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Parviz Birjandi, PhD Allameh Tabatabaii University Seyyed Mohammad Alavi, PhD University of Tehran Mohammad Ali Salmani-Nodoushan, PhD University of Zanjan
No. 8, Bazarcheh Ketaab, Enghelab Avenue, Tehran, Iran E-Mail: email@example.com Phone: 0098-21-66402367 Fax: 0098-21-66492961
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Advanced Writing Authors: Parviz Birjandi, PhD Seyyed Mohammad Alavi, PhD Mohammad Ali Salmani-Nodoushan, PhD Printed in Iran
Birjandi, Parviz Advanced Writing / Parviz Birjandi, Mohammad Alavi, Mohammad Ali Salmani-Nodoushan.ـ 3831=4002 م، زﺑﺎﻧﻜﺪه: ﺗﻬﺮان
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Advanced Writing
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CONTENTS PREFACE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS UNIT ONE: RUDIMENTS IX X Introduction Readership Purpose Orderliness Continuity Smoothness Length Run-on sentences Fragments Unity Showing and telling General and specific Subject and topic UNIT TWO: FORMAT 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 6 7 10 10 12 14 Introduction Paper size and quality Margins Indentation Spacing Alignment V 17 17 17 18 20 22 .
UNIT THREE: THE PARAGRAPH Introduction Basic organization The topic sentence Controlling ideas Paragraph unity Paragraph completeness The outline Steps of writing a good paragraph UNIT FOUR: TECHNIQUES OF SUPPORT 25 26 28 29 34 37 40 42 Introduction Facts Statistics Details Examples Anecdotes Physical description Personal experience Final remarks UNIT FIVE: METHODS OF SUPPORT ENUMERATION 44 44 45 48 50 52 53 57 58 Introduction Enumeration Enumerators Order of listing Listing signals UNIT SIX: METHODS OF SUPPORT CHRONOLOGY 60 61 65 67 70 Introduction Chronicles Narration Listing signals Grammar Limited versus unlimited verbs VI 77 80 81 81 83 86 .
UNIT SEVEN: METHODS OF SUPPORT PROCESS Introduction Enumerators Listing signals Cohesion UNIT EIGHT: METHODS OF SUPPORT DESCRIPTION 91 94 95 98 Introduction Enumerators UNIT NINE: METHODS OF SUPPORT DEFINITION 106 113 Introduction Extended formal definition Extended stipulated definition Common problems in definition UNIT TEN: METHODS OF SUPPORT CAUSE AND EFFECT 116 116 120 125 Introduction Focus on effect Focus on cause Chain reaction Enumerators Points to remember Pitfalls Listing signals UNIT ELEVEN: METHODS OF SUPPORT COMPARISON AND CONTRAST 130 130 133 135 137 138 139 142 Introduction Comparison Contrast Structural signals VII 147 149 152 156 .
UNIT TWELVE: METHODS OF SUPPORT ARGUMENTATION Introduction Pitfalls UNIT THIRTEEN: FINAL REMARKS 160 163 Introduction What to do What not to do INDEX 170 170 172 174 VIII .
units five through eleven deal with the rhetorical patterns most commonly found in expository writing (enumeration. chronology. step by step. and overall structure of the paragraph. Through highly illustrative examples. Exposure: the second step. in which students read at least a model paragraph. The effective course-book/workbook format provides students with a powerful five-step approach to paragraph writing. two. effective. unit four deals with techniques of support.PREFACE Advanced Writing is the first in a series of books designed to develop the expository and argumentative writing skills that EFL learners need to express their ideas effectively. cause and effect. description. finally. Analysis: the third step. format. Units one. students complete. unit twelve treats argumentation not as a rhetorical device in and of itself. process. activities that enable them to understand and fully appreciate the writing process. in which students gain greater understanding of the structure of the model paragraph. model paragraphs. but rather as a kind of writing which often employs a variety of rhetorical devices. and comparison and contrast). and concise paragraphs: Deduction: the initial step. and three will familiarize the students with the rudiments. IX . and carefully constructed exercises. unit thirteen provides a number of dos and don'ts that enable the university students to revise and enhance their paragraphs. definition. Students will accomplish the following tasks that lead to clear. in which the internal structures of different kinds of paragraphs are discussed.
ac. it does not pay much attention to grammatical structures. in which students write original full paragraphs. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are indebted to many people who have contributed to the preparation of this book. The book covers the fundamental techniques and methods of paragraph writing. continue to have grammatical weaknesses.ac. Because the course is based on paragraph writing. We are grateful to all these students. we wish to express our gratitude to the people at Zabankadeh Publication Company who published and marketed the book. and so forth.ir Mohammad Ali Salmani-Nodoushan nodushan@ut. Writing: the final step. We are also indebted to our colleagues who proofread the manuscript and made corrections where needed. 2004 X . Naturally. Grateful acknowledgment is also made to Mrs. Finally. This flexibility should give the experienced teacher a focus for materials and the newer teacher a pedestal on which to build. Parviz Birjandi Seyyed Mohammad Alavi smalavi@ut. Arezou Pashapur who took the painstaking task of typing the manuscript. even at the advanced level. Advanced Writing deals with grammar problems that are specifically related to paragraph writing: punctuation. sentence structure.ir September. in which students make outlines for their own paragraphs based on their understanding of the models. EFL students. yet the format allows the teacher to insert additional exercises and assignments that are both class-specific and provide for the individual teacher emphasis.Planning: the fourth step. Most of the model paragraphs that appear in this book have been reproduced from the homework assignments our students did for our advanced writing classes.
Think about the subject of your writing assignment carefully. Organization: Prose is linear. This plan should have four distinct phases: (a) pre-writing. You only need to have a plan for writing. B. RUDIMENTS 1 . Narrow down the subject so that it can be covered within the limits your teacher has defined for you. However. D.UNIT ONE RUDIMENTS INTRODUCTION Good writing is an art. Use appropriate methods for supporting your claims. (c) support. Begin and end your writing thoughtfully. Move from one sentence to another and from one paragraph to another smoothly. Support: You must show the readers that what you write is true so that they will believe you. D. you must be able to: A. Therefore. Make relationships between ideas clear. you can learn how to write effectively. Use appropriate evidence in supporting your ideas. You must learn how to: A. Prewriting: In this phase. and (d) grammar and mechanics. C. C. B. C. Support your topic sentences. Organize your essays clearly. Write a topic sentence which includes the topic. (b) organization. not all people are artists. Differentiate between topic sentence and supporting sentences. you should think before writing. You should do the following: A. and some controlling ideas. opinion or intent. B.
When you write for your teacher. B. C. When you write for your father. writing is interactive. keep the following points in mind: A. H. When you write for your father. Fully support what you write. therefore. and how to write it. READERSHIP You do not write without a purpose. the reader is very important. you will focus on what your father needs to know. your language will be less formal. In this sense. F. Be specific in your writing. It is important to know who you are when you write. Write about what the readers do not know. So. G. Use language with precision. your language will be more formal. When you write for your teacher you will focus on what your teacher asks for. The content of your writing will also be different." Your writing will be different when you write for your teacher than when you write for your father. The reader tells you what to write. B. Avoid common errors of grammar and usage. Write about what the readers wrongly know. You must. E. C. Now try to do the following exercises. Make your writing strong through revision. 2 RUDIMENTS . Suppose that you decide to write about your "Summer Vacation. Gear your grammar and words to the reader level. Be precise in what you write. it is the reader who determines what you write and how you write it. You write for someone to read. You should make your writing both interesting and valuable for the readers. Therefore.Grammar and mechanics: You must be able to: A. Avoid racist language. Your attitude can affect the reader. the writer interacts with the reader through the text. Write about what you know. D.
B. ORDERLINESS Your thought units should be orderly. writing is done for one of the two purposes: A. So. A. Write to the following people. Your father C. Write a paragraph describing the car you like to have for the following three readers. In Persian writing courses—Enshaa—you usually begin your writing by phrases like it is clear and vivid. Your goal is to get some money from them. These and similar phrases show that the reader already knows what you want to write. A. A seven-year-old child B. B. You are not supposed to write anything which you think the readers already know. you should write either to give the readers new knowledge. or longer units which show your ideas and thoughts. To tell them that their knowledge is not right. To tell the readers about what they do not know. You have recently been robbed and have lost all your money. paragraphs. In English. RUDIMENTS 3 . D. it is a fact that. or to correct the readers' misunderstanding of a topic. You should move from the beginning to the end of your writing in an orderly way so that readers will understand what you mean. etc. Thought units are words.EXERCISE 1. Readers will be confused if you misplace words or phrases in sentences. A mechanic 2. sentences. You are a university student miles away from your town. C. The president of your country The head of your university Your rich grandfather One of your professors PURPOSE The majority of the Iranian students of English do not know why they write.
Overuse may annoy the reader. Possibly you have left out an argument or theme. CONTINUITY Your writing should also be continuous. The intention is good. you should choose synonyms with care. mechanics of writing (i. irrelevancies. and abruptness by putting your writing aside and rereading it later. if so. SMOOTHNESS Because you spend a lot of time writing. nevertheless. more transition from one topic to another may be needed. First. Transition words include the following: (a) time links (then. similarly). especially when the material is complex or abstract. you do find that your writing is abrupt. By being consistent in the use of verb tenses. you need to expand the discussion. You. You should not jump from one sentence to another. as a result). If a friend reads your work. Continuity can be achieved in several ways. If you also read your writing aloud. but by using synonyms you may suggest a different meaning. format and punctuation) help by showing relationships between ideas. can usually find omissions. Many students try to make their writing smooth by using synonyms or near synonyms to avoid repeating a word. next. You should neither overuse nor underuse one type of punctuation. since).e. on later reading. whereas). such as commas or dashes. but. These words help keep the flow of thought. while. Abruptness is often the result of sudden shifts in verb tense and the use of different tenses within the same paragraph or in adjacent paragraphs. moreover. If. although. consequently. (b) cause-effect links (therefore. you can make your writing smooth. furthermore. (c) addition links (in addition. write unrelated things. conversely. Therefore. or (d) contrast links (however. Another way to achieve continuity is through the use of transition words.. A better way is to use pronouns 4 RUDIMENTS . too. you have an even better chance of finding problems of abruptness. after.use unfamiliar grammar. underuse may confuse them. you may not immediately see certain problems in your writing. or make your writing wordy. he may uncover your problems.
Jargon is the continuous use of a technical word even in places where that vocabulary is not relevant. it becomes a habit. however. circumlocution. and clumsiness. Many of your sentences may become awkward and clumsy because of this habit. the higher your score. however. Many Iranian students of English do not pay attention to the words that they choose for their writings. Make certain that every word means exactly what you want it to mean. may be more precise than several short words. You can shorten long texts by deleting redundancy. When you need to use synonyms. Repeated over a course of some twelve years. Notice that pronouns confuse readers unless the referent for each pronoun is clear. avoid informal or colloquial expressions. the longer your writing. More importantly. Then they place it in the sentence that they plan to write. Short words and short sentences are easier to comprehend than long ones. jargon. wordiness. When writing in English. When they need a word that they do not know.instead of near synonyms to avoid repetition. Weed out overly detailed sentences. The student who is careful with words not only writes a more readable text but also increases the chance that the text will be interesting. LENGTH A common problem with Iranian students of English is that they come to English classes with a positive view on long writings. In Persian writing classes. know that the case of English is totally different. Wordiness is as irritating and uneconomical as jargon and can stop understanding. they thumb through their Persian-to-English dictionaries and simply choose the first word that pops up. You should. be careful to know what they exactly mean. RUDIMENTS 5 . you should say only what needs to be said. A long word. evasiveness. Readers should not have to search your text to get the referents of pronouns. The main causes of uneconomical writing are jargon and wordiness. Your writing is suggested to be as short and effective as it can get. You should use no more words than are necessary to express meaning. Thoughtful attention to good sentence structure and word choice reduces the chance of bad writing. So. a good knowledge of word meaning and usage is another step toward effective writing.
On the other hand. common words are usually best. he painted the house. your use of coordinate conjunctions should be like this: Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx. Otherwise. yet. Other sentences should be kept apart by the use of commas. or. and. this type of writing is not reader-friendly. The symbol (*) to the left of the sentence indicates that it is wrong. A run-on sentence is a very long compound sentence made up of a lot of simple sentences linked together by coordinate conjunctions (i. or this: Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx. Take the following example: *Hasan went to Tehran and he bought a house there and he painted the house and he lived in the house for several years and …. RUN-ON SENTENCES Run-on sentences also cause problems. stop making your paragraphs longer. coordinate conjunctions can only link two sentences together. and xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx.). nor).. direct. Consider the following example: Hasan went to Tehran.Writing only in short and simple sentences produces choppy and boring prose. declarative sentences with simple. There is no end limit to this sentence. your readers will become confused and bored. Single-sentence paragraphs may be abrupt. and he lived in the house for several years. Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx. but. Notice that the length of a paragraph depends on the information you want to put in it.e. Similar cautions apply to paragraph length. xxxxxxxxxxxxxx. When you need to use long sentences. 6 RUDIMENTS . As such. he bought a house there. You should notice that it is better not to connect more than three sentences in this way. writing in long sentences creates difficult text. so. Let us show a simple sentence with a capital X followed by small ones and a period (that is. Varied sentence length helps readers. and xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx. No paragraph should be longer than a page. In English. Paragraphs that are too long are likely to lose the readers' attention. When you guess that you have said all you wanted to say.
*Although Jack did not study. They are usually the result of bad punctuation. Mix the following simple sentences into compound ones. or (b) by means of subordinate conjunctions. This problem occurs when students try to combine simple sentences to make complex ones. its meaning is not complete. Jack did not study. In English. etc. yet. He passed the course. Now. Jack had failed his course. Jack's father became very angry. 2. Jack was sick. Notice that the capital X shows that you should begin your sentences with a capital letter. 3. The new student was very shy. 2. EXERCISE 1. take the following example: Although Jack did not study. Take the following example: 1. The * shows that the sentence is wrong. or. That is. He passed the course. he passed the course. FRAGMENTS A fragment is a sentence with incomplete meaning.You should keep the same pattern in mind when you want to use other coordinate conjunctions such as so. The teacher did not call on him. simple sentences are connected to make complex sentences in one of the two ways: (a) through the use of conjunctive adverbs. Both conjunctive adverbs RUDIMENTS 7 . it is a fragment. nor. He came to school. 1.
) (in brief. or else. Take the following examples: The student did not study. etc. some conjunctive adverbs can be placed after the subject of the second sentence within commas. he would pass the course. still. etc. the X stands for the capital letter at the beginning of the sentence. You can use subordinate conjunctions in one of the following ways: Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx subordinate conjunction xxxxxxxxxxxxxx. etc. it is safer for you to avoid other patterns for the time being. briefly. furthermore. Otherwise. to sum up. xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx. Take the following examples: 8 RUDIMENTS . Subordinate conjunction xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx. Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx. nevertheless. The student did not study. consequently. you should follow one of these patterns. For example. X shows the first letter of the sentence which should be capitalized. In these patterns. he would pass the course.) (however. Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx. they need a different pattern. However. otherwise.) (otherwise. etc. conjunctive adverb.) (therefore. Conjunctive adverb. xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx. accordingly. etc. in addition.) When you want to link two sentences together by means of these adverbs. xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx. However. Most conjunctive adverbs can be classified into one of the following five groups based on the type of relationship they show: RELATIONSHIP Addition Condition Concession Result Summary EXAMPLE (moreover. In these patterns. in sum.and subordinate conjunctions show logical relationships between sentences they link together. Subordinate conjunctions are also used to make complex sentences. Notice that other patterns are also possible.
now. etc. as. where. 3. Therefore.) (where. RUDIMENTS 9 . We must all eat the proper food.) Many Iranian students of English do not correctly distinguish conjunctive adverbs from subordinate conjunctions. The student did not pass the course although he studied hard. We will get sick.) (that. he did not pass the course. most subordinate conjunctions can be classified into the following groups: RELATIONSHIP Time Place Cause Condition Contrast (concession) Adversative Purpose Result Comparison Manner EXAMPLE (when. wherever. He always comes late to class. On the basis of the type of relationship they show.) (so that. since. etc. too. EXERCISE 1. Readers normally despise any writing which is full of fragments. whereas. etc. while. unless. Combine the following sentences.Although the student studied hard. etc. in order that. I will have you arrested.) (as … as. etc. etc. 1. John is a very lazy student.) (because. as though.) (as if. etc. etc. Subordinate conjunctions. they sometimes fail to use the correct pattern. even if. 2. Use appropriate conjunctive adverbs. Keep off my property.) (although. This may result in fragmentary writing. etc. though.) (while. once. show logical relationships between the sentences they link together. etc.) (if. such … that.
In other words. You should develop the ability to show your readers what you think. readers will not like to read your writing. He said nothing in response. Combine the following sentences. In that case. 3. every sentence of a paragraph should directly or indirectly relate to the subject of that paragraph. subordinate 1. SHOWING AND TELLING You should also make your paragraphs interesting. The term unity means that each and every sentence in your writing should be related to the subject you are writing about. More will be said on this topic in the following chapters. you will need to use specific details and examples.2. Use appropriate conjunctions. However. Simply telling your reader what you think may be easy. The information in your paragraphs should demonstrate the differences between showing (or demonstrating) and telling (or asserting). His car was too small. They will get bored soon. you 10 RUDIMENTS . I saw a friend of mine. This is why he decided to sell it. It might not rain tomorrow. In order to support your statements. UNITY Another problem commonly observed in the writing of Iranian students of English is lack of unity. In other words. 4. I was entering the building. 2. Otherwise. it is not very interesting or even very believable. Just then. I will go to the beach. He was hurt by her words.
She is the best mother of the world. C. In 1369. and examples that relate to the topic. She taught me more than any teacher in school. She is always there when I need her. This will make your paragraphs more interesting and more believable. she has been living with my stepfather and me in Shiraz. Students have written about their mothers. Read the sample paragraphs below. Since then. RUDIMENTS 11 . A. details. My mother was born in Tehran in 1338. She gave me the best care any child has ever received. She grew up and lived there until her family moved to the city of Bushehr which lies near the Persian Gulf. instances. try to use these techniques in your writing. she is full of love. after the war and after my father had been killed in action. try to write a showing and a telling paragraph on each of the following topics. Now try to find answers for these questions: • • • • Which sentences in each paragraph simply tell about the mother? Which sentences show (contain specific details and examples about the mother)? Do some sentences discuss the mother? Do some sentences tell about the writer instead of the mother? It started nineteen years ago when my mother brought me into the world. D. Your Your Your Your mother friend city of birth room You can show by using different pieces of information in your writing. B. Now. my mother married my father and I came along in 1360. Moreover. my mother met and married my stepfather and moved to Shiraz.must show your reader that what you have written is valid. When you are given a writing assignment. The easiest way is to use facts. Just prior to the Iran-Iraq war. EXERCISE 1.
GENERAL AND SPECIFIC To write a paragraph you will need to know the difference between a general idea and a specific detail. That is. We ride some other pets. you need the advice of a veterinarian. and reptiles. each word is subordinate to the word above it. however. and exercise for the pet. fish. In addition. In other words. read the following sample paragraphs. Domestic animals may sometimes become wild. the word earth is subordinate to the word planets. each of the subsets is a sublevel to the word above it. ask yourself: (a) Are there any specific details in the paragraphs? (b) What makes each paragraph interesting? (c) What details are memorable from each paragraph? Pets are animals which we keep for pleasure. it should be given time and space to adjust to its environment. Some pets protect our houses. Nearly any animal. They are usually domestic. When you keep a pet. brushing. including snakes and turtles. birds such as doves and parrots. For instance. Even insects. In such cases. are sometimes kept as pets. In the same way. such as crickets. cleaning.Now. each subset is more specific than the word or phrase above it. In the example below. Pets have some benefits for us. Pets are also emotionally important. Notice that there are some intermediate levels between general and specific. When you buy a new pet. The veterinarian will also give you ideas for good care and feeding of your pet. You must love your pet. You should have a regular plan of feeding and watering. A veterinarian is a doctor who will examine animals for illness. such as goldfish and trout. such as dogs. the word planets is subordinate to the phrase solar system. and horses. You should make a house for your pet. They may also keep the elderly or the childless people busy. you should bring your pet to a veterinarian regularly. pets may be kept for their beauty or for their songs. can be a pet: mammals such as lions and tigers. 12 RUDIMENTS . As you read them. cats.
etc. 3. Jupiter. Remember that all the words that come at the same level are equally specific. These words are coordinates of each other. General: Airlines carry people all over the world.. You should also find the coordinates of each subordinate. the words Mars. Specific: Some 73 people were killed in a plane crash. You can think of the topic as a general word. you will need to narrow the topic down. you can decide on what you should write in your paragraphs. The topic will go in the most general sentence of the paragraph. Europe.. you should try to find the subordinates of the topic. When your teacher assigns a topic for you to write about. Specific: Iran Air has daily flights from Tehran to Shiraz. Then. 1. For example. Specific: Lions are wild animals. General: Accidents kill a lot of people each year. The subordinates that come at the same level will go into the supporting sentences of your paragraph. The words Africa. can come at the same level as the word Asia. In other words. General: Animals are either domestic or wild. RUDIMENTS 13 . This sentence is called the topic sentence. they are at the same level of generality.Solar system Planets Earth Asia Iran Tehran Mehr Abad Airport Also notice that there may be more than one word or phrase at each level. In the examples below. 2. In this way. the general sentences are followed by more specific sentences. can come at the same level as the word Earth. etc.
You should change the subject into a topic which is manageable within this limit. 2. 3. You can write about: (a) bird eggs. 2. (b) 14 RUDIMENTS . 1. You can do this very easily.EXERCISE 1. Topic is a subject that has been narrowed down. Having pets can be fun. SUBJECT AND TOPIC Subject refers to a general area of interest. For each of the following words. Your teachers usually give you a subject to write about. 1. 5. Suppose that your teacher asks you to write about eggs. Cars burn different types of fuel. You should focus your attention on a small part of the subject. 4. Living in a big city is really expensive. You can write some books on this subject. It is you who should decide how to change the subject into a good topic. 3. your teacher may ask you to write only one paragraph which includes between 7 and 13 sentences. Make specific statements from the following general sentences. 4. write a general sentence. You should narrow the subject in such a way as to be able to cover it within the limits assigned by your teacher. fish hospitals newspapers movies oceans 2. Different trees can be found in a forest. For example. and then write a more specific sentence.
physical description. 4. You can now further narrow each of these topics. This can make your paragraphs even more interesting to the readers. (c) classification of eggs. Choose a topic which: 1. Take the following examples: RUDIMENTS 15 . Now. you should choose only one of these topics and write a paragraph about it. facts. SUBJECT TOPIC Sports Soccer Basketball Tennis Planets Mars Earth Jupiter Oils Mineral oils Vegetable oils Animal oils It is possible to narrow down the topics too. etc. For example. (f) importance of eggs in wild life. Is that possible? Definitely not. 2. (d) size of eggs.reptile eggs. Each subject has been narrowed into a few topics. 3. and personal experience rather than simply to tell. (e) foods based on eggs. "Which topic should I choose?" The answer is easy. It helps you show by examples. So. Suppose that you have chosen one topic for each of the above subjects. you have chosen soccer as the topic from the sports subject. Then you may ask yourself. and vegetable oils from the oils subject. imagine that you want to say everything about the subject in a short paragraph. you know about is interesting can be covered within the limits set by your teacher is important Look at the examples below. Mars from the planets subject. A narrow topic forces you to be more specific.
Sports cars Agriculture Space travel Computers Air pollution 2. Write five topics for each of these subjects.TOPIC MORE SPECIFIC TOPIC Soccer How soccer affects politics Great soccer teams of the world The World Cup Mars The possibility of life on Mars Mars compared to Earth Space travel to Mars Vegetable oils The process of getting oil from vegetables Different types of vegetable oils Medical value of vegetable oils Notice that it is a very important skill to know how to narrow a subject into a topic and then the topic into more specific topics. 16 RUDIMENTS . Now. Try to develop this skill in yourself because it will definitely help you in your paragraph writing. write five more specific topics for each of the topics you have written. EXERCISE 1.
and page numbers normally appear in the margins. Papers used in notebooks. etc. MARGINS Page margins are the blank space around the edges of the page. you can position some items in the margins. format refers to the appearance of your work. letter-size. However. Notice that you should write on only one side of each sheet.UNIT TWO FORMAT INTRODUCTION In simple terms. you insert text in the printable area inside the margins. A4-size. PAPER SIZE AND QUALITY There are different kinds of paper. it is highly recommended that you use A4-size paper. It includes the following considerations: Paper size and quality Margins Indentation Spacing Alignment etc. footers. However. filler papers. Also notice that you should not fold your papers. are only a few examples. FORMAT 17 .7 centimeters. and this may put your scores in danger. An A4-size sheet of paper is 21×29. Students usually use standard filler papers. legal-size. headers. Some teachers do not like folded papers. For example. In general.
This extra one cm is called the gutter. you need to add an extra 1 cm space to the left margin. you should allow a distance of 2. bottom.. The following illustration shows what is meant by margin.5 cm on each side of the sheet of paper on which you write. your left margin will be 3. the space between the text and the edge of the page). If you pay attention to this page (that you are reading now).e. Technically. and right. In Persian. INDENTATION You have already learnt that margins determine the overall width of the main text area (i.When you write your paragraphs. Top Margin XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX Left Margin Right Margin Printable Area Gutter Bottom Margin You may want to punch (make holes in) your sheets of paper and file them. there are four margins on each sheet of paper: top. on the other hand. So. you should leave some empty space all around the sheet of paper on which you write. This distance is called margin. Within margins. The generally-accepted size of a margin is 2.5 cm. you see that there is some distance between the text and the edge of the paper on each side. determines the distance of the paragraph from either the left or right margins. the gutter should be added to the right margin because Persian writing is right-to-left. you can increase or 18 FORMAT . left. That is. Indentation.5 cm. If so.
You can also create a negative indent (also known as an outdent). That is. but other lines are. the first letter of the first line of the paragraph does not appear over the first letter of the other lines of the paragraph. on the other hand. In the first-line-indent mode. start from the same column. Compare the following illustrations.decrease the indentation of a paragraph or group of paragraphs.5 cm. all lines start from the same column. which pulls the paragraph out toward the left margin in left-to-right languages like English. This distance is called first-line indent. in which the first line of the paragraph is not indented. the first letter of the first line of the paragraph appears exactly over the first letter of each of the other lines of the paragraph. There are two different styles for writing paragraphs: (a) first-line-indent mode and (b) block mode. Block style Indented style Xxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx Xxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx FORMAT 19 . the first line of the paragraph is usually pushed a little away from the margin. the first line of the paragraph starts from a different column than the other lines. it is a matter of your own choice. however. In the block mode. The generally-accepted length is 5 mm. The length of this indent varies from 5 mm to 1. That is. First-line indent (also known as regular indent) pushes the first line of a paragraph away from the left/right margin. All the other lines. In other words. You can also create a hanging or dangling indent.
In British English. on the other hand. on the contrary. paragraph spacing). and the like. However. In indented mode. the first line of the paragraph is pushed further in.e.e. That is. Regular 1st line indentation Hanging 1st line indentation Xxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxx Xxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxx In paragraph writing.. In American English.First-line indentation is of two types: (1) regular. you should always use one of the modes.. all lines except the first line are pushed in. and (2) dangling or hanging. the use of either the block mode or the indented mode is a matter of choice. Hanging indentation is normally used for listing references at the end of books. the indented mode is the preferred style of writing. The following illustrations show the difference between hanging and regular indentation. the distance between the lines of a paragraph is the same as the distance between two successive paragraphs. and (2) the distance between paragraphs (i. line spacing and paragraph spacing are the same. writers usually prefer the block mode. In the hanging type. as the illustration below shows. In the regular type. articles. line spacing). 20 FORMAT . SPACING Spacing is of two types: (1) the distance between the lines of a paragraph (i.
Line and paragraph spacing in 1st line block style Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx FORMAT 21 . the distance between two successive paragraphs is twice as much as the distance between the lines of each paragraph. paragraph spacing is two times bigger than line spacing. That is. in contrast.Line and paragraph spacing in 1st line indented style Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx In block style. Compare line and paragraph spacing in the following illustration.
the distance between two given lines of a paragraph is about 1 cm. (b) right-aligned. as the name says. the left edge of the paragraph is flush with the left margin. A justified paragraph is one 22 FORMAT . (b) one-and-a-half spacing. the right edge of the paragraph is flush with the right margin. (c) centered. the distance is about 2 cm. and (c) double spacing. The most common type of paragraph alignment is left alignment. this distance is about 1. and before and after paragraphs. ALIGNMENT You have already learnt that many factors tell you how text is positioned. In a right-aligned paragraph.There are three standard types of line spacing: (a) single spacing. In double spacing. Margins control the distance from the edge for all the text on a page. there are four types of horizontal paragraph alignment: (a) leftaligned. on the other hand. There are also as many non-standard types of line spacing as you can imagine. Compare the following illustrations. Alignment refers to the appearance of the edges of the paragraph.5 cm. However.5 line spacing Double line spacing xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxx In single spacing. Students are frequently asked to use double-spacing or one-and-a-half spacing in their writing assignments. In a left-aligned paragraph. On the whole. It is safer to ask your teacher about the proper spacing that he wants you to choose. In one-and-a-half spacing. Spacing controls the space needed between lines. you may prefer to single space your paragraphs. Paragraph indentation and alignment tell you how paragraphs fit between the margins. and (d) justified. Single line spacing 1.
Left alignment Xxx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xx xx xxx xx xx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xx xx xx xx xx xxxx xxx xxx xxx xx xxx xx xx xx xx xx xx xx xx Center alignment Xxx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xx xx xxx xx xx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xx xx xx xx xx xxxx xxx xxx xxx xx xxx xx xx xx xx xx xx xx xx Right alignment Xxx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xx xx xxx xx xx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xx xx xx xx xx xxxx xxx xxx xxx xx xxx xx xx xx xx xx xx xx xx Justified alignment Xxx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xx xx xxx xx xx xx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xx xx xx xx xx xxxx xxx xxx xxx xx xxx xx xx xx xx xx xx xx xx Another common type of alignment is called vertical alignment. Here you can imagine a midline that passes across the length of printable area of the page. because you can position text precisely at the top or center of the page. and the right edge with the right margin. or justify the paragraphs so that they're spaced evenly down the page. You are not allowed to write in the right margin. the appearance of your paragraph will become symmetrical.which has been aligned on both sides. It controls the paragraph's position relative to the top and bottom margins. This is useful. As such. FORMAT 23 . It is very difficult and almost impossible to justify paragraphs when you are not using a personal computer. the left edge of the paragraph is flush with the left margin. hand-written paragraphs should be left-aligned. The center of each line of the paragraph should be flush with this imaginary line. Therefore. That is. for example. Center alignment is somewhat different. Center alignment is used for specific purposes like in the title page of books. when you're creating a title page.
You cannot break a word at any place you like. Similarly. like the American Heritage Dictionary. As the example shows. EXERCISE 1. No hyphen is needed at the beginning of the next line. you should decide whether the next word is small enough to go within the remaining space. n. r). There are rules for it. Copy each word. The rest of the word goes to the beginning of the next line. Notice the syllable division. usually by a heavy black dot in the first entry. 2. Take the following example: Jack really loves Mary. He went to the …. The dots tell you where to break the word. the word dictionary like dic•tion•ar•y. Many dictionaries. If you need to break the word English. convexity colposcopy disorientation erythrocytometer 5. the word English may look like En•glish. you can do one of the two things: (a) to syllabify the word. you can break the word dictionary at one of the three places (that is. Notice that syllabification should not be haphazard. grandmotherly 24 FORMAT . 1. 3. the word convertible has been broken into two parts: convert and ible. Look up these words in your dictionary. or (b) to move it to the next line. after the letters c. 4. He knew that Mary loved convertible cars. The first part is written at the end of the line and is followed by a hyphen (-). etc. tell you where to break words. For example. indicating where the word is divided into syllables by using a heavy black dot. They indicate separate syllables. If not. you can only do this after the letter n.When you come to the end of the line.
plus the development of the metal bottle cap.UNIT THREE THE PARAGRAPH INTRODUCTION Words go together in a grammatical way to make sentences. Read the following three paragraphs and then do the exercises. Sentences can be combined to form compound and complex sentences. Owens invented an automatic system for making different types of bottles. A group of sentences that go together to talk about an idea form a paragraph. a paragraph is made of a number of related sentences that develop an idea. where compressed air blew the glass into its final shape. produced fast growth in the drink industry. Owens was a famous engineer. THE PARAGRAPH 25 . The Owens machine. Owens' father was a rich man. Factories like Pepsi Cola and Canada Dry need a lot of bottles. Therefore. Bottles are also useful for milk industries. In 1903 Michael J. Written language is divided into paragraphs to distinguish one main idea from other main ideas. Paragraph 1 Bottle making was one of the first and most important industries in the United States. The first bottle factory began operating in Virginia in 1608. The automated process involved feeding a piece of molten glass into a mold.
Curds are then shaped or pressed into molds. proteins in milk are transformed into solid lumps called curds. many standard paragraphs include between 7 and 13 sentences. Paper. A paragraph includes two types of sentences: (a) one topic sentence. B. Paragraph 3 Printing was developed by the Chinese after their invention of paper in 105 AD. Finally. Ask yourself these questions: A. a paragraph is composed of some sentences. Three basic steps are common to all cheese making. The milky liquid is called whey. The spread of the Buddhist religion in China was important for the development of printing. What is the main idea of each paragraph? Do all the sentences of each paragraph support its main idea? Do any of the sentences of each paragraph support some other idea? Is there only one main idea for each paragraph? Are any of the sentences unrelated to the main idea? BASIC ORGANIZATION As you have already noticed. This interest resulted in the development of the printing industry. and (b) some supporting sentences. However. There is no strict rule for determining how many sentences you need for a paragraph. but almost all people know how cheese is made. papyrus and vellum. You should include as many sentences as the reader needs to understand the point of the paragraph fully. the curds are separated from the milky liquid. is very expensive. The common writing materials of the ancient Western world. Second. Papyrus is too fragile to be used as a printing surface. EXERCISE 1. were not suited to printing.Paragraph 2 No one knows who made the first cheese. taken from newly skinned animals. is relatively strong and cheap. The Buddhist liked to make many copies of prayers and religious texts. The main idea of the paragraph is 26 THE PARAGRAPH . First. the shaped curds are ripened using a number of different aging and curing techniques. on the other hand. It all depends on the reader. D. E. Vellum. C.
In implicit paragraphs. Today. Read the following three paragraphs and then do the exercises. paragraphs can be classified into four major types: (a) deductive. the topic sentence is hidden. Before the age of the automobile. and the attractive shapes and colors of flowers beautify homes. most smog came from burning coal. the topic sentence is placed at the end of the paragraph. in these paragraphs. It is the reader who should guess what the topic sentence is.usually stated in a topic sentence. As such. Paragraph 3 Wildflowers brighten the landscape. In a deductive paragraph. it summarizes the whole of the paragraph. In an inductive paragraph. Today long-hair and short-hair cats are found in almost all parts of the world. All other sentences in the paragraph must help the development of the topic sentence. Paragraph 1 Most people think that short-hair cats come from African wildcat family. (b) inductive. In fact. The fleshy fruits that flowers THE PARAGRAPH 27 . In other words. and (d) implicit. Technically. the origins of cats are not clearly known. Ancient Egyptians tamed these cats perhaps as early as 2500 BC. Sunlight. Some people think that both long-hair and short-hair cats come from the same family. Depending on the location of the topic sentence in the paragraph. too. People also believe that long-hair cats come from an Asian origin. burning gasoline in motor cars is the main source of smog in most places. Hybrid paragraphs are marked by middle position for the topic sentence. and roadsides. That is. They were then taken to Europe by travelers. the writer leaves the topic sentence out. can cause oxides of nitrogen and organic materials to react in the atmosphere and produce smog. the topic sentence is the most general and the most important sentence in the paragraph. parks. Students are frequently encouraged to develop deductive paragraphs because they are much easier to organize. the first sentence of the paragraph is the topic sentence. Paragraph 2 The causes of smog are varied. (c) hybrid. the topic sentence is usually placed in the middle of the paragraph.
Natural dyes come from flowers. which paragraph is easier to understand? THE TOPIC SENTENCE You have already learnt the difference between subject and topic. In other words. for example. A controlling idea is a word or phrase that narrows the topic. Flowers also are used to show emotions. paragraph is deductive? paragraph is inductive? of the paragraphs hybrid? If yes. and (b) controlling ideas. Flowers also produce wheat. clarify. The topic sentence should: A. Each of these paragraphs will have a topic sentence. There are too many things to say about air pollution. D. define. contain words or phrases that narrow the topic. People even eat unopened flowers. rice. such as cauliflower and many other popular vegetables. D. A topic sentence makes a statement about the topic which limits it to a certain degree. flowers play many important roles in the lives of humans. oats. introduce the topic of the paragraph. Ask yourself these questions: Which Which Is any Is the one? E. a good topic sentence has two elements: (a) the topic. C. which one? topic sentence of any of the paragraphs implicit? If yes. Many flowers are also important for their oils. C. be the most general sentence in the paragraph. B. Take. B. and corn. Which A. or illustrate the controlling ideas of the paragraph.produce are eaten worldwide. The supporting sentences of a paragraph should explain. Certain flowers have medicinal uses. In fact. It is extremely difficult to say 28 THE PARAGRAPH . be the most important sentence in the paragraph. EXERCISE 1. the general topic of air pollution. What you need to learn now is that for every topic several paragraphs can be written. A topic is defined to be a subject that has been narrowed down. It is sometimes called a limiting statement.
Air pollution has become an important problem within the last five years. for example. In all of the above topic sentences. In a paragraph on air pollution. reasons Take the following examples: 1. you need to limit your discussion. steps. the topic had been limited in terms of THE PARAGRAPH 29 . Therefore. In other words. 4. One good way to limit your topic is to place key words or phrases in the topic sentence. Air pollution is dangerous for several reasons. stages Effects Causes. Air pollution and water pollution have a great deal in common. Air pollution is now a major problem in some European countries. phases. These words or phrases are sometimes called controlling words or phrases because they control the way you develop the paragraph. Air pollution is more dangerous than water pollution. 3. However. the limiting statements used in each topic sentence are different. 5. your problem as a writer is to decide how to write about air pollution. air pollution is the topic. they will tell the reader that you plan to do one of the following: A. for example. The most common types of controlling ideas used to limit a topic are those that limit the topic in terms of: Geographical location Time or period of time Certain aspects. C. In the first sentence. 2. Discuss the causes of air pollution Compare it with water pollution Discuss the effects of air pollution on human health Discuss the effects of air pollution on animal life CONTROLLING IDEAS How do you limit a topic in a topic sentence? There are many ways to limit a topic.everything about air pollution in a single paragraph. kinds. D. types. They will tell the reader how you are going to discuss the topic. B.
Students frequently ask how they can write good topic sentences. In the third sentence the controlling idea focuses on the similarities between the topic and water pollution. A topic sentence may include more than one controlling idea. There are no controlling ideas that need development in a fact. A good topic sentence should keep the reader waiting. Do not begin your topic sentences with such phrases as I like. Factual statements are dead ends. A topic sentence cannot be a simple personal opinion. A topic sentence cannot be a simple fact. the reader should be able to ask these questions: How? Why? In what ways? What does that mean? A bad or weak topic sentence does not motivate the reader. We celebrate No-Ruz from 1 to 13 Farvardin each year. There are a few recommendations that tell you how to write good topic sentences: 1. Finally. However. in the last sentence. Therefore. A fact is complete once it is said. 2. I believe. Using two or more controlling ideas will give you the ability to complete your paragraphs in a neat way. Your teacher may ask you to write no more than 13 sentences. Take the following examples: 30 THE PARAGRAPH . facts are one of the worst types of topic sentences you can ever write. whereas in the fourth sentence it draws on their differences. Once you enter them. you will not be able to find any exit out of them. Notice that the controlling ideas have been underlined in these topic sentences. Controlling ideas tell the writer what the paragraph should be about. the topic has been limited in terms of time (or time period). Readers may react to a weak topic sentence by expressions like "who cares" or "I know this" or "so what?" You should notice that a weak topic sentence can ruin the whole paragraph. you may soon realize that you cannot say everything in 12 supporting sentences. If you use only one controlling idea in the topic sentence. There is no exit from them. Like factual statements.geographical location. In the second sentence. I think. Take the following examples: Airplanes carry passengers from one city to another. using more than one controlling ideas will give you this ability. after reading the topic sentence. etc. expressions of personal opinion are dead ends too. the topic has been limited in terms of causes. That is.
5. it is a well-known fact that. I like Tehran better than Shiraz. bad. difficult. I think factories are the major cause of air pollution. A topic sentence should not start with such phrases as it is clear that. Iranian students of English frequently make this mistake because of their Persian writing habits. Words that have fuzzy and unclear meanings make your topic sentences ambiguous. Many adjectives such as good. It is my opinion that air pollution causes heart attack. Take the following examples: It is a well-known fact that village life is better than city life. 4. Cooking is easy to learn. A topic sentence should not include ambiguous controlling ideas. Take the following examples: Air pollution is a bad thing. everyone knows that. These phrases tell the readers that they already know what you want to say about the topic. you can say what you want to do in the paragraph as a topic sentence. 3. negative sentences. Take the examples below: Shiraz can be compared to Tehran in three respects. A positive and active statement is the preferred structure for the topic sentence. That is. easy. Using wind energy can reduce costs of power production. and questions as weak topic sentences. THE PARAGRAPH 31 . Everyone knows that air pollution is dangerous. Take these examples: Birds make better pets than any other animal species. you are advised not to use these structures in your topic sentences. A successful topic sentence usually contains an impersonal opinion that will be proved or supported in the paragraph.I can't help hating onions. A successful topic sentence can also contain a statement of intent that the writer will explain in detail in the paragraph. or the like. as a matter of fact. and the like have fuzzy meanings. 6. Also notice that many people consider passive sentences. Therefore. Readers will think that you are wasting their time. Mountain climbing is good for the soul and for the body. You will certainly agree that education is better than money.
Physics is hard to learn. Read the following topic sentences carefully and answer these questions: A. Which sentences can be considered good topic sentences? Completely blacken the cell corresponding to your answer. Air pollution is becoming the major cause of death in Tehran. Which sentences are instances of personal opinion? C. Space travel does not open new ways for tourism. What is your idea about earthquakes? ⓕ ⓕ ⓕ ⓕ ⓕ ⓕ ⓕ ⓕ ⓕ ⓕ ⓕ ⓕ ⓕ ⓕ ⓕ ⓕ ⓕ ⓕ ⓖ ⓖ ⓖ ⓖ ⓖ ⓖ ⓖ ⓖ ⓖ ⓖ ⓖ ⓖ ⓖ ⓖ ⓖ ⓖ ⓖ ⓖ ⓟ ⓟ ⓟ ⓟ ⓟ ⓟ ⓟ ⓟ ⓟ ⓟ ⓟ ⓟ ⓟ ⓟ ⓟ ⓟ ⓟ ⓟ 32 THE PARAGRAPH . Mothers love their new-born babies. Politics Liberty Poverty Crime Education Culture Revolution Stars Forest Cows Fish Acid rain Electricity Science Hobbies Money Sports Agriculture Automobile Ship 2. ⓟ for personal opinion. I love chocolates. Noise pollution has three major effects on plant life. Fish living in the Persian Gulf can be classified into three groups. you may fail your courses. Underline the controlling ideas that you have used in your topic sentences. Earth goes round the sun once a year. I think poverty is the mother of all crime. and ⓖ for good topic sentences. Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Mars is comparable to Earth in five respects. A bar of candy can be bought for 100 Rials at any supermarket.EXERCISE 1. Narrow each of the following subjects to a topic. Galileo lived in the sixteenth century. Then write a good topic sentence for each topic. If you do not study hard. My father hates mice. Which of the sentences are simply facts? B. ⓕ stands for facts. Teen-agers are people who are between 13 to 19 years old. There are three main reasons why people prefer male children.
The topic sentence of each paragraph has been omitted. Today. In Beijing. Water is often drawn from rivers.3. animal-drawn carts are still used in many countries. and other ancient civilizations. pulled by humans or animals. THE PARAGRAPH 33 . It dates from about 3500 to 3000 BC. In many Asian cities. ____________________________________. lakes. The horse-drawn chariot appeared in Mesopotamia around 2000 BC. Wheels were first used in the cart or wagon. bicycle-like vehicles called rickshaws carry between 10 and 20 percent of the goods moved daily. _________________________________________. This water is usually returned to the source warmer than when it was taken. In Africa. has fallen below the peak rate of 2 percent per year attained by 1970. After the invention of the steam engine. By the late 2040s. Read the paragraphs below. _____________________________________. The earliest known examples of wheels are from Mesopotamia. people own over 7 million bicycles. wheels were driven by steam. and is increasing by more than 77 million persons each year. It was later used in Egypt. At that time more than 50 countries will experience negative growth. Try to write a suitable topic sentence for each paragraph. It attracts other animals in place of them. ______________________________________. 1. In Iran. the bicycle is the most common means of traveling intermediate distances. This small temperature change in the body of water can drive away the fish and other animals that were originally present.64 percent annually. China. In cities in Denmark. Rome.3 percent per year. or the ocean for use in factories and power plants. The United Nations (UN) estimates that the world population reached 6 billion in 1999. The result may be fish and other wildlife deaths. the UN estimates. The rate of increase. Persia. bicycles are the primary means of transportation in such cities as Yazd and Kerman. too. the growth rate will have fallen to about 0. between 20 and 30 percent of daily trips are made on bicycles. Greece.
Unrelated supporting sentences cannot support the topic sentence. EXERCISE 1. Supporting sentences should be related to the topic sentence to make the paragraph unified. 34 THE PARAGRAPH . These are called supporting sentences. She seemed to be about twenty five years old. Which one is a unified paragraph? Which sentences in the non-unified paragraph are unrelated to the topic sentence? PARAGRAPH 1 Eggs are really good. They can only make your paragraphs weak. Other extreme rainfall records include nearly 1168 mm of rain in one day during a typhoon in Philippines.466 mm. or 26 m.__________________________________________. explaining. The stewardess was a tall and slim girl. My mother says. There are a few other sentences (usually between 6 and 12) in each paragraph which are called supporting sentences. the stewardess gave us breakfast. my family and I went to Mashhad. of rain have fallen there in one year. bread. We also visited Vakil Abad Zoo. We went there in an airplane. a unified paragraph will include only sentences that explain or support the general statement made in the topic sentence. She was really nice. or illustrating its controlling ideas. That is. PARAGRAPH UNITY The topic sentence is not the only sentence in a paragraph. As much as 26. Last year. Any sentence that is not related to the main idea would not develop it.8 mm within one hour during a thunderstorm in Missouri. It occurs in northeastern India. and 62. It included coffee.7 mm in over a 5-min period in Panama. In the airplane. and other things. clarifying.922 mm per year. The job of these sentences is to support the topic sentence by defining. We came back home after ten days. 304. boiled eggs. Mashhad is a sacred city. Read and compare the following two paragraphs written by two Iranian students of English on the advantages of eggs. The world's heaviest rainfall is about 10. She likes Imam Reza so much so that she goes to Mashhad every year.
In early stages of paragraph development. the reader can conclude whether or not the paragraph is unified. remove the pot from the stove and let it remain still for a few seconds. When the water boils. many vitamins are found in eggs. That is. It is possible. By finding the controlling ideas in the topic sentence. Some fats which are vital for human growth can also be found in eggs. of course. First. it is very important to make sure that the pot in which you want to make coffee is clean. pour some instant coffee into a cup and fill the cup with water from the pot. you should be aware of some delicate points. Are all the supporting sentences related to the topic sentence? Are any of the sentences indirectly related to the topic sentence? Are there any sentences that do not belong? THE PARAGRAPH 35 . The Lavazza brand is the best instant coffee on the market. Dust can make your coffee bad. students are advised to use direct paragraph unity in their writings. First. egg is considered a complete food because of the minerals that are found in it. Eggs can also be used in a variety of dishes. Next. and let it boil. EXERCISE 1.PARAGRAPH 2 Egg is necessary for human body because it has at least five advantages. In addition. pour some clean water into the pot. or further explanation. it is full of proteins that are needed for growth. What is the topic sentence of the paragraph? What are the controlling ideas in the topic sentence? Circle them. they may be directly related to the preceding supporting sentences by providing examples. Second. That will make their job much easier for them. and can give the housewife a pleasant experience of cooking. Second. the reader can guess what the rest of the paragraph should be about. that some sentences may be indirectly related to the topic sentence. details. Then. Each sentence in a unified paragraph will be directly related to the topic sentence. by reading the paragraph closely. Read the two paragraphs below and answer the questions that follow each paragraph: PARAGRAPH 1 To be able to make good coffee.
and have fun with their husbands' money. First. Loyalty is another important point in an ideal husband. 4) In 750. Moreover. Which sentences relate directly to the topic sentence? Which sentences do not relate directly to the topic sentence? 1) According to tradition. Finally.PARAGRAPH 2 An ideal husband has several characteristics. but in 610 it was introduced into Japan. Read the following topic sentence and underline its controlling ideas. go to work in their husbands' personal car. 2) The earliest known paper still in existence was made from rags about AD 150. 36 THE PARAGRAPH . Paper has had an interesting journey throughout history. he must come from a respectable family. he must be gentle. he must be an honest man who always tells the truth and never cheats his wife. paper was first made in AD 105 by the Chinese. he must be in an acceptable financial situation. 5) Paper made its appearance in Egypt about 800 but was not manufactured there until 900 because Egyptians had their own Papyrus. All girls like to live in their husbands' personal house. 3) For almost 500 years the art of papermaking was confined to China. paper found its way to Central Asia. What is the topic sentence of the second paragraph? What are the controlling ideas in the topic sentence? Circle them. Second. Are all the supporting sentences related to the topic sentence? Are any of the sentences indirectly related to the topic sentence? Are there any sentences that don't belong? Why don't they fit? 2. Now read the twelve sentences that follow and: Select the sentences that develop the topic sentence.
6) The use of paper was introduced into Europe by the Moors. the information should show the readers that the writer's point of view is worthwhile and clear. Loose topic sentences make your paragraphs awkwardly long or awkwardly short. A paragraph is like a bag. A good strategy is to use more than one controlling idea in a topic sentence. THE PARAGRAPH 37 . Notice that readers do not have to agree with the topic sentence. but if the paragraph is complete. 9) The introduction of movable type about the middle of the 15th century made book printing possible and greatly influenced papermaking. The amount of information that you can put in a paragraph is controlled by the topic sentence. paragraph unity and completeness go hand in hand. similarities. differences. You have already learnt that the length of a paragraph is determined by the amount of information the writer needs to put in the paragraph. a paragraph needs to be complete. It contains information. 12) The first paper made of cheap materials appeared ten years later. 8) In succeeding centuries. the art of papermaking spread to most of the European countries. The controlling ideas of the topic sentence give you the ability to control the size of your paragraphs. 10) The first paper mill in England was established in 1495. steps. types. 11) The solution of the problem of making paper from cheap raw material was achieved about 1840. number. kinds. and the first such mill in America in 1690. PARAGRAPH COMPLETENESS In addition to being unified. stages. 7) The first European papermaking mill was established in Spain about 1150. location. Remember that it is possible to limit the topic in terms of time. In fact.
You may have also noticed that the second topic sentence can be completely developed in a single paragraph. You can limit the topic of your paragraph in some of these terms. A sketchy paragraph is one in which the supporting sentences are not clearly linked together. 38 THE PARAGRAPH . Circle the controlling ideas.and so on. or (b) make the paragraph sketchy. One of the metal plates is thin and takes changes in pressure caused by sound waves. An incomplete paragraph is one in which the topic sentence is not fully developed. Consider the following paragraphs. You have probably noticed that it is possible to write a book (or some books) about the first sentence. As a result. The electrodes pass electricity that flows through the carbon. Air pollution has three crucial effects on human health. The carbon transmitter is made by placing carbon between metal plates. When the topic sentence is loose. It transmits these changes to the carbon. the writer jumps from one supporting sentence to another because he has to. Such paragraphs suffer from abruptness or choppiness. Underline the topic sentence in each paragraph. sound is transmitted. In a choppy or sketchy paragraph. Compare the following topic sentences about air pollution: Air pollution has many effects on living organisms. the writer may have to do one of the two things: (a) leave the paragraph incomplete. EXERCISE 1. Changes in pressure caused by sound change the electrical resistance of the carbon. PARAGRAPH 1 There are two common kinds of telephone transmitters: the carbon transmitter and the electret transmitter. You can easily identify the differences between the underlined controlling ideas of the two sentences.
What specific details make each paragraph interesting for the reader? 4. Many trees give fruits and nuts such as oranges. The Nile River basin covers an area of 3. This single river contributes 20 percent of the river water that flows into the world's oceans. The longest river on Earth is the Nile River in Africa. Now answer the following questions: 1. What questions will you expect to be answered in the paragraphs? 3. Which details do you remember after reading each paragraph? 5. Yangtze.349.000 square kilometers. The Yellow River in China gets its name from the yellow soils of central China. the reader. It has a length of 6. grapefruits. It has a length of 6.400 km. The Amazon River in South America carries the largest amount of water. Many trees give important medicines. and almonds. What should you. apples. which from 1992 is used for treating ovarian cancer.300 km. expect the paragraphs to be about? 2. Its length is 5. Trees and their fruits are also the source of many oils. Is the information in each paragraph related to its topic sentence? 7. Wood or lumber from trees is the most widely used material in the building of homes and other structures. including olive oil and coconut oil.PARAGRAPH 2 Trees have many uses. another river in China. The bark of the yew tree is the source of the drug taxol. It carries the largest amount of soil to the ocean. The Yellow River is the second longest river in China.695 km from its headwaters in Burundi to its mouth at the Mediterranean Sea. has a length of 6.500 km. The barks of certain trees are sources of cork and spices. PARAGRAPH 3 Large rivers are located on every continent. Are any of the sentences in each paragraph indirectly related to the topic sentence of that paragraph? Which sentences? THE PARAGRAPH 39 . Is each paragraph only about one topic? 8. Tree trunks are used in making many products such as rubber. peaches. Are any of the paragraphs sketchy and choppy? Which one(s)? 6.
In topic outlines. The outline below—the plays of Shakespeare—is a topic outline. only words or phrases have been used in this outline. Histories A. Shakespeare will be the subject of your writing. Othello II. You have already read about these two outline types in Study Skills. Macbeth B. you use complete sentences after each head number. Now. The merchant of Venice III. however. and sentence outline. It will tell you what points you should include in your paragraph. You can then use your outline to give organization to your paragraphs. an emblem. There are two types of outlines: topic outline. Outlining can give you a general plan. Suppose that you decide to write about three types of Shakespeare's plays. a platform. Now you can make the following outline: The plays of Shakespeare I. Comedies A. there are the tragedies. Henry V This outline can then be expanded into the following paragraph: The plays of Shakespeare can be classified into three types. You should then narrow this topic by a number of controlling ideas. topic outlines are often preferred over sentence outlines. You may decide to write about the plays of Shakespeare. As you can see. Suppose that you are asked to write about Shakespeare.THE OUTLINE The outline gives you a general plan for your paragraph. Richard II B. First. or a blueprint. it is for you to decide what to write about Shakespeare. you use phrases after each head number. You have limited your topic in terms of number and type. Developing the skill of outlining is a good help for any beginner. In sentence outlines. Two of his most famous tragedies are Macbeth and 40 THE PARAGRAPH . Notice that in writing courses. Tragedies A. This will be the topic of your paragraph. The comedy of errors B.
Finally. The next category—Northern pine forests—form a worldwide belt around the earth. Fruitless tress A. Forests may be divided into the following six general types. Shakespeare has also written a number of comedies. The famous subtypes are the forests of the northern hemisphere and the oceanic forests.Othello. Almond II. Nuts 2. Fleshy fruits 1. monsoon forests are characteristic of Bengal. Read the following paragraph carefully. there are the forests of the hot areas. 2. and: 1. Pine B. Second. First. Next. Types of trees I. and India. Write an outline for the paragraph. EXERCISE 1. Write a unified paragraph on the basis of the information you get from the following outline. 2. Myanmar. Circle the controlling ideas. Shakespeare's most outstanding comedies are The comedy of errors and The merchant of Venice. evergreen forests are found in North America and the Caribbean islands. Fruit trees A. Dry fruits 1. Richard II and Henry V belong in this category. rain forests are characteristic of central Africa and the Amazon. Southeast Asia. some of Shakespeare's plays focus on history. Apple B. 3. are found in regions such as the Campos of Brazil. Tropical forests. on the other hand. Moreover. Oak THE PARAGRAPH 41 . Orange 2. Underline the topic.
Choose the most important detail you want to communicate. Also. Include a few controlling ideas in the topic sentence to limit the size of your paragraph. List some details about your topic. Narrow the subject to a few topics. 42 THE PARAGRAPH . Think about the subject carefully. On the whole. It should be interesting or important to the readers too. Write a topic sentence based on this detail. Example: Effects of air pollution on animal life Effects of air pollution on plant life Effects of air pollution on human health Effects of air pollution on atmosphere 5.STEPS OF WRITING A GOOD PARAGRAPH You should have already learnt how to approach the task of paragraph writing. Example: The effects of air pollution on human health 6. there are eight steps for writing a good paragraph. 1. Choose one of the topics. Example: effects of Air pollution 4. make sure the topic will be of interest to the readers. Example: Air pollution has two major effects on human health. Example: Causes of air pollution Effects of air pollution Air pollution and the environment Air pollution versus water pollution The history of air pollution Air pollution and global warming 3. Example: Air pollution 2. Make sure you know about what you write.
Are any sentences unrelated to the topic sentence? 6. Follow the eight steps of paragraph writing and develop a paragraph. Choose one of the following subjects: coin airplane shark sea 2. Are my supporting sentences related to my topic sentence? 10. using the information you have listed in the outline. Then read your own paragraph and try to answer these questions: 1. Lung cancer II. Is it complete? 3. Is my paragraph interesting? 9. irritation 8. Depression B. Is my paragraph unified? 2. Heart attack B. What are the controlling ideas of my topic sentence? 8. Write your paragraph. Psychological effects A. Physical effects A. Is my paragraph sketchy? 7. Which sentences provide specific details to support the topic sentence? 5. Is there any irrelevant supporting sentence in my paragraph? THE PARAGRAPH 43 .7. Make an outline for the paragraph. Effects of air pollution on human health I. EXERCISE 1. Which sentence is the most general? 4.
all people know that the earth goes round the 44 TECHNIQUES OF SUPPORT . and (b) the reader. define. They may do so in a number of ways. explain. Before using any of these techniques in your supporting sentences. you need to write a few supporting sentences that develop your topic sentence. They should be able to clarify. The most common techniques include the use of: Facts Statistics Details Examples Anecdotes Physical description Personal experience The techniques you use will depend on two things: (a) the topic sentence. you should ask yourself: 1) Which of these techniques would best support my topic sentence? 2) Which of these techniques will convince my readers that my topic sentence is valid and worthwhile? FACTS Facts are known information. or prove the topic sentence. For instance. The supporting sentences of your paragraph should be more specific than the topic sentence. illustrate. They are sentences that carry agreed-upon information.UNIT FOUR TECHNIQUES OF SUPPORT INTRODUCTION In order to come up with a paragraph.
Fact 2: Milk strengthens bones. That is. Fact 4: Milk provides needed minerals. Butter Terrorism Book Picnic STATISTICS Closely related to facts are statistics. However. when numbers are used to show a fact. the role of milk in making bones strong is already known. The numbers in a statistic may be in the form of figures. The following model paragraph has been developed by facts. Remember that factual statements are not suitable as topic sentences. This is another fact. First. that fact is called a statistic. they are readily verifiable. milk can send poisons out of the body. Use facts to develop your topic sentence into a unified paragraph. Second. TECHNIQUES OF SUPPORT 45 . The interesting point about facts is that they can be proved very easily. Fact 3: Milk neutralizes poisons. A statistic is a numerical fact. Moreover. These facts are outlined here: Fact 1: Milk controls illness. ratios. That is. You are recommended to use facts in supporting sentences whereas you were advised to refrain from them in the topic sentence. this statement is a fact.sun. A close examination of this model paragraph shows that a few facts have been used in the supporting sentences. Milk also provides the minerals most needed by human body. babies that drink milk tend to resist illness more than babies who do not. EXERCISE Select one of the following subjects and write a topic sentence for it. they are one of the best techniques of support. There are a good number of proofs that show milk is the most important cause of good health. We also know that the length of a day and a night is 24 hours. So.
As you have already noticed. exported about 27 percent of its 6. China and India together produced about 55 percent of the world's rice. The analysis of the paragraph is presented below: Statistic 1: 90% of world's rice production in 1996 Statistic 2: 55% of world's rice produced by China and India Statistic 3: Pakistan exported 6.6 million tons. Asian countries are the world's greatest producers of rice. but 16 percent of its people do not have enough to eat. or about 24 percent of its total production that year.4 percent survive on less than one US dollar per day. India exported 3.4 million tons of rice in 1996. and it is a significant agricultural crop in more than 50 other Asian countries. and so on. Pakistan. the 46 TECHNIQUES OF SUPPORT . As another example. or about 3 percent of its total production of rice in the same year. nor does a high growth rate create food insecurity. It exported 5. frequencies.2 million tons in 1996 EXERCISE 1. in Haiti. The use of statistics is the major technique of support in this paragraph. Thailand exported significantly more rice than many other countries. 29. Although controlling population growth rate is important for achieving food security. Typically. China has a low population growth rate of 0. Statistics show that Asian countries produced about 90 percent of the world's 569 million tons of rice in 1996.6 percent of its population lives below the national poverty level. One of the most common techniques of support is the use of statistics. China's food security problem is caused in part by poverty. In the same year. The following sample paragraph has been developed by statistics. Read the following paragraph closely.2 million tons in 1996 Statistic 5: India exported 3.percentages.2 million tons. a low population growth rate does not guarantee food security.9 percent.4 million tons in 1996 Statistic 4: Thailand exported 5. 8. Statistics give a scientific color to your paragraphs. for example. the writer has used a number of statistics to support his topic sentence.
the writer has used eight statistics to support his topic sentence. largely the result of two centuries of military dictatorships. health care. Now try to analyze this paragraph. Lack of food security in Haiti is caused by extreme poverty.1 percent. and volume of the world's oceans. TECHNIQUES OF SUPPORT 47 . Study the following table carefully. and transportation. which have neglected development of agriculture. yet 69 percent of the population does not eat enough food. Statistic 1: _________________________________________________ Statistic 2: _________________________________________________ Statistic 3: _________________________________________________ Statistic 4: _________________________________________________ Statistic 5: _________________________________________________ Statistic 6: _________________________________________________ Statistic 7: _________________________________________________ Statistic 8: _________________________________________________ 2. and an estimated 70 percent of the population is unemployed. area. schools.8 percent is also low.population growth rate of 1. It gives you some information about the average depth. Can you identify them? Write your answers in the space provided below. The literacy rate in Haiti is 44.
Average depth m Pacific Ocean Atlantic Ocean Indian Ocean Arctic Ocean The Antarctic Ocean 4,300 3,900 3,900 1,300 3,790
area million sq km 165.7 82.4 73.4 14.1 361.1
volume million cu km 707.6 324.6 291 17 1,370
Now try to develop a paragraph on the basis of this table. Use the following topic sentence.
The world's oceans and seas vary greatly in their average depth, area, and volume.
DETAILS A detail is a particular aspect, part, or characteristic of the topic. When you decide to describe the topic in the supporting sentences, the easiest and the most appropriate technique is to use details. For example, to describe your car, you can write about its parts. The following model paragraph has been developed by details. As you will notice, different parts of a soccer team have been described. The description of these parts provides a description of the whole of the team.
A soccer team is composed of five main positions. One player from the team plays the position of goalkeeper, but the distribution of other players among the other positions can vary. Generally, teams play with three or four defenders, who are also known as fullbacks. Fullbacks are the last line of defense between the goalkeeper and the opposing team. Their primary job is to control attacks by winning control of the ball. Fullbacks then initiate their own team's attack, moving the ball in the other direction. Midfield is the most demanding position, as halfbacks must have skills necessary both to defend and attack. Three or four players called midfielders, or halfbacks, act as a link between defense and offense. Halfbacks are also constantly moving, running from one end of the field to
the other. Attackers, or forwards, are primarily responsible for scoring goals. Teams generally play with two, three, or four forwards. Forwards must handle the ball well and be excellent passers. They also must be exceptionally quick. Forwards are sometimes called attackers. Each soccer team may include one or two liberos. A libero is a player who does not have a fixed position in the soccer field. The libero can move around the field freely.
An analysis of the paragraph is provided below. As you will observe, details are the major techniques of support that the writer has used to develop his paragraph. Topic: composition of a soccer team Detail 1: goalkeeper Detail 2: defenders or fullbacks Detail 3: midfielders or halfbacks Detail 4: forwards Detail 5: liberos
1. Choose one of the following subjects. Develop a paragraph in which you will use details as the major technique of support. Your paragraph should include at least eight and at most thirteen sentences.
Your room A friend of yours One of your teachers
2. Read the following paragraph closely.
Any modern kitchen requires several equipments. A stove, or range is perhaps the most important part of a modern kitchen. The sink will be used for washing purposes. There should also be a work surface. Moreover, various knives, pots, and pans should also exist in a kitchen. Such utensils as spatulas, whisks, specialized spoons, and rolling pins and a more highly specialized array of gear for producing pastries and other baked goods are also vital. In recent years such equipment as blenders, food processors, and
microwave ovens have become common. Although such tools do save considerable preparation and cooking time, none of them has improved on the results to be achieved by more traditional techniques.
Now, complete the following list on the basis of the information you gained from the paragraph.
Topic: Detail 1: Detail 2: Detail 3: Detail 4: Detail 5: Detail 6: Detail 7: Detail 8: Detail 9: Detail 10:
_________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________
Are there any other details in the paragraph? If so, how many?
EXAMPLES Using examples is another excellent technique of support. An example is a specific instance that explains or illustrates the topic. When the idea expressed in the paragraph is abstract, readers may have difficulty
examples have been used as the technique of support. can have massive effects on human life. As you will see. An analysis of the paragraph is given below. In the following paragraph. Another major hazard. sound. south America. Examples can change abstract ideas into concrete tangible ones. Read the following paragraph closely: Natural Hazards are one of the most important causes of human loss in every part of the world. Joule. and the US. Each year. Volcanic eruptions. He was the scientist who invented the steam engine. Other names in this category include. and so on. Abstract ideas are not open to the five senses of touch. The word watt used to measure electric power has been taken from the name of the Scottish scientist James Watt. Perhaps a more common example is hertz. Bell. Some of the famous units of measurement in common use today are the actual names of famous scientists. produced by TECHNIQUES OF SUPPORT 51 . Newton. a lot of people are killed in floods in the south-eastern parts of Asia. the writer has used examples to support his topic sentence: Topic: people's names as units of measurement Example 1: James Watt Example 2: Andre Marie Ampere Example 3: Heinrich Rudolf Hertz Example 4: Newton Example 5: Bell Example 6: Ohm Example 7: Joule Example 8: Maxwell EXERCISE 1. The French physicist Andre Marie Ampere's name is the unit of measurement for electric current. The most dangerous natural hazards are earthquakes. the unit of measurement for wave frequency. Read the paragraph carefully. It has been taken from the name of the German scientist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz. smell. Maxwell. taste. and sight. too.understanding it. Ohm.
They are enormous waves that reach maximum height near the shore where they can cause massive damage and loss of life. originally written by the Greek writer Aesop. the great Shirazi poet. Anecdotes are usually very short fables or stories about animals. snow. Perhaps. In Persian. hail. In English. the fables. causing damage not only directly by wind action but also by flooding. Sa'adi. Droughts. tropical hurricanes are the worst and most widespread natural hazard. Anecdotes are best for paragraphs in which the 52 TECHNIQUES OF SUPPORT . are tsunamis.earthquakes and volcanoes. and natural fires also threaten human beings. The writer has used examples to develop his topic sentence. have been rewritten in the form of short anecdotes. 2. lightning. Can you identify which examples he has used? Complete the following list: Topic: Example 1: Example 2: Example 3: Example 4: Example 5: Example 6: Example 7: Example 8: Example 9: Example 10: _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________ ANECDOTES A very short story which consists of a few sentences can also develop the topic sentence of a paragraph. has used a lot of anecdotes in his Gulestan.
A cow was passing by and happened to drop a big dump over the poor sparrow. They can be developed by anecdotes. an animal. he felt colder and colder until his blood could no longer circulate in his body. and swallowed him. and the poor sparrow fell to the ground entering a deep coma. People realize the importance of health only after they experience a severe illness. or discuss some moral points. smell. wandering about. the writer has used an anecdote to develop his topic sentence. writers frequently use physical description to develop their topic sentences. He realized he would freeze to death if he could not find a more suitable shelter. A bitterly cold winter night. they are hard to defeat. PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION One of the techniques of support frequently used to describe the topic sentence is physical description. The warmth of the dump returned life back to the sparrow. See if you can find suitable anecdotes to develop them into unified paragraphs. and he started to chirp with joy. pulled the sparrow out of the dump. Amidst his flight. The five senses of sight.writer tries to give a piece of advice to the reader. Read the following topic sentences and think about them. a sparrow was spending the night on the scant shelter of a tree. A pussycat. or a person. When people become united. With this thought. Read the paragraph carefully: When you are in a bad situation. EXERCISE 1. and hearing make it possible for us to feel details of the objects in the world around us: TECHNIQUES OF SUPPORT 53 . touch. When the topic of the paragraph is an object. the poor sparrow started to fly in the hope of finding a warm and comfortable place. In the following paragraph. you should keep your mouth shut. located the dump. A steady but slow movement towards your goals is much better than a fast but choppy movement. taste.
54 TECHNIQUES OF SUPPORT . etc. Sight: The fat lady looked exactly like a mountain of warm jelly.) By touch we feel: Texture (smooth. Take the following examples: 1. objects. green. Sound: The heavy rain sounded like a thousand ping-pong balls as it fell on the roof of the house.) Smell effect (suffocating. Take the following examples: Jack is like a lion.) By hearing we feel: Sound quality (soft. 5. etc. dull. etc. etc.) Light (bright. John is similar to an ape. blue.) Color (red. light. clear. That dog is as powerful as a mule. hearing. simile and metaphor are two types of figures of speech which are based on the five senses. sharp. sight—also offer us a way for comparing people. seducing. Taste: The strange food in the Chinese restaurant tasted like a sour cherry. rough. In fact. flat. taste. flat. Smell: The factory worker smelled like a rotten egg as if he had not taken a shower for centuries. clean. sweet. square. etc. etc.) By smell we feel: Smell quality (sharp. fresh. and animals. dark. sour. 4. Touch: The black man's skin felt like sandpaper when we shook hands. etc. gloomy. A simile is a sentence that compares one thing with another (X is like Y). hot. etc.) Temperature (lukewarm.) By taste we feel: Taste quality (bitter. etc. sweet. cold. loud.By sight we feel: Shape (round. 2. etc.) Weight (heavy. smell.) The five sense modalities—touch. 3.
That dog is a mule. as … as. One way in which you can make your paragraphs interesting is through the use of similes and metaphors. the word owl. For example. Therefore. John is an ape. There are two strategies that can help you in this connection: 1) Use a dictionary (such as Oxford Advanced Learners' Dictionary) to check the exact meaning of the word you want to use (its denotation). Notice that a connotation is an associative meaning. is a sign of good luck for some English speakers. Notice that using physical description to support your topic sentence requires that you be precise and exact in your choice of words. like. Read the paragraph closely. as if. but also gives information about the different shades and tints of meaning. word choice is a skill that you should develop for purposes of becoming a good writer. The word owl for example. the simile will change into a metaphor.In these examples. is the name of a bird (denotation or denotative meaning) and is also the sign of bad luck (connotation or connotative meaning). etc. similar to. Synonyms can have slightly different meanings or connotations. Remember that showing and telling paragraphs differ. Showing paragraphs are more interesting to the reader. If these words are deleted..e. there are a number of words (i. Your word choice will not only affect your readers' responses but also their understanding of the paragraph. 2) Use a thesaurus (a dictionary of synonyms and antonyms such as Roget's Thesaurus of Synonyms and Antonyms) that not only gives the synonyms and antonyms of words. Using precisely the right word or phrase to describe a point to your readers is often difficult.) that establish the simile. notice that a word can have different connotations in different languages and cultures. The topic sentence in the following sample paragraph has been developed by physical description. TECHNIQUES OF SUPPORT 55 . in Persian. Also. Take the following examples: Jack is a lion.
the water of the brooks was almost too cold to touch. We feel that we had accomplished a great journey. the sunlight was shining brightly. Before we started the hike. Use physical description to describe the criminal for the police. It was absolutely quiet and silent like a sad and grim night. 56 TECHNIQUES OF SUPPORT . The police asked you to tell them who the criminal was. When we went into the woods it was quite dark as if the sun was no longer in the sky. Now. read the following analysis. We felt that we were walking in hallways because the trees were so big and tall that they prevented sunlight from coming through. The police should be able to draw a picture of the criminal based on the description you give. Also small brooks were bubbling here and there. Although the weather was hot. You will notice the instances of physical description listed here: Topic: description of a hiking experience Instance Instance Instance Instance Instance Instance Instance Instance Instance 1: 2: 3: 4: 5: 6: 7: 8: 9: sunlight shining brightly no sun in the sky walking in hallways sad grim night birds cackling turkeys gobbling brooks bubbling hot whether cold water EXERCISE 1) Suppose that you have witnessed a criminal killing someone in the park near your house. In the distance we heard some birds cackling and some turkeys gobbling as if they did not want us to be in this place.Once I went hiking with a group from my school to the mountains near Raamsar.
The following paragraph has been developed by personal experience. I called several people whom I had helped a lot in the past to borrow some money. You must decide how much detail is necessary. the other one is short. Read the paragraph closely and decide if there are any details that do not directly relate to the main idea. I had my cell phone with me. Very often. Unfortunately. PERSONAL EXPERIENCE Another technique of support often used to develop the topic sentence is the use of writer's personal experience. one of your friends is tall. However. By telling the reader what you have personally experienced. You know who your real friends are when you have a problem. Make TECHNIQUES OF SUPPORT 57 . I had no other choice. I telephoned my wife and asked her to send some money to my bank account in Tehran. I realized that. personal experience is the only effective way to develop a topic sentence. Not long ago I had a trip to Tehran by my own car. I did not have enough money with me. On the second day of my trip. you strengthen and support the topic sentence. you should be careful not to lose paragraph unity. When I referred to the mechanic. I left my car in the mechanic's garage for a few days. Your description should be so exact that the reader will be able to imagine what they look like. Not all the sentences that you use to report your personal experience may be directly related to the topic sentence. The key to this decision is to analyze the paragraph for unity once you have finished writing it. I was driving in Azadi street when suddenly something went wrong with the car engine and my car broke down. EXERCISE 1. Choose one of the following topic sentences and write a paragraph using your personal experience to support the topic sentences. none of them was willing to help. You can delete those sentences that do not bear a direct relationship to the topic. unfortunately.2) Use physical description to compare two of your friends. Then. Fortunately.
Computers create more problems than they solve. EXERCISE 1. For instance. The choice of one technique over another will depend on one consideration: Which technique of support will most effectively show what the topic sentence tells? A paragraph must have at least one technique of support. very often a paragraph will best be developed by more than one technique of support. Read the following three paragraphs carefully and answer the following questions: 1) Is there only one technique of support in each paragraph? 2) Could the writers have used techniques of support other than the ones they already have? 3) Are the techniques of support used by the writers the most suitable techniques which could ever be used? 58 TECHNIQUES OF SUPPORT . The writer may also find it easier to develop a topic sentence by both personal experience and physical description. Nothing is wrong with this. Not knowing how to use a machine can sometimes result in a commotion. 5.a list of details you might use in the paragraph. However. and select only the details that relate directly to the topic sentence. Trying to reconcile two enemies can cost you a lot. Not knowing a language well can sometimes be embarrassing. facts and statistics can go hand-in-hand to develop the topic sentence. In fact. 6. 3. FINAL REMARKS Often a topic sentence is supported by more than one technique. 1. the writer is free to use as many techniques of support in as many combinations as he likes. 2. 4. Saying nothing is sometimes easier than telling a white lie. A person's life can sometimes change overnight.
the number of national parks in tropical countries has increased greatly. Street motorcycles are a popular means of transportation during summer months and in warm climates. Finally. They have launched this movement at the end of the 20th century. PARAGRAPH 2 Volcanoes cause hazards to people and property. racing motorcycles are engineered for handling performance and increased speed. Lava flows are rarely life threatening but can produce massive property damage and economic loss. Heavy accumulations of volcanic ash. Over the last 20 years. TECHNIQUES OF SUPPORT 59 . PARAGRAPH 3 Riders use different kinds of motorcycles for different purposes. Some international organizations give money to any country which sets aside ten percent of its forests in protected areas. off-road motorcycles perform well on dirt or gravel roads or trails.PARAGRAPH 1 Protected areas are especially important for preserving the rain forests. can collapse roofs and damage crops. Volcanic debris flows have caused the most eruption-related deaths in the 20th century. People often use them for recreational riding as well as for commuting. Direct hazards are lava flows. and debris flows. Motorcycles designed for use on paved streets and roads are called street motorcycles. Debris flows called lahars are composed of wet concrete-like mixtures of volcanic debris and water from melted snow or ice or heavy rainfall. Today nearly five percent of all forests are classified under some protected status. Two such organizations are the World Bank and the World Wildlife Fund. especially if they become wet from rainfall. falling ash. Lahars can travel quickly through valleys. destroying everything in their paths. Moreover.
space. and so on).UNIT FIVE METHODS OF SUPPORT (ENUMERATION) INTRODUCTION You have already learnt that a paragraph is composed of a topic sentence and a few supporting sentences. In fact. statistics. Techniques of support control the structure and content of individual supporting sentences. Methods of support are sometimes called methods of development. Methods of support. or importance? 8) Are my supporting details strong and valid enough to convince my reader? The next step in writing a complete and unified paragraph is to select a method of support. each supporting sentence can draw on a specific technique of support. you must have clear answers for these questions: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) What should I write about? Who is my reader? What specific details should I use for this kind of reader? What should my topic sentence say? What techniques of support will tell the readers that my topic sentence is valid? 6) What methods of support would best carry my ideas to the reader? 7) Should my supporting sentences be organized according to time. You have also learnt that the supporting sentences are based on techniques of support (such as facts. details. unlike techniques of support. do not 60 ENUMERATION . Before you begin writing your paragraph. examples.
The aim of an enumerative paragraph is to classify or to categorize. and (8) argumentation. How many classes can you have? The answer is relative. (3) process. The classes are relatively complete. The classes have a ruling principle (a criterion "according to" which the members or parts are grouped together) As such. The most important methods of support are: (1) enumeration. (7) comparison-contrast. goals. (6) causeeffect. This unit will focus on enumeration. the writer will mention the general class in the topic sentence. Suppose that you are studying English at an international university. The aim of exposition is to explain. ENUMERATION Enumeration is the most common method of paragraph development in English—and in many other languages of the world. In university writing. (5) definition. The aim of argumentation is to prove or persuade. and (b) argumentation. In fact. all methods of support are ways of analyzing the topic. for example college students.apply to individual supporting sentences. Methods of support relate to the purposes. A successful classification occurs when the following conditions are met: 1) 2) 3) 4) The classes are arranged according to a logical method. enumeration is a method of analysis that is used to break down the topic into groups according to a specific criterion or rule. or aims for which the paragraph is being written. (2) chronology. (4) description. In this type of paragraph development. rather. Basically. Both of these forms can be developed by a number of methods of support. It depends on the criterion or rule ENUMERATION 61 . He will then break down this class by listing its members or parts in the supporting sentences. and asks you to classify this subject in different ways. they are concerned with the organization of the paragraph as a whole. there are two major types of purposes for which you write: (a) exposition. There may be more than one criterion for the classification of a topic. The classes do not overlap. Your teacher gives you a single subject. you are frequently asked to write enumerative paragraphs.
In addition. typically a runway. to take off and land 62 ENUMERATION . Some of them can operate from grass or other surfaces such as ice. nationality. Second. land planes are designed to operate from a paved surface. enumeration has been used as the method of support. First. Third.you use for classification. and so on: According to class standing: Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior According to continent: Asian American European African According to major fields: Engineering Agriculture Sociology Physics Chemistry According to religion: Muslim Protestant Catholic Jewish Black Indian American According to race: Yellow White In the following model paragraph. race. major fields. pointed down at the Earth. Vertical-Takeoffand-Landing airplanes form another group of airplanes that typically use the jet from their engines. pontoon planes have floats in place of wheels so they can operate from water. carrier-based airplanes can takeoff from and land aboard naval bases. There are several major categories of aircrafts. class standing. you can classify college students according to religion. For example. amphibians operate from both water and land.
short-Takeoff-and-Landing aircrafts are able to function on relatively short runways.straight up and down. fruits fall into nine types. Read the following paragraph carefully. SUBJECT falls into NUMBER categories/classes/etc. For example. fruits fall into three categories. General class: air crafts Class member 1: Class member 2: Class member 3: Class member 4: Class member 5: Class member 6: Class member 7: land planes carrier-based planes pontoon planes amphibians vertical takeoff-and-landing planes short-takeoff-and-landing planes NASA space shuttle A good formula for writing the topic sentence of an enumerative paragraph would be: According to …. First. your topic sentence may be: According to their taste. fruits fall into four categories. Touring bicycles are ENUMERATION 63 . All bicycles fall into one of six general categories. etc. Next. EXERCISE 1. a NASA space shuttle is an aircraft unprecedented by any other because it flies as a fixed-wing airplane within the atmosphere and as a spacecraft in outer space. touring bicycles are designed for riding on relatively smooth pavement. fruits fall into six classes. fruits fall into six classes. According to their color. Now. According to their shape. let us have a look at the analysis of this paragraph. Finally. According to their size. if the subject of your paragraph is FRUITS. According to their smell.
The next part consists of the male reproductive structures. bikes. These are called specialty bicycles. or five-speed machines.generally made with lightweight steel. or cross. the style. Mountain bikes. First. the sepals tightly enclose 64 ENUMERATION . Unlike these three classes. Flowers typically are composed of four parts. A stamen consists of a filament and an anther. Finally. The pistil consists of three parts: the stigma. In the late 1980s manufacturers mixed mountain bikes and touring bikes to make hybrid. In the following sample paragraph. Many petals have bright colors. the next part. In the flower bud. aluminum. including climbing and descending steep inclines over rough terrain. or pistil. are designed for off-road riding. utility bicycles are commonly singlespeed. several to many stamens arranged around the pistil. the next category. together are called the calyx. many other types of bicycles are designed for special purposes. or composite frames that are designed for maximum strength and comfort. the writer has used enumeration to talk about the different parts of a flower. Now. and the ovary. Racing bicycles are the lightest bicycles made and are available in forms designed either for racing on paved roads or on specially built tracks. Petals. three-speed. the innermost part located in the center of the flower. is the female reproductive structure. the outermost part. surround the stamens. the sepals. Finally. complete the analysis that follows: General class: Member 1: Member 2: Member 3: Member 4: Member 5: Member 6: _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________ Enumeration is also a useful method of development in paragraphs that aim at explaining the different parts of a general whole.
indirect unity has been used in this paragraph. the sepals are colorful and work with the petals to attract pollinators. If you take a closer look at the topic sentences of these paragraphs. and pistil from rain or insects. In fact. These words are called enumerators. An analysis of this paragraph is provided here. you will notice the use of words classes and parts. 1. the writer has used details to explain some parts of a flower. stamens.and protect the petals. The sepals unfurl as the flower opens and often resemble small green leaves at the flower's base. What are the key words in the topic sentence of the paragraph? 2. They will help you tell the readers exactly what you are ENUMERATION 65 . As you will notice. What are the techniques of support that the writer has used? ENUMERATORS You have already seen two sample paragraphs in this chapter. In some flowers. Topic: Parts of a flower General class: flower structure Part 1: Pistil Detail 1: stigma Detail 2: style Detail 3: ovary Part 2: Stamen Detail 1: filament Detail 2: anther Part 3: Petals Part 4: Sepals EXERCISE 1. Answer the following questions on the basis of the model paragraph you have just read.
There are three kinds of goods that can be found in a decent supermarket. Listing is not limited to classes or parts. You should try to use them in your enumerative paragraphs. Then choose one of the topic sentences and develop it into a unified paragraph. An ideal husband should have a minimum of five characteristics. When used in the topic sentence of an enumerative paragraph. Read the following topic sentences and underline the enumerators. They will also help your readers to follow your line of paragraph development more easily. A general class may also be itemized in terms of its: Elements Kinds Types Aspects Features Factors Characteristics Divisions Categories Subdivisions Sections etc. 1. EXERCISE 1. They will also help you to organize your paragraphs in a clear unified way. they can function as controlling ideas. 3. Thus. I have decided to study English at Azad University for six reasons. All these words are enumerators. 66 ENUMERATION . enumerators are valuable tools for writers.listing or enumerating. 2.
In fact. or types? According to which criterion should I arrange my supporting sentences? It all depends on the importance of the elements to be listed. You may now ask yourself: 1. a random-order paragraph represents a simple. On the whole. and so forth. That is. If so. Which of these parts or types should I talk about in the first supporting sentence? In what order should I list these parts. influential. strong. categories. If so. Sometimes. In the sample paragraphs above. basic. types. 3.ORDER OF LISTING Remember that the purpose of an enumerative paragraph is to break down a general class or a whole into its parts. straightforward list. stronger. etc. it makes no difference which one goes in the first supporting sentence. categories. There is no reason to consider one type of bicycle or aircraft to be more important than the other types. random ENUMERATION 67 . or more basic than the other items on the list. you wish to indicate that one item on your list should receive special attention. different kinds of aircrafts and bicycles have been discussed in a random-order list. there are three types of listing arrangements you can make: Equal order Ascending order Descending order You should decide whether all the elements to be listed are equally important. etc. more interesting. which in the second. This method of arrangement is called equal or random ordering. In random ordering. bigger. you feel that one item on your list is more important. however. types. large. 2. and so on. categories. no element is presented as being more important or less important than any other element. The supporting sentences of an enumerative paragraph will then focus on these individual parts. more influential.
study the analysis that follows. the writer moves in the opposite direction. He will begin by the most important point first. it is cheaper than almost all other types of cars. The chief reason is that its spare parts can be 68 ENUMERATION .ordering will not be useful any more. In ascending order. This keeps the reader interested. the writer has used the ascending order of arrangement for the development of the topic sentence. You would rather use either ascending order or descending order. In the following sample paragraph. Second. Pay attention to the visual techniques used to indicate ascending order: Topic: Reasons why people prefer Paykan Reason 1: compatibility to climatic conditions Reason 2: cost Reason 3: easy maintenance Reason 4: easy repair Reason 5: easy access to spare parts In descending order. he goes on to speak of the other points. Paykan is the most compatible car to the climatic conditions of Iran. In the following sample paragraph. There are five reasons why most people prefer a Paykan over other types of personal car. In fact. The chief reason. Now. you begin with minor points and save the most important for last. Moreover. is that the spare parts are available in almost every garage. There are five reasons why most people prefer a Paykan over other types of personal car. In fact it will give a "dramatic structure" to your paragraph. Ascending order will take the readers step-by-step to the climax of your paragraph. the writer has used the ascending order of arrangement for the development of the topic sentence. Then. its maintenance and repair does not require special skill and expertise. however. First of all. descending order is the inverse of descending order.
T-shaped heads. The shortest body length belongs to hammer-head sharks. the writer feels that all items are equally important. than the others. than the others. Now. Paykan is the most compatible car to the climatic conditions of Iran. the writer feels that one item is more important. In ascending order..found in almost every garage. Finally. He places it last. essential. Its maintenance and repair does not require special skill and expertise. Moreover it is cheaper than almost all other types of cars. essential. According to their body length. sharks fall into three major categories. study the analysis that follows. etc.5 m. Nurse ENUMERATION 69 . etc. EXERCISE 1.. Pay attention to the visual techniques used to indicate descending order: Topic: Reasons why people prefer Paykan Reason 1: easy access to spare parts Reason 2: easy maintenance Reason 3: easy repair Reason 4: cost Reason 5: compatibility to climatic conditions NOTICE: In equal or random order. These sharks are known for their flattened. In descending order. He places it first. The length of the body of a hammerhead shark is larger than 3. They live in tropical waters. the writer feels that one item is more important. Read the following paragraph carefully.
Great white sharks are perhaps the greatest predators of the sea. and most seas of the world. Now. Nurse sharks grow to more than 4 m. complete the following analysis on the basis of the information you get from the paragraph. These sharks live in oceans. Topic: Item 1: Item 2: Item 3: _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________ 4.) to set off the different items on your list. Perhaps the largest body belongs to the great white shark. lots of swimmers and surfers are attacked by these wild sharks. For example. etc. Examine the paragraph carefully and try to answer the following questions as precisely as possible: 1. shallow water. please do it. you often use numerals (1. Can you rewrite the paragraph in any other way? If so. 2. LISTING SIGNALS When making a list. Underline the item which you think the writer has emphasized in the paragraph. Are there any sentences that do not relate to the topic sentence directly? 3. What is the criterion according to which the paragraph has been developed? 3. They live mostly in warm. The body of an average white shark often reaches a length of over 6 m. What is the enumerator in the topic sentence of the paragraph? 4.sharks are slow-moving sharks. Is this a unified paragraph? 2. 2. if you wanted to make a list for the model paragraph on aircrafts (page 62). 3. Each year. They are mostly found in waters near the Hawaii islands. your list might look like: 70 ENUMERATION .
cross bicycles. you may need to present your list in one of the two contexts: (a) in a single sentence. off-road motorcycles. NASA space shuttle In formal writing. and 3) use a colon (:) before the first member of the list if you are using a number to indicate the number of items on your list. When your supporting sentences are arranged in equal or random order. The listing signals that you use for equal or random order will be slightly different from the listing signals that are suitable for either ascending order or descending order. you will have to use specific listing signals. vertical-takeoff-and-landing planes 6. or. cross bicycles. you can use two different groups of listing signals: (1) listing signals followed by a comma and a complete sentence. amphibians 5. you do the listing in a number of sentences. short-Takeoff-and-Landing planes 7. you will have to: 1) set off each member of the list from the rest by means of a comma. or (2) listing signals ENUMERATION 71 . and racing bicycles. and racing motorcycles. you do not normally use numerals to set off your supporting sentences. 2) use a conjunction (and. and racing bicycles. If you do the listing in a single sentence. Take the following examples: The main kinds of bicycles are touring bicycles. so. and racing motorcycles. land planes. pontoon planes 4. or (b) in a number of sentences. 2. The three different types of motorcycles are: street motorcycles. street motorcycles.There are several major categories of aircrafts: 1. off-road The three main kinds of bicycles are: touring bicycles. If. carrier-based planes. 3. on the other hand. …) after the last comma. Different types of motorcycles are motorcycles. In this case.
Notice that in this example. Third. some motorcycles are used on paved streets and roads.followed by the enumerator and a predicate. Second. + SENTENCE) LISTING SIGNALS First. . Last. Then. (or) (or) (or) Next. you can use either of the two major groups of listing signals to develop equal or random order paragraphs. the first supporting sentence is based on the first group of listing signals whereas in the second supporting sentence. The supporting sentences in this paragraph have been listed on the basis of the listing signals (Group 1) you have just studied in the above table. The general format of the first group of listing signals can be summarized as: GROUP 1: EQUAL OR RANDOM ORDER (LISTING SIGNAL + . The first type is used on paved streets and roads. different types of First. . Therefore. the second group of listing signals has been used. . 72 ENUMERATION . (or) Finally. Compare the supporting sentences in the following example: TOPIC SENTENCE: SUPPORTING SENTENCE 1: SUPPORTING SENTENCE 1: There are three motorcycles. Next. SUPPORTING SENTENCES SUPPORTING SENTENCE 1 SUPPORTING SENTENCE 2 SUPPORTING SENTENCE 2 SUPPORTING SENTENCE 3 SUPPORTING SENTENCE 3 SUPPORTING SENTENCE 3 OTHER SUPPORTING SENTENCES OTHER SUPPORTING SENTENCES OTHER SUPPORTING SENTENCES LAST SUPPORTING SENTENCE LAST SUPPORTING SENTENCE Now read the following model paragraph.
Bread. First. Dairy products such as cheese. kind type etc. and yogurt also belong in this group. kind type PREDICATES PREDICATE 1 PREDICATE 1 PREDICATE 2 PREDICATE 2 PREDICATE 2 PREDICATE 3 PREDICATE 3 PREDICATE 3 OTHER PREDICATES OTHER PREDICATES OTHER PREDICATES LAST PREDICATE LAST PREDICATE Now read the following model paragraph. dry beans. . poultry. kind type etc. rice. Different types of meat. . eggs. The supporting sentences in this paragraph have been listed on the basis of the listing signals (Group 2) you have just studied in the above table. the vegetable group should also be considered in our diet. The general format of the first group of listing signals can be summarized as: GROUP 2: EQUAL OR RANDOM ORDER (LISTING SIGNAL + ENUMERATOR + PREDICATE) LISTING SIGNAL The first (or) (or) (or) (or) (or) One The second The next Another The third The next Still another . we should have a diet that includes food from all the four major groups of food. Next. milk. the meat group should also be considered in our diet. This group includes vegetables and fruits. and 3-5 weekly servings of vegetables. ENUMERATION 73 . we should base six to eleven weekly servings on the bread family. and pasta are members of this group. Second. They should be eaten only sparingly. A healthy diet should include 2-4 weekly servings of fruits. Finally. A healthy diet needs to include 2-3 weekly servings from this food group. and nuts belong in this group. cereals. The last (or) The final ENUMERATORS kind type kind type etc.In order to remain healthy. fats and sweets make up the last food group.
74 ENUMERATION . poultry.. milk. the listing signal for the last supporting sentence may look like the following. cereals.In order to remain healthy.e. and pasta are embers of this group. one of the supporting sentences (i. Foods based on this group should be served only sparingly. and nuts belong in this group. the last or the first) is considered to be the most importing item on the list. The next group includes meat and dairy products. and yogurt also belong in this group. This group includes vegetables and fruits. In paragraphs that are developed in an ascending or descending order. Read the paragraph carefully and pay specific attention to the listing signals which the writer has used to list his supporting sentences. we should have a diet that includes food from all the four major groups of food. listing signals from the two groups above are not suitable for ascending and descending order paragraphs because they do not show any difference between the items on a list. dry beans. since the most important item on the list is sent to the end of the paragraph. Dairy products such as cheese. A healthy diet needs to include 2-3 weekly servings from this food group. In ascending order paragraphs. eggs. the vegetable group. and 3-5 weekly servings of vegetables. should also be considered in our diet. LAST PREDICATE OR Finally—and most importantly—LAST SUPPORTING SENTENCE The topic sentence of the following model paragraph has been developed in ascending order. ENUMERATOR kind type reason etc. As such. Another group. The first group of food on which we should base 6-7 weekly servings is the bread family. Different types of meat. Bread. GROUP 3: ASCENDING ORDER LISTING SIGNAL But by far the most important largest most essential etc. The final group includes fats and sweets. rice. A healthy diet should include 2-4 weekly servings of fruits.
Write appropriate listing signals in the blanks provided. fats. including vegetables and fruits. The food pyramid tells us which types of food are most needed for health and growth. Finally. oils. First. In descending order paragraphs. The next group includes foods from the meat and dairy family. The second group. and sweets which should be eaten only sparingly. the category at the broad base. oils. FIRST PREDICATE The topic sentence of the following model paragraph has been developed in descending order. ENUMERATION 75 . EXERCISE 1. Circle the enumerator(s) in the topic sentence. the bread family. since the most important item on the list is placed first. ENUMERATOR kind type reason etc. The food pyramid advises us to mildly use foods from this group. foods from the bread family should be part of our everyday servings. including vegetables and fruits. First. is the most important group. Read the paragraph carefully and pay specific attention to the listing signals which the writer has used to list his supporting sentences. and most importantly. The second group includes foods from the meat and dairy family. The food pyramid advises us to mildly use foods from this group. the listing signal for the first supporting sentence may look like the following: GROUP 4: DESCENDING ORDER LISTING SIGNAL The most important largest most essential etc. stands in the second rank of importance for health.The food pyramid tells us which types of food are most needed for health and growth. and sweets are among the foods that are least needed. The least important group includes fats. The third group. Read the following paragraph carefully. stands in the second rank of importance.
criterion for classification. write three seven-sentence paragraphs: the first in equal order.. method of classification relates to the environments in which ants live. 2.….Scientists have categorized the 11. and gardening. weaving.. TYPES OF ANTS Fire ants Fungus-gardening ants Weaver ants Honeypot ants Army ants Harvester ants 76 ENUMERATION . Be sure to write complete sentences. ………. and the third in descending order. Using the information given. Some scientists classify ants according to the strategies they use for survival.000 types of ants in different ways.………………….. the second in ascending order. some scientists group the many species of ants according to such activities as harvesting.. ………………………. The type of foods they eat is ……………………..
In fact. the writer has gradually moved from past into present CHRONOLOGY 77 . During this Eon. time sequences. chronology is a method of development in which an event is analyzed in terms of its component phases. In other words. he has spoken about the oldest phase in the first set of supporting sentences. Geologists divide much of the earth's history into periods of time called Eons. the third period. into specific time phases. This period refers to 2. During this phase. During the Proterozoic Eon. The second. includes the phase from the origin of the earth to 3.8 to 2. It marks a time in which the structure of the earth underwent many changes and the first life form appeared on the earth.8 billion years ago. The most recent eon of the earth is the Phanerozoic Eon which includes 570 million years ago up to now. This model paragraph is an example of chronological development. life advanced from the most basic organisms to plants and animals that looked like some of the species alive today. Then. the earth and life on it gradually changed to their present state. stages. the life of earth.UNIT SIX METHODS OF SUPPORT (CHRONOLOGY) INTRODUCTION Chronology is a specific kind of enumeration.5 billion to 570 million years ago. the earth was partially covered by shallow seas and ice sheets. He has discussed the immediately following phase of earth's life in the second set of supporting sentences. The first period. Read the model paragraph below. the writer has broken down the general class. the pre-Archean period. As you see. or periods.5 billion years ago. the Archean Eon includes the period from 3.
a paragraph developed by chronology) you have two choices: (a) to begin from past and move towards present. This era is older than the Cenozoic Era. It began 570 million years ago. They go from present to past. ascending. Finally. or (b) to begin from present and move towards past. Many writers prefer to follow the course of events as they actually occurred in history. The most recent era of this Eon is the Cenozoic Era. The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into three distinct eras.5 billion years ago Third Eon: 2. however.5 billion to 570 million years ago Fourth Eon: 570 million years ago up to now When writing a chronological report (that is. An analysis of this model paragraph will read as follows: GENERAL CLASS: Eras of the Phanerozoic Eon CLASS MEMBERS: Third era: 65 million years ago to present Second era: 240 to 65 million years ago First era: 570 to 240 million years ago As you remember from chapter five. the oldest era is called the Paleozoic Era.8 billion years ago Second Eon: 3. or technically move in the direction opposite to history. There is no serious difference between these two methods. and is still going on.through the paragraph. prefer to flash back. Some writers. It is a matter of choice.8 to 2. It refers to stretch of time which began 240 million years ago and ended 65 million years ago. The Paleozoic Era ended 240 million years ago. or descending order. You also remember that in ascending order the most 78 CHRONOLOGY . An analysis of this model paragraph will read as follows: GENERAL CLASS: The history of Earth CLASS MEMBERS: First Eon: Origin of the earth to 3. the supporting sentences of enumerative paragraphs can be arranged in equal. It began 65 million years ago. The second era of this Eon is called the Mesozoic Era.
and in 513 BC. The phrase "Persian Wars" refers to a series of wars between Greek citystates and the Persian Empire beginning in the 5th century BC. However. Then. Xerxes returned home but left his army behind under his general Mardonius who decided to bring the Greeks to battle in the early spring of 479 BC. By the next year the Greeks were successfully attacking the Persians on their own territory in Asia Minor. EXERCISE 1. a second Persian expedition sacked Erotrea. Between 560 and 500 BC. Use the information you obtain from the paragraph. his forces attempted to capture the island of Naxos. Later. This attempt failed. The battle was fought and the Persian force was destroyed. In the summer of 490 BC. too. Therefore. the writer cannot and should not scramble the events. Notice the chronological order of the events discussed in the paragraph. the Persians captured three major Greek islands. 2.important element was placed last whereas in descending order the most important element was placed first. Darius himself crossed over to Europe and conquered the area between the Danube and the Aegean coast. and the expedition failed. try to complete the following analysis. the Persians were decisively defeated by the Greek ships. in 486 BC. the writer can achieve descending and ascending orders in paragraphs of chronology. The writer should decide which items in a series of events are more interesting to the readers: past events or recent events. the Persians launched an expedition to gain control of the central Aegean but most of their ships were lost in a storm. to provide exact dates for the following events: CHRONOLOGY 79 . In 492 BC. In this way. He can only change the direction of movement. Now. the Persian king Darius I succeeded to the throne. The same effects can be achieved in paragraphs of chronology provided that the most interesting events are naturally either the most recent one or the most ancient ones. Later. in 499 BC. In late September 480 BC. Also in 513 BC. He. Darius died and was succeeded by his son Xerxes I. Read the following paragraph carefully. the eastern Mediterranean and the Near East underwent great political changes. In 521 BC. attacked the Greek city-states. he can decide where to place these events: first or last.
EVENT Persian forces tried to capture Naxos Persian expedition into Aegean Persian ships lost in storm Persians captured Greek islands Darius died Greek ships defeated Persians Darius I succeeded to throne Greeks' successful attacks on Persians Start of Persian wars Xerxes returned home Darius crossed over to Europe Persians entered Erotrea Political changes in Near East Mardonius fought the Greeks Xerxes succeeded to throne DATE CHRONICLES Chronology has several special types. Many literary works of world literature. A chronicle is an extended account of historical events. As such. Chronicles often report actual historical facts. your teacher will not ask you to write chronicles. Therefore. history books are chronicles of events that have occurred in the past. it is sometimes called a chronicle. you will have a chronicle of your own life after some years. When chronology includes units larger than a single paragraph. 80 CHRONOLOGY . Chronicles can also include records or reports of actual historical events. If you keep your diaries. presented in chronological order and without any interpretation or comment. especially in the field of mythology are chronicles of this latter type. However. It should be remembered that a chronicle is usually much bigger than a paragraph. sometimes chronicles include legendary material. Chronicles can be written either in prose or in poetry.
phases. Reports his own diaries or observation of an event 2. LISTING SIGNALS The listing signals that are needed for chronological paragraphs are different from the ones you used for enumeration. The writer needs to break down the event into parts. CHRONOLOGY 81 . Instead. the writer should use time clues to arrange the events in a neat order. it is often possible to write a narration in a single paragraph too. The Iraq-Iran war began in September. Take the following examples: The Iraq-Iran war began at night. chronology does not require any specific kind of listing signals. Since the writer has to follow the path of events as they actually happened. on the other hand. Narrations are normally much bigger than a single paragraph. and write about them. the writer does one of the following: 1. the writer's purpose is to tell a story. In reports of imaginary events. or periods. 1980. the time periods used in narrations of this type do not show real periods on the actual time-line. The Iraq-Iran war began on the 22nd of September. Narrations fall into two major categories: (a) reports of actual events. Reports the diaries of someone else or his observation of an event The time periods that are used in narrations of this kind are actual time periods that can be located on the time-line. In narrations that report actual events. The Iraq-Iran war began in 1980. Very often. and (b) reports of imaginary events. The purpose of narration is to report an event.NARRATION Another special type of chronology is narration. However.
3. July 6. 1996. Notice that the prepositions that go with different time phases are not the same. 82 Days of the week? Months of the year? An exact date? Parts of the day? A specific year? A particular hour of the day? The whole week? CHRONOLOGY . TIME PHRASE In addition to time clues. too. midnight.In all of these examples. etc. Ordibehesht. my family had to move to the country. Transition words. the 10th of August. 7. etc. I ran into an old friend of mine while I was crossing the street. the evening. The Smith family lived in New York before they came to Atlanta in 1996. 6. 10:00. 5. 1996. 2. In the mean time. After my father died. Take the following examples: 1. 4. Saturday. Which prepositions of time are used in the following sentences? 1. etc. Jack was studying in the library. July 6. 3. time clues are prepositional phrases that signal time. 2. etc. five o'clock. EXERCISE 1. can arrange events in a neat sequence. etc. the morning. 1382. Khordad 10. writers may decide to use transition words to show the sequence of events. PREPOSITION IN IN IN AT AT ON ON ON 1983. etc. 22:00. 4. January. noon. the 11th of August. Monday. John was playing in the park. night. the afternoon. etc. etc. 9:00.
In writing chronological paragraphs. He decided to go into business for himself. often you can use either of the two tenses: (a) the real-time tenses.8 million people died as a result of AIDS. Jack's father lost his job. SINCE 1. When the writer uses the real-time tense to report past. evidence of AIDS epidemics grew in sub-Saharan Africa. affecting virtually every nation.3 million of those who died were children under the age of 15. future. WHILE. Already.7 million adults and 1. or progressive tense types to develop his topic sentence. Meanwhile. It was first identified in 1981 in New York and California. 4. the writer will use past. they had become very snobbish.2. As such. How many different tenses can you identify? Despite its being relatively recent. present. Replace the italicized expression in the second sentence by a subordinate conjunction (from the list below) in the first sentence. or (b) the simple present tense. 3. Read the following model paragraph carefully. UNTIL. Shortly after its detection in the United States. 2. From then on. perfective. 34. present. By 2000. BEFORE. or future events. then. his family lived in poverty. It. More than 4. he had worked in many different places. Combine the sets of sentences. They moved into an expensive apartment. he is reporting the events as they relate to the actual now. someone broke into her house. Before then. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that from 1981 to the end of 2000 about 21. GRAMMAR Sentences in a chronological paragraph have their own special structure. quickly developed into a worldwide epidemic.4 million children were living with AIDS all over the world. In 2002 the Chinese government reported that China CHRONOLOGY 83 . She was next door talking to a neighbor. AIDS has developed very fast.
use the simple present tense to report the event. it does not matter whether the event has taken place in the past. OPEC is an international organization primarily concerned with coordinating the crude-oil policies of its member states. they establish and hold several small states in the southern Mediterranean. Read the following model paragraph. When using the simple present tense to report future or past events. AIDS has been the leading cause of death among women aged 20 to 34 since 1992. The price of oil drops and with it drops the amount of money the oil companies pay the oil-producing nations. Brazil. The Crusades are first undertaken in 1095. or will take place in future. In fact. The writer can always assume that he is present at the time of the event. He can. Over the next two centuries. European Christians set move towards Palestine to regain Jerusalem for Christianity. They end in the late 13th century. the writer is assuming an imaginary now which overlaps the time of the event. This creates hostility but also raises European awareness of the Asian world. In the face of Turkish advances into Byzantium. Preventive measures will certainly control the spread of AIDS.000 HIV-positive people in a population of more than 1 billion. In the state of São Paolo.had 850. In 1095. In the late 1950s. EXERCISE 1. Pope Urban II calls in 1095 for the Christians of Europe to battle the Muslims. therefore. This specific use of the simple present tense is often called the narrative simple present tense. AIDS will continue to develop a life-threat unless scientists can develop a vaccine for it. The writer can also use the simple present tense to report events regardless of the actual time when they occurred. OPEC is formed in reaction to this drop in payments. How many different tenses can you identify? Crusades are a series of wars by Western European Christians to recapture the Holy Land from the Muslims. The European crusaders take Jerusalem in 1099. The Crusades have a lasting effect on the relationships between Christian and Muslim states. In 1960 OPEC 84 CHRONOLOGY . the amount of oil produced worldwide is greater than demand. Read the following paragraph carefully and complete the analysis below.
DATE 2. OPEC raises the price. Ecuador joins in 1973 and leaves in 1992. and this results in overproduction and a drop in oil prices. Qatar. a few years later. Iran.has 11 members (Algeria. The organization also uses the supply of oil as a political tactic. Another price-control tactic used by OPEC is to set production ceilings that specify how much oil may be produced by each member country. OPEC has 11 members. Oil supplies in non-OPEC countries are reduced. Gabon leaves OPEC. In the 1980s some OPEC nations ignore the production ceilings. This tactic results in oil and gasoline shortages in many Western nations. for example. Saudi Arabia. There is overproduction of oil. 3. United Arab Emirates. as oil supplies in non-OPEC countries are reduced. two countries join OPEC and. CHRONOLOGY 85 . OPEC stops flow of oil to Israel allies. Iraq. OPEC goes on to be a leading oil organization today. EVENT OPEC is formed. Ecuador joins OPEC. the organization raises the price of oil. In the Arab-Israeli War of 1973. Kuwait. Later. end their membership in the organization. Rewrite the paragraph using real-time tenses in your supporting sentences. and Venezuela). Ecuador leaves OPEC. Libya. In the 1970s. Indonesia. Read the following paragraph carefully and complete the analysis that follows. OPEC stops delivery of oil to nations that support Israel. Some OPEC nations ignore production ceilings. Gabon joins OPEC. Nigeria. Gabon becomes a member in 1975 and ends its membership in 1995.
In August 1939. LIMITED VERSUS UNLIMITED VERBS Verbs. Roosevelt that described this discovery and warned of its potential development by other nations. as a test on July 16.Atomic bombs were the first nuclear weapons to be developed. Albert Einstein sent a letter to U. in English. the United States dropped the first atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. tested. Limited verbs are used to show movement from one state into another state.S. government established the top secret Manhattan Project in 1942 to develop an atomic device. As a result. The U. can be classified into two major classes: limited and unlimited. On August 6. and used. In other words. 1945.S. You should be able to distinguish between limited and unlimited verbs because they can affect your tense choice in chronological paragraphs. Japan agreed to Allied terms of surrender on August 14th. Use the above analysis as your guide. Rewrite the paragraph using narrative simple present tense in your supporting sentences. 1945. president Franklin D. EVENT DATE 4. unlimited verbs show the state itself. The first atomic explosion was conducted. The following example can illustrate the difference between limited and unlimited verbs: 86 CHRONOLOGY . limited verbs occur at a point in time whereas unlimited verbs last for quite some time. It followed with a second bomb against the city of Nagasaki on August 9. In the late 1930s physicists in Europe and the United States realized that the fission of uranium could be used to create a weapon.
before. It puts an end to the event expressed in the first sentence (i. In temporal conjunctions you usually use time subordinators (e. Some time subordinators are not sensitive to the limited/unlimited nature of verbs. Jack's quitting this habit). he wore them all day long. The difference between limited and unlimited verbs creates lots of problems for Iranian students of English. the writer has used the unlimited verb (i. told) to show the shortness of the time Jack took to make his decision.g. Jack's habit of smoking went on for quite some time. These verbs cannot be used in progressive tenses. However. when. after. to show that the action signified by the limited verb went on for quite some time). Then.e. since. In the above example. Jack's decision to quit) happened at a single point in time. From then on. until.. therefore.e. When the verb is unlimited by nature. therefore.Jack was naked. the progressive aspect of a tense is used to convert a limited verb into an unlimited one (i. In fact. When writing paragraphs of chronology.e. He put on his clothes. it does not take on the progressive aspect. Take the following example: Jack used to smoke until his doctor told him it was bad for his heart.. while. the word until is a time subordinator.e. Some verbs are inherently unlimited. limited or unlimited) in the events that they express. In this example.e. you may want to use temporal conjunctions to show the chronological order of events. Jack's habit of smoking) and marks the beginning of the event expressed in the second sentence (i. The writer has..e. they go with any verb CHRONOLOGY 87 . the car did not work properly any more... used to) to express this event. Time subordinators are quite selective in their choice of verb types.. the second event (that is.. etc. used a limited verb (i. It is important to notice that different time subordinators require different types of verbs (i. Notice that in these examples the unlimited verbs have been underlined while the limited verbs have been italicized. Also notice that all verbs in their negative use are unlimited.) to arrange events into time sequences. The car was working properly until Jack had an accident with it.
The sentences below make a paragraph about the history of dam building.type. some other time subordinators take on only one verb type (either limited or unlimited) in the events they express. Yet. Therefore. not to make mistakes in your choice of limited/unlimited verbs with time subordinators. write a paragraph in which you use chronology as your method of support. Using the information provided in the table. you are warned to be careful. Below is a table describing some of the events of prehistory. Use narrative simple present tense in your supporting sentences. Unscramble them by placing them in their correct order. 88 CHRONOLOGY . copy the reconstructed paragraph in your notebook. use the table below as your work space. EXERCISE 1. An excellent and useful book that can give you practice with temporal conjunctions is The gooficon: A repair manual written by Carol Kiparsky and Marina K. TIME PHASE 4500 BC 4000 BC 4000 BC 3900 BC 3500 BC 3450 BC 3300 BC 3100 BC EVENT Plow agriculture develops People domesticate horses Chinese plan cities Culture develops in Sumer Sumerians invent the wheel Sumerians invent the chariot Writing appears First sailing ships are built 2. Then. Burt. while writing chronological paragraphs.
The need for large dams did not become widespread until the 19th century. k.a. c. In the 1850s. j. n. the Mongol Empire built several major dams in present-day Iran. i. Dams rank among the oldest types of man-made structures. and in San Francisco in 1890. Significant portions of the Roman-built dams in Spain remain in service after more than 1. b.700 years. h. g. m. l. The Ma'rib Dam. has been rebuilt several times since it was first constructed more than 2. still stand in Jordan. believed to have been constructed around 3000 BC. located in what is now Yemen. In the 14th century. The earliest known dams were relatively small and built to provide water for irrigation in Mesopotamia. CHRONOLOGY 89 . e. The Romans' largest reservoir was created in AD 284 in what is now Syria. In the 17th century the Spanish also built the first true arch dam in Europe since Roman times. Beginning around the 1st century AD. f. The greatest dam of the world under construction in China will be completed in 2009. the engineers of ancient Rome constructed a system of large dams to impound river water in regions around the Mediterranean Sea. During the 20th century dam engineers expanded upon the designs pioneered in the 19th century. Among the first of the modern concrete dams are those built in New York in 1872. Ruins of the Jawa Dam. French engineers used principles of mathematics to minimize the amount of material necessary to build a dam.700 years ago. d.
Write a chronology of the fun you had on your best day of life.EVENT TIME PHASE 3. Write a chronology of your first year at the university. Optional writing assignments 1) 2) 3) 4) Describe a typical day of your life. 90 CHRONOLOGY . Write a chronology of the troubles and problems you had on the worst day of your life.
you will have to arrange the supporting sentences of your paragraph in a step-by-step sequence. Process development is a special kind of enumeration. plus gelatin are poured into a tank. the mixture is homogenized to break up bits and particles of butterfat. This mixture is cooled and piped to a freezing tank. The following model paragraph is based on process development. in a process paragraph. and each step or stage is explained in at least one supporting sentence. Each set of supporting sentences will discuss one of the steps or stages. After being piped into the PROCESS 91 . The purpose of pasteurization is to kill probable bacteria. ask yourself the following questions: What are the key words in the topic sentence? Are there any enumerators in the topic sentence? Do the supporting sentences begin with listing signals? How many steps exist between the first and the last step? Modern ice cream production methods consist of several steps. Therefore. cream. As you read the paragraph. First. these ingredients are mixed and pasteurized. Gelatin is used as a stabilizer to give the product a smooth consistency. sugar. The whole process is mentioned in the topic sentence. Then. and flavoring). the basic ingredients (milk. paragraphs written in this way are called process paragraphs. a general whole is broken down into more specific steps or stages which will then be explained in the supporting sentences. This method of support is called process.UNIT SEVEN METHODS OF SUPPORT (PROCESS) INTRODUCTION Often you are asked to write a paragraph to explain how something is done or made. Second.
tank, the mixture is beaten until it becomes smooth. At this stage, nuts or fruits are sometimes added to the mixture. Then, the partially-frozen ice cream emerges from the freezing tank. Finally, it is packed into containers that are stored in a very cold and refrigerated room until the ice cream becomes hard.
In the following analysis, steps of making ice cream are listed. Study the analysis carefully. Is it possible to scramble these steps? If so, will the end product still be called ice cream? Topic: How ice cream is made Step 1: pouring ingredients into a tank Step 2: mixing the ingredients Step 3: pasteurizing the ingredients Step 4: homogenizing ingredients Step 5: cooling the mixture Step 6: piping the mixture into a tank Step 7: beating the mixture Step 8: adding nuts and fruits Step 9: packing Step 10: storing in a refrigerated room In this analysis, the topic "how ice cream is made" is used as a label to identify the process as a whole. The steps that follow the topic identify the details that should be discussed in the supporting sentences.
1. Read the following paragraph.
Wheat grains pass through several steps to change into flour. Milling begins with the cleaning of kernels. Wheat arriving at a mill is generally mixed with straw, chaff, pebbles, earth, and seeds of different kinds which should be cleaned. Next, the wheat is scoured by being passed through a cylinder. Tempering, a process by which the moisture content is adjusted for easiest separation of kernel from husk, is the next step in preparing the grain for grinding. Then, wheat grains pass through rollers which gradually reduce
wheat kernels to powder. The resulting flour has a more or less yellow color. Many consumers, however, prefer flour that has as little color as possible. The ground product is then sifted. This final step removes bleaches from the powder, and pure flour remains.
Complete the following analysis. You do not have to write complete sentences. Only write phrases that describe each step.
Topic: Step 1: Step 2: Step 3: Step 4: Step 5: ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________
As you have already noticed, process development is a form of analysis in which the way to do something is taken apart and examined. In fact, process paragraphs are "how to" paragraphs. There is virtually no limit to the kind of topics that can be developed in a process paragraph. The topics can be quite scientific (for example, a scientific laboratory report). They can also focus on everyday household issues (for examples, recipes for making different dishes). Moreover, they can be about completely humorous ideas (for example, the process of killing an eight-legged freak). In fact, the topics that can be developed in a process paragraph have a very wide range. Process paragraphs are very close to chronological paragraphs. In fact, a process paragraph is usually chronological in organization: first step, second step, third step, fourth step, and so forth. As a result, the reader will be able to clearly follow the process being described. Successful process development is hard to achieve. When you buy a new electronic device, for example, you will notice that a user's manual
usually accompanies the device. The purpose of this user's manual is to give you step by step instruction as to how the device should be operated. Very often you notice that it is almost impossible for you to operate the device even after you have read the user's manual several times. The process development has failed. Therefore, to be successful, a process paragraph should meet two criteria: (a) precision in wording (b) logical progression from one step to another ENUMERATORS Remember from chapter five that enumerators are words you use in the topic sentence to tell the readers exactly what you are listing or enumerating. Like other kinds of enumerative paragraphs, process paragraphs often use enumerators; unlike other enumerative paragraphs, process paragraphs use a specific group of enumerators. The most common enumerators used in process paragraphs are: Step Stage Phase In the topic sentences of the paragraphs above, the word step has been used to identify what will be listed in the supporting sentences.
Modern ice cream production methods consist of several steps. Wheat grains pass through several steps to change into flour. EXERCISE
1. Read the following paragraph.
Sugar is taken from sugarcane in a series of stages. After harvesting, stems of sugarcane are stripped of leaves. They are then ground. During grinding, hot water is sprayed over the crushed material to dissolve out some of the remaining sugar. Lime is then added to the raw juice, and the mixture is heated to boiling. During this heating, unwanted organic acids form insoluble compounds with the lime. Often the juice is treated with gaseous sulfur dioxide to bleach it and is then passed through filter presses. The
resulting clear juice is then evaporated in a partial vacuum and heated until it forms some thick syrup containing many crystals of sugar. The raw sugar is then sent to the refinery. is placed in a centrifuge to force the molasses out. The dense mass of crystals and syrup. or raw sugar. Smooth transition PROCESS 95 . to be successful. Complete the following analysis based on the information you were given in the paragraph. and recrystallized into crystals of desired size. STEPS STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 3 STEP 4 STEP 5 STEP 6 STEP 7 STEP 8 STEP 9 STEP 10 STEP 11 STEP 12 STEP 13 ACTIVITIES LISTING SIGNALS It was emphasized above that. Listing signals give you the ability to go smoothly from one supporting sentence to another. and to give first sugar. the raw sugar is redissolved. At the refinery. known as massecuite. decolorized. a process paragraph should not only have a precise wording but also a logical progression from one step to another.
96 PROCESS . can. etc. Second. and (d) passive voice. GROUP 1: PROCESS SIGNALS Step signal + comma + SENTENCE SIGNAL First. In a process paragraph. you pour some water in the pot. The most common step signals fall into two groups. + VERB) Simple present tense Passive voice There are a number of common sentence structures that are used in the supporting sentences of a process paragraph. (c) simple present tense. pour some water in the pot. The most common sentence structures used in this group are: (a) imperative sentences. First. Next. Take the following examples: First. some water should be poured in the pot. you should pour some water in the pot. must. First. SENTENCE STRUCTURE Imperative sentence Recommendation (should. listing signals identify the linear steps or sequences that lead to the final product identified in the topic sentence. The last phase requires quality control. Finally. Third. The next stage begins with grinding the stems in a mill. Then. (b) recommendations. They are. Next. First. called sequence or step signals. Last. The second group of step signals takes on the following general formula: STEP SIGNAL + ENUMERATOR + PREDICATE Take the following examples: The first step is to pour some water in the pot. Then.. therefore.will make it possible for the reader to follow your line of thought.
Where possible.. using one hand on either side of the edge. he pulls and pushes the clay into a cylindrical shape. the bowl is complete.. ……………………. EXERCISE 1. PROCESS 97 . keeping the walls thick to allow room for widening and shaping.If we tried to show this second group of listing signals schematically.. He does this by placing a lump of clay in the approximate center of the wheel. he begins to shape the bowl. it is removed from the potter's wheel by running a thin wire under its foot.. he smoothes and finishes the lip. ………………. keeping it in the exact center of the wheel. writers are frequently advised not to mix signals from different groups. ………………….. he inserts his thumb in the top of the cylinder. our diagram might look something like this: GROUP 2: PROCESS SIGNALS Step signal + enumerator + predicate The The The The The The The SIGNAL first second next third next final last ENUMERATOR Step Stage Phase PREDICATE Although it is possible to mix signals from both groups. Then provide appropriate step signals from group 1 process signals above for the blanks provided. ……………………………. he begins to form the lip. the potter begins by centering the clay. Then. creating a hole that he continues to expand while pulling up the sides of the piece. rewrite the paragraph using group 2 process signals. ……………………….. make appropriate structural changes. ………………………….... Read the following paragraph and circle the enumerator in the topic sentence. A clay bowl is created using a potter's wheel in several steps. ……………….
……………………………. If your supporting sentences are not clearly connected to each other. Read the following paragraph and circle the enumerator in the topic sentence. ………………………………… step was to send the candles to the market. This cement is called cohesion. rewrite the paragraph using group 1 process signals. …………………………………….. The best kind of fibers used for candle making were flax or cotton fibers. step was to heat the wax or fat to keep it melted.e. your paragraph lacks cohesion. Where possible. these are not the only cohesive devices that you can use. You have already become familiar with some cohesive devices (i. ……………………… step was the selection of fibers. you need to use specific words and phrases that are called cohesive devices.2. ……………………………………… step was to pack the candles.. listing or step signals). In process paragraphs. make appropriate structural changes. candles were made in several steps. A paragraph that lacks cohesion is said to be loose or haphazard.… step was usually repeated several times until the candles reached the desired thickness. ………………………………………. In the past. This was important because some people preferred long candles whereas others preferred short ones. Cohesion makes the sentences of a paragraph connected. step was to dip the fibers into melted wax and to remove them to let them cool and solidify in the air. These blocks need to be linked together by a kind of cement to make a strong whole.……. To achieve cohesion in your paragraphs. ……………………………… step that followed was to cut these fibers into desired lengths. your supporting sentences are the blocks that make your paragraph. Then provide appropriate step signals from group 2 process signals above. In fact. cohesion can also be achieved by: Time clues Repetition Pronoun reference 98 PROCESS . However. COHESION A unified paragraph needs cohesion. Then.
the underlined words and phrases) to indicate the order of the steps needed to change milk into yogurt. when. While the milk is still lukewarm. etc. PROCESS 99 . remove the pot from heat. until. you can use specific types of verbs. before. The next step is to allow some time to pass. some verbs are also underlined. stir it with a clean spoon and let the water inside the milk evaporate. are usually used to connect two supporting sentences in a process paragraph.. add fermentation to it. You can change milk into yogurt in several steps. temporal conjunctions. This is because verbs can show the beginning.. Words like while.e. the time clues have been underlined for easy identification. or final steps of a process.The first group includes time clues. First. middle. Then. continue by boiling the milk in a clean pot. let it remain in clean air to cool. as. In this model paragraph. While the milk is boiling. and tenses to show the logical sequence of the steps in the whole process. You should keep it in a cold place. In the following model paragraph the writer has used time clues (i. since. After a few hours the yogurt is ready. STAGE. after. As you see. STEP. After about ten minutes. begin by obtaining fresh whole or skim milk from the market. PHASE First step VERBS Begin Start Inaugurate Commence Continue Go on Remain Develop End Finish Culminate Intermediate steps Final step Subordinate conjunctions of time can also signal the order of steps in a process. Then.
).). etc. While the butter is melting.g. the milk should be boiled. before. since. while. 100 PROCESS . until. First Event. Slice the onions with a knife while the butter is melting. they are packed. Take the following examples: As the butter is melting. SUBORDINATOR Before When After EVENT Second event. Some of these time phrases show that the steps of a process happen at the same time (e. Second event OR Second event as while First Event Some other time phrases show that the steps happen in a series of sequences. etc.The use of time subordinators gives cohesion to your paragraph. slice the onions with a knife. as. slice the onions with a knife. or one after another (e. While As First Event.g.. When the candles are ready. Slice the onions with a knife as the butter is melting. After the candles are ready. they are packed.. EVENT First Event Second event OR EVENT First Event Second event Second event SUBORDINATOR before when after until EVENT Second event First Event First Event Take the following examples: Before you add fermentation to it. after. They will undoubtedly add cohesion. when.
The milk should be boiled before you add fermentation to it. The candles are packed when they are ready. The candles are packed after they are ready. Fermentation must not be added until the milk is boiled completely. Candles cannot be packed until they are ready.
When working with time subordinators, always beware of the type of verbs you use (i.e., limited versus unlimited verbs). You should also notice that events are identified as first event, second event, etc., on the basis of the sequence in which they occur. Another technique frequently used to create cohesion in process paragraphs is the use of participial phrases, and dangling construction. In fact, many time clauses may be reduced to participial phrases and dangling constructions. Take the following examples:
The milk having boiled, you should add fermentation to it. Having prepared the candles, you should then pack them. While melting the butter, slice some onions.
Still another useful technique is the use of sentence connectors of time. Like the first group of step signals, sentence connectors of time are usually set off from the sentences that follow them by means of commas.
Take the following examples:
Melt some butter in a pan; during this period, slice some onions. Melt some butter in a pan; in the mean time, slice some onions. Melt some butter in a pan; at the same time, slice some onions.
You can also use a period (.) after the first sentence instead of the semicolon (;). In this case, the first letter of the time connector should be capitalized. Take the following examples:
Melt some butter in a pan. During this period, slice some onions.
Melt some butter in a pan. In the mean time, slice some onions. Melt some butter in a pan. At the same time, slice some onions.
The connectors used in these examples show that the two steps are taken at the same time. There are also some sentence connectors that show sequential steps (i.e., steps that follow each other). Take the following examples:
Boil Boil Boil Boil the the the the milk milk milk milk completely; completely; completely; completely; then, add fermentation to it. after that, add fermentation to it. at that point, add fermentation to it. following that, add fermentation to it.
Boil the milk completely; afterwards, add fermentation to it. Notice that you can use a period (.) after the first sentence instead of the semi-colon (;). In this case, you will have to capitalize the first letter of the connector. Take the following examples:
Boil Boil Boil Boil the the the the milk milk milk milk completely. completely. completely. completely. Then, add fermentation to it. After that, add fermentation to it. At that point, add fermentation to it. Following that, add fermentation to it.
Remember that a semi-colon is the most common means of combining two grammatically distinct sentences into one. However, many writers prefer to use a period/full-stop in place of a semi-colon. Word repetition and pronoun reference can also be used as cohesive devices. When you repeat a word several times in the paragraph, you tell the reader that the paragraph is a unified whole. Some writers prefer to use synonyms instead of repeating a word. This is a good strategy. However, it may cause problems because synonyms may be slightly different in meaning. For example, very often students use the words stew, boil, brew, chafe, cook, parboil, simmer, steam, and seethe interchangeably. Are they really the same? Can you see any meaning difference between them? Perhaps a better strategy is to replace words with reference pronouns instead of using synonyms. That is, instead of repeating words in their original form, you may decide to use pronouns that refer to them. Reference pronouns can be placed before or after the words to which
they refer. That is, they can refer forward or backward. Take the following examples:
Let it boil completely before you add fermentation to the milk. Let the milk boil completely before you add fermentation to it. EXERCISE
1. The table below tells you how cement is produced. Convert the table into a unified paragraph in which you use process development as the method of support. Use time clues, pronoun reference, and word repetition to create cohesion in your paragraph.
STEP STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 3 STEP 4 STEP 5 STEP 6 STEP 7 STEP 8 ACTIVITY Mixing the raw materials Conveying the mixture to a kiln at the upper end Heating the mixture in kiln Letting the mixture remain in kiln for 6 hours Getting the mixture (called clinker) from the kiln Letting the clinker cool Grinding the clinker Packing the cement or conveying it to a silo
2. Complete the paragraph below by filling in the blanks with appropriate sentence connectors of time.
Mirrors are manufactured today in several phases. ………………….., the plate glass is cut to size; …………………………., all blemishes are removed by polishing with rouge. ……………………………, the glass is scrubbed and, …………………………………, flushed with a reducing solution. ………………………………., it is placed on a hollow, cast-iron tabletop, covered with felt, and kept warm by steam. ………………………….., a solution of silver
……………………………………. the deposit is dried. 104 PROCESS . You can use the following chart as the guide for arranging your supporting sentences in their logical order. Special mirrors are sometimes coated with the metal in the form of vapor obtained by vaporizing silver electrically in a vacuum.. The following series of pictures show how wheat is turned into toast (bread). Large mirrors are often coated with aluminum in the same way 3.nitrate is poured on the glass and left undisturbed for about 1 hour. coated. Develop the topic sentence below into a unified paragraph in which you use process development to support the main idea. 1 2 3 4 5 6 4. The silver nitrate is reduced to metallic silver and a deposit of silver gradually forms. Write a unified paragraph in which you use process development as the method of support. and painted.
PROCESS 105 . First stage Adult frogs lay eggs in water Eggs hatch into small fishlike larva called tadpoles Tadpoles feed on algae and bits of plant material in the water to grow Second stage Metamorphosis begins and the tadpole grows hind limbs Tadpole exchanges its gills for lungs and changes into young frog The young frog crawls out on land The frog resorbs the rest of its tail and reaches adult body size You should use sentence enumerators of time to make your paragraph cohesive. typically living in water as young and on land as adults.Topic sentence: Most frogs have a life cycle with two distinct stages.
It has tasty flesh that is often orange-red. there are other kinds of description that will be explained in this chapter. Remember that you have already become familiar with a specific type of description (i. The Atlantic salmon is really very specific in several respects.5 kg in weight. The Sebago salmon is found in lakes 106 DESCRIPTION . after which time the adult salmon float downstream and return to the sea.000 eggs in October or November. In addition to physical description.4 km per day. The fish average about 3. but specimens weighing up to 38 kg have also been caught. They sometimes attain a maximum weight of about 16 kg. The writer will mention the topic in the topic sentence. These landlocked salmon are much smaller than migrating salmon. swimming upriver at an average rate of up to 6. The female lays as many as 20.6 to 5. Several subspecies of the Atlantic salmon live in the lakes of the northern United States without ever descending to sea. The purpose of a descriptive paragraph is to describe the topic..e. physical description).UNIT EIGHT METHODS OF SUPPORT (DESCRIPTION) INTRODUCTION Another specific type of enumeration is called description. The Atlantic salmon migrates from the sea into cold fresh water in late spring or early summer. The method of development in the following model paragraph is description. Read the paragraph carefully. He will then describe it in the supporting sentences. The two most important landlocked populations of the Atlantic salmon are the Sebago salmon and the ouananiche salmon. Details are often used as the major technique of support in a descriptive paragraph. The Atlantic salmon returns year after year to its breeding place and can live for up to 8 years.
The ouananiche natural territory is in the Lac Saint-Jean Lake in Canada. weight. behavior. Like physical descriptions. in descriptive paragraphs of this type. etc.from New Hampshire to New Brunswick. the details used in descriptive paragraphs do not necessarily pertain to the DESCRIPTION 107 . Topic: Detail 1: Detail 2: Detail 3: Detail 4: Detail 5: Detail 6: Detail 7: Detail 8: Detail 9: Detail 10: Detail 11: Detail 12: Detail 13: Detail 14: Detail 15: Detail 16: Detail 17: Detail 18: Atlantic salmon taste of flesh color of flesh average weight maximum weight of some specimens direction of migration time of migration daily swimming length number of eggs time of laying eggs time of returning to sea yearly habit length of life number of subspecies territory of subspecies size of subspecies maximum weight of subspecies names of most important subspecies habitat of subspecies As the analysis shows. descriptive paragraphs draw heavily on details as the main technique of support. The analysis below lists the pieces of information which the writer has used in the model paragraph. the writer is free to use details from a variety of sources to describe the topic. unlike physical description. The details presented in the above analysis relate to such aspects of the topic as its length.
The entrance of each house opened to a vestibule. especially those in which places are described. it is sheer naivety to think that he is free to put these details in any haphazard way he wishes. Often they stood at the street's edge. The sample paragraph below describes the structure of houses of the ancient Roman Empire. you should move along the item describing each part before the immediately following part until you reach the other end. However. It is quite true that. In descriptive paragraphs. Now. there are various rules according to which supporting sentences of a descriptive paragraph should be linearly arranged. physical descriptions are a specific and restricted kind of description. and has finished his paragraph with a description of the innermost layer of the house. there was an open space called the atrium. In other words. The final step of your description should talk about 108 DESCRIPTION . has gradually moved along the inner layers.apparent physical aspects of the topic. From the atrium. As such.. one end of the item being described). Roman houses remained simple through classical times. the sleeping rooms were reached. the writer has started the paragraph with a description of the outer end of the house. read the analysis that follows: Topic: Structure of ancient Roman houses Detail Detail Detail Detail Detail 1: 2: 3: 4: 5: standing at the street's edge entrance to a vestibule atrium at the end of vestibule rooms around atrium garden at the back Perhaps you have already noticed that the writer has written the paragraph in much the same way as a tour guide would show you around a real ancient Roman house. In fact.g. the writer can choose details from a rich number of sources to develop the topic. you are expected to start at a specific point of departure (e. a colonnaded garden often stood in back. then. Except for the fairly elaborate chieftains' houses. in descriptive paragraphs. Past the vestibule.
Next to my desk. The writer has started the paragraph with the description of the outermost layer. On this table you will find my computer and all of its peripherals. The next layer. you will bang against the wall in front of you. and the simatic or lower crust. take the right-hand direction and move around the room in the intermediate supporting sentences. and finally go out of the room in the last supporting sentence. Descriptions of people. heavy interior of the earth is divided into a thick shell. the hydrosphere is the layer of water in the form of oceans. there is a wide fireplace with a chimney on the top of it. Now you will have to make a left turn. has gone on with the description of the intermediate layers. surrounding an innermost sphere. other wise. and has ended the paragraph with the description of the innermost layer. you will have to make another left turn. you can "enter" the room in the first supporting sentence. The core has an outer shell about 2225 km thick. For example. animals. The mantle extends from the base of the crust to a depth of about 2900 km and is solid except in some parts. lakes.. The earth consists of several parts. As you pass along my bed. The dense. the lithosphere comprises two shells: the crust and upper mantle. you will see my computer table in the corner in front of you. When you get to the foot of my bed. Then you should make your last turn and move along the wall to get to the door. When you want to describe an object. You will start from one end and move along to the other end. After you have made the turn. very often you can follow the same strategy. and underground waters. one step further. you will see my desk on the right. and you will be in the hall.the other end of the item (the end facing the one you began with). This shell is DESCRIPTION 109 . As you enter the room. the core. The upper mantle is separated from the crust above by the Moho and from the lower mantle below by a zone of weakness known as the asthenosphere. The following paragraph is a description of the structure of earth. inland seas. the mantle. rivers. may also be achieved in this way. As you pass the fire place you will see my bed. First. when you are asked to describe your room. on the wall you will notice a window that opens to a beautiful garden. etc. Your paragraph might look something like this: My room is a nice a cozy place. Second. the atmosphere is the gaseous envelope that surrounds the solid body of the planet. The crust itself is divided in two: the sialic or upper crust.
Objects accompanying the statue A. Tablet in the left hand D. the day the United States 110 DESCRIPTION . which lie at her feet. Topic: Statue of liberty I. The following outline provides the pieces of information that can describe the statue of liberty. 1776. The inner core.probably rigid. Crown on the head II. Chains of tyranny at the feet B. Hammered copper sheets on the surface 2. The Statue of Liberty symbolizes freedom throughout the world. It depicts a woman escaping the chains of tyranny. 47 m height of the pedestal III. Torch of liberty in the right hand C. is solid. A wise strategy for developing a paragraph is to begin with a clear outline in which you identify the aspects of the topic you will describe and also the details you will report for each aspect. 46 m actual height B. which has a radius of about 1275 km. The statue itself 1. Iron framework inside B. Robes as dress E. Her right hand holds aloft a burning torch that represents liberty. with a small percentage of nickel and other elements. Her left hand holds a tablet inscribed with the date July 4. Granite on the surface 2. Both core layers are thought to consist largely of iron. The pedestal 1. Height of the statue A. read the following paragraph and observe how the writer has used the above outline to develop his paragraph. Remember that you have already learnt how to write outlines. Concrete inside Now. An alternative approach to descriptive paragraphs also exists. Materials used in the construction of the statue A.
Functions as skin C. Its base and pedestal increase the height of the monument to 93 m. The statue rests upon a concrete-and-granite pedestal. Sapwood A. The Statue of Liberty is 46 m high.declared its independence. Older than other layers C. Gradually changes into heartwood IV. Located at the center of the trunk B. Bark A. EXERCISE 1. Combine the information from the diagram with the information from the outline. Study the following outline carefully. Lighter in color C. carefully examine the following diagram which identifies the different layers of the tree trunk as they are arranged one after the other. heat. She is wearing flowing robes and the seven rays of her spiked crown symbolize the seven seas and continents. etc. Topic: Structure of a tree trunk I. Softer than other layers B. Cambium A. Produces sapwood III. Write a paragraph about the general DESCRIPTION 111 . Protects tree from cold. Usually fresh C. Is invaded by extractives 1. Thinnest layer B. The surface of the statue is composed of hammered copper sheets 2. Generally darker than other layers D. Natural substances 2. Contains generative cells D. Heartwood A. Outermost layer B. Cause sapwood-to-heartwood change D. More durable than other layers II.4 mm thick that are riveted to an iron framework. Now.
use the information presented in the paragraph to label the different parts of the Great Pyramid below. Then. middle. This passageway divides into two corridors: upward. and downward. The upward corridor is divided into three (left. The entrance is located 17 m above ground level.structure of a tree trunk. The entrance opens to a downward passageway. The left branch is 112 DESCRIPTION . The height of the entrance was probably meant to protect the pyramid's treasures against robbers. and right) branches. 2. The Great Pyramid in Egypt has a complex interior. Use description as the method of support for developing the main idea. Read the following paragraph closely. It probably meant to connect the king's spirit to the underworld. The downward corridor leads to an underground room called the subterranean chamber.
descriptive paragraphs employ enumerators in the topic sentence. Some of the airshafts open to the grand gallery. ENUMERATORS Very often. some others open to the king's chamber. they were probably a symbolic connection between the king's spirit and the stars. The middle branch leads to the queen's chamber. Misnamed by Arab explorers. This chamber contained the stone coffin in which the king was buried. The compartments that stack over the chamber were supposed to protect the coffin from the weight of the stones above. This statue represented the king's ka. The enumerators you use in descriptive paragraphs signal to DESCRIPTION 113 . The king's chamber was constructed of red granite. There are a number of airshafts too. The airshafts do not conduct air. The right branch opens to the grand gallery the other end of which leads to the king's chamber. the queen's chamber probably contained a special statue of the king. Rather. which was considered to be an aspect of his spirit.yet another entrance to the subterranean chamber.
a waterway designed to take ships from one water level to another." 114 DESCRIPTION . Take the following examples: During the Roman Republic. Use the information provided in the table below to write a descriptive paragraph. In their mating season. The atmosphere that surrounds earth has several layers. A lock. the Roman army built forts with several specialized parts to quarter its soldiers. The readers will instantly realize what the writers will be talking about in the supporting sentences.the reader what pieces of information will be presented in the supporting sentences. The underlined words in these examples are enumerators that the writers have used as a point of departure for the rest of their paragraphs. seagulls manifest several distinct behaviors. The enumerators most frequently used in descriptive paragraphs include the following: Characteristics Parts Aspects Layers Formats Habits Behaviors Elements Details Features Facets etc. My friend. The topic of your paragraph is "brown bear. Jack. has several specialized parts. EXERCISE 1. has several characteristics that make him outstanding.
male: boar Female: sow young: cub
Conservation Concerns Range Habitat Size
Populations in Europe and Asia at risk due to habitat destruction and hunting. Parts of North America, Europe, and Asia. Open areas, tundra, meadows, and coastlines with dense cover for shelter. Length: 2 to 3 m (7 to 10 ft) Weight: 95 to 800 kg (209 to 1760 lb).
Feeding Habits
Brown bears are omnivores; they eat plants, berries, insects, rodents, fish, and carrion. They occasionally kill and eat larger animals. Female brown bears give birth to two or three cubs after a six- to nine-month gestation period. Cubs leave their mother after about two to four years. About 20 years. Brown bears are not always brown—they may have black, red, or gray coats. There are many subspecies of brown bear, including the grizzly and the Kodiak. Coastal populations of brown bears that feed on fatty salmon may be three times larger than inland brown bear populations that subsist on plants, insects, and some meat. Unlike animals that hibernate, brown bears awaken easily during winter sleep and sometimes walk about.
Life Span Did You Know
INTRODUCTION Very often you have to write a paragraph in which your purpose is to explain the meaning of a term. In addition, you may sometimes use a term in a very strict sense. In these cases, too, you will have to write a paragraph to explain the sense in which you are using the term. Paragraphs of this kind are called paragraphs of definition, and the method of development in these paragraphs is called definition development. Therefore, the purpose of a paragraph of definition is to: a) explain what a term means, or b) explain the sense in which you are using the term As such, and depending on the purpose for which you are writing, paragraphs of definition fall into two major categories: (1) extended formal definition, and (2) extended stipulated definition. When you use the term in its formal sense (that is, to say what it means), you are writing a paragraph of extended formal definition; when, on the other hand, you use the term in a specific sense (that is, outside of its ordinary meaning), you are writing a paragraph of extended stipulated definition. The term "extended" is used to show that, unlike definitions provided by dictionaries, paragraphs of definition are usually longer than a single sentence. EXTENDED FORMAL DEFINITION Extended formal definition is a method of analysis in which the writer identifies the subject in a general class and then distinguishes it from all
other members of the class. Formal definition is ordinarily used for concrete and tangible terms. If we want to show the elements of a formal definition, our analysis may look something like this:
Formal Definition = Term + Class + Distinguishing Features
The following model paragraph defines laser. Can you identify the elements of formal definition in the paragraph?
A laser is a device that produces and amplifies pure intense light which can be directed with great accuracy. Lasers are used in many modern technological devices including bar code readers, compact disc (CD) players, and laser printers. Lasers can generate light beyond the range visible to the human eye, from the infrared through the X-ray range. The word laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
This model paragraph can be analyzed in terms of the formula we provided for formal definitions above:
TERM: CLASS: DISTINCTIVE FEATURES: Laser Device Light production Light amplification Pure color of light Intensity of light Capability of being directed
As you see, the writer has talked about other features of laser too. These other features appear in the supporting sentences. Their purpose is to define (or describe) the subject even further.
Use in modern technological devices Range of light produced Where the term came from
The writer has also used a few examples in this paragraph. These examples give the reader a better understanding of the term being defined in the paragraph. For instance, the writer has talked about some
Quality of the light produced A. The first one is done as an example for you.of the modern technological devices in which laser is used. In CD player B. If we wanted to write an outline for the whole model paragraph. write T for term. writers often use examples and details in the supporting sentences of paragraphs of formal definition to clarify the term being defined. our outline would look something like this: DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF A LASER I. Pure color B. X-ray C. Infrared B. Read the topic sentences below and underline the elements of formal definition in each. C for class. Origin of the term laser The major techniques of support for paragraphs of formal definition are examples and details. In laser printers V. In fact. Range of light produced A. Capability of being directed IV. Uses of the light in modern technological devices A. A widow T is a human female C whose husband has died. EXERCISE 1. Light production II. and F for distinctive feature under the proper words. Light amplification III. In bar code readers C. F 118 DEFINITION . The range between these two VI. Varying degrees of intensity C. Then. He has also identified the range of light a laser can produce.
which can target particular objects. steam. Historically. who choose objects to be studied and help point the satellites in the correct direction. They can also cover the entire outer space. In some oases. is built on the site of an oasis. or bars. groundwater reaches the surface forming springs or pools. DEFINITION 119 . The city of Palm Springs in California is also built on the site of an oasis. A typewriter is a machine designed to print or impress type characters on paper. These larger satellites generally require more intensive control from scientists on the ground. A bar code is a series of parallel vertical lines. On the basis of the pieces of information you get from each paragraph. A lamp is a device used for artificial lighting. while portions of the sky may not be accessible to stationary ground-based telescopes.A turbine is a rotary engine that converts the energy of a moving stream of water. The city of Las Vegas. depending on their location on Earth. These instruments offer a much clearer view of astronomical objects. Oases occur where groundwater lies close to the desert surface where plant roots and wells can reach it. Nevada. Read the following paragraphs closely. which often survey the entire sky. Space telescopes range in complexity from small satellites. to larger "observatory-class" satellites. __________________________________________________________. Some oases are permanently inhabited. Use formal definition in your topic sentences. Neil Armstrong is the astronomer who stepped on the moon for the first time in human history. oases have served as waypoints in desert crossings where water supplies may be replenished. used to assign a unique identification code to an item. __________________________________________________________. 2. as a speedier and more legible substitute for handwriting. or gas into mechanical energy. write an appropriate topic sentence for it.
just a scale at the end of its body. 75% of its human victims die. You only need to use stipulated definition in your paragraphs when the term to be defined is abstract. savannas. In paragraphs of stipulated definition. Rattlesnakes eat mammals (especially rodents) and reptiles. EXTENDED STIPULATED DEFINITION Sometimes the term to be defined is abstract. Rattlesnakes can only sense vibrations. and arid regions. The stipulated definition is usually longer than a single sentence. About 20 years. You may also explain your particular interpretation of the term. mountains. They can't even hear another snake's rattle. To stipulate means to particularize. Is it possible? How can you define an abstract term? The answer is very simple." Term Class Distinctive Feature Other Details Range Habitat Feeding Habits Offspring Life Span Did You Know Rattlesnake Reptiles horny rattle at the tip of the tail North and South America. In other words. but you are asked to write a paragraph about the term in which you use definition as the method of support. very often you explain how you are using a term for a particular purpose. The female rattlesnake gives birth to 8 to 15 youngs. Forests. A newborn rattlesnake has no rattle.3. The most dangerous rattlesnake is the Cascaval of South America. sometimes you use a term in a way completely different from the sense 120 DEFINITION . The rattlesnake's rattle can be heard up to 50 km away. Use the information from the table below to write a paragraph of formal definition in which you will tell the readers what is meant by the term "rattlesnake.
you will tell the reader how you interpret the term). and so on. EXAMPLE: The Iranian concept of faith has undergone great changes over the past few decades. friendship. courtesy. may differ from its usual definition. cultural poverty may probably be used as a cover term to include the other interpretations. The kind of words that require this type of definition are generally abstract ideas or qualities such as justice. you may do one of the following activities: 1) Of all the possible dictionary meanings of the term. you will tell the reader how another person interprets the term). it is the wisest strategy to make a general statement about the sense in which you will be approaching the term. sincerity. EXAMPLE: My definition of faith is somewhat different from what the term is ordinarily taken to mean. 3) You will be using another person's unique personal interpretation of the term (that is. EXAMPLE: Of all the possible interpretations of the term poverty. faith. trouble. To write the topic sentence of a paragraph of stipulated definition. the sense in which you understand a term. the most common techniques of support that DEFINITION 121 . 2) You will be using the term in a very special sense. and definitely not the others. that is. you will be using only one. poverty.it is ordinarily used in. In a paragraph of stipulated definition. After you have made a general statement about the term in the topic sentence. you will write a few supporting sentences to develop your topic sentence. Generally. love. not to be found in the dictionary (that is.
The poor. You may think that paragraphs of stipulated definition are impossible for you to write. A source is said to be authoritative when it has special expertise in relation to the term being defined. and (e) personal experience. After having read this paragraph. with this conception of poverty. The present concept of poverty in Iran needs to be replaced by destitution. and those in Western Europe. Zeus was the king of the gods. housing. Canada. Bush can be an authoritative source for quotations. Muses are the nine daughters of the god Zeus and of Mnemosyne. (b) examples. That is. many people take poverty to mean the condition in which there is a lack of basic human needs. when you are writing about philosophy. if you are defining politics. However. In many countries including the United States. (d) statistics. a line should be drawn between poverty and destitution. Paragraphs of stipulated definition could be quite easy for you to write. In the following model paragraph. but do not panic. Take the following model paragraph. Aristotle. Mnemosyne was the goddess 122 DEFINITION . the writer is using the term poverty in a sense other than its agreed-upon interpretation. In Greek mythology. Details and anecdotes often fail to develop the topic sentence of a paragraph of stipulated definition. or other philosophers can be authoritative sources of quotations. It can cause terrible suffering and death.you use to develop a paragraph of stipulated definition are (a) facts. By the same token. the present concept of poverty in Iran needs to be replaced with destitution. Plato. It can even prevent people from realizing many of their desires. A special technique of support frequently used in a paragraph of stipulated definition is the use of "quotations. The sources from which you quote should be authoritative. For example. poverty is defined to include a lack of such items as adequate and nutritious food. As such. Japan. clothing. are those who suffer from severe malnutrition." Quotations are word-forword reproductions of statements from written or spoken sources. you may become disappointed. and war. Presently. George W. epidemic disease outbreaks. and health services. famine. (c) physical description. poverty is the condition of having fewer resources or less income than others within the society or country. clean water.
EXERCISE 1. this ability is expressed in many aspects of a person's life. to solve problems. when the term is concrete. The Muses were goddesses believed to inspire all artists. As you see. The Muses were said to be the companions of the Graces and of Apollo. especially at Helicon in Boeotia and at Pieria in Macedonia. Euterpe of lyric poetry sung to the accompaniment of the flute. He has then used details as the major technique of support to develop his topic sentence. Intelligence draws on a variety of mental processes. These capabilities include the ability to reason. In formal usage.of memory. the definition is formal. the writer has used the sequence (term + class + distinctive features) to form his topic sentence. especially poets. many people have DEFINITION 123 . The Muses were worshiped throughout ancient Greece. the definition is stipulated. They sat near the throne of Zeus and sang of his greatness. including memory. the god of music. I would argue. When the term is abstract. intelligence is a term which is usually used to refer to a set of general mental capabilities. and Thalia of comedy. However. and reasoning. Read the paragraphs below and answer the questions that follow each paragraph. is the ability to get most benefits out of the conditions in which one has to live. In recent years. and musicians. Terpsichore of choral songs and the dance. like extended formal definition. Intelligence can be measured by many different kinds of tasks. thinking. By late Roman times. each Muse was believed to preside over a particular art: Calliope was the muse of epic poetry. Erato of love poetry sung to the accompaniment of the lyre. Clio of history. philosophers. think abstractly. what distinguishes between stipulated and formal definitions is the nature of the term to be defined. Intelligence may be best defined as the ability to get everything out of nothing. learn and understand new material. Therefore. and profit from past experience. Likewise. Melpomene of tragedy. the most essential type of intelligence. Urania of astronomy. decision-making. They also sang of the origin of the world and its inhabitants and the glorious deeds of the great heroes. learning. Polyhymnia of sacred poetry. perception.
or "left with the kachina.been able to get almost everything out of nothing. Only later is the secret of the kachina masks revealed to the children in a solemn initiation rite. the legend states. the Pueblo keep the masks hidden. The spirits of the kachinas are believed to possess the male dancers who impersonate them in these ceremonies with elaborately fashioned masks and colorful costumes. paint them in symbolic colors. Kachinas play an important role in Pueblo rain dances and other religious rites. range in size from several inches to more than one foot in height. patterned after the masked dancers. There are more than 200 kachinas. The Pueblo believe that in ancient times the kachinas lived on earth but were sent to live in the bottom of a great desert lake and left their masks behind. These impersonators also mingle with the people in the streets. At first." as it was said. the kachinas themselves returned from time to time to dance for the people. and often 124 DEFINITION . but after the dance a member of the community always died. What techniques of support has the writer used for the development of the topic sentence? A kachina is a spirit or supernatural being revered as a bringer of rain or social good in the religion of some Indian tribes of the southwestern United States. When not using them in ceremony. They have just adopted a modest appearance and have got whatever they liked out of that appearance. the kachinas authorized dancers to take over their ritual roles. Do you not agree with this conception of intelligence? Questions 1. The craftsmen who make them typically carve the dolls from cottonwood or cactus-root. Kachina dolls. They are impersonated in religious ceremonies by dancers wearing sacred masks and are also portrayed in beautifully carved and painted figurines known as kachina dolls. often administering public scoldings to individuals whose behavior the community regards as inappropriate. Finally agreeing to come no more. Why is this interpretation of intelligence a stipulated definition rather than a formal definition? 2. who are told that the kachinas they have seen in rituals are genuine spirits that will punish them for misbehavior. including ancestral and nature spirits and a variety of gods. especially from young children. What is the topic sentence? 3.
What is the topic sentence? 3.decorate them with feathers and scraps of wool and cloth. This latter kind of definition DEFINITION 125 . Questions 1. COMMON PROBLEMS IN DEFINITION There are three common pitfalls that may torture a paragraph of definition: Circular definition Over-extended definition Under-extended definition Sometimes the term being defined and the definition belong to the same family. how many? What term(s) would this/these paragraph(s) formally define? 6. These dolls have become quite popular with collectors. write the paragraph(s) of formal definition that you can get out of the paragraph above. If your answer to question 5 is positive. Are there any sentences in the paragraph that can be deleted from it? 5. they are words which are related in origin. Definitions of this kind are said to be circular. What techniques of support has the writer used for the development of the topic sentence? 4. Why is this interpretation of Kachina a stipulated definition rather than a formal definition? 2. Is it possible to take any paragraphs of formal definition out of this single paragraph? If so. Circular definitions also occur when the term being defined is repeated in the definition.
In these examples the term being defined has been repeated or has been replaced by a word from the same family in the definition. Neil Armstrong is an astronomer. A bar code is a series of parallel vertical lines.is sometimes called tautological definition. Economics is economics. A turbine is a rotary engine. Take the following examples: A laser is a device. a typewriter is not the only machine that we know. Take the following examples: Economics is the study of economy. For example. A widow is a female human. This problem usually occurs when the writer forgets about the distinctive features of the term being defined. You are warned not to use tautologies or circular definitions in your paragraphs of definition. You only need to add a few distinguishing features to over-extended definitions to restrict them to the term being defined. Intelligence testing is the measurement of intelligence. the definition proposed for a term applies to more than one term. A second common problem is the over-extended definition. Sometimes. Overextension is easily avoidable. a laser is not the only device that you can find in the world around you. they should be revised. That is. over-restriction occurs when the term being defined is more comprehensive than the definition. The third problem area in paragraphs of definition is that of overrestricted definition. or bars. Circular definitions are confusing for the reader. The definitions given in these examples refer to more than one term. or. Over- 126 DEFINITION . An over-restricted definition limits the term being defined into one of its potentials. A typewriter is a machine. A lamp is a device.
restricted definitions define the term only partially. lamp is a device that produces artificial lighting for a restaurant. typewriter is a machine commonly used to type in English. EXAMPLE: Canning is the process of preserving food. Read the definitions below and then decide if they are good or problematic. Problem: Your definition: __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ 2) A highway is a high-speed road designed to connect major cities. They weaken your paragraphs. EXERCISE 1. Problem: Your definition: __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ DEFINITION 127 . Problem: Your definition: Over-extended Canning is the process of preserving food by heating and sealing it in airtight containers. Rewrite them in your own words. Make any necessary changes. 1) Money is a medium of exchange that is widely accepted in payment for goods and services. When writing paragraphs of definition. Take the following examples: A A A A laser is a device that produces and amplifies pure red light. Identify the type of problem for the unacceptable definitions. turbine is a rotary engine that drives Airbus aircrafts. The first one is done as an example for you. you are advised to be aware of these pitfalls.
Problem: Your definition: __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ 7) An estuary is a semi-enclosed pool of water.3) Transportation is the movement of people and goods from one location to another. Problem: Your definition: __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ 6) A shoe is a leather covering for the human foot. Problem: Your definition: __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ 4) A tire is a covering mounted on the rim of a wheel that serves as a cushion and surface for traction . Problem: Your definition: __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ 5) Aristocracy is an aristocratic system of government. Problem: Your definition: __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ 128 DEFINITION .
Use the information presented in the chart below to write a paragraph of stipulated definition about human memory.2. Information Sensory memory: Fleeting snapshots of sights and sounds Attention Short-term memory: Temporary storage and processing of information Encoding Retrieval Long-term memory: Permanent storage of information DEFINITION 129 .
Spawning grounds for fish and other wildlife habitat are often destroyed. to show why something happened. rapid runoff results in soil erosion as well as sediment deposition problems downstream. the supporting sentences will be a list or an enumeration of the effects of an idea mentioned in the topic sentence. Next. Floods have several short-term and long-term effects. Second. the writer has focused on the effects of floods. He will then list and explain the possible effects of the topic in the supporting sentences. In the model paragraph below. flood itself is the cause. the writer will identify the topic in the topic sentence. The purpose of a cause-effect paragraph is to say why things are as they are. high-velocity currents increase flood damage. In addition. Cause-effect paragraphs fall into three major types: Focus on effect Focus on cause Chain reaction FOCUS ON EFFECT The first kind of cause-effect paragraphs are those that focus on effect. floods damage property. In other words.UNIT TEN METHODS OF SUPPORT (CAUSE AND EFFECT) INTRODUCTION Cause-effect paragraphs aim at showing the reasons or the results of something. Therefore. In paragraphs of this kind. First. They also interfere with drainage and 130 CAUSE AND EFFECT . they endanger the lives of humans and animals. prolonged high floods delay traffic.
It makes conversation difficult. The most significant health problem caused by noise pollution is hearing loss. noise affects human health. In remote areas. As a source of stress. Bridge abutments. Noise pollution has a number of impacts on human as well as animal life. Noise has other less important effects on human life too. it interferes with some kinds of work. Last but not least. Any noise louder than talking can damage the inner ear. Noise can also cause nervous disorders. and other structures within floodways are usually damaged. Aircraft noise in Alaska.economic use of lands. bank lines. helicopters and military aircraft often frighten animals. Noise can also disturb sleep. In addition. and sewer outfalls Effect 10: Impairment of navigation Effect 11: Impairment of hydroelectric power Effect 12: Financial losses EXERCISE 1. First. has been shown to reduce the survival rate of caribou calves. Noise also puts stress on domestic animals and wildlife. bank lines. financial losses due to floods are commonly millions of dollars each year. for example. There is concern that increasing noise CAUSE AND EFFECT 131 . sewer outfalls. it can promote high blood pressure and other heart problems. Read the following paragraph closely. Navigation and hydroelectric power are often impaired. The analysis below shows the structure of the model paragraph: Topic: Flood Enumerator: Effects Effect 1: Damage to property Effect 2: Danger for human life Effect 3: Danger for animal life Effect 4: Soil erosion Effect 5: Sediment deposition Effect 6: Destruction of spawning ground for fish Effect 7: Destruction of wildlife habitats Effect 8: Delays in traffic Effect 9: Damage to bridges.
Use the information present in the paragraph. Topic: ____________________ Enumerator: _______________ I. Effects on humans A. _______________ II. _______________ G. communicate. _______________ D. _______________ C. _______________ E. For communication 3. and locate food. _______________ B. _______________ D. Write a cause-effect paragraph on the basis of the outline. Study the following outline. You should write a "focus on effect" paragraph. _______________ C. For locating food 2.levels in the oceans may confuse the natural sonar that whales use to navigate. Effects on animals A. _______________ B. 132 CAUSE AND EFFECT . For navigation 2. _______________ H. _______________ E. Now complete the analysis below. _______________ F. _______________ 1.
it can be caused by body problems such as an overactive thyroid gland. the supporting sentences will be a list of causes. Frightening events are also considered a psychological cause of insomnia. drinking caffeine-containing beverages before going to bed is considered by many doctors to be a cause. In addition to these. Some examples of such events are the death of a loved one or loss of a job. insomnia itself is the effect. On agriculture A. but others become frustrated and depressed and develop chronic insomnia. Used as medicine B.Effects of ants I. Helping pollination D. or violent muscle twitching. Many persons recover their normal sleep rhythm later. For instance. On people A. wrong eating habits can also cause insomnia. a person may experience sleep difficulties for a short period. Violent movies and computer games can affect those who are CAUSE AND EFFECT 133 . In the model paragraph below. Experts estimate that in threefourths of all cases the cause is a psychological one. has several causes. condition in which a person has difficulty getting enough sleep. Used to timber forests C. In a focus-on-cause paragraph. the supporting sentences will be a list or an enumeration of the causes of an idea mentioned in the topic sentence. diabetes. Insomnia. He will then write a few supporting sentences to show what has caused that outcome. Dispersing seeds C. Used to prey on caterpillars D. Reducing harmful insect populations B. Some doctors also consider drinking too much coffee or tea as a cause of insomnia. the writer has focused on the causes of insomnia. The writer will mention the effect in the topic sentence. Therefore. First. After anxietyproducing events. Used to drive pests out of houses FOCUS ON CAUSE The second type of cause-effect development is called focus on cause. Keeping pests under control II. In other words.
Diabetes C. Violent muscle twitching II. Frightening events 1. Drinking too much tea III. First of all. napping during the day is considered by some doctors to be a minor cause of insomnia. It can throw off the sleep pattern further. Read the following paragraph carefully. The analysis below shows the structure of the model paragraph: Topic: Insomnia Enumerator: Causes I. Violent computer games IV. Overactive thyroid B. Finally. Write an outline on the basis of the information you get from the paragraph. Violent movies 2. Napping during the day EXERCISE 1. Make your outline as detailed as possible. Wrong eating habits A. Loss of a beloved 2.psychologically ready for insomnia. Anxiety-producing events 1. Drinking caffeinated beverages B. Loss of job B. Drinking too much coffee C. Environment organizations have identified several major sources of air pollution. Body problems A. Psychological problems A. most air pollution comes from one human activity: 134 CAUSE AND EFFECT .
and oil. pollutants themselves often undergo chemical reactions that produce additional harmful pollution. sulfur dioxide. then. the first effect leads to the second. In a chain reaction. Among the harmful pollutants this burning puts into the air are carbon dioxide. In fact. nitrogen oxides. Unlike pollutants from human activity. Unemployment II. the first effect of one situation becomes the cause of the second effect. Soil erosion can also increase airborne pollutant levels. Convert the following outline into a cause-effect paragraph in which you explain the causes of poverty. Volcanoes spew out sulfur dioxide and large amounts of volcanic ash. forest fires emit pollutants into the atmosphere. and so on. Oil wells CHAIN REACTION A third type of cause-effect development is called chain reaction. Fertile lands B. the second leads to the third. the steps of CAUSE AND EFFECT 135 . however. as its name says. naturally occurring pollutants tend to remain in the atmosphere for a short time and do not lead to permanent atmospheric change. In other words. coal. for example. every effect is in itself a cause for the situation that follows. The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines. in a chain reaction. Lack of education C.burning fossil fuels. you should focus on cause. Finally. and tiny solid particles including lead from gasoline additives. and the chain goes on. For example. In your paragraph. the third leads to the fourth. 2. carbon monoxide. Overpopulation B. Human causes A. Global distribution of resources A. In a chain reaction. Mines C. These fuels include natural gas. dumped enough volcanic ash into the upper atmosphere to lower global temperatures for the next two years. the second effect becomes the cause of the third effect. Causes of poverty I. Some of these pollutants also come from natural sources.
At that point. a major cause (or mother cause) and a major effect (or mother effect). The less important causes and effects (often called sister causes and sister effects) are identified in the supporting sentences. The roads built by logging companies often provide access for landless farmers to enter a new area. The mother cause and the mother effect are identified in the topic sentence. the farmers often sell their lands to cattle ranchers or large plantation owners. Logging companies and oil companies are often the first to enter a remote area of rain forest. When the landless farmers arrive. a typical cycle of destruction ensues. lands are then abandoned and often laid to waste. Notice that "destruction of rain forests" is the mother cause and "emergence of deserts" the mother effect. Rain forest does not readily regenerate on these lands without human intervention. In the model paragraph below. Poor rain forest soils produce a low crop yield. the result of one activity turns into a cause for a following activity. After nutrients have been exhausted and soils compacted by cattle. and finally cattle owners invite deserts to pop up. Therefore. The destruction of rain forests can result in the emergence of deserts in a chain reaction. In the above paragraph. and the chain goes on. oil and logging companies are the cause of the emergence of open land. as well as a means to transport agricultural crops to market. This latter activity becomes the cause for a third activity. but certain patterns tend to be consistent across all forests. Once the loggers go away.the reaction are linked together like the rings of a chain. the writer has used chain reaction to develop his topic sentences. they clear the land for planting. however. together with the gradual action of wind and flood results in the emergence of deserts over a relatively short period of time. An analysis of the model paragraph might look something like this: High quality forest wood > Loggers come > destruction of forest > open land > Loggers go > farming land > Farmers come > agriculture > reduction of soil quality > Farmers go > good land for cattle > cattle owners come > erosion of soil > poor quality land > cattle owners go > wind and flood come > increasing soil erosion > deserts pop up 136 CAUSE AND EFFECT . Then open land causes farmers to come in. Causes of deforestation vary from location to location. especially after a couple of years. The result is a logged forest. There are. This. Then farmers cause cattle to come in.
EXERCISE 1. Your paragraph will have to report the series of causes that resulted in the extinction of dinosaurs. However. Volcanic activity of earth Emission of dust and smoke Acid rains Ceasing plant growth Lack of food for plant-eater dinosaurs Lack of food for meat-eater dinosaurs EXTINCTION ENUMERATORS Cause and effect paragraphs are indeed a special kind of enumeration. Like in other types of enumerative paragraphs. the enumerators that are used in cause-effect paragraphs are not the same as those used in other types of enumerative paragraphs. CAUSE AND EFFECT 137 . writers frequently use enumerators in the topic sentence of a cause-effect paragraph. Convert the following chart into a paragraph in which you use chain reaction as the method of support.
your conclusions will be false.Your choice of enumerators will depend on the focus of the cause-effect paragraphs you want to write. but the following are among the most common ones. and then go on with the supporting sentences. Facts must be relevant. on the other hand.. your conclusions will be invalid. some causes or effects may be more important than the others. That is. when. inductive paragraph type). In these cases.e. Facts must be complete. it will be much safer to put the topic sentence first. When the focus is on effect. you will choose enumerators that signal to the reader that your supporting sentences will be a list of effects.e. In this case. FOCUS ON EFFECT Effect Outcome Consequence Result Impact FOCUS ON CAUSE Cause Reason Root Source POINTS TO REMEMBER Many writers argue that the best place for the topic sentence of a causeeffect paragraph is towards the end of the paragraph (that is. However. That is. 138 CAUSE AND EFFECT . it is possible to give varying ranks to causes and effects. facts (that you use) must have a number of qualities: Facts must be accurate. ascending order) or in the first supporting sentence (i. There are lots of enumerators that you can use. your conclusions will be unreliable. Or. the focus of your paragraph is on cause.. it is much safer if you follow the deductive paragraph type. Sometimes you decide to use facts in your cause-effect paragraphs to support your topic sentence. you may want to use ascending or descending order in your supporting sentences. Very often. descending order). Or. you will be using enumerators that tell the reader that your supporting sentences will be a list of causes. you may decide to talk about the most important cause or effect in the last supporting sentence (i. Or. that is.
the two events (Hasan's CAUSE AND EFFECT 139 . On the whole. Hasan's father can have died due to a reason other than Hasan's pouring of some water over a cat. causes can fall into three major categories: Immediate: Causes that are seen easily Remote: Causes that took place before the immediate causes Ultimate: The major cause that includes all other causes Likewise. sometimes two events happen at the same time but there is no reason to believe that one has caused the other. and immediately his father died. the ability to distinguish between these different types of causes or effects will be unquestionably helpful to you. you are making a post hoc fallacy. You are warned to be aware of these problems when you use cause-effect development. for air pollution. In this example. That is. you can identify several different causes.There are many different types of causes for a given event. time is the only link between cause and effect. PITFALLS There are a number of common pitfalls and problems that can make your cause-effect paragraphs weak. Take the following example: Hasan poured some water on a cat. effects can also fall into different classes. The most important of these problems fall into four categories: Post hoc fallacy Over-simplification Lack of support Bias and dogmatism In post hoc fallacy. effects are classifiable into two major types: Short-term: Effects that will be immediately seen Long-term: Effects that will be seen long after the cause If you decide to use ascending or descending order in your paragraphs of cause and effect. For example. If you claim that one has caused the other. On the whole.
your psychological breakdown might as well be the result of your love affairs. You should resist your inclination to use words that take your sentences to the extremes. A claim without proof is just that—a claim. No causal relationship can be established here. Students sometimes write a list of causes and then fail to provide support. Therefore. and so on. statistics. you can give examples. "is this the only cause?" Consider all possibilities (i. you must make certain that the cause-effect relationship is not one of time. They do not provide evidence to back their claims. To avoid over-simplification. This happens when you consider one thing as the only cause for an outcome. however. It is not a cause. When writing cause-effect paragraphs. it will not be an easy task for you to find supportive evidence to back your claims. Remember that statistics and examples are perhaps the best techniques of support that 140 CAUSE AND EFFECT . the writer's conclusion is false. readers will not take your word for it.pouring water over a cat. but attributing an event to only one cause is naivety. Take the following example: To control inflation. There is another common problem that may pop up in your way in cause-effect development. Take the following example: Capital punishment is the best measure against crime. Take the following example: Meeting Hasan gave me a psychological breakdown.e. When you do not back your claims with further evidence. the writer has done so. possible causes) before you write your paragraph. and death of Hasan's father) are only linked in terms of time. They are coincidental. etc.. When you take sides with your claims. In the above example. The problem of dogmatism or bias occurs when your sentences become illogical. Reasonable thought should be presented in reasonable language. ask yourself. You may magnify one of these causes if you want to emphasize it. To provide evidence. your troubles at the university. taxes should be cut off. Another common mistake in cause-effect paragraphs is oversimplification.
Problem: Your sentence: ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ 3) I got a good grade on writing because my handwriting is good. Biased and dogmatic claims can rarely be supported with statistics and examples. Problem: Your sentence: ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ 2) To remedy flu. Problem: Your sentence: ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ CAUSE AND EFFECT 141 . The first one is done as an example for you. 1) All criminals must receive death penalty. Problem: Your sentence: ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ 4) It is impossible to control the effects of acid rains. Problem: Your sentence: ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ 5) Earthquakes kill people all over the world. EXERCISE 1.you can use in paragraphs of cause-and effect. EXAMPLE: Volcanic eruptions cause air pollution. Correct the problems and rewrite each sentence in your own words. take vitamin C. Problem: Your sentence: Over-simplification Volcanic eruptions are one of the causes of air pollution. Read the following sentences and identify their problems.
source. SUPPORTING SENTENCE 1 SUPPORTING SENTENCE 2 SUPPORTING SENTENCE 3 OTHER SUPPORTING SENTENCES LAST SUPPORTING SENTENCE (or) (or) (or) (or) GROUP 2: EQUAL OR RANDOM ORDER (LISTING SIGNAL + ENUMERATOR + PREDICATE) LISTING SIGNAL The first (or) One The second (or) The next (or) Another The third (or) The next (or) Still another • • • The last (or) The final ENUMERATOR PREDICATE 1 cause.LISTING SIGNALS The listing signals that were used in enumerative paragraphs can be used in cause-effect paragraphs too. reason. Second. Third. Next. + SENTENCE) LISTING SIGNAL First. Next. consequence. GROUP 1: EQUAL OR RANDOM ORDER (LISTING SIGNAL + . outcome. effect. • • • Last. etc. Finally. PREDICATE 2 PREDICATE 3 OTHER PREDICATES LAST PREDICATE 142 CAUSE AND EFFECT . Then. result.
effect.GROUP 3: ASCENDING ORDER LISTING SIGNAL most important largest most essential (etc. In paragraphs of cause and effect. There are two principle types of structural signals: (a) Sentence connectors (b) Predicate structures Sentence connectors are words and phrases that are used to join two complete grammatical sentences together. etc. In addition to listing signals. result. effect. LAST PREDICATE But by far the (or) Finally—and most importantly—LAST SUPPORTING SENTENCE GROUP 4: DESCENDING ORDER LISTING SIGNAL most important largest most essential (etc. sentence connectors CAUSE AND EFFECT 143 . cause. cause.) ENUMERATOR consequence.) ENUMERATOR consequence. The enumerators used in chapter five were suitable for classification. Their major function is to signal the type of logical relationship that exists between the sentences they connect. FIRST PREDICATE The If you compare these tables with the tables presented in chapter five. you will instantly notice that the only difference between them is in the type of enumerators they employ. They are called structural signals. certain other basic structures are commonly used in writing cause-effect paragraphs. etc. the ones used here are suitable for identifying cause or effect. result.
In cause-effect development.. because of the fact that.g. Sentence 2. therefore. Volcanoes emit smoke and ash. (EFFECT) The connectors that fall in this group include: as a result. GROUP 1: CONNECTORS Sentence 1. sentence connectors fall into three groups. Volcanoes emit such a smoke and ash that the air becomes polluted. the air becomes polluted.. (EFFECT) e. due to the fact that. e. (CAUSE) CONNECTOR. consequently.g. because of this. (CAUSE) CONNECTOR.show the relationship of causality between the sentences they link together. OR Sentence 1. as a consequence. As a consequence. Volcanoes emit smoke and ash. Volcanoes emit so much smoke and ash that the air becomes polluted. Sentence 2. the air becomes polluted.g. etc. because. etc. hence.. GROUP 3: CONNECTORS Sentence 1 (EFFECT) CONNECTOR Sentence 2 (CAUSE) The connectors that fall in this group include: since. The air becomes polluted because volcanoes emit smoke and ash. e. GROUP 2: CONNECTORS Subject + Verb + so + … + that Subject + verb + such + … + that (CAUSE) Sentence 2. 144 CAUSE AND EFFECT . as a consequence. (EFFECT) Sentence 2.
Take the following examples: Volcanic emissions are the cause of air pollution. Poverty Low education Unemployment Malnutrition Disease High death rate CAUSE AND EFFECT 145 . to turn up in. On the basis of the meaning of the verbs used in predicate structures. to cause. Develop a paragraph on the basis of the information provided in the chart below. In this case. to stem from. etc. the choice of the verb indicates the cause-effect relationship. to be a consequence of. to follow from. to be a result of. to be due to. GROUP 2: PREDICATE STRUCTURES EFFECT PREDICATE STRUCTURES CAUSE The verbs that can be used in this group include to result from.Predicate structures are words and phrases that constitute the predicate of a single grammatical sentence. GROUP 1: PREDICATE STRUCTURES CAUSE PREDICATE STRUCTURE EFFECT The verbs that can be used in this group include to lead to. etc. to be responsible for. Air pollution results from volcanic emissions. to result in. to bring about. to contribute to. EXERCISE 1. they fall into two groups.
00% Smoking Chewing tobacco Nutrition Cancer Sunlight Radiation Occupational Hazards 146 CAUSE AND EFFECT .00% 30.2.00% 20.00% 15.00% 25. Combine the information from the graph and the chart below to write a cause-effect paragraph in ascending order: nutrition job tobacco radiation sunlight smoking 0.00% 10.00% 35.00% 5.
the term comparison is used in its strict sense—to show likeness. The important point is that whatever has been said about the first subject should also be said about the second subject. The most common types of comparison-contrast organization are: Parallel organization Point-by-point organization In parallel organization. if fact. In point-by-point organization.. In this book. animals. After that. however. ideas. He will then use a transition word to change the subject. people. the purpose of contrast is to show difference. Some writers use the term comparison as a cover term to include both comparison and contrast. This will. He then talks about each aspect of both subjects in one supporting sentence. he will say everything about the next subject. Writers use different methods to organize (i. the first supporting sentence will explain COMPARISON AND CONTRAST 147 . In this way. result in paragraph unity too. instead of dividing the whole paragraph into two parallel halves. etc. the writer divides each supporting sentence into two halves. The purpose of comparison is to show likeness. arrange the supporting sentences) their comparison-contrast paragraphs.e. the writer guarantees parallelism between the two halves of the paragraph. Therefore.UNIT ELEVEN METHODS OF SUPPORT (COMPARISON AND CONTRAST) INTRODUCTION Comparison-contrast is a method of development in which the writer shows the similarities or differences between two objects. the writer will say everything about one subject in the first half of the paragraph.
the similarities of bees and ants have been discussed. Worker ants go out of the nest to gather food while soldier ants have the responsibility of defending the nest when it is attacked. the soldier bees. In much the same way. BEES Are insects Live in colonies Workers find food Soldiers defend nest Queen lays eggs Are insects Live in colonies Workers find food Soldiers defend nest Queen lays eggs ANTS 148 COMPARISON AND CONTRAST . Notice that in these paragraphs. Bees belong to the family of insects. too. The following model paragraphs exemplify these two methods of organization. Read and compare them to understand what is meant by each method of organization. they are paragraphs of comparison. They also live in colonies. They live in colonies. Comparison: Parallel organization Bees and ants have several common characteristics. The second group of bees. have a queen that lays thousands of eggs. Bees have a queen that lays thousands of eggs. and the cycle goes on until the writer gets to the end of the paragraph.part one of both subjects. Ants. The analysis below illustrates the internal structure of the model paragraph. therefore. defends the nest when it is attacked. the second supporting sentence will explain part two of both subjects. Worker bees go out of their nest to gather food. ants also belong to the family of insects.
COMPARISON In a paragraph of comparison. The queen bee and the queen ant lay thousands of eggs and give birth to the new generations. BEES ANTS BEES ANTS BEES ANTS BEES ANTS BEES ANTS Are insects Live in colonies Workers find food Soldiers defend nest Queen lays eggs The same types of organization (i. worker ants get out of the nest in the search for food. the writer's purpose is to show the similarities between two subjects. sight. Not only bees. hearing.e. The subjects can be either abstract or concrete. The analysis below illustrates the internal structure of the model paragraph. Like worker bees.. and smell. For example. Abstract subjects are ideas that cannot be sensed by the five senses of touch. Both bees and ants belong to the family of insects. but also ants have armies that defend the nest when it is attacked. your instructor may ask you to write a paragraph in which you compare love COMPARISON AND CONTRAST 149 .Comparison: Point-by-point organization Bees and ants have several common characteristics. taste. They both live in colonies. parallel and point-by-point) can be used in paragraphs of contrast too.
two animals. your job is to find the similarities between them. These are abstract subjects. No matter whether you are given abstract or concrete subjects to compare. Tehran and Shiraz can be compared in several ways. any item from one of the subjects you talk about. There are a number of similarities between Tehran and Shiraz. parallel. you should think about the points that you want to put in your paragraphs. Decide on the type of organization you want to use (i. Therefore. Write an outline in which you list the items you want to use in your paragraph. the writer can use enumerators in the topic sentence. Tehran is similar to Shiraz in several respects. or point-by-point) 2. you should also talk about the same item from the other subject. Take the following examples: Tehran and Shiraz have several similarities.. all of which are considered appropriate topic sentences for paragraphs of comparison.e. and so on. Your outline may look like one of the above analyses of the model paragraphs depending on the type of organization you select. He may sometimes give you concrete subjects to write about. Take the following examples: Tehran and Shiraz have several things in common. in a paragraph of comparison. too. 150 COMPARISON AND CONTRAST . Before you start writing your paragraphs. Therefore. Some writer may use a different grammatical structure in their topic sentences. You will specifically need to take two steps: 1. two insects. two places. he may ask you to write a paragraph in which you compare two of your teachers. like other types of enumeration.and friendship. Paragraphs of comparison are a special form of enumeration. For example. The most common enumerator used in a paragraph of comparison is similarities. The example above may be rewritten in several ways. or enmity and hatred.
Are mammals Live in oceans worldwide Live in groups called pod Are endangered by humans Eat meat of other sea animals Are mammals Live in oceans worldwide Live in groups called pod Are endangered by humans Eat meat of other sea animals Dolphins Blue Whales 2.EXERCISE 1. Use the methods of organization implied by the analysis. Convert the following analysis into a paragraph of comparison. Use the methods of organization implied by the analysis below. LOVE HATE LOVE HATE LOVE HATE LOVE HATE LOVE HATE Can cause health problems Can result in nervous breakdown Affect human relations Involve two people Are human feelings COMPARISON AND CONTRAST 151 . Convert the following analysis into a paragraph of comparison.
worker. Bees fall into three major classes: queen. Like in paragraphs of comparison. in paragraphs of contrast. The subjects that can be contrasted in a paragraph of contrast are either concrete or abstract. The most common enumerator used in a paragraph of contrast is differences. the general structure and organization of paragraphs of contrast is exactly the same as the general structure and organization of paragraphs of comparison. therefore. There are a number of differences between Tehran and Shiraz. Take the following examples: Tehran and Shiraz can be contrasted in several ways. all of which are considered appropriate topic sentences for paragraphs of contrast. Some writers may use a different grammatical structure in their topic sentences. too. it is a paragraph of contrast. The only difference is in the type of points they enumerate. and drone. Contrast: Parallel organization There are several differences between bees and ants. the differences of bees and ants have been discussed. In fact. paragraphs of contrast analyze the same subjects to show their differences. While paragraphs of comparison aim at analyzing two subjects to show their similarities. Like comparative paragraphs. The following model paragraph exemplifies the use of parallel organization in paragraphs of contrast. Take the following example: Tehran and Shiraz have several differences.CONTRAST Paragraphs of contrast aim at enumerating or listing the differences that exist between two subjects. contrastive paragraphs can be organized in two ways: parallel organization. the writer can use enumerators in the topic sentence. Worker bees 152 COMPARISON AND CONTRAST . Bees belong to the Apidae class of insects. The example above may be rewritten in several ways. and point-by-point organization. A queen bee may live between one to three years. Tehran is different from Shiraz in several respects. Notice that in this paragraph.
Finally. Worker ants live for six months on the average. The analysis below shows the internal structure of the model paragraph. ants belong to the Formicidae class of insects. fall into nine classes including worker ants. bees belong to the Apidae class of insects whereas ants belong to the Formicidae class. queen. ants can be found in almost all places of the world especially in tropical deserts. Ants. however. fire COMPARISON AND CONTRAST 153 . First. BEES Belong to Apidae class Fall into three categories Queen lives 1-3 years Workers live 5 weeks Found in flower-rich areas Belong to Formicidae class Fall into nine categories Queen lives several years Workers live 6 months and over Found everywhere esp. As you can see.die very soon. etc. Queen ants live for several years. after using a phrase to signal the start of contrast. By way of contrast. he has continued with saying everything about ants. Bees are found in flowerrich places. army ants. Another difference is that bees fall into three major classes: worker. Then. and drone. Some worker ants may live for several years. deserts ANTS It is possible to rewrite the above model paragraph with a point-by-point organization. Contrast: Point-by-point organization There are several differences between bees and ants. They fall into nine categories including fire ants. They live for a period of five weeks. the writer has said everything about bees in the first half of the paragraph.
while queen bees live for a period of one year to at most three years.ants. Use the information from the table below to write a paragraph of contrast. bees are found in flower-rich areas whereas ants can be found in almost all places of the world. The analysis below shows the internal structure of the model paragraph. and so on. and especially in tropical deserts. queen ants live for several years. EXERCISE 1. 154 COMPARISON AND CONTRAST . Worker bees and ants are also different in that worker bees live for at most five weeks whereas worker ants live between six months to several years. Use parallel organization for the arrangement of your supporting sentences. Finally. BEES ANTS BEES ANTS BEES ANTS BEES ANTS BEES ANTS Different classes of insects Fall into different categories Queens reach different ages Workers reach different ages Found in different habitats Notice that you cannot mix the two methods of organization in your paragraphs of comparison and contrast. Still another difference is that.
60 % 29 .60 % 22 .90 % 0. Use pointby-point organization to arrange your supporting sentences. Access to facilities Vehicle 56 % 5% 46 % 84 % 58 .GROUPS ITEMS Motor Vehicles per 1000 people Total air-ports JAPAN 46% 560 21 09 686 956 586 269 USA 59% 760 15 10 806 2116 700 2420 Transportation Paved road percentage 126 15701 Education Media access School students per class Years of compulsory school Televisions per 1000 people Radios per 1000 people Telephones per 1000 people Internet per 1000 people 2.60 % 8.00 % 95 .30 % 26 . Convert the following graph into a contrastive paragraph.00 % 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120% Japan Iraq Paved road Telephone Radio Television Internet PERCENTAGE OF ACCESS TO FACILITIES (YEAR 2000) COMPARISON AND CONTRAST 155 .90 % 68 .
and so do ants. The four groups of listing signals discussed in chapter five can also be used in comparative and contrastive paragraphs. Bees do not belong to the class of reptiles. Like bees. In addition to listing signals. you will put the most striking difference/similarity last. ants belong to the class of insects. Correlative conjunctions are another set of structural signals often used by writers in comparative paragraphs. you can use listing signals. Both bees and ants are insects. You can also use ascending and descending orders in these paragraphs. you will put the most striking similarity/difference first. you can draw on a number of structural signals in comparative and contrastive paragraphs.STRUCTURAL SIGNALS Like other types of enumerations. Neither bees nor ants are reptiles. and ants do too. Bees are quite like ants in that they are both insects. and neither do ants. Take the following examples: Bees reproduce in exactly the same way as ants do. Bees belong to the class of insects. Take the following examples: Just as bees are insects. Bees are quite similar to ants in terms of reproduction. 156 COMPARISON AND CONTRAST . too. In ascending order. Take the following examples: Bees belong to the class of insects. The structural signals that are commonly used in comparative paragraphs fall into five different groups: Adjectives and prepositions Attached statements Correlative conjunctions Predicate structures Sentence connectors Adjectives and prepositions are often used to show similarity or degrees of it. in paragraphs of comparison and contrast. Bees do not belong to the class of reptiles. in descending order. Bees and ants both are insects. and ants do not either. Attached statements can also be used to show similarity. so ants belong to the class of insects.
Specific sentence connectors are also good tools for the expression of similarities in comparative paragraphs. ants are found in tropical deserts. contrary to. Pre-positions like unlike. along the same lines. They attach to the second sentence in the pair of sentences they connect and are followed by commas. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST 157 . Take the following examples: Bees are more social than ants. as opposed to.). the writer can use a number of structural signals. in the same way. too.. Bees and ants have certain habits in common. likewise. The sentence connectors that are used in comparative paragraphs include correspondingly. etc. Take the following examples: The habits of bees resemble the habits of ants. The most common types of structural signals used in paragraphs of contrast fall into five categories: Comparative adjectives/adverbs Pre-positions Adverbial clauses Verbal structures Sentence connectors Comparative adjectives/adverbs are either used per se or in the form of negative equative adjectives/adverbs.) or semi-colons (. Take the following examples: Bees are insects. by the same token. can also be used to signal difference. ants are insects. Similarly. etc. Ants are not as social as bees. In paragraphs of contrast. There are certain similarities between the habits of bees and ants. They can be preceded by either periods (. similarly. Take these examples: As opposed to bees. Bees are insects. ants are insects.Predicate structures comprise another group of structural signals frequently used in comparative paragraphs.
etc. too. Verbal structures. while. Examples of verbal structures are to contrast with. etc.) make the third set of structural signals frequently used in contrastive paragraphs. Take the following examples: Bees live in flower-rich areas. Bees live in flower-rich areas. in contrast.g. FEATURE Length Area Depth Location Other PERSIAN GULF 970 km 230. ants live in deserts. However. Bees differ from ants in respect to the age they can reach. The most common sentence connectors in contrastive paragraphs are however. by way of contrast. whereas.Verbal clauses (e.. although. Sentence connectors form another set structural signals very often used in paragraphs of contrast. are also used in contrastive paragraphs. ants live in deserts. most ants live in deserts.000 square km 170 m (average) North of Iran Limited types fish Production of Caviar Considered a lake No access to oceans 158 COMPARISON AND CONTRAST . Take the following example: Although bees are rarely found in deserts. Convert the following table into a contrastive paragraph with parallel organization. etc. to be different from. to differ from. on the other hand.000 square km <100 m (average) South of Iran Various types of fish Production of pearl Considered a sea Access to oceans CASPIAN SEA 1210 km 371. EXERCISE 1. however.
Use point-by-point organization.9 m 60.2.9 m 11.9 m 18. Write a contrastive paragraph on each of the following topics.13 m BOEING 777-300 893 km/h 11038 km 12800 m 171160 L 299370 kg 73. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST 159 .5 m 3. BOEING 737-400 Cruise speed Maximum range Service ceiling Fuel capacity Maximum take-off weight Length Wing span Height 885 km/h 3810 km 11000 m 20104 L 62800 kg 36. Convert the information from the table below into a contrastive paragraph in which you contrast two airplanes from the Boeing family. TOPIC City versus village life Iranian versus American culture Azad versus state universities in Iran love versus friendship Shiraz versus Tehran Two of your teachers ORGANIZATION (point-by-point) (point-by-point) (point-by-point) (parallel) (parallel) (parallel) Each paragraph should include a minimum of 300 words. Use the kind of organization identified within parentheses in front of each.45 m 25.
In argumentative paragraphs you do two things: (1) you explain. Argumentation is a three-step process. They claim that a paragraph is not long enough to allow argumentation. argumentation not only has its own goals but also includes the goals of exposition. compare. Moreover. In other words. you already know that the aim of exposition is to explain.UNIT TWELVE METHODS OF SUPPORT (ARGUMENTATION) INTRODUCTION It was explained in chapter five that university writing falls into two major categories: exposition and argumentation. (2) you persuade or convince. Therefore. It was also argued that the methods of support are indeed ways of analysis. and illustrate that viewpoint 3) Convince the reader that the viewpoint is valid 160 ARGUMENTATION . In an argumentative paragraph. etc. contrast. Remember that any method of support analyzes the subject for a specific purpose or aim. you will need to: 1) Present a personal viewpoint 2) Explain. you have to argue for the validity of your claims. then. Many writers are reluctant to use the term "argumentative" for paragraphs. classify. The relationship between exposition and argumentation is an inclusional one. whereas the aim of argumentation is to prove or persuade.. clarify. Therefore. the aim of an argumentative paragraph is to persuade or to convince the readers. In fact. any argumentation also includes exposition. the fact is that you may occasionally need to write a paragraph to defend your viewpoints.
The third step is. an opinion needs to be supported by facts. no opinion is considered to be valid if it comes out of the blue sky. specific to argumentation. on my way home. readers will probably be persuaded or even convinced to accept your opinion. answer the questions below: What do you think about this paragraph? Is it valid? What kind of evidence does the writer provide? Does the evidence provided by the writer support his claim? Are you convinced that the writer's claim is valid? Is the argumentation successful? In addition for providing supportive evidence. Therefore. however. At first I thought it might be a star that was too close to earth. Simply presenting your opinions without trying to prove it has another inherent danger too. or authoritative sources. I concluded that it was certainly a UFO. Take the following example written by an Iranian EFL student. when your readers are ARGUMENTATION 161 . The reader will not accept your opinion if you fail to prove it. When your readers are people who love you and take what you say for granted. if you can prove the validity of your claim. statistics. opinion is almost worthless alone. However. ignorance. It is the very last step that makes all the difference. However. as much as the reader needs. For example. capriciousness. I saw a blazing light in the sky above the road. Did you know that UFOs exist? Last night. In fact. Anyone can have any opinion or viewpoint he likes. "How much evidence is necessary?" The answer to this question is selfevident. I was trying to convince myself that it was a star when I realized that the light was no longer there.The first two steps are also used in exposition. or inability to support your statements. examples. you may need very little or even no evidence to prove your claims. Now. Your readers may think that a mere statement of opinion is a sign of laziness. you may believe that UFOs exist. but that does not mean that readers will accept your opinion. personal experience. you will also need to provide enough support for your claims. To be held valid. You should ask yourself.
1. the author is not reliable. Recency of the source 2. when you write argumentative paragraphs. 4. How recently was the evidence published? Newer evidence is usually preferable. Any piece of evidence that passes these tests can be considered strong evidence. How original is the evidence? There are two types of evidence: primary and secondary. How valid is the source? Make sure that the source is not forgery. secondary evidence includes reports on. Validity of the source Before using any evidence from any source to support your claims. Now. Is the author objective? Make sure that the author is not stuffing the evidence with his personal non-scientific preferences. 2. Originality of the source 3. you will have a hard time proving your claims. you may ask yourself. you had better think that your audience is not a friendly one.crotchety. 162 ARGUMENTATION . Authoritativeness of the author 5. Remember that a short-but-strong argumentation often convinces your readers much sooner than a long-but-weak argumentation. and pedantic strangers. Therefore. or analyses of primary evidence. This will force you to make your argumentation as strong as possible. you will need to provide strong and significant evidence to prove the validity of your claims. and you can safely use it. primary evidence is stronger than secondary evidence. "What kinds of evidence are strong and valid?" There are a number of criteria according to which you can judge the strength and validity of any evidence. Reliability of the author 4. How authoritative is the author? If the source of the evidence is a person who lacks expertise and knowledge. The evidence must be impartial and unbiased. Notice that. 5. meticulous. Primary evidence includes original documents and personal observation. These criteria include: 1. 3. make sure that the evidence is a strong one. Here. the evidence may not be trustworthy. otherwise.
Some writers simply jump into conclusions. Emotions and feelings are good for romance. condolences. In addition.EXERCISE 1. Below is a list of logic errors that may give you headache when you want to write argumentative paragraphs: Hasty generalization Stereotype Oversimplification Post hoc ergo propter hoc Red herring False authority Statistics Vice and virtue words Do not panic. or any other occasion that deals with people's feelings. Write an argumentative paragraph on one of the following topics. In fact. the concepts that these phrases express are very easy to grasp. Take the following examples: All movies are exciting. First of all. Emotions and feelings cause your argumentation to lose its strength. congratulations. love letters. they do not allow any room for exceptions. Hasty generalization is a common mistake. ARGUMENTATION 163 . call for rationality and logic. a number of logic errors (called logical fallacies) can also result in weak argumentation. Computers are not worth the money you spend on them. however. These items are not as difficult to understand as their names suggest. Which kind of government is better: democratic or republican? 2. Equality of women 3. 1. Argumentations and controversies. Why do you prefer home-made food over restaurant food? PITFALLS There are a number of traps that may endanger your argumentation. an argumentative paragraph is not the proper place for emotions.
It refers to severe reduction of alternatives and choices. Poverty means crime.e. simply stop drinking coffee. To avoid oversimplification. "Is this the only possibility?" Post hoc ergo propter hoc refers to a conclusion in which time is the only link: X happened after Y. or structures are those that modulate polarity. you are recommended not to use polarity unless (a) you are 100% sure that your conclusion is valid. Take the following examples: Some movies are exciting. Politicians cannot be trusted.Many hasty conclusions can be easily avoided if you recognize the difference between polar and modal words (i.. In all languages. phrases. Remember that correlation does not necessarily mean causation. or structures that give 100% positive or 100% negative meanings to statements. and (b) you provide enough valid evidence to prove your claims. Stereotypes are hasty generalizations made about people. Modal words. therefore. about. you should identify all possibilities. there are some words. phrases. polarity and modality). and so on. The problems of this country boil down into one word: management. Take the following examples: All philosophers are Greek by origin. Words such as almost. Ask yourself. etc.. To avoid stereotypes. That is. or structures. selections from poetry. Almost all modal auxiliaries can be taken as examples of modality. Y has caused X to happen. Computers may not worth the money you spend on them. To avoid hasty generalizations. proverbs. the polar words have been underlined for ease of identification. These are called polar words. can also change polarity into modality. phrases. often. Many 164 ARGUMENTATION . you will have to support your claims by valid evidence. In the examples above. The most common types of stereotypes are clichés. Take the following examples: To avoid insomnia. they introduce modality into the statements in which they appear. Over-simplification is another kind of logic error frequently observed in the writing of foreign students of English.
False authority is most dangerous in cultures which tell the youth that the words of the old should be taken for granted. To avoid. happening at the same time but totally unrelated) rather than causal.. By false authority we mean arguing that a person who is knowledgeable in one field will necessarily be knowledgeable in all fields. be certain that your sources are experts in their fields. It is not logical to make the conclusion that all the events happing at the same time are causally related. international) Being speculative rather than empirical ARGUMENTATION 165 .e. To avoid. Statistics should also be approached with care. Red herring pops up when your statements do not have any direct relevance to the topic. He believes that poverty is the cause of all crime. The major flaws you can find in statistics are: Being outdated Coming from false authorities or invalid sources Being inapplicable/irrelevant to your argumentation Being context-bound (local. make sure that time is not the only link between the cause and the effect. The average weight of people is well above the standard. national. Therefore. All irrelevancies should be pruned. He scored A on the TOEFL because he is an athlete. Many statistics tend to be misleading. but are not related at all. Take the following examples: He got promoted because his son had a headache at that time.events happen exactly or almost at the same time. It is time the government banned hamburgers. My grand father is a wise man. the government must stop its development programs. Hasan will make a good president because he is a good student. you must be precise in distinguishing what is relevant to your argumentation. Take the following examples: Poverty is on the rise. They may be coincidental (i. To avoid. Religion may also push you towards the acceptance of false authority. Still another logical fallacy is false authority.
Some writers have ironically classified lies into three groups: damn lies. Examples of vice and virtue words include swears. etc. you should remain formal. and statistics.4%.. white lies.Some people believe that statistics are sugar-coated lies used to fool naive people. always. You should use polarity (e. Another logical fallacy is the use of vice and virtue words. They are suitable for demagogues. Therefore. Slim milk is healthy because its content of fat is only 2. Although they may be powerful shortcuts that can urge your readers to accept your viewpoints. before deciding to use any statistic. 166 ARGUMENTATION . These are words that cause good or bad religious or emotional reactions in readers. they give them bad feelings. Many people do not like to hear these words. ask yourself specific questions about it: Is the source valid and reliable or forgery? Is the statistic recent? Is it relevant to my argumentation? Is the source authoritative? Is it not context-dependent? Does it apply everywhere? Where does it come from: speculation or empirical research? Have the authors held the passage of time constant? Take the following examples: The length of paved roads has doubled over the past 25 years. vice and virtue words are not fair enough to be used in rational argumentation. Notice that in all situations. Poverty is the evil sinister menace that causes all crime. Take the following examples: I swear on my mother's life that poverty is the cause of all crime. etc. Specifically remember the following points: 1. taboos. send them to private high schools. not logical writers. These words reduce your writing into informal biblical or dirty paragraphs. oaths. If you want to lead your children to sudden death.) with caution. never.g. All- inclusive or all-exclusive words and phrases are rarely reasonable.
Some sentences may contain more than one logic error. facts. Avoid such suspicious words and phrases as undoubtedly.. examples. Identify the logical fallacies in the following sentences. etc. 5. Therefore. it may not be the only cause. EXERCISE 1. etc).g. he is poor. ARGUMENTATION 167 . Iran is a heaven anyone can ever dream of. obviously. Do not jump to conclusions. Otherwise. Therefore. The people of Iraq cannot govern themselves. 4. A fish-rich diet has resulted in the average life expectancy of eighty years in Japan. Over-simplification weakens your argumentation. statistics. The reform proposed by the president is the best reform ever proposed since the president is not a demagogue. personal experience. Everyone who works in the field of education will have to live below the standard average. 2. Even if your may be sure that one thing is the cause of another. Your readers may be forced to disbelieve you if you use a lot of statistics to support your claims. should be supported by enough strong evidence (e. there will be no Ozone layer in the next ten years. The TV series and movies produced in Iran show a lot of millionaires playing golf in the Kish island. Be careful when you use statistics. needless to say. Ban the use of Teflon utensils in the kitchen. Be careful not to make this mistake. 3. Any claim you make. Suspicious words and phrases often cause hasty generalizations. as a matter of fact. The quality of education in Iranian universities could certainly be improved if students took fewer credits each semester.Remember that reasonable thinking should be reflected in reasonable language.
All the poor countries of the world are those most lacking in culture. That is. In a republic. Some people believe that poverty results from a lack of adequate resources on a global level. If fact. they are the gods and goddesses who are empowered to control the needs and interests of the poor and miserable people of their country. such as those against incest or cannibalism. we will see one common problem in all of them. Sometimes. By way of contrast. by analogy. I believe the terms democracy and republic are totally different and unrelated concepts. Experience shows that law is the only criterion in democratic countries whereas republics always forget about law. Therefore. This problem is not any thing else but a lack of culture. Norms range from crucial taboos. this is what many people do. 168 ARGUMENTATION . it is a norm. Be careful not to replace your ideas with the viewpoints presented in the paragraphs. Analyze the following paragraphs in terms of logical fallacies. You cannot even find a single poor person in countries with high culture.2. When in Rome. if we analyze all types of poverty. It is true that in both systems the power to govern is given to those who are elected as representatives. if you want to receive no traffic ticket. these officials and representatives are expected to act on their own best judgment. do as Romans do. Others see poverty as an effect of the uneven distribution of resources around the world on an international or even regional scale. I believe these explanations are true. In fact. democracy is the best system of government in which officials and representatives more reflect the known views of the people by whom they were elected. analyze each paragraph logically and objectively. but are partial. lack of culture is the only cause of poverty. Republics are even reluctant to go by their constitutions. They do not provide a comprehensive explanation for poverty. In any society. the pressure of life urges people to change their values and norms. such as the correct way to hold a fork. inadequate wages may force some people to ask for bribe. After all. Although often used interchangeably. Norms play a key part in social control and social order. quite legal and normal. For example. In fact. there are a number of norms that show which kinds of social behavior are appropriate. Paying bribe is. Therefore. to trivial customs and traditions. Rather. You had better pay some money in cash. many of you may remember having the experience of driving a car in the street when suddenly a nasty traffic officer stops you for what he claims to be the violation of a traffic law. norms refer to any behavior which is considered normal in a society. The reasons for poverty boil down into one thing: culture. however.
Write an argumentative paragraph on one of the following topics.3. The best system of government The connection between culture and poverty Which one is better: knowledge or wealth? Ancient medicine versus modern medicine Crime and delinquency Football hooliganism TV and malnutrition Terrorism Aggression ARGUMENTATION 169 .
In particular. Format and organization have been the concern of previous chapters. In addition. organization. certain aspects of sentence structure have been discussed throughout the book. sentence structure.UNIT THIRTEEN FINAL REMARKS INTRODUCTION In previous chapters. There are certain other skills that you should master to become effective writers. A discussion of these other skills is beyond the scope of this book. Therefore. 170 FINAL REMARKS . you may only need to focus on punctuation. With this specific meaning. Do use punctuation effectively. Punctuation refers to the use of standard marks and signs in writing and printing to separate words into sentences. mechanics of writing include format. WHAT TO DO Do use the mechanics of writing effectively. The term mechanics of writing is being used here in a very strict sense to refer to the knots and bolts that piece together the different parts of a paragraph to produce a well-assembled end-product. and punctuation. you became familiar with the building blocks of the paragraph. you learnt about: Paragraph format The topic sentence Techniques of support Methods of support These are necessary but not enough conditions for paragraph development. the concern of this chapter is to provide some dos and don'ts that may enable you to write better paragraphs. Therefore.
1994. Then. do try to write as often as possible in the simple past tense. Do use active voice as often as possible. Lancaster Press Inc. The very first thing that draws the attention of the reader to itself is the appearance of your writing—or the face of it. when the subject does not do the act mentioned by the verb. Verb tense agreement is an error-prone area in EFL writing. do read your writing aloud after you finish. and phrases in order to clarify meaning. Do pay attention to verb tense agreement. To minimize verb tense errors. Spelling mistakes can badly jeopardize your scores. The use of the passive voice slows down the sentence structure and causes the reader to tire easily. Do use simple short sentences. and do try to look for errors. do correct those errors. Many editors and publishers use the APA style as a yardstick. It is therefore suggested that you make your sentences as simple and short as possible. Only use the passive voice when you are left with no other choice. Your job is to put the appropriate punctuation marks within these parentheses. Among the last things EFL students master (or sometimes do not master at all) is verb tense agreement. Pennsylvania). in addition. The standard editorial style for the use of punctuation in university writing is the APA editorial style (See Publication manual of the American Psychological Association. America's foods began to affect the rest of the world( )not only raw staples such as wheat and corn( ) but a new American cuisine that spread throughout the world( ) American emphasis on convenience and rapid consumption is best represented in fast foods such as hamburgers( ) French fries( ) and soft drinks( ) which almost all Americans have eaten( ) By the 1960s and 1970s fast foods became one of America's strongest exports as franchises for McDonald's and Burger King spread through Europe and other parts of the world( ) including the former Soviet Union and Communist China( ) Traditional meals cooked at home and consumed at a leisurely pace( )common in the rest of the world( ) and once common in the United FINAL REMARKS 171 . that is. EXERCISE The punctuation marks have been deleted from the following paragraphs..clauses. Do check your writing for spelling errors. Lancaster. A pair of parentheses appears in the place of each punctuation mark.
Do not use echo effect. We are tacitly told from the beginning of our education at the age of seven that a good student is one who writes big words and long sentences. One of the major problems of Iranian EFL students is that they use their mother language structures in English writing. Do not use pompous words and style. not simple. the teacher may draw a big red circle round your sentences and put the "It is Persian!" comment in the margin for you. but that is not the end of the story. The result is ungrammaticality and clumsy writing. We find it extremely difficult to change this habit. do not begin a sentence with the same phrase with which you ended the previous sentence. Another common problem with Iranian EFL students is that they come to English classes with the bad habit of writing aristocratic sentences fraught with pompous and luxurious words. and whose sentences are compound and complex. Do not allow your paragraph to become wordy. who uses indirect rosy language. Echo effect slows down the paragraph. Your score will fade away too. 172 FINAL REMARKS .States( )gave way to quick lunches and dinners eaten on the run as other countries mimicked American cultural patterns( ) It seems likely that everyday activities( ) such as the movements in repetitive work and in walking( ) were rhythmically regular enough to invite some sort of embellishment( ) Related breathing rhythms( ) chanting( ) or other accompaniment( ) such as the tapping of a walking stick while walking or the transformation of a work tool into an instrument while working( ) may have been early forms of music( ) In fact( ) whether sacred Native American corn-gathering songs or melodies heard in elevators or supermarkets( ) music still accompanies our ceremonial and everyday activities( ) WHAT NOT TO DO Do not use Persian structures. Wordiness slows down the paragraph. They only choose English words and place them in those structures. Try not to use unnecessary words. The result is not English.
EXERCISE Below are sentences taken from student paragraphs that contain many errors.. When writing complex sentences. Special food in Iran is stew-vegetable. etc. I can see the best things in my age. Some English words (e. run-on sentences have no clear end. replace the complex sentence with its simple counterparts. One stage of marriage that is base of it is suit. FINAL REMARKS 173 .g. simply revise the errors. In addition to being ungrammatical. other. Do not use run-on sentences. Nowadays many of the juveniles are unemployed in our country. At first. Do not use fragments. boy's family come to girl's home. Some reasons cause juvenile becomes delinquent. Identify and correct the errors. Do not rewrite the sentences. Using them will jeopardize your writing. and they force to spend their free-time in streets and parks.) confuse EFL students. you should be able to avoid fragments. There are two important cause of juvenile delinquency in Iran. Since I live in Bushehr.Do not use confusing words in your writing. especially. special. Another factor is unsuitable friend who can influence juvenile more than any thing and can change the behavior of juvenile. You can cooked stew if you follow five steps. Some sentences have more than one error. If you are in doubt. another.
23 Left 22. 23 Argumentation 60. 160 Definition of 160 Pitfalls 163 False authority 163. 22 Center 22. 133. 165 Statistics 163. 165 Stereotypes 163.INDEX A Active voice 171 Adjectives 156 Adverbial clauses 157 Alignment 17. 164 Vice and virtue words 163. 166 Attached statements 156 C Cause and effect 60. 165 Hasty generalization 163 Over-simplification 163. 23 Justified 22. 130 Chain reaction 130. 164 Post hoc ergo propter hoc 163. 138 Listing signals 142 174 INDEX . 135 Definition of 130 Enumerators 137 Focus on cause 130. 138 Focus on effect 130. 23 Right 22. 164 Red herring 163.
81 Chronology 60. 149 Over-simplification 139. 147 Definition of 147 Organization 147 Parallel 149. 77 Chronicles 80. 135 Chronicles 80. 99 Definition of 77 Narration 81 Temporal conjunctions 99 Tense 99 Circular definition 125.Pitfalls 139 Bias 139. 126 Circumlocution 5 Clumsiness 5 Cohesion 98. 103 Pronoun reference 98. 152 Point-by-point 147. 140 Dogmatism 139. 102 Repetition 98. 140 Lack of support 139. 103 Comparison 149 Comparison and contrast 60. 102 Time clues 98. 152 Structural signals 156 Comparison 156 Adjectives 156 Attached statements 156 Correlative conjunctions 156 Predicate structures 156 INDEX 175 . 81 Definition of 80 Cohesion 98. 23 Chain reaction 130. 140 Post hoc fallacy 139 Predicate structures 143 Sentence connectors 143 Center alignment 22.
126 Overextension 125. 116 Common problems in 125 Circular definition 125. 106 Definition of 106 Enumerators 113 E Echo effect 173 Enumeration 60. 126 Definition of 116 Extended formal 116 Extended stipulated 120 Description 60. 8 Continuity 4 Contrast 152 Controlling ideas 29 Coordinate conjunctions 6. 126 Underextension 125. 61 Definition of 61 Enumerators 65 Listing signals 70 Order of listing 66 176 INDEX . 7 Coordinates 13 Correlative conjunctions 156 D Dangling construction 101 Definition 60.Prepositions 156 Sentence connectors 156 Contrast 157 Adverbial clauses 157 Prepositions 157 Sentence connectors 157 Verbal structures 157 Complex sentences 7 Compound sentences 6 Conjunctive adverbs 7.
130.Ascending 67. 138 Format 17. 114. 97. 113. 170 J Jargon 5 INDEX 177 . 75. 74. 90. 83 Gutter 18 H hasty generalization 163 I Indentation 17. 69 Descending 67. 77. 69 Enumerator(s) 65. 94. 69 Equal or random 67. 9. 133. 143 Cause and effect 137 Description 113 Enumeration 65 Process 94 Evasiveness 5 Exposition 60 F False authority 163. 106. 165 Persian structures 172 Focus on cause 130. 142. 45. 60. 25. 116. 137. 17. 160. 73. 138 Focus on effect 130. 147. 18 Block style 19 Indented style 19 Dangling or hanging first line 19 Regular first line 19 Introduction 1. 68. 170 Fragments 7. 173 G General 12 Grammar 2.
170 Argumentation 60. 147. 130. 147 Definition 60. 91. 130 Chronology 60. 77 Comparison and contrast 60. 143 Enumeration 70 Process 95 M Margin 17 Bottom 18 Left 18 Right 18 Top 18 Mechanics of writing 2. 106 Enumeration 60. 160.Justified alignment 22. 91 Mother cause 136 Mother effect 136 N Narration 81 O Orderliness 3 Organization 1. 116 Description. 142. 23 L Left alignment 22. 95. 106. 61 Process 60. 142. 60. 170 Methods of support 60. 116. 23 Length 5 Listing signals 70. 143 Cause and effect. 26 Outline 40 Topic outline 40 Sentence outline 40 178 INDEX . 160 Cause and effect 60. 77.
164 Predicate structures 143. 149 Oversimplification 139. 163 Bias 139. 165 Statistics 163. 165 Stereotypes 163. 164 Post hoc ergo propter hoc 163.Overextended definition 125. 140. 166 Point-by-point organization 147. 164 Post hoc fallacy 139 Red herring 163. 165 Hasty generalization 163 Lack of support 139. 27 Implicit 27 Inductive 27 Outline 40 Steps to good writing of 42 Unity 34 Direct 35 Indirect 35 Parallel organization 149. 163. 27 Completeness 37 Types of 27 Deductive 27 Hybrid. 140 Dogmatism 139. 152 Pompous style 172 Pompous words 172 Post hoc ergo propter hoc 163. 140 False authority 163. 156 INDEX 179 . 126 Oversimplification 163. 152 Passive voice 171 Pitfalls 139. 164 Vice and virtue words 163. 145. 164 P Paper quality 17 Paper size 17 Paragraph 25.
164 Structural signals 156 180 INDEX . 102 Punctuation 171 Purpose 3 R Readership 2 Red herring 163. 20 Line spacing 20 In block mode 21 In indented mode Paragraph spacing 20 Specific 12 Spelling errors 171 Statistics 45. 144. 102 Right alignment 22.Pre-positions 156. 7 Sister causes 136 Sister effects 136 Smoothness 4 Spacing 17. 157 Pre-writing 1 Process 60. 165 Redundancy 5 Repetition 98. 91 Definition of 91 Enumerators 94 Listing signals 95 Logical progression 94 Participial phrases 101 Precision 94 Pronoun reference 98. 173 S Sentence connectors 143. 157 Showing 10 Simple sentences 6. 165 Stereotypes 163. 156. 163. 23 Run-on sentences 6.
87 Verb-tense agreement 171 Vice and virtue words 163. 126 Unity 10 V Verbal structures 157 Verbs 86. 8. 101. 28 Topic sentence 28.Subject 14. 87 Unlimited 86. Support 1 Syllabification 24 T Techniques of support 44. 13 Subordinator 100. 15. 166 W Wordiness 5. 170 Use of anecdotes 52 Use of details 48 Use of examples 50 Use of facts 44 Use of personal experience 57 Use of physical description 52 Use of statistics 45 Telling 10 Time clues 98. 16. 170 Controlling ideas 28 Keywords 29 U Underextended definition 125. 99 Limited 86. 88. 15 Subordinate conjunctions 7. 99 Subordinates 12. 9. 99 Topic 14. 173 INDEX 181 .
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