (1982)
Volume 52 (1981)
Volume 51 (1980)
Volume 50 (1979)
Volume 49 (1978)
Volume 48 (1977)
Volume 47 (1976)
Volume 46 (1975)
Volume 45 (1974)
Volume 44 (1973)
Volume 43 (1972)
Volume 42 (1971)
Volume 41 (1970)
Volume 40 (1969)
Volume 39 (1968)
Volume 38 (1967)
Volume 37 (1966)
Volume 36 (1965)
Volume 35 (1964)
Volume 34 (1963)
Volume 33 (1962)
Volume 32 (1961)
Volume 31 (1960)
Volume 30 (1959)
Volume 29 (1958)
Volume 28 (1957)
Volume 27 (1956)
Volume 26 (1955)
Volume 25 (1954)
Volume 24 (1953)
Volume 23 (1952)
Volume 22 (1951)
Volume 21 (1950)
Volume 20 (1949)
Volume 19 (1948)
Volume 18 (1947)
Volume 17 (1946)
Volume 16 (1945)
Volume 15 (1944)
Volume 14 (1943)
Volume 13 (1942)
Volume 12 (1941)
Volume 11 (1940)
Volume 10 (1939)
Volume 9 (1938)
Volume 8 (1937)
Volume 7 (1936)
Volume 6 (1935)
Volume 5 (1934)
Volume 4 (1933)
Volume 3 (1932)
Volume 2 (1931)
Volume 1 (1930)
Volume 58, Issue 10, October 1987
Mass analyzed secondary ion microscopy58(1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1139523View Description Hide Description
This paper reviews and critically assesses progress in the field of surface and near‐surface imaging microscopies based on secondary ion mass spectrometry. The ion microscope performs a variety of analytical functions, including complete mass spectra and isotope ratios from areas on the submicron scale, and lateral distribution analysis using ion imaging, with high sensitivity for all elements of the periodic table. Recent developments have improved the ion microscope's ability to image a specimen's elemental morphology with spatial resolutions below 100 nm. Criteria for the quantitative evaluation of ion images and the instruments that produce them are reviewed within the framework of information‐transmission theory. A complete and general description of the physical principles guiding the types of instrumentation available is thus presented, with emphasis on the accuracy and precision of an analytical measurement. Several directions for future developments are proposed.
Scanning tunneling microscope for low temperature, high magnetic field, and spatially resolved spectroscopy58(1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1139524View Description Hide Description
A scanning tunneling microscope capable of operating at low temperatures, T=400 mK, and in high magnetic fields,B=8 T, is described. Accompanying electronics, under the control of an IBM PC/AT, provide routine spatially resolved spectroscopy, allowing characterization of properties such as superconductingenergy gaps and local density of states on the surface. Data are presented to illustrate the usefulness of spatially resolved spectroscopy at low temperatures and in high magnetic fields.
Simple line‐sampling apparatus for line frequency stroboscopic observation of periodic phenomena using scanning electron microscopy58(1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1139662View Description Hide Description
Detailed operations of the apparatus for the stroboscopic observation of periodic phenomena at the region of line frequencies, such as the magnetic domain response, under the scanning electron microscopy are described in this paper. To achieve the stroboscopic observation at such low frequencies, a new line‐sampling technique has been introduced instead of the conventional point‐sampling method. In addition to the line‐sampling stroboscopy, a multiframe operation is also introduced to display the stroboscopic images of different phase values simultaneously. These operations are simply realized by applying the raster separation and the blanking on the display monitor scope under the multiple line‐sampling during the one‐drive period. To demonstrate the ability of this simple apparatus, some results of the stroboscopic observation of magnetic domains in an Fe–Si sample under a 60‐Hz drive field are also presented in this paper.
Using electron channeling patterns for the measurement of lattice parameters58(1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1139525View Description Hide Description
The positions of the lines seen in an electron channeling pattern depend on the type and orientation of the crystal producing the pattern and on the energy of the incident electron beam. It is possible to make three lines intersect at a point by altering the energy or equivalently the wavelength, λ, of the incident electrons. A mathematical expression, valid for all crystal classes, is derived for this wavelength in terms of the Miller indices and plane spacings of the Bragg planes which give rise to the three lines in question. The theory has been tested by using the hexagonal layer material NbSe2. The channeling lines whose Bragg planes are (22.0), (3̄0.0), and (22̄.2̄) were found to intersect at λ=0.0098 nm which leads to a c spacing of c=1.26±0.01 nm. The x‐ray value is 1.254 nm. The analysis is formulated so that it can be used on a computer without graphics facilities.
Quantitative assessment of a parallel detection system for energy‐loss spectrometry58(1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1139526View Description Hide Description
The concept of a spatial frequency‐dependent, detective quantum efficiency [=DQE( f )] is applied to the performance assessment of a prototype parallel detection system for electron energy‐loss spectrometry. The various factors which determine DQE( f ) in such a system are discussed and comparisons are made with a serial detection system. Also, the effects of the electron source energy spread on the overall spectrometer DQE( f ) are discussed. In these examples, the clear importance of including the spatial frequency dependence of DQE is demonstrated.
Deceleration ion optical system for sputtering measurements between 50 and 500 eV as function of angle of incidence58(1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1139527View Description Hide Description
A deceleration system for a parallel ion beam in the energy range of 50 to 500 eV is described. The system is used for sputtering yield measurements as a function of the angle of ion incidence. Measured yield data for Cu and Ausputtered by 100‐ and 300‐eV D+ ions are reported and compared to computer calculations. Experimental and calculated data show only a weak dependence on the angle of incidence. However, at glancing incidence the experimental values are larger up to a factor of 2 compared to the calculated ones. This is attributed to the surface roughness not included in the calculations.
Single photon detection and timing system for a Lidar experiment58(1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1139528View Description Hide Description
An instrument for photon counting measurements in a Lidar experiment is described. Single events can be stored up to rates of 25 MHz and it is capable of 4096 data acquisitions for each measurement. Time information by two successive photons is achieved with an accuracy better than 14 ns. The system is interfaced with an HP 1000F series computer. A window discriminator/shaper for formatting the photomultiplier pulses is also described.
Repetitive subsecond fluorescence spectra and anisotropy measurements using an optical multichannel analyzer58(1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1139529View Description Hide Description
A vidicon tube‐based optical multichannel analyzer (OMA) was interfaced to a minicomputer to facilitate the acquisition of real‐time light transmission (or fluorescenceanisotropy), right‐angle scattering, and fluorescence spectra at subsecond rates. The apparatus was designed for kinetic studies of the optical responses of living cells to stimulation with physiological and other activators, and features menu‐driven interactive graphics for presentation and handling of the intensity, wavelength, and time data in two or three dimensions. Stimulus‐induced secretion of acriflavine‐loaded human blood platelet dense granule contents is shown as an example of the apparatus capabilities.
Minicomputer interface for magneto‐optic spatial light modulator58(1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1139530View Description Hide Description
Digital optical data storage and processing are rapidly increasing in technological importance. The magneto‐optic spatial light modulator (MOSLM) is a relatively low‐cost, small pixel optical parallel input device that is capable of binary amplitude or binary phase modulation of each pixel. Thus, it is well matched to digital optical coherent storage and processing technology. However, potential problems associated with its use include: lack of a design for a general minicomputer interface, lack of interactive data‐page file generation software, lack of ability to switch single pixels in some cases, lack of remote‐from‐computer operation capability, spurious pixel switching, and catastrophic failure due to thermal effects. The hardware and software components of a versatile minicomputer interface that has been successful in overcoming all of these problems are described. This interface allows easy data entry of entire data pages or single pixels and minimizes cross talk and noise developed over long cable lengths. In tests, the designed interface has produced highly stable operating characteristics.
Rapid‐scanning autocorrelator with extended scanning span for monitoring short optical pulses58(1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1139531View Description Hide Description
We have developed a low‐cost rapid‐scanning autocorrelator which enables us to monitor picosecond optical pulses up to almost 100 ps. To achieve wide‐scan range, each arm of a Michelson‐type interferometer is scanned 180° out of phase by using audio speakers, and also only one‐half of a full autocorrelation waveform of the pulses is observed. The present apparatus is usefully used to measure about 80‐ps pulses generated from a cw mode‐locked Nd:YAG laser.
Absolute scanning [NF(a 1Δ)] and [NF(b 1Σ)] diagnostic method for the N2F4+H2 system58(1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1139532View Description Hide Description
The N2F4+H2 system is of interest for production of NF(a 1Δ) as an energy‐transfer species. Past studies have been plagued with the difficult NF(a 1Δ) quantitative measurement due to interferences from the close‐lying N2(B) and HF peaks. This paper deals with the development of a scanning diagnostic method to determine concentrations of NF(a 1Δ) and NF(b 1Σ) in the N2F4+H2 system and quantitative measurement of interferences with the diagnostic signal. The diagnostic method has been applied to a functioning high‐pressure, high‐temperature system.
Optical method for measuring uniform thickness of the order of 10 μm–1 mm of transparent solid and liquid films58(1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1139533View Description Hide Description
An optical‐interference method is proposed for measuring the thickness of ''fairly thick'' films of transparent (or weakly absorbing) solid materials or liquids. It uses a laser beam with an incident angle, on the subject film, changing with time, causing an alternation of constructive and destructive interferences of beams reflected, respectively, at upper and lower surfaces of the film. The total irradiance of the beams interfering with each other is continuously detected and recorded. From the number of periodical changes of the irradiance during the change of the incident angle over a specified range we can readily calculate the thickness of the film. A simple apparatus has been designed and constructed to realize this method. It has been shown that the method is applicable to measurements of thicknesses of both solid and liquid films, provided the films are kept stationary enough.
Automatic measurement of laser diode thermal impedance58(1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1139534View Description Hide Description
An automated procedure has been developed for data acquisition and analysis in the measurement of laser diode thermal impedance. This method is an extension of previous optical measurement techniques, and has the advantage of obtaining many data points in a short time interval. Standard commercial instrumentation is widely used, with many variants of the technique being possible.
Sensitive gas‐phase photoacoustic spectrometer with provision for simultaneous recording of absorption spectrum58(1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1139535View Description Hide Description
The design of a sensitive pulsed photoacoustic spectrometer system for studying media in gaseous phase in the visible and ultraviolet regions is described. The system provides for simultaneous recording of the laser absorption spectrum of the sample by measuring the radiation transmitted through the sample cell. A highly sensitive optogalvanic detection subassembly for recording the calibration spectrum and analog signal processing/averaging electronics including gated integrators also form part of the system. Typical sensitivities of detection are a few tens of picobar acoustic pressure disturbances induced through two‐photon absorption in iodine vapor in the sample cell and 0.1 pC charge fluctuation induced in the neon/uranium hollow cathode discharge through optogalvanic effect. Typical recordings of the photoacoustic, laser absorption, and two‐photon photoacoustic spectra of the saturated vapor of iodine at room temperature in the presence of air at atmospheric pressure are presented together with the optogalvanic calibration spectra.
Continuous and stopped flow EPR spectrometer based on a loop gap resonator58(1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1139536View Description Hide Description
A continuous and stopped flow EPR spectrometer based on a new loop gap resonator operating at X band is described. The important features of the instrument are: (1) very small amounts of material are consumed in both stopped and continuous flow modes of operation, (2) dead times on the order of 4 ms for stopped flow and 1 ms for continuous flow are realized with a very narrow age distribution in the sample compartment, and (3) the dead times and, hence, sample age are highly reproducible and independent of viscosity due to the use of a positive displacement syringe ram. The performance of the instrument is evaluated using the decay of ascorbate radical generated by Ce(iv) oxidation and reduction of nitroxides by ascorbic acid.
Polychromatic x-ray beam produced by a wiggler: A new dimension in x-ray diffraction at megabar pressures58(1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1139537View Description Hide Description
The wiggler provides a substantially higher flux of photons through a given collimator at high energies than is available from the bending magnet at the Cornell High Energy Synchrotron Source. This opens a new dimension in ultrapressure x-ray diffraction studies. Examples are shown in which a good diffraction pattern of gold at 112 GPa (1.12 Mbar) was obtained in 13 s and in which the diffraction pattern for primitive hexagonal silicon at 35 GPa using the beam from the wiggler contains twice as many peaks as is the case for the beam from the bending magnet.
Silicon photodiode detector for fluorescence EXAFS58(1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1139538View Description Hide Description
A large‐area silicondiode is used as a fluorescencedetector for extended x‐ray absorption fine‐structure (EXAFS) measurements. A direct comparison of this diodedetector relative to a gas ionizationfluorescencedetector is made. Advantages of the diodedetector include: higher signal for a given photon flux (due to higher quantum efficiency), vacuum and cryogenic compatibility, freedom from microphonic noise, good linearity, extremely wide dynamic range, operation without high voltage or gas connections, very simple electronics, and low cost. A brief comparison with other detection methods for fluorescenceEXAFS is given. Use of photodiodes for transmission EXAFS is discussed.
New surface wave launchers for sustaining plasma columns at submicrowave frequencies (1–300 MHz)58(1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1139539View Description Hide Description
We describe new surface wave launchers intended to sustain plasma columns with high‐frequency (hf) power in the range of 1–300 MHz. This frequency range complements that of the existing surface waveplasma generators (surfatron and surfaguide launchers), which are best suited to operate in the microwave domain (≳300 MHz). With the addition of this new type of launchers, called Ro‐box, it is now feasible to achieve a surface wave produced plasma column at applied frequencies ranging from 1 MHz to 10 GHz. The possibility of using the same physical hf coupling mechanism (surface wave propagation) over such a broad frequency band is an unprecedented situation with hf produced plasmas. This is of interest for both fundamental and applied physics, as it allows frequency effect investigations and frequency optimization of plasma processes. The new devices can be made so that the wave‐launching and the impedance‐matching functions are physically separated, leading to a modular design, a feature that facilitates changing the plasma tube diameter and the operating frequency range. A further advantage of the new devices is that their launching section can be implemented around the discharge tube more compactly than with the other surface wave launchers.
Three‐dimensional computer simulation of ion beam scattering by an electrostatic reflector58(1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1139663View Description Hide Description
A three‐dimensional computermodel was used to study the scattering of a reflected lithiumion beam by an electrostatic reflector. Results show that for ion gun systems for active space plasma experiment applications, beam scattering of less than 1° can be attained with electrostatic reflectors.
Lithium‐free scintillation glasses for fast‐neutron detection58(1987); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1139487View Description Hide Description
In this article, we present observed characteristics of new lithium‐free scintillation glasses which have been developed to make time‐resolved measurements of the 14‐MeV neutron flux from deuterium plasmas. These measurements will yield information on the burnup of tritons in today's deuterium plasmas and are needed to better predict the confinement and slowdown of alpha particles in future D–T burning plasmas. The new glasses were formulated to have good detection efficiency for 14‐MeV neutrons, and yet be insensitive to 2.5‐MeV and lower‐energy neutrons. The glass response to alpha, gamma, and neutronradiation is shown. The intrinsic neutron detection efficiency of the scintillation glass is seen to increase significantly as a function of neutron energy, providing the necessary discrimination against low‐energy neutrons. We discuss the reactions which determine the glassneutron response and suggest that this response is dominated at higher neutron energies by gamma rays created by neutrons inelastically scattering from oxygen present in the glass. For high‐energy neutron detection in the presence of excessive background gamma radiation, we discuss a new coincidence configuration of lithium‐free scintillation glass with NE213 liquid scintillator.


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A stretch of Ga. 400 near Henry Grady Hwy., where rundown buildings have sat vacant for years, could fit the criteria for a tax allocation district, according to one Dawson County official.
So much can be said about the city of Dawsonville on its 150th birthday, but perhaps Mayor Joe Lane Cox summed it up best:
City of Dawsonville Mayor Joe Lane Cox says if folks from yesteryear saw the city these days "it would blow their minds."
It's been nearly two months since the Dawson County commission approved a contract with the local humane society to care for stray animals.
A former longtime day care director was honored last week as Dawson County officials dedicated the election office's new home in her name.
The state's current economic climate topped the list of concerns late last month when State Representative Amos Amerson sat down with constituents for breakfast.
A. Roll Call
The technology isn't that widespread, but already the "Chips" are stacked against it.
Tom Stradley, pastor at Amicalola Baptist Church in Dawsonville, recently served as the state senate's Chaplain of the Day.
Tempers flared Thursday night as Dawson County commissioners and residents sounded off on proposed changes to residential land use districts, which could affect short-term rental, home business and accessory buildings.
Tractors began moving dirt within moments of Dawson County officials breaking ground on a new courthouse and government center Jan. 28.
A six-week-old chocolate lab named Nitro is the newest recruit on the Dawson County Emergency Services K-9 search and rescue team.
Tractors began moving dirt moments after Dawson County officials broke ground on a new courthouse and government center Thursday afternoon.
The U.S. Department of Justice has approved the county's request to combine precincts and create three voting locations in the county.
The Dawson County Board of Commissioners, along with county staff and court administrators, will break ground on a new courthouse and government center at 2 p.m. Thursday, Jan. 28. The event, orginally scheduled for Jan. 20 was rescheduled late Tuesday afternoon, due to the threat of inclement weather.
Page 49 of 64
The House study committee charged with developing regulatory policies for drone use across the state had its first meeting last week in Atlanta.
While it appeared that the issue of Dawsonville's animal control had been solved, concerned Lumpkin County citizens have spoken otherwise to their county commission.
Citizens have the chance to make comments on the county's proposed spending plan for 2016 during Thursday's meeting of the Dawson County Board ...
County officials are looking at repair options for a private cut-through road they say has become a public safety issue.
A 32-year law enforcement veteran is the fourth candidate to announce his intention to run for Dawson County Sheriff.
The group charged with bringing quality development to downtown Dawsonville on Monday night approved economic assistance grants to three local businesses.
The Dawsonville City Council on Monday voted to prioritize projects that will be funded as special purpose local option sales tax dollars roll in.
Dawsonville residents seem to be content with their current city leadership.
Dawsonville citizens who want to be involved in their town's government will have the chance next week to toss their hat into the ring ...
County employees will soon see a few more dollars going into their wallets after the Dawson County Board of Commissioners approved pay raises Thursday night.
This year, the City of Dawsonville has been continuing with water improvement plans to update its water infrastructure. However, this has not come without a ...
County Commission Chairman Mike Berg was seated next to School Superintendent Damon Gibbs last week at a chamber of commerce event when he mentioned two ...
The City of Dawsonville believes that it has finally solved its on-going animal control issues.
Qualifying for Dawsonville's Nov. 3 election opens in two weeks.
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Brass and Copper Phone (75 pics)
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