text:
- lasers, optics, and optoelectronics
- plasmas and electrical discharges
- structural, mechanical, thermodynamic, and optical properties of condensed matter
- electronic structure and transport
- magnetism and superconductivity
- dielectrics and ferroelectricity
- nanoscale science and design
- device physics
- interdisciplinary and general physics
- communications
- errata
Index of content:
Volume 118 (2015)
Volume 117 (2015)
Volume 116 (2014)
Volume 115 (2014)
Volume 114 (2013)
Volume 113 (2013)
Volume 112 (2012)
Volume 111 (2012)
Volume 110 (2011)
Volume 109 (2011)
Volume 108 (2010)
Volume 107 (2010)
Volume 106 (2009)
Volume 105 (2009)
Volume 104 (2008)
Volume 103 (2008)
Volume 102 (2007)
Volume 101 (2007)
Volume 100 (2006)
Volume 99 (2006)
Volume 98 (2005)
Volume 97 (2005)
Volume 96 (2004)
Volume 95 (2004)
Volume 94 (2003)
Volume 93 (2003)
Volume 92 (2002)
Volume 91 (2002)
Volume 90 (2001)
Volume 89 (2001)
Volume 88 (2000)
Volume 87 (2000)
Volume 86 (1999)
Volume 85 (1999)
Volume 84 (1998)
Volume 83 (1998)
Volume 82 (1997)
Volume 81 (1997)
Volume 80 (1996)
Volume 79 (1996)
Volume 78 (1995)
Volume 77 (1995)
Volume 76 (1994)
Volume 75 (1994)
Volume 74 (1993)
Volume 73 (1993)
Volume 72 (1992)
Volume 71 (1992)
Volume 70 (1991)
Volume 69 (1991)
Volume 68 (1990)
Volume 67 (1990)
Volume 66 (1989)
Volume 65 (1989)
Volume 64 (1988)
Volume 63 (1988)
Volume 62 (1987)
Volume 61 (1987)
Volume 60 (1986)
Volume 59 (1986)
Volume 58 (1985)
Volume 57 (1985)
Volume 56 (1984)
Volume 55 (1984)
Volume 54 (1983)
Volume 53 (1982)
Volume 52 (1981)
Volume 51 (1980)
Volume 50 (1979)
Volume 49 (1978)
Volume 48 (1977)
Volume 47 (1976)
Volume 46 (1975)
Volume 45 (1974)
Volume 44 (1973)
Volume 43 (1972)
Volume 42 (1971)
Volume 41 (1970)
Volume 40 (1969)
Volume 39 (1968)
Volume 38 (1967)
Volume 37 (1966)
Volume 36 (1965)
Volume 35 (1964)
Volume 34 (1963)
Volume 33 (1962)
Volume 32 (1961)
Volume 31 (1960)
Volume 30 (1959)
Volume 29 (1958)
Volume 28 (1957)
Volume 27 (1956)
Volume 26 (1955)
Volume 25 (1954)
Volume 24 (1953)
Volume 23 (1952)
Volume 22 (1951)
Volume 21 (1950)
Volume 20 (1949)
Volume 19 (1948)
Volume 18 (1947)
Volume 17 (1946)
Volume 16 (1945)
Volume 15 (1944)
Volume 14 (1943)
Volume 13 (1942)
Volume 12 (1941)
Volume 11 (1940)
Volume 10 (1939)
Volume 9 (1938)
Volume 8 (1937)
Volume 7 (1936)
Volume 6 (1935)
Volume 5 (1934)
Volume 4 (1933)
Volume 3 (1932)
Volume 2 (1932)
Volume 1 (1931)
Volume 103, Issue 12, 15 June 2008
Pump-wavelength dependence of terahertz radiation via optical rectification in (110)-oriented ZnTe crystal103(2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2938847View Description Hide Description
The optical pump-wavelength-dependent generation and detection of terahertz wave in (110)-oriented ZnTe crystal were demonstrated. By using femtosecond laser pulses, terahertz radiation was generated. Both simulations and experimental results show that the terahertz wave in the frequency range of about 4–1 THz can be obtained by tuning the pumping wavelength from 700 to 900 nm. The theoretical analysis shows that the matching between the optical group velocity and terahertz phase velocity plays an important role for terahertz frequency tuning. The present studies also demonstrate that both the terahertz generation and detection are applicable in a single nonlinear optical crystal.
The effect of disorder on two-dimensional photonic crystal waveguides103(2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2939240View Description Hide Description
We investigate the effect of positional disorder on two-dimensional photonic crystal waveguides created by removing a line of cells from a finite square lattice. By using transverse magnetic and transverse electric waves, we have studied three different configurations: disorder throughout the whole crystal, disorder only in the waveguide border, and disorder in the whole crystal except the waveguide border. We found that the waveguide performance is quite robust against disorder in the case where the waveguide border is not affected by disorder. In the other cases, disorder changes the size of the waveguide channel, which has a detrimental effect on the performance of the waveguide.
White light emission on amplified spontaneous emission with dye content controlled polymer system103(2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2939582View Description Hide Description
White light emission from amplified spontaneous emission(ASE) was realized by optically pumping fluorescent dye 4-(dicy-anomethylene)-2-t-butyl-6(1,1,7,7-tetramethyljulolidyl−9-enyl)-4H-pyran (DCJTB) doped semiconducting poly(9,9-dioctylfluorene) (PFO) polymer thin films. Two individual ASE peaks originating from DCJTB and PFO were observed by carefully controlling the DCJTB concentration in PFO. The studies of the ASE characteristics of DCJTB:PFO thin films lead to the conclusion that the DCJTB:PFO system with 0.3% w/w DCJTB dopant concentration in PFO showed the best ASE performance. In the DCJTB:PFO system with 0.3% w/w DCJTB dopant concentration, the net gains, loss coefficients, and threshold reached 36.3 and , 7.39 and , and 0.072 and , for DCJTB emission and PFO emission, respectively. Our results predict an approach to achieve white light emission through amplified spontaneous emission in host polymersystems via controlled dye content.
Spectrally narrow emissions at cutoff wavelength from edges of optically and electrically pumped anisotropic organic films103(2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2942401View Description Hide Description
The authors investigated the characteristics of spectrally narrow emissions at the cutoff wavelength from the edges of optically and electrically pumped organic semiconductor films. They estimated the optical properties of -bis[(-carbazole)styryl]biphenyl (BSB-Cz) films using variable angle spectroscopic ellipsometry, revealing that the BSB-Cz films have uniaxial anisotropy and that BSB-Cz molecules lie nearly parallel to substrate surfaces. The authors discuss here the spectral changes in the edge emissions from neat BSB-Cz and tris(8-hydroxyquinoline)aluminum films of 15 different thicknesses under continuous-wave (cw) optical excitation. The spectrally narrow emissions of transverse electric (TE) and transverse magnetic (TM) modes were observed. The authors showed that the peak wavelengths of these emissions varied according to the cutoff wavelengths of asymmetric slab waveguides and that their spectral widths changed depending on the angular dispersion of the Fabry–Pérot interferometer composed of the organic film and its interfaces. The edge emissions from the BSB-Cz films had narrower bands than those from the films and increased with a superlinear dependence on the stripe length of the excitation area, indicating the occurrence of light amplification under cw optical excitation. Finally, the authors demonstrate spectrally narrow emissions from the edges of electrically pumped organic light-emitting diodes(OLEDs) having a fine line-shaped waveguide structure with a silver metal cladding layer. Narrow emissions of TE mode were observed, and the peak wavelengths of the emission spectra corresponded well to the cutoff wavelength of the waveguide with the silver cladding layer. In addition to the narrow emissions, the authors observed some intriguing phenomena suggestive of the occurrence of light amplification in OLEDs under electrical pumping.
Optical cavity modes in gold shell colloids103(2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2939249View Description Hide Description
Core-shell colloids composed of a dielectric core surrounded by a metal shell show geometric cavity resonances with optical properties that are distinctly different than those of the collective plasmon modes of the metal shell. We use finite-difference time domain calculations on silica colloids with a core diameter of , surrounded by a thick Au shell, to study the temporal evolution of the mode field intensity inside the cavity upon pulsed excitation. Calculations using Mie theory and the -matrix method are used to analytically determine the dipolar cavity resonance spectrum, which is found superimposed on the broad collective dipolar plasmonic resonance modes. We characterize resonance wavelength and linewidth in terms of a geometric mode confined inside the cavity. Cavity linewidth can be controlled by metal shell thickness and quality factors are observed. Due to the small cavity mode volume , a Purcell factor as high as is calculated. Introducing shape anisotropy lifts the cavity mode degeneracy, yielding blue- and redshifted longitudinal and transverse resonant modes, respectively. The relatively large volume over which the field enhancement is observed in these spherical and anisotropicmetal shell cavities, combined with cavity quality factors that are much higher than that of the collective plasmonic modes, makes them attractive for application in nanoscale light sources, sensors, or lasers.
Arsenic doped zinc oxide103(2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2917403View Description Hide Description
As-doping of zinc oxide has been approached by ion implantation and chemical vapor deposition. The effect of thermal annealing on the implanted samples has been investigated by using secondary ion mass spectrometry and Rutherford backscattering∕channeling geometry. The crystal damage, the distribution of the arsenic, the diffusion of impurities, and the formation of secondary phases is discussed. For the thin filmsgrown by vapor deposition, the composition has been determined with regard to the growth parameters. The bonding state of arsenic was investigated for both series of samples using x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.
nanoparticles as scatterers for random organic laser action in red fluorescent dye 4-(dicyanomethylene)-2-tert-butyl-6(1,1,7,7-tetramethyljulolidyl-9-enyl)-4-pyran doped polystyrene films103(2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2940730View Description Hide Description
Random multimode lasers are achieved in 4-(dicyanomethylene)-2-tert-butyl-6(1,1,7,7-tetramethyljulolidyl-9-enyl)-4-pyran (DCJTB) doped polystyrene thin films by introducing silicon dioxide nanoparticles as scatterers. The devices emit a resonance multimode peak at a center wavelength of 640 nm with a mode linewidth less than 0.87 nm. The threshold excitation intensity is as low as . It can be seen that the microscopic random resonance cavities can be formed by multiple scattering of nanoparticles. The transport mean free length is estimated to be about . The demonstration of random organic lasers opens up the possibility of using scattering as an alternative source of coherent light emission.
Radiative recombination spectra of -type -doped multiple quantum wells near the Mott transition103(2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2943262View Description Hide Description
Photoluminescence(PL) spectra of beryllium -doped multiple quantum wells are studied over a range of doping concentrations. Possible mechanisms for carrier recombination, both above and below the Mott metal-insulator transition, are discussed. In width Be -doped quantum wells, it is found that the Mott transition can be observed if the acceptor concentration . At doping concentrations near the Mott transition band the PL spectra are dominated by excitons-bound-to-acceptor impurity recombinations. Above the Mott transition, the radiative recombination of free electrons with a two-dimensional hole gas is found to be the dominant recombination mechanism.
Analysis of -rich layers for photovoltaic applications: Influence of the sulfurization temperature on the crystalline properties of electrodeposited and sulfurized precursors103(2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2939833View Description Hide Description
This paper reports the microstructural analysis of -rich layers produced by electrodeposition of precursors and annealing under sulfurizing conditions as a function of the temperature of sulfurization. The characterization of the layers by Raman scattering, scanning electron microscopy,Auger electron spectroscopy, and XRD techniques has allowed observation of the strong dependence of the crystalline quality of these layers on the sulfurization temperature: Higher sulfurization temperatures lead to films with improved crystallinity, larger average grain size, and lower density of structural defects. However, it also favors the formation of a thicker interphase layer between the absorber layer and the Mo back contact. Decreasing the temperature of sulfurization leads to a significant decrease in the thickness of this intermediate layer and is also accompanied by significant changes in the composition of the interface region between the absorber and the layer, which becomes Cu rich. The characterization of devices fabricated with these absorbers corroborates the significant impact of all these features on device parameters as the open circuit voltage and fill factor that determine the efficiency of the solar cells.
Analysis of asymmetric Bragg–coupler based optical add-drop multiplexer operating on certain phase-matching conditions103(2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2939634View Description Hide Description
The operational characteristics of a two-dimensional optical add-drop multiplexer were investigated for coupled planar waveguides with embedded grating structure in one of them. The analytical formulation of the wave propagation property was carried out on the basis of coupled mode theory derived from the Lorentz reciprocity theorem. Simplified mathematical formulation and analytical solution for the device modeling were attained by means of well-defined phase-matching conditions. Further numerical analysis was performed to study the effects of various geometrical and material parameters on the device performance in terms of the drop reflectance, input insertion loss, the transmission bandwidth, and the midgap separation. The optimal performance characterized by 99% drop reflectance, 1% input insertion loss, and 0.2 nm full width at half maximum at was achieved with realistically chosen device parameters consisting of refractive indices of the materials and geometrical parameters of the system. This result has demonstrated in principle the feasibility of developing the model for dense wavelength division multiplexing application.
Pulsed recording of anisotropy and holographic polarization gratings in azo-polymethacrylates with different molecular architectures103(2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2943260View Description Hide Description
Recording of anisotropy and holographic polarizationgratings using , light pulses has been carried out in thin films of polymers with the same azobenzene content and different molecular architectures. Random and block copolymers comprising azobenzene and methylmethacrylate (MMA) moieties as well as statistical terpolymers with azobenzene, biphenyl, and MMA units have been compared in terms of recording sensitivity and stability upon pulsed excitation. Photoinduced anisotropy just after the pulse was significantly higher in the case of the block copolymers than in the two statistical copolymers. The stability of the recorded anisotropy has also been studied. While a stationary value of the photoinduced anisotropy (approximately 50% of the initial photoinduced value) is reached for the block copolymer, photoinduced anisotropy almost vanished after a few hours in the statistical copolymers.Polarizationholographic gratings have been registered using two orthogonally circularly polarized light beams. The results are qualitatively similar to those of photoinduced anisotropy, that is, stability of the registered grating and larger values of diffraction efficiency for the block copolymer as compared with the random copolymers. The recording of holographic gratings with submicron period in films several microns thick, showing both polarization and angular selectivity, has also been demonstrated. Block copolymers showed a lamellar block nanosegregated morphology. The interaction among azo chromophores within the nanosegregated azo blocks seems to be the reason for the stability and the photoresponse enhancement in the block copolymer as compared with the statistical ones.
Refractive indices and elasto-optic coefficients of GaN studied by optical waveguiding103(2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2947598View Description Hide Description
Asymmetric GaN planar waveguides were grown on (0001) sapphire by molecular beam epitaxy or by metal-organic chemical vapor deposition. The GaN chromatic dispersion is measured in these samples by the prism coupling method at several discrete wavelengths over a large spectral domain (458–1550 nm). Two-term Sellmeier equations are adequate to fit the ordinary and extraordinary refractive index curves as a function of wavelength. GaN waveguides were also grown on and AlNcladding layers, and the GaNrefractive indices are further measured from these samples. On the other hand, the biaxial stress state of each sample is determined by measuring the A, B, and C free exciton transition energies by low temperature (10 K) reflectivity measurements. The refractive indices versus in-plane stress reveal linear variations in the studied range and the slopes are determined. It is found that these variations are more than seven times larger for the ordinary index than for the extraordinary index depending on the optical wavelength. We report here for the first time the measurement of the elasto-optic coefficients and of GaN in the visible wavelength range.
Lasing from photonic structure: Cholesteric-voltage controlled nematic-cholesteric liquid crystal103(2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2948937View Description Hide Description
Experimental investigation and numerical simulation have been made of spectral and lasing properties of thin planar hybrid structures consisting of two layers of a cholesteric liquid crystal (ChLC) and a homogeneously aligned layer of a nematic liquid crystal between them. The light optical path in the nematic layer was controlled by an electric field. In the reference structure the ChLC layers were not doped, and the field controlled transmission spectra have been studied in detail. In the other two structures, both the ChLC layers were doped by the same laser dye (but different in the two structures) and the feedback necessary for lasing was controlled by the field induced phase retardation of the nematic layer. Therefore, the field control of the lasing spectra has been demonstrated. Numerical simulations of the transmission and lasing spectra are in good agreement with experimental data. The multilayer device described can be used as a field controllable planar microlaser.
Analysis and improvement of an -band magnetically insulated transmission line oscillator103(2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2940129View Description Hide Description
An -band magnetically insulated transmission line oscillator has been investigated theoretically and experimentally in our laboratory. However, severe pulse shortening and electrodeerosion are observed in the experiments. The theoretical analyses show that anodeplasma formation in the load region is the essential reason for the pulse shortening and electrodeerosion. In order to eliminate or at least minimize anodeplasma formation in the load region, an improved beam dump is presented. The theoretical analyses show that anodeplasma formation can be eliminated or at least minimized in the improved beam dump.
Effects of collisions and finite ion temperature on the sheath structure of cylindrical probes in low-pressure electronegative discharges103(2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2939578View Description Hide Description
The spatial distributions of electric potential and velocity and density of positive ions are calculated in the surroundings of a negatively biased cylindrical probe immersed in electronegative plasmas. The model equations are solved on the scale of the electron Debye length. The solutions provide the variation of plasma variables along the distance from the plasma bulk region to the probe surface. The control parameters are the ratio of the negative ion density to the electron density, the ratios of the electron temperature to the positive and negative ion temperatures, and the ratio of the rate coefficient for the momentum transfer collision to that for the ionization. Especially, the effects of collision and finite temperature of positive ions are investigated. As the positive ion temperature increases, the sheath width decreases and the positive ion current collected by the probe increases. As the ratio of the rate coefficient for the momentum transfer collision to that for the ionization increases, the sheath edge approaches the plasma region, and the positive ion current to the probe decreases.
Elimination of dimethyl methylphosphonate by plasma flame made of microwave plasma and burning hydrocarbon fuel103(2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2939799View Description Hide Description
Elimination of dimethyl methylphosphonate (DMMP) in liquid phase was studied by making use of a microwaveplasma burner, exhibiting a safe removal capability of stockpiled chemical weapons. The microwaveplasma burner consisted of a fuel injector and a plasmaflame exit connected in series to a microwaveplasma torch. The burner flames were sustained by injecting hydrocarbon fuels into the microwaveplasma torch in air discharge. The Fourier transform infrared spectra indicated near perfect elimination of DMMP in the microwaveplasma burner. This was confirmed by gas chromatography spectra as supporting data, revealing the disappearance of even intermediary compounds in the process of DMMP destruction. The experimental results and the physical configuration of the microwaveplasma burner may provide an effective means of on-site removal of chemical warfare agents found on a battlefield.
Soft x-ray emission from a pulsed gas discharge in a pseudosparklike electrode geometry103(2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2940786View Description Hide Description
The mechanism of the soft x-ray generation in a pulsed high current discharge is investigated by means of time and space resolved characterization of the extreme ultraviolet emitting regions and discussion of the related electrical circuit parameters. The plasma is ignited in a pseudosparklike electrode geometry. In a discharge of 15 J, stored electrical energy characteristic emission of different gases (oxygen, argon, and nitrogen) is excited in the spectral range from 2 to 5 nm. Special interest is devoted to the 2.88 nm line emission of heliumlike nitrogen ions within the spectral range of the water window to be used for x-ray microscopy. For the nitrogen discharge, an admixture of xenon leads to axial shorter plasma emission as well as to a smaller diameter below of the short wavelength emission. Investigation of the xenon related emission in the range of 10–16 nm indicates that radiative cooling is a possible reason for the observed decrease in the radius. Time and spatial resolved images show that the x-ray emission exhibits an axial dynamic in addition to the usual compression occurring in pinch plasmas.
Characterization of ZnO plasma in a radio frequency sputtering system103(2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2948940View Description Hide Description
Plasma generated by the radio frequency (rf) magnetron sputtering of gallium doped zinc oxide (ZnO) has been studied using cylindrical Langmuir probe and optical emission spectroscopy. The electron density and electron temperature were calculated for various rf powers at different spatial positions along the propagation direction of the plume. The electron density was found to increase with argon gas pressure whereas electron temperature decreased. The focusing of the plasma due to the magnetic field of the magnetron was observed at distance from the target at low rf powers, while shift in the focusing of the plume was observed for high sputtering powers.Plasma potential of the plume was also evaluated at all sputtering conditions and its spatial variations were studied. Optical emission spectra of the plume were recorded at various spatial positions of the plume to get qualitative estimate of species in the plasma at various sputtering conditions. ZnOthin films were deposited on glass substrates placed at 3 and distances from the target at different sputtering conditions. X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy studies were carried out to investigate the crystallographic properties and the surface morphology of filmsdeposited at these distances in relation to the plasma parameters.
Investigation of strain relaxation mechanisms and transport properties in epitaxial films103(2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2938845View Description Hide Description
This article deals with strain relaxation in epitaxialfilms deposited by chemical vapor deposition on substrates. Thanks to x-ray reciprocal space mapping, we demonstrate that the strain relaxation is driven both "chemically" and "mechanically" by the formation of oxygen vacancies and misfit dislocations, respectively. Besides, a careful interpretation of the resistivity measurements allows us to highlight a correlation between the formation of oxygen vacancies, the stabilization of , and the metal-insulator transition in the films. Furthermore, using coplanar and grazing incidence diffraction, the shape of the strain gradient within the films is retrieved. This latter is calculated using a versatile scattering model involving -spline functions. Finally, particular planar faults (Ruddlesden–Popper faults) that give rise to extended diffuse scattering on transverse scans are analyzed using a recent phenomenological model.
Probing the underlying physics of ejecta production from shocked Sn samples103(2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2939253View Description Hide Description
This effort investigates the underlying physics of ejecta production for high explosive (HE) shocked Sn surfaces prepared with finishes typical to those roughened by tool marks left from machining processes. To investigate the physical mechanisms of ejecta production, we compiled and re-examined ejecta data from two experimental campaigns [W. S. Vogan et al., J. Appl. Phys.98, 113508 (1998);M. B. Zellner et al., ibid.102, 013522 (2007)] to form a self-consistent data set spanning a large parameter space. In the first campaign, ejecta created upon shock release at the back side of HE shocked Sn samples were characterized for samples with varying surface finishes but at similar shock-breakout pressures . In the second campaign, ejecta were characterized for HE shocked Sn samples with a constant surface finish but at varying .


text:
Offering this great McCoy "Strawberry Country" Pitcher from the 1970"s. This pitcher stands 7" tall and 7" from spout to handle and 4 1/4" in diameter and features a lovely strawberry design on the outside. It is in perfect condition with no chips, cracks, or crazing. There is a very faint McCoy USA mark on the bottom.
Quality Antiques & Collectables from all over the country and all over the world
Offers Wide Variety of Quality Antiques & Collectables From Our Collection of Over 30 Years

subset: commoncrawl


text:
its an ight song overall verses where lil above average except waynes he killed it. he does it when he wants
all the greatest rappers and legends on the same song so much swag and greatness. YMCMB WE OUTCHEAAA
You know when Ross is the best rapper on a collar, the song is average.
All that star power and this song is DULL as fuk.
After reading the reviews, I thought it would be a lot worse. Average song, nothing special. OK beat. Why is 2 Chainz so popular, I swear it's a conspiracy or some sh..........
this song is just not working
this might be song of the year. ymcmb and mmg run rap
Swizz is trying to create a rap dance song with the wrong artist. He shoulda used Flo Rida or Pitbull... 2/5 stars
wheres dental dam boy wen u need him hahah dis shit is dumpsterjuice. never liked swiss beats never will
Eminem diss response to kendrick lamar ! http://tinyurl.com/muffsm4
Somebody commented: "these niggas always have to have 3+ people on a track with them cause they dont have shit to rap about. fuckin do rap a favor and retire." Man this shit is so fucking true. This is why on all their albums they have like 20 features because they don't have the substance, appeal or originality to put out an album on their own. Unlike J.Cole or Kendrick for example who actually have something they want to say.
I am just here for Wayne's verse. He killed it!!
thank you
Ish Beatz
Average User Rating: 2.22 "Funny how "raps biggest and baddest" are literally some of the worst rappers in existence" "This is hot garbage." "this is f***in garbage" "This Song Sucks Balls" "the people want real music/ no one likes ross or meek / mmg will fall" "Awful. This is rap flavored pop. Pure diarrhea." "these niggas always have to have 3+ people on a track with them cause they dont have shit to rap about. fuckin do rap a favor and retire." "This song sucks, I am sick of this bullshit."
Weezy killed it
Funny how "raps biggest and baddest" are literally some of the worst rappers in existence
Swizz Beatz is the worst producer in the world
This is hot garbage.
i've heard better songs from them
this is f***in garbage
Decent song though... not that great!! Hook aight!!
too bad Swizz aint made a hot beat since Party Up
better than a nas jay em collabo def!
weezys most decent verse in forever bring back lil wayne before 08
This Song Sucks Balls
This song is better than 2.
This is nothing but a club song formula. No substance which i'm sure those artist know that. In my opinion There is a huge division in Hip Hop right now you can tell through quality of work. Guess what Hip Hop America people are finally now paying attention to lyrics not just the beat. This is nothing more than a club song they would play in a white club.
like Randy responded I am taken by surprise that anyone can earn $9948 in four weeks on the internet. did you see this web page... www.Cafe44.com seen some ppl with rabbit mask on ,their kinda crazy they start playing in your back yard.waveing at you as u look out the windows.sometimes they do crazy shit to u .
seems people just hate whatever young money releases regardless of the quality of the verse. I don't particularly love the subject but you can't deny the flow.
the people want real music no one likes ross or meek mmg will fall
Awful. This is rap flavored pop. Pure diarrhea.
its not what i thought cool though. Come see me though im sick. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1E4G8LnpbGA
I am reviewing this again, hmm, weird.
these niggas always have to have 3+ people on a track with them cause they dont have shit to rap about. fuckin do rap a favor and retire.
This song sucks, I am sick of this bullshit.
easily forgettable, beat the only thing i like and who did that wack ass cover?
more of the same bullshit cant lie though, this is actually a decent record
Wayne - actually pretty good. Hook - Catchy and awesome (who is it btw?) Nicki - Better than expected, but still a bit cringy. Ross - Ross is rarely wack but also rarely ever delivers anything special. No change here. 2 Chainz - Not much different from what he normally does (basic lyrics with energetic flow). Nothing special. The beat - Big Sean's "My Last" with different drums and a more annoying synth. Overall: Pretty slick tbh. Nothing particularly lyrical, but not awful. Better than most Swizz Beatz songs.
the beat is more on some tom ford-ish
The dopest song I have ever heard.
not again ... Drake and Birdman are missing
same shit different day
Booooring! same typical swizz beat and typical features
Kinda sounds like a cheap rehash of "My Last" by Big Sean and Chris Brown...
yeah it does.
It was pretty good. Could have been better? Yes, but I aint hating on this like everyone is. 3.5 out of 5.
These are raps "biggest and baddest?"
well ross is most def the biggest if you know what i mean, pant size and all that
fuck everybody on this song i dont think you could get a list of niccas i could care less about!!!!!
lol Nicky had the best verse
dope beat ofc, dope artwork, weak verses
had potential still whakc
The beat is dope as fuck and it is a decent song i guess... There will always Wayne/YM/2 Chainz haters and shit, I'm one of them but I must admit this is a track I'll listen to a lot. The chorus is stupid though, doesn't go with the song at all.
long Overdue.


text:
The Alex Meixner Band returned to New Ulm Tuesday night to play a fundraiser for Bavarian Blast at the Holiday Inn. About 170 people attended and over $7000 was raised. The pre-Oktoberfest show was organized to make up funds for this past summer's Bavarian Blast which had lower attendance than previous years because of hot weather. Meixner noted at the time that it was hotter in New Ulm during Bavarian Blast than it was at his home in Florida.
Meixner rocks New Ulm


text:
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text:
Scottish Nation
The surname Brewster is
one of those, like Sangster and Webster, terminating in ster, which, in
the Anglo-Saxon times, were the regular form of feminine occupations. An
old family of this surname, Brewster of Wrentham, were settled in the
county of Suffolk, possessing lands in twenty parishes in that county
and the county of Norfolk. In the civil wars Colonel Humphrey Brewster,
of this family, raised and commanded a troop of horse against Charles
the First, and Robert Brewster, Esq., the then possessor of Wrentham,
sat as member for Dunwich in the long parliament. In the reign of Edward
the Third, John Brewster was rector of Godwick in the county of Norfolk.
In a sasine, of date 31st March 1477, in the Chartulary of Glasgow, we
meet with the name of John Brewster, quondam proprietor of a house or
tenement in the High Street of that city.
In 1516, one John
Brewster was burnt for Loliardism at Smithfield.
Of the parent stem, --
the Brewsters of Wrentham, -- branches exist in the counties of Essex,
Durham, Kent, and Northampton, also in Scotland and in Ireland. The
Scottish line may be said to be represented by the family of which Sir
David Brewster is such a distinguished member, and the Irish by Abraham
Brewster, Esq., queen�s counsel, of Merrion Square, Dublin. Another
branch was established in the United States, by William Brewster, the
ruling elder and spiritual guide of the Pilgrim Fathers, who had served
as a diplomatist in the Low Countries, and in 1608 went with Robinson,
the minister of the Puritans, to Holland, and in 1620 conducted the
emigrants from England, by whom New England was founded. Robinson did
not accompany them, but died at Leyden in 1625. [History of the United
States of America, by George Bancroft, Esq., Fullarton�s edition, p.
Sir David Brewster
Here we are bringing you a
book about the Home Life of Sir David Brewster by his daughter...
Chapter I
- The Birthplace
Chapter II - The Child
Chapter III - The Campanions
Chapter IV - The Student
Chapter V - Settling in Life
Chapter VI - Notes of Life from 1810
to 1814
Chapter VII - Notes of Life from
1814 to 1824
Chapter VIII - Miss Edgeworth -
Chapter IX - Notes of Life from 1824
to 1830
Chapter X - Notes of Life from 1830 to
Chapter XI - Notes of Life from 1836
to 1844
Chapter XII - Notes of Life from
1844 to 1850
Chapter XIII - Notes of Life in
Chapter XIV - Notes of Life in
Chapter XV - Notes of Life in 1854-55
Chapter XVI - Notes of Life from
1855 to 1860
Chapter XVII - Characteristics
Chapter XVIII - Religious History
Chapter XIX - Notes of Life from
1860 to 1864
Chapter XX - Notes of Life from 1864
to 1867
Chapter XXI - The End
Return to The Scottish Nation Index Page
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LONDON, Feb. 9, 2012 /PRNewswire/ -- Smith & Nephew (NYSE: SNN; LSE: SN), the global medical technology business, is introducing the clinically proven POLARCUP™ Dual Mobility Hip System to orthopaedic surgeons in the US at this year's American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (AAOS) annual meeting in San Francisco. The system is specifically designed to address the challenges of treating patients – in both primary and revision cases – who are susceptible to dislocation and need enhanced stability.
Backed by 10 years of clinical history in Europe and other markets outside the US, the POLARCUP System allows surgeons to implant a smaller, constrained femoral component within a larger, anatomically sized polyethylene head, thus providing greater stability by increasing range of motion and jump distance. "This stability philosophy is widely used in the European market where surgeons have extensive experience with dual mobility in elderly and less active patients," says John Soto, Senior Vice President for Smith & Nephew's Global Hip Franchise.
The POLARCUP System is a complement to the company's clinically proven BIRMINGHAM™ Hip Resurfacing System, which provides stability and durability for the young active patient.
To learn more about the POLARCUP System, please stop by the Smith & Nephew booth (#4947) at this year's AAOS meeting.
About Smith & Nephew
Smith & Nephew is a global medical technology business dedicated to helping improve people's lives. With leadership positions in Orthopaedic Reconstruction, Advanced Wound Management, Sports Medicine, Trauma and Clinical Therapies, Smith & Nephew has almost 11,000 employees and a presence in more than 90 countries. Annual sales in 2011 were nearly $4.3 billion. Smith & Nephew is a member of the FTSE100 (NYSE:
|SOURCE Smith & Nephew
Copyright©2010 PR Newswire.
All rights reserved


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|2. I find it utterly fascinating that OBL denounced the Patriot Act...
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|Oct-31-04 05:42 AM
|- This is completely unfair to Bush
|Oct-31-04 05:48 AM
|- Yeah, I guess we just expect too much - genuine leadership ;+}
|Oct-31-04 11:33 AM
|- I find it utterly fascinating that OBL denounced the Patriot Act...
|Oct-31-04 06:09 AM
|- "Oh, criticizing the Patriot Act? Wow, you sound like Osama!"
|Oct-31-04 11:46 AM
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A contemporary coaching house in the heart of Shipston-on-Stour.
With spacious en suite rooms and free Wi-Fi, the hotel features a stylish restaurant and lounge bar with roaring fires in the winter.
The George Hotel provides free private on-site parking for guests, and room service is also available.
There is also a library style Lounge, with leather furniture and a selection of books and daily newspapers. A private dining room is also available.


text:
Board Charter
The Company has developed a Board Charter which sets out the Board's strategic intent and outlines the Board's roles, powers and responsibilities that the Board specifically reserves for itself, and those which it delegates to Management and in so doing, also sets the tone of the various Board Committees and Flagship Subsidiary Boards.
Please click here to view the Board Charter.
New Director Selection Criteria
The Nomination and Remuneration Committee (NRC) is one of the Board Committees of Sime Darby Berhad. One of the functions of the NRC is to recommend members for appointments to the Board and Board Committees and to ensure appropriate assessment of Directors on an ongoing basis.
The NRC shall consider and recommend to the Board the following selection criteria for new appointment as Directors of Sime Darby Berhad:
In addition to the selection criteria above, the NRC shall also consider and recommend to the Board the composition of the Board which must comprise a majority of independent directors where the chairman of the board is not an independent director.
The nomination of new members of the Board is deliberated upon by the Board as a whole.
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Man denies city assaultNovember 13,2013Local man denies
city assault counts
A Mount Holly man has denied charges that he assaulted a man who came to his aid during a fight as well as a city police officer.
Robert D. Pratt Jr., 21, pleaded innocent last week in Rutland criminal court to misdemeanor charges of simple assault, simple assault against a police officer and disorderly conduct.
He was released from jail on conditions that include a curfew from 6 p.m. to 7 a.m. and a ban on alcohol.
Rutland Police Officer Charles Whitehead wrote in an affidavit that he arrested Pratt on the night of Nov. 6 after a fight on State Street.
George Sparks, 52, told police he broke up a fight between Pratt and another man. He said when he went to help up Pratt, who was lying on the ground, Pratt sucker-punched him.
Sparks told police he fell to the ground and Pratt continued to attack him. Whitehead said Pratt was taken to Rutland Regional Medical Center for treatment of his injuries.
Pratt, who police said was highly intoxicated, told police Sparks attacked him. Whitehead said Pratt spit on him while he was being placed in a police cruiser.MORE IN This Just InKABUL, Afghanistan Confusion reigned in the wake of the deadly bombing Saturday of a hospital... Full StorySPRINGFIELD A fast-moving fire destroyed a freestanding two-bay garage on 432 South St. Full StoryIt will be a busy week in gubernatorial politics with two candidates holding formal campaign... Full Story
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text:
Benchmarking Your Insurance Coverage
Messick, Richard, Journal of Property Management
One of the hottest topics in property/casualty insurance is benchmarking. Risk managers in all industries are interested in obtaining a relative idea of the effectiveness of their property/casualty risk and insurance management programs. Benchmarking provides a method to measure this effectiveness by comparing an organization with its peers.
Common insurance benchmarks are:
* limits of insurance,
* premium costs,
* retention levels,
* loss amounts, and
* types of coverage purchased.
Property managers can use benchmarking to determine how their insurance and risk management program compares to the competition. However, sloppy or misguided benchmarking can cause more harm than good.
Doing it Right
An effective benchmarking exercise will provide a relative measure of how you "stack up" when compared to similar organizations. Although benchmarking against outside organizations only provides a relative comparison, the accuracy will be increased if the companies are most similar to one another in size (revenues and number of employees) and in scope of operations. In order to conduct a meaningful insurance benchmarking analysis, follow these three keys to success:
Key One. Compare yourself to peers. It is surprising how often companies compare themselves to companies in different industries for benchmarking purposes. This "apples-to-oranges" comparison is seldom helpful and can often be misleading. The better the match here, the more useful the benchmarking results will be.
Frequently used benchmarking surveys, such as Towers-Perrin's "Cost of Risk Survey" divide the responses into broad industry categories. The intention of these groupings is to lump the results from organizations with similar risk characteristics together. However, the results for each industry are comprised of responses from varying types of organizations. Asset size, overall financial strength, and the scope of operations will differ somewhat for the survey respondents. Therefore, these industry groupings include both large and small organizations that may have differing operating characteristics.
Conversely, benchmarking surveys often group results based on asset size, without regard to industry classification. In this case, the only common thread between the survey respondents is their financial size. Information from property management companies might be grouped with retail stores, manufacturers, and financial service companies. The usefulness of such data is limited, as these companies are not truly "peers" to one another.
How do you overcome the limitations inherent in much of the published benchmarking data? Try conducting your own "mini" benchmarking survey. Identify companies that have similar operations, exposures, and financial size as yourself, and ask the questions! In some cases, it may be difficult to obtain the information relating to deductible/retention levels, limits, premiums, losses, etc., as these are often considered confidential. One successful approach is to approach peers that are not in your immediate geographic area, so that there is no perceived competitive conflict. Even if this is not possible, we have seen good results by honestly stating your intention to assemble a confidential insurance benchmarking survey. State that the results will be shared with all of the respondents, with no company names being mentioned. …


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Searching for details about Cheryl Nader in Strongsville, OH isn't as hard as you think. USA People Search can help you collect current people search data such as email, address, and public records for individuals like Cheryl Nader. Moreover, with all this information about people with the last name Nader in Strongsville in our database, you will be able to track down the correct person in no time.
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- 25Promote
Art Print
Porcupineby Melissa Van Der Paardt
Collect your choice of gallery quality Giclée, or fine art prints custom trimmed by hand in a variety of sizes with a white border for framing.
A part of the daily design series, this piece was painted digitally in Photoshop. I decided to try my hand at drawing a more unusual animal than I was used to. The final product is sure to make a great addition to any wall!


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| View Exclusive AAUP Compensation Survey Data |
City College of San Francisco's supporters notch an incremental court victory in their feud with the college's accreditor. But the accreditor still gets to make the final call, judge rules.
City College of San Francisco's regional accreditor has granted the college a two-year restoration of its accreditation status. The Accrediting Commission for Community and Junior Colleges (ACCJC) in 2013 moved to revoke the community college's accreditation, citing financial mismanagement and a wide range of other problems. That would have been a death blow to the huge institution, which would have lost eligibility for federal and state student aid programs.
The college's supporters and the accreditor have waged a politicized battle during the last 16 months. The commission has come under fire during the process, and received a reprimand from the U.S. Department of Education. Then, last June, the commission offered a reprieve to City College by allowing it to apply for two years to fix the identified problems. The college applied for that option, receiving it last week, according to the commission.
Both sides in the dispute are awaiting a ruling by a San Francisco Superior Court judge on a lawsuit that Dennis Herrera, the city attorney in San Francisco, filed last year. Herrera is seeking to block the accreditor's actions, accusing it of political bias, improper procedures and conflicts of interest. The judge is expected to make a decision this week.
President Obama has jumped on the bandwagon, which started in Tennessee, of making community college tuition-free. This latest proposal is his most recent effort to increase the prominence of the federal government in higher education. While giving higher education more federal visibility may be a good thing, making community colleges tuition-free is also the latest in a series of proposals in which the administration seems to have decided that sound bites trump sound policy.
The cycle began in the administration's early days when it declared its primary goal in higher education was to "re-establish" the U.S. as having the world's highest attainment rate -- the proportion of working adults with a postsecondary degree of some sort.
Never mind that the U.S. has not had the highest rate in the world for at least several decades and that achieving such a distinction now is well nigh impossible given where some other countries are. And also ignore the fact that some countries which have overtaken us, such as South Korea and Japan, have done so in large part because they are educating an increasing share of a declining number of their young people – a demographic condition we should want to avoid at all costs.
In this effort to be Number One in higher education, the Obama administration is continuing a trend in K-12 education that began in the Clinton and George W. Bush administrations in which we as a nation set totally unrealistic goals to be achieved after the incumbent administration has left office. Not clear why we would want to expand this practice into higher education, but that's what we are doing.
The administration also in its first year pushed for a remarkable expansion of Pell Grants as part of the economic stimulus package of 2009. It was certainly good to augment Pell Grants in the midst of a severe recession when so many students were having a tough time paying their college bills. But rather than doing it on a temporary basis by increasing awards for current recipients, the administration pushed for and the Congress agreed to a permanent legislative change that increased the number of recipients by 50 percent and doubled long term funding.
This is the equivalent of changing tax rates in the middle of a recession rather than providing a rebate. It certainly provided more aid for many more students – nearly one in two undergraduates now receives a Pell Grant. But the expansion in eligibility means less aid is available for the low-income students who most need it. And few seem worried that Pell Grant increases may have led many institutions that package aid to reduce the grants they provide from their own funds to Pell recipients, as is reflected in the fact that institutional aid increasingly goes to middle-income students.
The Obama administration's recent effort to develop a rating system for postsecondary institutions is another example of politics triumphing over sound policy. The rhetoric goes to the noble notion of making institutions more productive and more affordable, but the metrics the administration has proposed using are unlikely to produce the desired result or may well have the unintended effect of producing bad results.
Much more troublesome, the administration's ratings proposal would penalize students based on where they decide to enroll, as those going to colleges that don't perform well would get less aid. This is illogical as well as counterproductive. Thankfully, there seems little chance that this proposal would be adopted, but one is left to wonder why it was suggested and pushed when it would do little to address the many real challenges facing American higher education, such as chronic inequity and unaffordability.
Which brings me to the most recent proposal by President Obama – to make community colleges tuition-free. At this stage, we know relatively little about what is being proposed other than that it is modeled on what was done in Tennessee where state lottery funds (not a very good federal model) were used to ensure that students with good grades would not have to pay tuition to go to community college. But since there are so few details as to how this tuition-free package would be structured, there are more questions regarding the President's proposal than there are answers. These include:
Who will benefit and who will pay? If the administration were to follow the Tennessee plan, current Pell Grant recipients will largely not benefit as their Pell Grant award fully covers the cost of tuition at most community colleges throughout the country. So beneficiaries would disproportionately be middle-class students who mostly can afford $3,300 in annual average tuition costs of community college, just as has been the case for the Tennessee plan.
The administration to its credit seems to recognize this potential lack of progressivity, and its spokesmen have declared (to Inside Higher Ed) that the new benefits will be on top of what Pell Grant recipients currently receive. This could be an avenue for a big step forward in federal policy were we to recognize that Pell Grants are largely for living expenses for students whose families cannot afford to pay those expenses, but it means that the federal costs of implementing such a plan will be substantial, probably far more than the $60 billion in additional costs over 10 years now being suggested.
Also lost in the enthusiasm about making community colleges tuition-free is the reality that the biggest bill for most students are the costs of living while enrolled and the opportunity costs of leaving the job market to enroll in school on more than an occasional basis. Also lost in the hubbub is the question of how these benefits are going to be paid for. This key financing question seems largely unanswered in the administration's explanation thus far.
What would happen to enrollments in other higher education institutions? Advocates for the Tennessee Promise talk about how it has already boosted enrollments in community colleges. There seems to be little consideration, though, of whether this might come at the expense of enrollments in other colleges and universities. The Obama administration clearly prefers for students to go to community colleges rather than for-profit trade schools, but it seems to have little concern that offering more aid for students enrolling in community colleges will have any adverse effect on enrollments in more traditional four-year institutions -- including historically black colleges that could ill afford the dropoff in enrollments.
But federal and state officials have an obligation to recognize that enrollments in higher education are not unlimited and that providing incentives for students to enroll in one sector means that enrollments in other sectors are likely to decline. Is the next step for the federal government to propose a program of support for those institutions that cannot afford to wait for all those new community college students to transfer in two or three years to fill their now empty seats?
Why would community colleges participate? Like many other federal and state policy initiatives, the president's proposal reflects a tendency to think only in terms of demand and to believe that price reductions will inevitably result in enrollment increases. But the economic reality is that good policy must take into account institutional behavior as well, and it is not at all clear why community colleges would change their behavior in light of the Obama proposal. Under the Obama plan the federal and state governments would replace funds that families currently spend or loans that students currently borrow for tuition. The likely result of such a policy would be more students enrolling in already overcrowded community colleges will little or no additional funds provided to community colleges to educate them.
If one truly wants to improve community college financing, a better approach would be one in which governments recognize the additional costs entailed in enrolling additional students and try to help pay for those costs. But in the absence of such a proposal, the current Obama plan seems more of the same – more requirements but no more money. As a result, it is hard to understand the enthusiasm of the community college and other national associations for the president's plan.
Why would states participate? It's also not immediately clear why states would participate in the Obama plan as it is aimed primarily or entirely at changing how tuition is financed. As a result, it really would not get at the majority of the community college financing iceberg – what states and localities spend in support of every student who enrolls. So the question remains: why would states choose to participate in this plan that obligates them to meet a series of new requirements AND pay for one-quarter of tuition costs in addition to still paying what they do now for operating subsidies.
In sum, an analysis of what we know of the president's plan is part of a troubling pattern that seems to characterize our higher education policy debates these days. Political considerations trump good policy. The interests of low-income students get second billing to middle class affordability, or no billing at all. Not enough attention is paid to how things actually would work or why institutions or states would decide to participate.
It all goes to show that, as the economist John Maynard Keynes famously said, "There is no free lunch." One of the problems with the Obama administration's continuing enthusiasm for higher education policy initiatives is that is doesn't seem to recognize this basic economic reality.
Arthur M. Hauptman is a public policy consultant specializing in higher education policy and finance. This is the first in a series of articles about how federal and state higher education policies might be changed to produce greater equity, efficiency and effectiveness.
The Lumina Foundation and Indiana University's Center for Postsecondary Education will be taking over the important Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education, from the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Lumina announced that its Degree Qualifications Profile (DQP) will inform the 2015 edition of the classification. This development is yet another step away from the original intent of the classification -- to provide an objective and easy-to-understand categorization of American postsecondary institutions.
In recent years, the Carnegie Foundation made its categories more complex: in part to suit the foundation's specific policy orientations at the time, and in part to reflect the increased complexity of higher education institutions. As a result, the classification became less useful as an easy yet reasonably accurate and objective way to understand the shape of the system, and the roles of more than 4,500 individual postsecondary institutions.
Among the great advantages of the original classification were its simplicity and its objectivity, and the fact that it did not rank institutions but rather put them into recognizable categories. Unlike the U.S. News and World Report and other rankings, the Carnegie Classification did not use reputational measures—asking academics and administrators to rank competing colleges and universities. It relied entirely on objective data.
It is not clear how the classification's new sponsors will change its basic orientation, and its new director says that the 2015 version will not be fundamentally altered. Yet, given Lumina's strong emphasis on access, equity, and degree completion, as well as designing a new national credential framework — highly laudable goals of course — it is likely that the classification in the longer term will be shaped to be aligned with Lumina's policy agenda, as it was more subtly changed in its later Carnegie years.
The original Carnegie Classification contributed immensely to clarifying the role of postsecondary institutions and made it possible for policy-makers as well as individuals in the United States and abroad to basically understand the American higher education landscape as a whole and see where each institution fit in it. The classification was also quite useful internationally — it provided a roadmap to America's many kinds of academic institutions. An overseas institution interested in working with a research university, a community college, or a drama school could easily locate a suitable partner. We are likely to lose this valuable resource.
A Historical Perspective
The classification dates back to 1973, when the legendary Clark Kerr, having devised the California Master Plan a decade earlier and leading the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education, wanted to get a sense of America's diverse and at the time rapidly expanding higher education landscape. The original classification broadly resembled Kerr's vision of a differentiated higher education system, with different kinds of institutions serving varied goals, needs, and constituencies. It included only five categories of institutions — doctoral granting, comprehensive universities and colleges, liberal arts colleges, two-year colleges and institutes, and professional schools and other specialized institutions, along with several subcategories.
Because the classification was the first effort to categorize the system, it quickly became influential — policy-makers valued an objective data based categorization of institutions and academic leaders found it useful to understand where their own institutions fit. The classification had the advantage of simplicity, and its sponsor was trusted as neutral. Although the classification was not a ranking — it listed institutions by category in alphabetical order, many came to see it in competitive terms. Some universities wanted to join the ranks of the subcategory of "research university–I," those institutions that had the largest research budgets and offered the most doctoral degrees — and were overjoyed when their institution was listed in that category. Similarly, the most selective liberal arts colleges were in "liberal arts colleges–I," and many wanted to join that group. Over time, the classification became a kind of informal measure, if not of rank, at least of academic status.
Fiddling and Changing
The classification's categories and methodology remained quite stable over several decades of major transformation in American higher education. In 2005, with new leadership at the Carnegie Foundation, major changes were introduced. Foundation leaders argued that the realities of American higher education required rethinking the methodology. It is also likely that the foundation's focus changed and it wanted to shape the classification to serve its new orientation and support its policy foci. The foundation revised the basic classification, added new categories such as instructional programs, student enrollment profiles, and others. The classification became significantly more complex, and over time became less influential. People found that the new categories confused the basic purpose of the classification and introduced variable that did not seem entirely relevant. The basic simplicity was compromised. Indeed, people still refer to "Carnegie Research 1" (top research universities) even though they have not existed in the Carnegie lexicon for two decades.
There may well be more fiddling — the U.S. federal government's desire to rank postsecondary institutions by cost and degree completion rates may add a further dimension to the enterprise. A further dilemma is the role of the for-profit higher education sector — these entities are fundamentally different in their orientations and management from traditional non-profit institutions — so also are the new online degree providers. Should these new additions to the higher education landscape be included in the classification? These elements will contribute to "classification creep" — a bad idea.
What Is Really Needed
It is surprising that, in the four decades since Clark Kerr conceptualized the Carnegie Classification, no one has stepped forward to provide a clear and reasonably objective and comprehensive guide to the more than 4,500 postsecondary institutions in the United States. Resurrecting the basic purpose and organization of Kerr's original Carnegie Classification is not rocket science, nor would it be extraordinarily expensive.
It is of course true that the postsecondary education has become more complex. How would one deal with the for-profit sector? Probably by adding a special category for them. Many community colleges now offer four-year bachelors degrees, but their basic purpose and organization has not essentially changed. There are a larger number of specialized institutions, and many colleges and universities have expanded and diversified their degree and other offerings. Technology has to some extent become part of teaching programs of some postsecondary institutions — and the MOOC revolution continues to unfold. Research productivity has grown dramatically, and research is reported in more ways. Intellectual property of all kinds has become more central to the academic enterprise — at least in the research university sector.
Yet, the basic elements of the original classification — those that help to determine the main purposes and functions of postsecondary institutions — remain largely unchanged, if somewhat more complicated to describe. The key metrics are clear enough:
A few more might be added — but again, simplicity is the watchword.
The types of institutions — six main and eight major subcategories — seem about right. These might be expanded somewhat to accommodate the growth in complexity and diversity of the system. Later iterations confusingly expanded the categories, in part to reflect the policy and philosophical orientations of the foundation. The basic purpose of the classification will be best served by keeping the institutional typology as simple and straightforward as possible.
While it is clear that these metrics may not provide a sophisticated or complete measure of each institution — and they require additional definitions — they will provide basic information that will make reasonably categorization possible. They lack the philosophical and policy orientations that have crept into the Carnegie Classification in recent years, and return the enterprise to its original purpose — describing the richness, diversity, and complexity of the American higher education landscape.
Philip G. Altbach is research professor and director of the Center for International Higher Education at Boston College.
"As a nation, we have to make college more accessible and affordable and ensure that all students graduate with a quality education of real value."
--Secretary Arne Duncan, December 19, 2014
With the release of the Obama administration's much-anticipated framework for rating the nation's colleges and universities, commentators already are weighing in on the yawning gulf between the stated intention of ensuring "a quality education of real value" and the severe limitations of the metrics being considered. While the proposed college ratings system can and should expose some truly bad institutions that don't deserve to receive federal support, the ratings framework by design presents a severely limited picture of how individual colleges and universities serve students and the nation. Regardless of whether one judges the proposed ratings data to be clarifying or misleading, the fact remains that the most important outcome of higher education — the impact a college or university has on student learning outcomes — is completely missing from the federal ratings framework.
American higher education urgently needs a college learning assessment system, but not one that equates student learning with disciplinary knowledge alone. Rather, it needs a way to account for the higher-order capacities and skills that are the hallmarks of a liberal education. The ordinary citizen will very reasonably assume that the college ratings system the federal government is now poised to promote does provide the needed evidence on college learning and quality. (Secretary Duncan himself seems to assume this, as the quote above makes clear.)
But the ordinary citizen will be wrong in this assumption. The proposed college ratings system does not, in fact, provide any evidence at all about the quality of student learning. By design, the federal ratings system is focused carefully and exclusively on data related to who enrolls in college, institutional affordability, and employment at a living wage after graduation.
What then should we do about the quality of learning challenge? What America absolutely does not need the federal government to do — and what the administration has so far very prudently and thoughtfully refrained from doing — is to create a national, federally devised and controlled system that would specify what the learning goals of college should be and then assess whether students are achieving them. Nonetheless, the public does need to know how well colleges, universities, and community colleges are doing in providing the kinds of learning that contribute directly to students' success beyond graduation.
Under established law, private college and university boards of trustees and public college and university state system governing arrangements rightly determine the missions of individual higher education institutions, and through longstanding shared governance arrangements faculty and institutional leaders set the goals for student learning on individual campuses with the needs and goals of students and of the nation very much in mind. Yet there is wide recognition — especially among America's employers, but also within higher education itself — that far too few students graduate from college well-enough prepared for success in work, civic participation and democratic citizenship, and life in the 21st century.
American higher education must do much better in both assessing and improving learning.
And, on this front, there is genuinely good news to report. This year, far away from the ratings furor, educators themselves are taking the lead in developing the kind of learning assessments the public deserves from higher education. The VALUE (Valid Assessment of Learning in Undergraduate Education) initiative of the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U) represents an important step forward — one that has at its core not only the assessment of student learning, but also the creation of a platform for providing institutions with direct feedback to support continuous quality improvement in teaching and learning. Developed in 2007 through a national collaboration of faculty, institutional, and state-system leaders along with content knowledge and student learning experts, the VALUE approach to assessment has since gained acceptance with remarkable speed.
This year, building on this foundation, AAC&U, the State Higher Education Executive Officers Association (SHEEO), nine state systems, and 85 public and private institutions are engaged in a major proof of concept study designed to demonstrate the different direction the VALUE approach represents both for assessing learning outcomes and for providing useful feedback to educators about strengths and needed improvements in student performance. The states working in concert with AAC&U and SHEEO are Connecticut, Indiana, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Missouri, Oregon, Rhode Island, and Utah. Private liberal arts institutions in additional states also are contributing to the study.
Under the VALUE approach, rubrics — common across participating institutions — are used rather than standardized tests, and scores are based on faculty judgments about actual student work. Specifically, graded student work products that show what a student knows and can do — an essay, a piece of creative writing, a lab report, an oral presentation — are evaluated and scored by faculty members (not those who originally assigned and graded the work product) against a rubric that describes multiple dimensions of what it means to do critical thinking, quantitative reasoning, integrative reasoning, or any of the other forms of higher-order learning for which the VALUE rubrics describe achievement at different levels. The exciting promise of this work is that higher education itself is advancing an approach to assessment that is meaningful and accessible to faculty, students, and higher education stakeholders alike.
The VALUE rubrics were initially created by faculty members, and they reflect educators' shared judgments about both the substance and the quality of student learning outcomes. Teams of faculty and academic professionals from more than 100 campuses across the country contributed to the development of these VALUE assessment rubrics for each of 16 liberal learning outcomes: inquiry and analysis, critical thinking, writing, integrative learning, oral communication, information literacy, problem solving, teamwork, intercultural knowledge, civic engagement, creative thinking, quantitative literacy, lifelong learning, ethical reasoning, global learning, and reading. These outcomes are important to the education of all college students, whether in two-year or four-year institutions, liberal arts or pre-professional programs, online or in-person courses, and regardless of institutional mission.
But the VALUE approach offers more than just a way to assess student learning. It is itself potentially a "high-impact practice" that will lead to greater student persistence and completion and to a reduction in the achievement gap between white students and disadvantaged students of color. The VALUE rubrics show students what excellence with regard to a particular learning goal looks like, and they let students see where they are on the path toward excellent performance. When faculty talk with students about their work and how it was scored, they are providing students with precisely the kind of "frequent, timely and constructive feedback," "interactions with faculty ... about substantive matters," and "structured opportunities to reflect on and integrate learning" that is characteristic of high-impact practices as George Kuh has defined them in his influential reports. In addition, AAC&U has learned already from campuses piloting the use of VALUE rubrics that, after initial experiences with the rubrics, faculty come together to develop assignments that directly address higher-order liberal learning skills — especially evidence-based reasoning — rather than lower-order skills such as description, summary, and paraphrase. None of this happens when a student is sent his or her score on a standardized test. This feature of VALUE, above and beyond its great utility as an assessment system, is responsible for its already very wide and growing support in colleges, universities, and state systems nationally.
What the federal government could and should do, even as it develops and tests its new ratings system, is to remind the nation, over and over, that student acquisition of the knowledge and skills college graduates need is the primary and most critical public purpose for which colleges and universities are chartered. Hence, the federal government should say that assessing what college students know and can do must be a very high institutional — and, for public institutions, institutional and state-system — priority.
While the federal government should not seek to take responsibility for this assessment, it can and should remind those properly responsible that the quality and assessment of student learning — not just access, completion, and non-learning outcomes — must become a top priority.
At the very least, the US Department of Education should publicly be calling attention to and rooting for the success of state- and institution-driven efforts like VALUE that have national potential. But it also could, through existing federal grant programs such as the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education (FIPSE) or through Department of Education contracts, create incentives for institutions and state systems to adopt new assessment approaches by offsetting temporary institutional "ramping-up" costs or providing financial support for the necessary infrastructure to allow initiatives like VALUE to become functional nationwide.
This is how public-private partnerships should work: investing in promising ideas and facilitating their testing as they develop. Both at the federal and state levels, public policy can be an enabler for the radically better approach to assessment that VALUE represents.
So even as we debate what's right or wrong with the ratings, let's remember that advancing accountability in higher education ultimately needs to include what students are learning.
Carol Geary Schneider is president of the Association of American Colleges and Universities. Daniel F. Sullivan is president emeritus of St. Lawrence University and chair of the AAC&U LEAP Presidents' Trust.
Today, leaders of colleges and universities across the board, regardless of size or focus, are struggling to meaningfully demonstrate the true value of their institution for students, educators and the greater community because they can't really prove that students are learning.
Most are utilizing some type of evaluation or assessment mechanism to keep "the powers that be" happy through earnest narratives about goals and findings, interspersed with high-level data tables and colorful bar charts. However, this is not scientific, campuswide assessment of student learning outcomes aimed at the valid measure of competency.
The "Grim March" & the Meaning of Assessment
Campuswide assessment efforts rarely involve the rigorous, scientific inquiry about actual student learning that is aligned from program to program and across general education. Instead, year after year, the accreditation march has trudged grimly on, its participants working hard to produce a plausible picture of high "satisfaction" for the whole, very expensive endeavor.
For the past 20-plus years, the primary source of evidence for a positive impact of instruction has come from tools like course evaluation surveys. Institutional research personnel have diligently combined, crunched and correlated this data with other mostly indirect measures such as retention, enrollment and grade point averages.
Attempts are made to produce triangulation with samplings of alumni and employer opinions about the success of first-time hires. All of this is called "institutional assessment," but this doesn't produce statistical evidence from direct measurement that empirically demonstrates that the university is directly responsible for the students' skill sets based on instruction at the institution. Research measurement methods like Chi-Square or Inter-rater reliability combined with a willingness to assess across the institution can demonstrably prove that a change in student learning is statistically significant over time and is the result of soundly delivered curriculum. This is the kind of "assessment" the world at large wants to know about.
The public is not satisfied with inferentially derived evidence. Given the cost, they yearn to know if their sons and daughters are getting better at things that matter to their long-term success. Employers routinely stoke this fire by expressing doubt about the out-of-the-box skills of graduates.
Who Owns Change Management
Whose responsibility is it to redirect the march to provide irrefutable reports that higher education is meeting the needs of all its stakeholders? Accreditors now wring their hands and pronounce that reliance on indirect measures will no longer suffice. They punish schools with orders to fix the shortfalls in the assessment of outcomes and dole out paltry five-year passes until the next audit. They will not, however, provide sound, directive steps for the marchers about how to systematically address learning outcomes.
How about the government? The specter of more third-party testing is this group's usual response. They did it to K-12 and it has not worked there either. Few would be happy with that center of responsibility.
Back to the campus. To be fair, IR or offices of institutional effectiveness have been reluctant to get involved with direct measures of student performance for good reasons. Culture dictates that such measures belong to program leaders and faculty. The traditions and rules of "academic freedom" somehow demand this. The problem is that faculty and program leaders are indeed content experts, but they are no more versed in effective assessment of student outcomes than anyone else on campus.
This leaves us with campus leaders who have long suspected something is very wrong or at least misdirected. To paraphrase one highly placed academic officer, "We survey our students and a lot of other people and I'm told that our students are 'happy.' I just can't find anyone who can tell me for sure if they're 'happy-smarter' or not!" Their immersion in the compliance march does not give them much clue about what to do about the dissonance they are feeling.
The Assessment Renaissance
Still, the intelligent money is on higher ed presidents first and foremost, supported by their provosts and other chief academic officers. If there is to be deep change in the current culture they are the only ones with the proximal power to make it happen. The majority of their number has declared that "disruption" in higher education is now essential.
Leaders looking to eradicate the walking dead assessment march in a systematic way need to:
Assessment is complex, but it's not complicated. Stop the grim march. Stand still for a time. Think about learning and what assessment really means and then pick a new proactive direction to travel with colleagues.
Geoff Irvine is CEO and founder of Chalk & Wire.
The U.S. Department of Education will release a much-anticipated outline of its college ratings system on Friday, according to several sources familiar with the department's plans.
Department officials have indicated to a handful of college leaders and higher education associations that they will publish Friday a draft framework that includes the metrics on which colleges would be rated by the federal government.
This will be the first look at how the department intends to structure the federal college ratings system, which President Obama announced in August 2013. Department officials have twice delayed the release of its draft proposal, which was originally expected last spring.
Undersecretary of Education Ted Mitchell said in an interview earlier this month that the draft outline would not include the names of specific colleges or universities, nor would it show how institutions perform under the draft metrics.
The department will solicit public input on the framework during the next couple months with a comment deadline of mid-February, several sources said.
A national effort to simplify regulations for distance education providers adds 18 members in less than a year. Can it sustain its momentum?
There are plenty of ways faculty members and administrators can help improve the process, writes Linda Suskie in a new book.
The American Council on Education on Monday announced that 25 colleges have agreed to accept all or most transfer credit from students who have completed courses from a council-created pool of 100 low-cost online courses. The previously announced pool will include lower-division and general-education courses. Some will be offered by online universities. But it may also include courses from non-accredited providers. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation is funding the council-led effort.
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