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Writing a Report
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Writing a Report
How to prepare, write and present really effective reports
John Bowden
Fax: (01865) 370162 info@howtobooks. No part of this work may be reproduced or stored in an information retrieval system (other than for purposes of review) without the express permission of the publisher in writing.co. Laws and regulations are complex and liable to change. Spring Hill Road Begbroke. Oxford OX5 1RX. Published by How To Content. ISBN 978 1 84803 288 0 Cover design by Baseline Arts Ltd.co. . © 2008 John Bowden First edition 1991 Second edition 1994 Third edition 1996 Fourth edition 1997 Fifth edition 2000 Sixth edition 2002 Seventh edition 2004 Eighth edition 2008 First published in electronic form 2008 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. and readers should check the current position with the relevant authorities before making personal arrangements. A division of How To Books Ltd.uk www.howtobooks. Exeter. All rights reserved. Spring Hill House.uk How To Books greatly reduce the carbon footprint of their books by sourcing their typesetting and printing in the UK. Oxford Produced for How To Books by Deer Park Productions Typeset by Kestrel Data. Devon NOTE: The material in this book is set out in good faith for general guidance and no liability can be accepted for loss or expense incurred as a result of relying in particular circumstances on statements made in the book. United Kingdom Tel: (01865) 375794.For Paula. Forever.
Contents List of illustrations Preface to the eighth edition Acknowledgements ix xi xii Part 1 The practical side of report writing 1 Preparation and Planning Setting your objective Assessing your readership Deciding what information you will need Preparing your skeletal framework Testing and revising your skeletal framework Summary Collecting and Handling Information Locating sources of relevant information Obtaining the information Sorting and grouping your findings Evaluating your findings Prioritising your findings Checking your findings Summary Writing and Revising Your Report Pre-writing Drafting the main body and appendixes 1 3 4 6 7 9 27 28 30 30 36 51 52 54 55 55 58 59 59 2 3 .
covers. recommendations. introduction and summary Checking and amending the report Issuing the report Summary 60 61 62 68 69 Part 2 The Creative Side of Report Writing 4 A Style Guide to Good Report Writing Report style Achieving a good style Choosing your words carefully Principles for effective report writing Summary Improving the Presentation of Your Report Word processing and desktop publishing Layout and design Typography Illustrations Colour Paper.vi / WRITING A REPORT Reviewing the main body and appendixes Drafting the conclusions. binding and indexing Summary 71 73 74 76 81 85 88 90 91 94 102 108 126 128 134 5 Part 3 Some Common Types of Report Accident reports Agendas for committee meetings Annual reports Appraisal reports Audit reports Comparative testing reports Duty notes reports 137 140 140 144 146 147 150 153 .
CONTENTS / vii Explanatory reports Feasibility reports Informative reports Instructional manuals Interview reports Investigation into the financial affairs of a company reports Minutes Process description reports Progress reports Research reports Scientific reports Student project reports Systems evaluation reports Technical reports Technological reports Trouble-shooting reports Appendix 1: Sample Reports Glossary Resources Index 153 155 156 156 158 160 161 163 164 165 167 169 170 172 173 177 181 203 217 220 .
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arrows.List of Illustrations 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Mind mapping the information you will need An algorithm A tally sheet A questionnaire Three page designs Page orientation Type alignment Lines. frames and shading A pie chart A bar chart A pictogram A flow chart An organisational chart An isometric drawing An exploded drawing A cut-away drawing Contrasting backgrounds and type Indexing a report 9 20 42 46 95 96 107 112 114 115 116 121 122 123 123 124 128 134 . boxes.
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regardless of the subject-matter. Not only is it a task that forms part of an increasing number of business jobs. It takes you step-by-step all the way from being asked to write a report to issuing a tailor-made product which meets the needs of all your readers. The book is divided into three parts. this extensively revised and updated handbook explains how you can write reports that will be: read without unnecessary delay. where applicable. good communication skills and the ability to write effective reports are essential competencies for every successful businessperson. To achieve these aims you must do more than present all the relevant facts accurately.to the eighth edition Preface Report writing can be described as a career skill. you must communicate in a way that is both acceptable and intelligible to your readers. Part 1 describes the systematic approach needed to produce an effective report. accepted and. acted upon. but also it can make a huge difference to how you are perceived and even how well you get on in your career. Now in its eighth edition. . Today. understood without undue effort.
What you say is important. professional reports that not only inform.xii / WRITING A REPORT In Part 2 we turn to the creative side of writing. but also guide and influence your readers. John Bowden . computers and graphic design. This section complements Parts 1 and 2 by highlighting the particular emphases associated with each report type. you can consistently produce high-impact. that is an achievement not to be undervalued. Producing a professional report today requires the merging of the technologies of communication. But how you say it and how it looks are vital in creating a high-impact report that stands out from the deluge of material your audience inevitably receives. In today's communication age. Part 3 describes some common types of report in more detail. With this book at hand.
Acknowledgements Many people assisted in the production of this book and I am grateful to them all. Head of Medical Ethics. at the British Medical Association. as examples of current best practice. at Appendix 1. I would particularly like to thank Professor Ann Sommerville. Head of Science and Education. . and Dr Caroline Seddon. for their kind permission to reproduce various items from their reports.
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Part One The Practical Side of Report Writing .
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Anything you commit to paper before your overall plan has taken shape is likely to be wasted. it will be like a bricklayer starting to build the wall of a house before the architect has drawn up the plans. however. by: continually reminding you of your overall objective making you constantly 'think readers' . Test and revise your skeletal framework. Often. and the amount of time and thought you spend on them will make a vast difference to the effectiveness of all the work that will follow. writers simply ignore this aspect or dismiss it as too mechanical to be worthwhile. Prepare your skeletal framework.Preparation and Planning 1 To fail to prepare is to prepare to fail. Assess your readership. Collectively these activities constitute the planning stage of report writing. Before you write a single word you must: Set your objective. The importance of preparation and planning cannot be stressed too highly. Decide what information you will need. As a result they plough too quickly into the writing process itself and end up failing to realise their full potential.
it is a task. not the associated task. . Concentrate on the objective. Writing a trouble-shooting report is not an objective. Writing a research report is not an objective. The objective is to locate the cause of some problem and then suggest ways to remove or treat it. it is a task. It makes it easier to write the report. Only then can you even begin to think about what you are going to write and how you are going to write it. Only by continually thinking about your objective – or Terms of Reference – can you expect to remain relevant throughout and ensure that everything that should be covered has been covered – and that everything that should not be covered has not been. An objective is not what you intend to write. it is what you intend to achieve. A clearly defined objective has a number of important benefits: It helps you decide what information to include – and leave out. SETTING YOUR OBJECTIVE It is vital to establish your precise objective. You must first be absolutely sure of the purpose of your report. The objective is to extend the readers' knowledge of the world by reducing their uncertainty and increasing their understanding of it. It helps you pitch the report at the right level.4 / WRITING A REPORT ensuring you know what information you will need to gather giving you clear guidelines to follow when writing each section enabling you to rise above the detail and obtain an overview of the entire report at any time.
But an objective to inform. find out precisely what they do expect from you. you will avoid the very real risk of wasting days. By taking just a few minutes to clear this up at the earliest realistic time. Here are some possible overall objectives for a report writer: to inform to describe to explain to instruct to evaluate (and recommend) to provoke debate to persuade. If they don't. If the report has been commissioned. . You need to be more specific. So far. so good. weeks or even months on unnecessary and irrelevant work. The more closely you can identify your precise objective – preferably in just one sentence – the more useful your report is likely to be. you can go back to the person who requested it and ask them to have a look at your objective to make sure they agree with it. describe or explain is too general. Perhaps it is to inform sales staff of the details of the new commission scheme.PREPARATION AND PLANNING / 5 So what do you want to achieve? What results are you hoping for? What do you want to happen next? Only when you have identified this 'bottom line' can you begin to concentrate on getting your message across effectively. There is a great advantage in setting a clear objective.
The following questions will prove useful: Are the readers alike or mixed? Are they used to reading and understanding reports? How much time will they spend on this report? What do they already know? What else will they need to know? Obviously there are many other questions you may wish to ask. It is essential that you have a clear understanding of your readership while creating the report so as to focus on their needs and expectations. Explain things they do not know. A report which is perceived as reader-friendly will always go down better than one that is introspective. finding the answers to these five will always provide an excellent start to your target audience research. In many cases. Often. you do not know your readers personally. However. however.6 / WRITING A REPORT ASSESSING YOUR READERSHIP The next stage is to identify and assess your readership. Try to find out something about them. you know who will be reading your report and the detailed content. Address questions and concerns they would be likely to raise. . style and structure can then be matched to their level of knowledge and expertise: Concentrate on points they will care about.
your objective could be agreed to be: To investigate how an employee received injuries from a food mixer whilst working in the canteen. Take another look at it and see what it tells you. while for others you will require a great deal. Are there any specific areas they would like covered? The very fact that people have been consulted at this early stage will involve them and. under Was the . and later check it against your objective to make sure it is relevant. Once you have done this you can start to list specific questions that will need to be answered. You have already written down your specific objective. if you were asked to investigate the circumstances surrounding an accident in a canteen kitchen. this will greatly increase the likelihood of them accepting your conclusions and any recommendations you subsequently may make. For example. You will need to think this through carefully. psychologically. either on your own or with other people. you will need to collect very little information. For example. You will now draw up a general list of areas you will need to cover: What happened? What were the consequences? Was the employee properly trained? Was the machine properly maintained? Was it avoidable? Consider everything.PREPARATION AND PLANNING / 7 DECIDING WHAT INFORMATION YOU WILL NEED For some reports. It is often useful to discuss this with the person who commissioned the report and with prospective readers. particularly any key decision makers.
Many writers mind map the information they will need to obtain. There are no rules. All the facts that will be needed are clearly identified. Use whatever method suits you best. Unnecessary facts will not be included. . good fortune: The objective of the report is more clearly defined. or. random thoughts. worst of all. The nature of the structure allows for easy addition of new thoughts and information. lists or words. The open-ended nature of a mind map will enable your brain to make new connections far more readily. Mind mapping your total research needs has a number of significant advantages over relying on experience. The links between the key concepts and facts will immediately be recognisable because of the proximity and connection. you begin at the centre with the overall topic of your report – and branch out as your information requirements become readily apparent (see Figure 1). Expect to be surprised. Rather than starting at the top of the page and working down in sentences.8 / WRITING A REPORT machine properly maintained? supplementary information you might require would include: Was a full service record maintained? Was the machine in good working order? Have any other problems been reported? You can draw up your lists of general areas to be covered and specific questions that will need to be asked in any way you like.
it will be difficult to make the report coherent and interesting. 1. Not only will it show its overall structure. . it will also remind you of the materials (information) you will need to gather before the process of construction can begin. More importantly. At this stage what matters is that a complete picture of information requirements is seen to emerge. How far does the picture radiate naturally from the central objective? If a thought or fact or idea does not radiate. PREPARING YOUR SKELETAL FRAMEWORK You are now in a position to think about the overall plan of your report. Mind mapping the information you will need. This is known as the skeletal framework. so it has no place in the report. it will not support your objective.PREPARATION AND PLANNING / 9 Fig. It is like drawing up the plans for a new house.
rather than Anytown: A Town of Growth.10 / WRITING A REPORT A number of significant benefits will accrue in constructing a skeletal framework. A well-planned skeletal framework is the key to effective report writing. which defines the subject matter of the document. For example. later. use Why ABC should build a factory in Anytown. There are three stages involved in the preparation of a skeletal framework: Write a working title. The first step then is to write a working title. Consider how information will be presented within the main body. and the relationship between the various items of information that will be gathered to identify any gaps in coverage or logic. and to maintain a sense of perspective while gathering this information and. attention-grabbing title. For the planning phase. . use a functional title rather than a creative. what is already available and what is not needed to order his or her thoughts before considering how they should be expressed to appreciate the significance of. The title must accurately describe what the text is all about. Consider the overall structure of the report. In particular. it will enable the writer: to be sure there is no misunderstanding over the Terms of Reference to have an overview of the entire report to be reminded of what information must be collected. when writing the report.
The second step is to consider the overall structure.PREPARATION AND PLANNING / 11 A functional working title is helpful in continually reminding you of the document's objective. a middle and an end. If you can design a suitable framework everything else will then fall into place. then say it. Always remember this adage: tell them what you are going to say. What options are available to you? All reports have a number of commonly recognised components. published version of the report. including: The beginning Title page Foreword Preface Acknowledgements Contents page Summary or Abstract Introduction . Save the more creative title for the final. people tend to remember what they read first and last far more than what they read in the middle of any document (this phenomenon is known as the effect of primacy and recency). then tell them what you said. It is your task to select the most appropriate components to build up each of these main sections. So give them a beginning. it isn't. Reports come in a variety of shapes and sizes and are made up of a variety of sections. Also. or components. This may sound trite. because it gives you the opportunity to highlight the most important parts of your report. possibly adding the working title as the subtitle.
However. including substructures The end Conclusions Recommendations Appendixes References Bibliography Glossary Index. and — You may be asked to include one or more of them. We'll consider the beginning and end first before going on to the middle. Let us take a look at each of these components. Do not be concerned about the large number of components that may be used. A good title page will include the following information: .12 / WRITING A REPORT The middle Main body. Title page Every report should have a title page. no report ever uses all of them. This tells the reader (and any potential reader) what the report is about. the main body of the report. it is as well to know something about each of these components for two reasons: — You can then choose the ones best suited to your report.
'Produced at the request of . restate your terms of reference in your own words. if the report is . Title The title should be clear. The distribution list. However. as a general rule. Copyright information. Its degree of confidentiality. The name of the author(s). concise and relevant. A reference number. His. Make sure the title is more prominent than any headings that appear in the report. if necessary. Providing a subtitle is a good way of keeping the title crisp while also providing more detail about its content. . The name and position of the person who authorised the report. people within your organisation will not need to be reminded of your qualifications whereas relevant qualifications will add authority to a report which is distributed externally. her or their position within the organisation. The name of the organisation.'). Names and dates The decision about whether to give your first name and any qualifications you may have attained should be dictated by house-style. . Do not choose a title which is similar to any other report title. The date the report was issued. Authorisation Then say who commissioned the report (for example.PREPARATION AND PLANNING / 13 The title. In the same way it is not necessary to say that you work for ABC Ltd.
which is not necessarily the date it was printed. in Britain. as it would be a strong defence against any subsequent charge of libel. For example. In the USA it means 8th December 2009. The latter is a particularly useful marking when the report is about a member of staff. Copyright The decision whether to refer to copyright depends on the nature of the report. Write this issue date in full to avoid possible ambiguities. The word 'literary' covers any work expressed in printing or writing. others do so by department and yet others add some personal reference (perhaps the initials of the author). . Some organisations number all reports sequentially. Again you may wish to refer to the current edition of the Writers' and Artists' Yearbook for further information. Confidentiality You may decide to stamp your report 'Secret' or 'Confidential'. refer to the current edition of the Writers' and Artists' Yearbook at your local reference library. do not overdo it. The date on the report should be the date it was actually issued. Reference number The reference number given to the report will depend on company practice.14 / WRITING A REPORT for internal circulation alone. If you wish to know more about this. provided it is substantial enough to have involved some literary skill and labour of composition. For the report writer the main interest in the English law of copyright is its intention to prevent the copying of a 'substantial part' of any literary work without permission. 12. The most routine reports arouse exceptional interest when marked 'Secret'. However.8. Conversely a report giving a foolproof method of how to become a Lotto Millionaire would probably go unnoticed as long as it was not given a security marking.09 means 12th August 2009.
perhaps because of internal politics. Do not go over the top with your thanks and try to keep it balanced and in perspective. Their names will generally be listed in order of seniority. Preface This is another uncommon component. you may 'wish to record (your) thanks to Mr X' (who assisted you for an hour) and later 'to convey (your) special thanks to Mrs Y' (who helped for a week). you could record a blanket acknowledgement such as: 'I also wish to thank everyone else . or even desirable. help. or granted permission for you to use some copyright material. A foreword should be concise.PREPARATION AND PLANNING / 15 Distribution Finally. If a large number of people assisted you it may not be possible. list the recipients alphabetically or by geographical location. Foreword This component is rarely used in a report. For example they may have provided information. When it is included it is generally not written by the report writer but by some (other) acknowledged expert in the field – perhaps the person who commissioned the report. finance. Alternatively. Record this at the foot of the list. One way of getting round this is 'to thank the management and staff of ABC Ltd'. It is used when a writer wishes to convey some personal background details behind the report's production. the title page should include the distribution list of the report. Also remember to include at least one copy for file. However if you foresee any problems or disputes. to name them all. For example. or if the report is to be sent outside your organisation. Ask the person who requested the report to tell you who should see it. Acknowledgements This section is used to convey your thanks to people and/or organisations who helped during the preparation of the report.
The headings on the contents page must be identical to those used in the text. . Keep it concise. It is therefore extremely important to highlight the salient facts and the main conclusions and recommendations. with the appropriate page (and/or paragraph) number alongside them. Sometimes this section is placed at the end of the report. In this way you are covered if you have forgotten to mention somebody by name. if any. Obviously it cannot be written until after the other components of the report. To provide an outline of the report if the recipient is not going to read the entire report. It should be on a separate sheet of paper and it should list the various sections of the report in the order in which they appear. Read acknowledgements in books – including this one – to see how they should be written.16 / WRITING A REPORT who assisted during the preparation of this report'. An average manager's reading speed is between 200 and 250 words per minute. and he or she comprehends only 75 per cent of this. unless they made some special effort on your behalf. As a general rule it is unnecessary to express your gratitude to people who would have been expected to help you (such as your staff). If you have used more than just one or two illustrations then provide a separate list of these below the section headings. It has two functions: To provide a precis of what the recipient is about to read or has just read. Summary or abstract or synopsis This component is particularly useful when you have a diverse readership. Your page numbering and paragraph numbering systems should be simple and consistent. Contents page A contents page is essential for any report exceeding three pages.
if required. staff.) . A good introduction will engage the readers' interest and include everything that they will need to know before moving on to the main body of the report. time and equipment. the more senior the reader. As a general rule. the introduction tells the reader what it is all about. the less detail he or she will require.PREPARATION AND PLANNING / 17 it should never exceed one page. These might include: Why was the report written? Who requested it. and when? What were your terms of reference? Always refer to these in the introduction. While the title page gives a broad indication of the subject. For this reason a reader is sometimes sent a summary instead of the entire report. Introduction This section sets the scene. What resources were available to you? (For example. Do not introduce any matter which is not covered within the text of the report. A summary could contain just five paragraphs: Intention (your purpose and scope) Outline (what was done and how it was done) Main findings Main conclusions Main recommendations (if necessary). It will contain certain essential preliminaries which would not be weighty enough individually to justify headings of their own. When this is done the covering letter should offer a copy of the full report.
Conclusions should always be: . as presented in your main body). as stated in your introduction) with your findings (what you found out.') What sources of information did you use? How did you obtain this information? What were your methods of working? A technical report will require a technical explanation of methods used. (Some writers prefer to provide this information in an appendix. it is customary for only the name of the practice to be given. This indicates the joint responsibility of the partnership. They should flow naturally from your evidence and arguments. it is best to sign every copy rather than simply sign and photocopy the master copy. The identity of the author is denoted by the reference. Reports should not be anonymous documents.) How is the report structured? Why did you choose this method of presentation? This explanation helps your readers find their way around the report and shows the logic of the layout. In some reports the first two of these preliminaries are called aims and the others are known collectively as scope. so it is usual for the name and signature of the author to appear immediately below the introduction. 'The report does not analyse departmental expenditure in June because the figures were not available. Either way. Some organisations prefer the signature to appear under the writer's name on the title page. did you work under? What were the reasons for this? (For example. In the case of professional firms preparing reports for clients. there must be no surprises.18 / WRITING A REPORT What limitations. if any. Conclusions Your conclusions should link your terms of reference (what you were trying to do.
Recommendations Do not make any recommendations unless your terms of reference empower you to do so. Therefore. talk to the people involved and. So think carefully about the implications of all your recommendations.PREPARATION AND PLANNING / 19 clearly and simply stated objective and not exaggerated written with the likely impact on the reader clearly in mind. recommendations look to the future. A good way to check whether your recommendations are well-written is to extract them from the rest of the report and then read them in isolation. do not risk the rejection of a sensible recommendation. by asking for too much. Your recommendations must also be realistic. try to come to sensible compromises. For example. If so. Jaw is better than war. They are also specific. re-draft them until they do. Any comment not concerned with the future has no place as a recommendation. it will not want to be told that some undefined action should be taken by some unidentified individual for no apparent reason. Effective recommendations are concise and to the point. there should be no surprises. While conclusions refer to the past and/or the present. Perhaps the security at a warehouse should be improved. and the general undermining of the credibility of your report. where necessary. once again. . management may need to know what should be done by whom to overcome a specific problem. It is not really reasonable or feasible to expect it to be protected as thoroughly as Fort Knox. Do they still make sense? If not. Your recommendations should follow logically from your conclusions.
reports. maps. An algorithm. questionnaires. Substantiating and/or amplifying findings in the main body. It is a way of providing adequate detail for readers who require it without breaking the thread of the main body. charts and so on). copies of memos. what to include in the main body and what to exclude from the report altogether? Figure 2 is an example of an algorithm that will help you decide the answer. Presenting documentary evidence to support arguments in the main body (for example. But how do you know what information to put in appendixes. Appendixes are useful as a way of: Meeting the needs of a diverse readership – some people will want/ need to refer to them while others will not. 2. Start at the top left.20 / WRITING A REPORT Appendixes The purpose of an appendix is to supplement the information contained in the main body of the report. . instructions. correspondence. standard letters. forms. Providing detailed results of experiments or investigations. Fig.
Some report writers prefer to use footnotes rather than a reference section. the end of the relevant section or at the end of the report. Explaining systems or procedures by flow charts and/or words. 2nd edition. Vol 6. or from which extracts have been quoted. Tell the readers why they may wish to refer to it. Presenting statistical or comparative information. Illustrating relationships or relative proportions by means of charts and diagrams.PREPARATION AND PLANNING / 21 Presenting summaries of results obtained elsewhere. They list each reference at the foot of the relevant page. An appendix is useless. David Weil. 2008) Journals should be recorded in this way: J. Pearson Education (2008) or Economic Growth. This last method is very similar to providing a reference section.F.C. References This section provides full details of the books or journals which have been specifically mentioned in the text. unless it is clearly referred to in the main body of the report and in the contents list. 2nd ed. (Pearson Education. however. Economic Growth. KINGMAN 'On The Algebra of Queues'. Methuen's Review Series in Applied Probability.. Details of books should follow this style: David Weil. . They should be listed in the same order as referred to in the report. pp l–44 (1966).
Make sure your definitions are authoritative. A bibliography is useful when you have a diverse readership since you can provide separate lists for background reading. Index An index is necessary only for a large report. List the words alphabetically and place the section towards the end of the report.22 / WRITING A REPORT Bibliography A bibliography also gives full details of every publication referred to in the text. some of whom will be familiar with the terminology and some of whom will not be. List items alphabetically and place the index at the end of the report. Details of publications are given in the same format as are references. It is another useful device to help meet the needs of a diverse readership. precise and up-to-date (words come and go and some change their meaning over time). It should contain more entries than a contents page and it is perfectly acceptable for it to be presented in two or three columns. For this reason it is important that your dictionary or reference book is a current edition. Glossary A glossary is necessary when you have used a good deal of specialised or technical vocabulary. However. unlike a reference section. Facilities for providing at least a basic index should be found in most word processors. always check any computer-generated index . further reading and recommended reading. it may also include books and journals not referred to. However. it is better to place the glossary at the beginning. However. but it is customary to list them alphabetically by the surname of the author or by the title of the book. if a large number of readers will need to familiarise themselves with the vocabulary before reading the report.
Some words are spelt the same way but have different meanings. 11 of-. The relevant index entry read: Course. of course. In particular think about: the meaning of a word. watch out for the context. 13 Equally importantly. be considered'. This excerpt is taken from page 19 of a report on local sports and recreational amenities: The Leader of the Council stated: 'The proposal to extend the sports centre will. 19 race-.PREPARATION AND PLANNING / 23 very carefully or the silliest mistakes can go undetected. his great mind. In the index we find: Straw (Mr Justice). 14 . such as bank (an establishment where money is deposited) and bank (the sloping ground on each side of a river). and the context in which a word is used. golf-. Some indexes do not. The following example comes from a law report: Mr Justice Straw said that he had a great mind to commit the man for trial. Make sure your index reflects the true meaning of a word.
The report on the accident in the canteen would be confusing if it simply recorded the supervisor's. or group of categories must be put into a logical order. doctor's and engineer's comments in turn. If you have already mind mapped the information you will need to obtain (page 9). places. Categories can be considered as one of two types: verbs (relating to sequences. . . Level 2 categories relate to the more detailed findings which collectively cover each of these broad areas: Working title: Results of Investigation into the Canteen Accident at ABC Ltd. with the title at the top of the hierarchy. Level 1 categories: The accident. . Level 1 categories are based on the broad areas that are to be covered. each module. ideas). and so on. or categories of the report. Treatment required. An improvement would be to extract the related parts of their respective evidence and to record them together within appropriate sections. you can now re-shape this material into a structure that your readers will find both acceptable and intelligible.24 / WRITING A REPORT Main body The final step is to consider how information should be presented within the main body of the report. Employee training provided Level 2 categories: What it was. Condition of the machine. Different levels of category must be organised into a hierarchy. actions. . In addition to the hierarchical organisation. The consequences. When it occurred. Actions taken to avoid recurrence (collectively covering 'The consequences'). Where it occurred. How it occurred (collectively covering 'The accident'). events) and nouns (relating to people. Absence from work resulting. Injuries sustained.
Verb categories describe actions, something that moves or changes over a period of time; they involve time-sequence information, such as when each of several events occurred or how to perform the steps of a procedure. This book is structured in this way. Noun categories tell about something at a specific point in time; they include such descriptions as who, what, why and where. Verb categories are usually arranged chronologically according to order of occurrence: sooner before later (e.g. procedure 1 before procedure 2, cause before effect, stimulus before response, problem before solution, question before answer): Working title: Introducing Networks Using the network Setting up your computer to use the network Sharing your folders or printers Using resources located on other computers Connecting to the Internet. Noun categories are sequenced according to quantity (e.g. more before less), quality (e.g. better before worse), space (e.g. high before low), alphabet (e.g. A before B), or some other comparative or otherwise logical measure: Working title: Comparison of Top Three Job Candidates Chris Brown Kim Jones Pat Smith
Once these three stages have been completed (working title; overall structure; order of information within the main body), the categories must be suitably numbered: Results of Investigation into Canteen Accident at ABC Ltd. 1 Summary 2 Introduction 3 The accident 3.1 What it was 3.2 Where it occurred 3.3 When it occurred 3.4 How it occurred 4 The consequences 4.1 Injuries sustained 4.2 Treatment required 4.3 Absence from work resulting 4.4 Actions taken to avoid recurrence 5 Condition of the machine 5.1 Condition at the time of the accident 5.2 Previous service and maintenance record 6 Employee training provided 6.1 General health and safety training 6.2 Specific training relating to the operation of this machine 7 Conclusions 8 Recommendations Appendixes 1 Plan of kitchen 2 Photographs of kitchen and machine 3 Report of Environmental Health Officer 4 Statement from accident victim 5 Statement from supervisor 6 Statement from Witness A 7 Statement from doctor
8 9 10
Statement from service engineer Service record of machine Training record of accident victim
At this stage, conduct the first test on each component and the other tests on each module, or group of categories within the main body, starting with the Level 1 categories and then progressing module by module to the most detailed level of the hierarchy: Necessity test: Is each component necessary? For example: Is the Title Page necessary? The answer must be 'Yes' because it identifies the report to the reader. Or: Is the Glossary necessary? If all your readers know (or at least are likely to know) the meaning of all the technical words used, the answer will be 'No'. In that case remove it from the skeletal framework since it would serve no useful purpose. Inclusion test: Given the heading of the module, are all appropriate items included? If not, restrict the scope of the heading to fit the items that are present, or add the missing items. Exclusion test: Given the heading of the module, are all inappropriate items excluded? If not, delete the inappropriate items, or expand the heading to fit all the items in the module. Hierarchy test: Are the items in the module hierarchically parallel? Headings of similar rank should represent topics of roughly equal importance. If they are not, move the problem items to the appropriate level. Sequence test: Are the items in the appropriate sequence? Determine whether the module is of the verb or noun type, and then decide whether the sequence is most appropriate for each module.
Language test: Are the items in the module grammatically parallel (e.g. all verb types ending in -ing or all nouns types ending with the word Department)? If not, change the wording to achieve consistency. Numbering test: Is the numbering system appropriate and consistent? Remember that the initial Level 1 category numbers will need to have been reserved for each component of the report that will appear before the main body (e.g. 1 Summary; 2 Introduction). Then you must ask yourself whether all Level 1 categories are numbered consistently (3, 4, 5). Similarly, are all Level 2 categories numbered rationally (3.1, 3.2, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3)? These seven tests collectively provide a comprehensive, yet relatively simple writing tool. Important benefits will accrue from consistently applying them: they ensure the structural soundness of the text they make the straightforward subsequent writing process much more
they ensure that text will be easier to read and understand.
It is essential to prepare and plan your report very carefully. This process will greatly reduce the time and effort subsequently on writing and re-writing the report by: —reminding you of the message you need to convey in order to get the results you want —providing you with a logical and considered structure which will help you identify any gaps or illogicalities —enabling you to obtain an overview of the entire report, thereby helping you to maintain a sense of perspective
to help achieve your objective when addressing different people. Good report writing is often more about what to leave out than what to put in. You will say different things. testing and revising your skeletal framework. It has been estimated that 75% of the time spent on effective report writing is devoted to planning. or there would be no need for the report to be written. and then write the report. What would they like to see included? Don't include anything unless it is relevant and it helps you achieve your objective. but also the relative significance and relationship between the main findings. It should not only cover the structure and content of the report. Think carefully about the information you will need. Be crystal clear about your objective. Spend as much time as is necessary in designing. and in different ways. .PREPARATION AND PLANNING / 29 —providing you with clear guidelines as you collect and handle the information. and 75% of that 75% is spent on preparing the optimal framework for any particular report. Find out as much about your audience as possible. Talk to the person who asked you to write the report and speak to any key readers. Why are you writing this report? What effect do you want it to have on your readers? The status quo is not an option. It is the key to effective report writing.
Obtain the information. Your task is to collect and handle enough relevant information to enable you to put flesh on the bones of your skeletal framework. Check your findings. you are now ready to undertake your project or investigation. It is quite possible to write a bad report even after doing good research. it is time to carry out all the work that will be necessary before you can actually write it. but it is impossible to write a good report after doing poor research. Prioritise your findings. These are the stages your research should follow: Locate sources of relevant information. Evaluate your findings. In other words. LOCATING SOURCES OF RELEVANT INFORMATION By now you will have identified the information you require. bearing in mind: .Collecting and Handling Information 2 Once you have carefully planned your report. Sort and group your findings. The moral is clear: good research is essential.
national.COLLECTING AND HANDLING INFORMATION / 31 the precise purpose of the report the needs of your readers your objective(s) your resources your skeletal framework. Here are some possibilities: your colleagues members of the public politicians producers manufacturers retailers federations . The information you will need may be found under any or all of these categories. People You may be able to obtain the information you require from the local. There are four sources of information available to you: People Books and other publications Information technology Events and places. so you might consider each in turn. or even the international community.
uk Advances in information technology provide unprecedented opportunities for report writers to communicate directly with experts around the globe. after a telephoned request. such as: encyclopaedias reference books text books .32 / WRITING A REPORT unions pressure groups international organisations. by fax the same day. the Information Bureau has a reputation for being able to answer almost any question. A fee is charged for each enquiry. Books and other publications Perhaps the information can be extracted from a printed source. either instantly over the telephone or. The Information Bureau 51 Battersea Business Centre 103 Lavender Hill London SW11 5QL Tel: (020) 7924 4414 Email: info@informationbureau. It is impossible to give details of the vast number of potential sources available to you. However. here is one service that every report writer should be aware of: The Information Bureau Formerly the Telegraph Information Service.co.
Information has a time value. At the simplest level. You can often have free on-line access to a veritable cornucopia of information. you can add a TV tuner card to your PC. for instance. for most report writers. Information also has a value that depends on how specialised and detailed it is. That would allow you to watch television in a small window of your PC. You just have to set your course through the mountain of data that is available. are worth more than prices that are an hour old. A CD-Rom that contains comprehensive details of British Case Law in a searchable form will be very expensive because only a small number of customers would buy it. if you were looking for stock market prices. For example. in turn.COLLECTING AND HANDLING INFORMATION / 33 guides handbooks journals and magazines newspapers maps and charts previous reports correspondence minutes. plenty of useful information is available at realistically low prices. there are several possible routes. are worth more than those at the previous evening's close of business. Information technology The information that a computer can put at your fingertips is almost limitless. each progressively more expensive. which. Add teletext facilities to such a card . Fortunately. providing you are prepared to put some time and effort into tracking down the facts and figures you really want. Real-time stock prices from the London Stock Exchange.
Events and places Perhaps the information you require is available at one or more events or places. they are still more expensive than individual reference books. The information superhighway When computers and other communications equipment are connected a computer network is formed. but now almost anyone with a PC and modem can get Internet access in one form or another. The Internet was once the exclusive province of US government-sponsored research scientists and academics. which connects thousands of smaller networks and millions of users all around the world. There are literally thousands of PC CD-Rom titles available. Here is a small sample of some local. but a lot cheaper than printed sets of encyclopaedias. The most famous of these is the Internet. It provides entry to a vast array of information from computer systems around the world.34 / WRITING A REPORT and it becomes possible to download information and feed it into spreadsheets or software that analyses the data. and you can use them as often and for as long as you wish. national and international possibilities: libraries learning resources centres research institutions exhibitions museums galleries . They represent excellent value for money because they combine search facilities with multimedia. many of them priced for the mass market. Generally.
That is. Libraries In addition to local. university and college libraries.enquiries@ons. .COLLECTING AND HANDLING INFORMATION / 35 laboratories theatres concerts talks.gov. it is entitled to receive a copy of every book published in the UK.uk The British Library is a copyright library. Customer Services: (01937) 546 860. South Wales): (01633) 456 528.gov.uk Business Information: (020) 7412 7454. The library is divided into sections by subject and the following list gives the telephone numbers of some of its departments: Main Switchboard: (0870) 444 1500.uk The Central Statistical Office (Newport. These include: The City Business Library (London): (020) 7606 3030 (Main switchboard).uk Westminster Reference Library (London): (020) 7641 1300. library. many government departments and business organisations run libraries that are open to the public. referencelibrarywc2@westminster. Newspaper Library: (020) 7412 7353.gov. Customer-Services@bl. pro@cityoflondon.
'. . if you have one. . Give a brief account of the theory underlying the experiment.36 / WRITING A REPORT Patents: (020) 7412 7919. Technology and Medicine: (020) 7412 7288.'. . . Experimentation An experiment should be carried out by a trained scientist who will design and perform it in an acceptable way. It is best to phone or email before you visit any unfamiliar library to check opening times and confirm that you will be allowed in. Provide a hypothesis (suggested answer). OBTAINING THE INFORMATION Information can be gathered by one or more of these methods: experimentation reading listening observation interview letter telephone call questionnaire research on the Internet. The experiment should be written up as follows: Begin with a dated heading stating clearly the objective of the experiment: 'To study . 'To find . . Science.
If you have any relevant views on the experiment or the result obtained. Try the SQ3R method of reading: S Q R R R Survey Question Read Recall Review. the date. Survey This is the preliminary review of the book or article. the introduction. It is usually necessary to provide a diagram of the apparatus used. explain why and how. Also. refer to it here. the contents. showing the estimated limits of error. Conclude with a clear and concise statement of what your results lead you to infer or deduce about the problem posed. the author. Provide a complete list of the readings you obtained. Provide a full statement of the final result. If you are reading a novel for entertainment you can read it quickly. if you believe that the experiment could have been improved in some way. absorb or master a topic you must read it slowly. If you have a hypothesis. any chapter . If you are reading to understand.COLLECTING AND HANDLING INFORMATION / 37 Give a clear and full account of how the experiment was carried out. the preface. It involves skimming (glancing over the material and getting the feel of it) and scanning (looking at specific aspects of the publication – the title. include these. Reading The way you read should vary according to the complexity of the material and the reasons for reading it.
such as: Is it pitched at the right level? Is it up to date? Is the author a recognised authority in the field? Is the book factual or based on opinion? Question Then ask yourself these questions: What would I expect to gain if I read some or all of this material? Is some or all of the material directly relevant to my report? Does some or all of it provide a useful background to my report? Read Once you have decided to read some or all of a publication. Next read the chapter or section quickly to get a grasp of the material. . more slowly. Finally. This scanning should give you an overall impression of the publication. it is also a good idea to read the first and last paragraphs of potentially relevant chapters and the first and last sentences of a sample of paragraphs within these chapters. Read any summaries or conclusions first. In the case of a book.38 / WRITING A REPORT summaries and the index). divide your reading into manageable segments. Recall Think about the main ideas and facts you have been reading about and make notes of them. probably chapters or sections. read it again. and ensure you understand it.
Do not allow the use of phrases which you loathe to reduce your listening capacity. Inaccurate communication. In one investigation the proportion of information which was correctly transmitted from a senior director through middle and line management to operative staff was as low as twenty per cent. Submit to emotional phrases. Such ineffective listening can be responsible for the following: Accidents at work. concentrate on the content. Criticise delivery or presentation. screens and hunts for relevant information. Personality clashes. So how can you improve your listening skills? Do not: Assume that the topic is boring or irrelevant. A good listener sifts.COLLECTING AND HANDLING INFORMATION / 39 Review Are you satisfied that you have gained what you expected through your reading? Have you gathered the information you will need to help put the flesh on your skeletal framework? Listening Some researchers suggest that we function at only twenty-five per cent efficiency and rarely remember what we have heard. . Production breakdowns. Poor morale. Lost sales and customers.
40 / WRITING A REPORT Become overstimulated. Listen only to facts. so stay alert. Be aware of your prejudices. What has been said? What might be said? What is this all leading to? What are the implications of this message? By asking yourself these questions you will improve your concentration. The differential of 275 words per minute is a breeding ground for day dreaming. or if you are too hot or too cold. Waste your thinking potential. Evade difficult subjects. Is it accurate. Listen to only what you want to hear. but they listen and can think at about 400 words per minute. otherwise your structure will not fit in with the concepts and ideas presented. listening and structuring your thoughts. Be willing to consider arguments and evidence which oppose your views. objective and complete? Is it strong or weak? . Tolerate distractions. follow the speaker's approach. then say so. Do not try to think of 'clever' or embarrassing questions. People normally talk at about 125 words per minute. attitudes and prejudices of the speaker affect the presentation. Do: Run ahead of the speaker. structure and how the values. Use your time positively. concepts. Expect the speaker to structure the talk to suit your needs. You can rearrange your notes later. Think also of the main ideas. As you take notes. Face problems head on. Listening is an active process. If you cannot hear the speaker. Examine the evidence presented. Remain passive.
when. Observation Sometimes the best way to find out is simply to observe. Remember that listening is an active process and is therefore very hard work. The simplest way of recording your results is to use a series of tally sheets like the one illustrated in Figure 3. Follow these key steps: Step 1 Greet the interviewee in a friendly manner. While the interview should appear to be reasonably casual. Step 2 Explain the precise purpose of the interview. why. what. it must be planned and structured. .COLLECTING AND HANDLING INFORMATION / 41 Recap every few minutes in order to avoid day dreaming. Step 3 Ask your questions. and possibly to different times of year. Interview Interviewing is a skilled technique and few people do it well. You have two ears and one mouth. you may be trying to find out how much traffic passes Anytown Primary School. What do you want to find out? Let the interviewee know that his or her input will be valued. Empathise – do not judge or be seen to take sides. For example. where. Give the interviewee time to answer. Try to use them in roughly that proportion. Listen and show you understand. specific days. try not to 'hop about'. how). According to your purpose you might need to break this figure down to the types of vehicle. Then follow up with secondary questions. Use open questions (who. Cover one topic at a time. and try to avoid yes/no answers. Avoid too much small talk and maintain a professional image.
Rich. 3. remember to: Name the person you are writing to and give his or her designation and organisation (for example. Letter If you decide to ask for information by letter.: Date: Time: Name of observer: No. % Step 4 Sum up the interview to check your understanding of facts. Miss V. Midshire County Council). A tally sheet. Give the letter a heading. Chief Finance Officer. Cars Buses Lorries Vans Motor Bikes Other (specify) Total Fig.42 / WRITING A REPORT Traffic Passing Anytown Primary School (west – east) Tally sheet no. Step 5 Thank the interviewee for his or her co-operation. opinions and circumstances. .
COLLECTING AND HANDLING INFORMATION / 43 Explain the purpose of your report in the first paragraph. . .'). . Step 3 Explain why you are telephoning. Telephone calls are most appropriate when you know the person and when your questions are straightforward (often requiring no more than yes/no answers). £14. If you do decide to telephone. draw a table where this information can be inserted.'). . . 'Did she say £4. Then follow these key steps: Step 1 Give your name ('Good morning. ?'). this method is not recommended when the information is likely to be fairly complex and/or there are figures involved (for example. If possible. I'm . If you are using a public call box. write down the questions you want to ask and have a pen and a few sheets of paper handy. . . or £40?'). Conclude the letter by thanking the person in anticipation. Send the letter as early as possible and tactfully request a reply within two or three weeks. However. Keep it concise but comprehensive. Courteously ask for the information you require. make sure you have plenty of change with you. Emphasise that you are not selling anything! ('I'm phoning about a report I am preparing on . Telephone call Sometimes you can obtain the information you need by making one or more telephone calls. Step 2 Ask for the right person ('May I speak to . Enclose a stamped addressed envelope.
For example. deliberately and a little more slowly than you normally do. For example. Make your voice pleasant. so ensure that your questions (and your general approach) are courteous. . make sure that your questions are relevant to the subject of your report. 'What do you think of Product A?' Such a survey is necessary only if the information sought is not already available. There are two important points to bear in mind when producing a questionnaire. or if the information is out of date. Questionnaire This method of information gathering involves questioning a sample of people (respondents).'). Step 5 Thank the person by name. you will need to approach members of the public and they have no obligation to assist you. Second.44 / WRITING A REPORT Step 4 Politely ask for the information you require. Questionnaires seek two kinds of information: Factual. First. Keep the conversation short without ever being abrupt. Speak distinctly. 'How often do you buy Product A?' Opinion. Figure 4 is an example of a simple questionnaire to find out what schoolchildren think about their school meals. . Here is a checklist for a good questionnaire: Does it have a title? Does it have a reference or questionnaire number? Does it record the name of the interviewer? . cheerful and positive. Let them know that their input will be appreciated ('I would be extremely grateful if you could help me on one or two points .
does it emphasise that all replies will be treated confidentially? Is it clear and unambiguous? Is it simple? Is it logically developed? Does it ask one question at a time (not two or more questions at the same time)? Does it require definite answers? Does it avoid leading questions? (Ask: 'What do you think of product A?' not: 'Product A is fantastic.) Does it avoid an appeal to sympathy? (Ask: 'Should the Health Service be better funded?'. Do you?'.) Does it avoid an appeal for vanity? (Ask: 'Do you take regular exercise?'. does it leave sensitive areas until last (for example. Should the National Health Service be better funded?'.COLLECTING AND HANDLING INFORMATION / 45 Is it well spaced? Does it explain the purpose of the questionnaire? Where appropriate. not: 'People are dying needlessly. Do you agree?'. not: 'Most fit people exercise regularly. the age of middle-aged or elderly respondents)? Is the questionnaire written in such a way that will make it straight forward to record and analyse your overall results? Has the questionnaire been 'pilot tested' among a small number of respondents to highlight any obvious errors. ambiguities and other shortcomings before the survey goes live? . omissions.) Where appropriate.
4. what do you do instead? Go home to dinner Buy dinner elsewhere Bring own food Have no dinner Other (specify) Very good? Quite good? Average? Bad? Awful? Q 5 Do you think that school meals are: Thank respondent for helping Fig. I wonder whether you would be willing to answer a few questions? Ask the respondent Q 1 Which class are you in? Year 6 Year 7 Year 8 Year 9 Year 10 Year 11 Male Female Every day most days 2 or 3 days per week Not often Never Q 2 Enter the sex of the respondent Q 3 How often do you have school meals? If the answer is 'Every day'. A questionnaire. go straight to Q 5 Q 4 When you don't have a school dinner.School Meals Questionnaire Questionnaire No. . Interviewer: Date: 'I am carrying out a survey on school meals on behalf of Midshire County Council.
twenty females. if you decide to question somebody from every twentieth house. 26–30. 26–30. do . sex and possibly social class. Here are some ways of avoiding bias: In sampling: Do not deliberately select people or items. twenty males. aged 16–20. you should be aware of errors that can occur owing to bias in sampling or questioning. select every 100th name on the electoral register. select twenty males. Quota sampling This is used to get a balanced view from people in the street based on age. 21–25. 21–25. but the choice is made to a prearranged plan (though it is still random). by which every person or item has an equal chance of being selected. Finally. twenty females. The methods used will depend on the circumstances of the case. No strict rules can be laid down for sampling. every person or item has an equal chance of being selected. twenty females. For example. simply take ten names out of a hat containing the 100 names. but unless the methods are random the reliability of the results is no more than a matter of opinion. 16–20. Systematic random sampling Again. The following are three common sampling techniques: Simple random sampling This is a quick and simple method. All selections must be random. For example. you must decide on sampling methods. Do not substitute or replace items selected randomly. twenty males. If you want to select 10 per cent of a population of 100. For example.COLLECTING AND HANDLING INFORMATION / 47 Once you have designed your questionnaire and amended it as necessary.
however. Remember what you are trying to achieve. Researching electronically can become a mesmerising activity. Do not ask questions which appeal to vanity. If you need to select ten males. Beware of the need to evaluate information obtained on the Internet. and you might find that after a pleasant afternoon you have found nothing of any value for your report. Do not deliberately omit items that should be selected randomly. In questioning: Do not vary the wording of your questions. aged 16–20. Anyone can put up a website and can claim to be an . Do not ask questions which appeal to sympathy. approach a random selection – not. It is all too easy to get side-tracked: The Internet can take up all your research time. Call at a different time or on a different day. Skip material that is only loosely related to your specific requirements.48 / WRITING A REPORT not change to the twenty-first if you do not receive a reply at the twentieth. you need to keep a clear idea of the exact information you are seeking. the quality and accuracy of statements on the Internet vary widely. To use the Internet efficiently. Research on the Internet The Internet has made it possible to find quickly vast amounts of information on just about every conceivable subject. for instance. The house-holders may be at work and should not be excluded for this reason. just young professionals. Do not ask leading questions. Although there are many well-maintained and reliable websites.
Before you begin your research: Write down the questions you hope to answer.yahoo. One of the best known directories is Yahoo! (http: //dir. Although it organises everything by categories. there are plenty of search engines which seek to catalogue the evergrowing content on the Web. so from the metasearcher's results you may find that one search engine is best for your topic.co. Use a metasearcher. such as Dogpile (http: //www. Once you find your topic. . you can also search by keywords.com). which contains tens of thousands of sites.dogpile. Spend time thinking about who would be likely to know the answers. Ask Jeeves (http://www.COLLECTING AND HANDLING INFORMATION / 49 authority.ask. or Google (http://google. These will utilise a number of search engines simultaneously and organise the results. Develop a list of subtopics and synonyms that you can use as search terms. The most efficient research method on the Internet is often simply to e-mail the appropriate person. Metasearchers also save you time because they modify your phrases according to the rules of each specific search engine.uk) will actually search for you based upon the question you pose. Content is frequently opinion-based or factually out-ofdate. Using metasearchers If the subject directory does not yield enough relevant information.com). The same query will bring up different results with different search engines. Using a subject directory One way to get plenty of information on your topic is to use a subject directory on the Web. Yahoo! gives you a list of relevant Web addresses (URLs) and a short description of the sites.com).
or and not tell the computer how to interpret your list of search terms. the search engine is likely to come up either with 2. You may have used the wrong symbols or phrasing for that particular search engine. Try widening it from. or specifies that either term should appear. Once you find some sites.000 or 3.50 / WRITING A REPORT Using various combinations of search terms Type the words you want the search engine to hunt for in the box provided on the screen. say. If. their links will take you to others. not specifies that a term should not appear.000. . In general: and specifies that both terms should appear. You may need to try a different search engine. Edgbaston to Birmingham. in reality. "Westminster Abbey". The trouble is search engines tend to provide you with either far too many references or far too few. You may have submitted too narrow a search. 'Boolean operators' such as and. or with 2 or 3! If there is no match for your request: You may have misspelt one or more words. there are 20 or 30 sites that would be of value to access. Every search program uses slightly different rules of operation. but most use two searching conventions: Quotation marks indicate that the phrase is to be treated as one search term – for example.
millet. you will become more proficient in selecting the right syntax and combination of keywords that will bring you a manageable list and it will become almost second nature to find the most efficient routes as you surf the net. corn. Use the headings and sub-headings of your skeletal framework and make sure you have gathered enough relevant information to complete each section and subsection. and the first ten are all about indiscretions of youth. linked by or (UN or ''United Nations") Try adding more alternatives – both more general and more specific: cereals. The information may be there. After a while. but your computer cannot reach it right now. If you need more . grain. SORTING AND GROUPING YOUR FINDINGS If the report has been well-planned. For example. skim a few of them to extract more search terms. you'll need to rephrase the search. muesli.COLLECTING AND HANDLING INFORMATION / 51 Give both the abbreviation and the full name. sorghum. Try again later. wheat. porridge. If the first ten listings are on your topic. though. maize. oatmeal. putting a more specific word first. rice. Add more words to your search string. If there are too many listings: Take a look at the first ten results to see if they coincide with your topic. jumping from page to page and from site to site. this process will be quite straightforward. if an inquiry on uncultivated grain using the phrase "wild oats" yielded thousands of articles. cornflakes.
How reliable are the findings? There are four factors by which the reliability of information should be judged: accuracy objectivity completeness strength. has account been taken of any recent and relevant legislation or case law? When text books have been consulted. gather it now – not once you have started to draft your report.52 / WRITING A REPORT information. For example. Concentrate on this twenty per cent. was current equipment used? In legal matters. EVALUATING YOUR FINDINGS There are two aspects to this evaluation: How reliable are the findings? How significant are the findings? Consider each in turn. were they the most recent editions? . Accuracy Sometimes you can check the data supplied. are the mathematical calculations accurate? If there are too many to check. In experimental work. remember Pareto's principle which states that eighty per cent of what is important is represented by twenty per cent of what exists. Information may also be inaccurate if it is out of date.
and should then provide references to opposing viewpoints. Then look at it from the other side: is all the information provided relevant or is someone trying to 'blind you with science'? Strength Evidence is strong when: It can be verified or re-performed (for example. a scientific experiment). be very wary of statements without supporting evidence. more accurately. either to hoax or to provide 'evidence' to support preconceived ideas. Completeness In computer science a 'hash total' is used to ensure the completeness of a batch of records. the arguments for both (or all) cases should have been presented. but they will not see or hear things which oppose them.COLLECTING AND HANDLING INFORMATION / 53 Objectivity When people have strongly held beliefs they will often see or hear things which support these beliefs. So ask yourself whether all the major or relevant points of view have been fairly represented. it is often extremely difficult to prove that information is complete or. If the subject is controversial. However. For example. At the very least. therefore. For example. is whether all relevant information has been provided and whether any attempt has been made to deceive or mislead by omission. But how can we prove that they were the only ones? How can we prove that unicorns never existed? What you must ask yourself. we know of many animals that once inhabited the world. Going further. self-deception may cause results to be interpreted incorrectly. . it is not unknown for people to perpetrate fraud. the person who provided the information should have made it clear that the views expressed are his or her own. that it is not incomplete. Finally.
How significant are the findings? You must now step back and assess the implications of your findings. ask yourself whether everything you have found is worth recording in the report. Perhaps some findings should merely be placed in an appendix as evidence of work undertaken – or perhaps they should be omitted entirely. You may find it useful to amend your skeletal framework so that these key findings will not get lost somewhere within the main body of the report or in an appendix. Conversely. How material are they? Many report writers simply list every piece of information they have gathered without any consideration of its relative importance. and remember that the former provides the far stronger evidence.54 / WRITING A REPORT Independent observers have all come to the same conclusion. At the other extreme. and be prepared to explain carefully why they are so important. an event – and these will not be of equal importance. It is important to recognise that there will be a variety of interconnected causes for. If your readers dismiss any of your findings as petty or irrelevant. It is in agreement with the general body of knowledge. and consequences of. the less powerful each so-called 'highlight' will become. But don't overdo it: the more things you highlight in the main body and summary. PRIORITISING YOUR FINDINGS What you must do is highlight your most significant findings. . this can undermine the entire report and severely damage your credibility. evidence is weak when some or all of these conditions cannot be satisfied. This is a mistake because it implies that each is of equal weight. Always differentiate between fact and opinion. There have been a large number of consistent observations.
or confirm your understanding of the way a system operates – while you are still on site. CHECKING YOUR FINDINGS Before you conclude your investigation or project. or – and worst of all – trust to luck. SUMMARY While it is quite possible to write a bad report after completing a good investigation or project. evaluated. You are satisfied that all this information is accurate and reliable. prioritised and checked the right amount of relevant information. It is far better to fill in any gaps in your research now – or perhaps reperform an experiment. relying only on the information I have collected and handled? The investigation should not be wound up until the answer to this question is an unqualified 'Yes'. continually remind yourself that your aim will be to tell your readers everything they need to know. you must be sure that: You have collected and handled all the information you will need to write the report. So ask yourself: Could I confidently write the report now. sorted and grouped. it is impossible to write a good report until you have successfully located. obtained. before you can complete your draft report.COLLECTING AND HANDLING INFORMATION / 55 As you prioritise your findings. Otherwise you may later have to rely on your memory. but not to waste their time with trivia. or refer to some further management statistics. . or on someone's uncorroborated evidence over the phone.
Are they: Accurate? Objective? Complete? Strong? How significant are your findings? Some will be far more important than others. such as experimentation.56 / WRITING A REPORT Locating information There are four sources of information available to you: people books and other publications information technology events and places. Obtaining information Information can be gathered from these sources by various methods. As you review each finding ask yourself: So what? . interview and research on the Internet. Evaluating information Critically evaluate the evidence and arguments. Sorting and grouping information Do this under the headings and sub-headings of the skeletal framework. Make sure you have gathered enough relevant information to be able to complete each section and sub-section of the report.
make one final check to ensure you have gathered enough accurate. reliable and relevant information to enable you to write the entire report. If necessary amend the skeletal framework to make your key findings prominent within the main body as well as in the summary. but do not bore them with trivia. Use the rest of the main body and any appendixes to tell your readers everything they need to know.COLLECTING AND HANDLING INFORMATION / 57 Prioritising information Highlight your most significant findings – but only your most significant findings. Checking information Before the project is completed. .
The highly subjective and mentally demanding process of effective written communication is the subject of Chapter 4. the skeletal framework.Writing and Revising Your Report 3 If sufficient time and thought have been devoted to preparing and planning. Draft the summary. you will now have a practical blueprint for the entire report. Consider each stage in turn. This chapter is concerned with the clinical process of ordering. . and should be as follows: Pre-write. recommendations. The order of writing and reviewing is important. conclusions. Writing will entail amplifying the points in each section and 'putting flesh on the bones'. Issue the report. and to collecting and handling the information. classifying and sequencing. Review the main body and appendixes. Draft the main body and appendixes. introduction and Check and amend the report. and possibly revising.
Remember your readers. Remember your purpose and objective(s). namely: Targeting. Begin with the section or subsection of the main body.WRITING AND REVISING YOUR REPORT / 59 PRE-WRITING Take an overview of your report before you begin to draft it. Is it still the most suitable. The more difficult parts of a project seem less forbidding once the easier ones have been accomplished. By choosing to write what you find the easiest or most inviting. Refer to your skeletal framework. perhaps to highlight some particularly important finding? Developing. Outlining. Are you sure that these recommendations are practicable? DRAFTING THE MAIN BODY AND APPENDIXES These components should be written first. you avoid this initial trepidation by immediately getting down to writing. or will it need to be revised. There are three aspects to this (five if you are making recommendations). What will you recommend to overcome problems identified? Checking. Structuring. There are two important reasons for doing this: For any writer there is little worse than the horror of facing that first blank page. or with the appendix you feel most confident about. . It is all too easy to write for yourself and not for them. Make sure your outline (general plan) is just wide enough to encompass them – no more and no less.
Examine the layout and general appearance. This self-assessment should give you a good idea of whether it is necessary to re-structure your framework and/or re-write any of the main body or appendixes. So write as if this is your final draft. in order to get your message across as you had intended. The better your first draft. Put yourself in your readers' shoes and be highly self-critical. Review the use and format of tabulations and appendixes.60 / WRITING A REPORT In the back of your mind you will be aware that this draft is likely to be amended. Determine whether the tone and balance are correct. try to forget about them for a while. REVIEWING THE MAIN BODY AND APPENDIXES Once you have written your detailed findings. punctuation and spelling. Assess what you have actually written and how it comes across. sectional or creative) is really the most suitable one to present your facts and arguments. . Then come back with a fresh mind. rather than still thinking about what you had intended to write and get across. the better your final draft will be. As you read and re-read your draft. Check the accuracy of figures and calculations. Check the use of English. This is not a reason to treat it lightly. you should: Assess whether the sub-structure of the main body (logical.
redrafted. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY These sections should not be written until after the main body and appendixes have been completed. recommendations and introduction Your conclusions must follow logically from your detailed findings. you must pay particular attention to your summary. It must be a . The summary While these sections are all important. Most writers draft these sections in the order in which they appear above. Your recommendations must follow logically from your conclusions. namely: conclusions recommendations introduction summary. Each of these sections can now be directly related to what has actually been written in the main body and appendixes. and reflects the findings and comments given in the main body and appendixes. Your introduction should include everything your readers need to know before they read the rest of the report. Another advantage of this approach is that it avoids the danger of writing the report twice: it is very easy for an introduction to develop into a report if the detailed findings have not been written first of all. The first section can now be an accurate summary of the report. Make sure that the overall opinion is expressed accurately and unambiguously. Conclusions. RECOMMENDATIONS. where necessary.WRITING AND REVISING YOUR REPORT / 61 DRAFTING THE CONCLUSIONS. reviewed and.
CHECKING AND AMENDING THE REPORT Hold it two weeks is a classic rule in advertising. It is usual for three people to be involved in checking and amending this first draft: . or has just read. Does it flow? Are there adequate links and signposts for the reader? Can you justify everything that you have written? Finally. Remember that it is intended to serve two overall functions: To provide a précis of what the recipient is going to read. the report will have failed. The main conclusions and recommendations. once you have completed your first draft.62 / WRITING A REPORT true summary of the report and should highlight any areas requiring a particular emphasis. If you would not be willing to say it. Now print a copy of the document you have prepared on your word processor. A summary must be interesting. As already stated. To provide an outline of the report if the recipient is not going to read any more of the report. if a reader finds it boring. ask yourself whether you would be willing to say what you have written to the recipients. However. try to forget all about it for a few days – or at least a few hours. the summary should stimulate the readers' interest by outlining: The salient facts. For the report writer this may not be practicable. Then re-read it. do not write it either. face-to-face.
. Your check Once again.WRITING AND REVISING YOUR REPORT / 63 yourself a colleague your line manager. sentence and word really necessary? Are they accurate? Do they convey the meaning you intended? A colleague's check However. It is far easier to detect flaws in other people's writing than in your own. by now you will have read and re-read the draft so often that you may not be able to see the wood for the trees. or instances of poor presentation. read it very carefully. It is far easier to spot mistakes and other shortcomings on a printed document than on a manuscript. including unrequired or inconsistent: variations in size or style of lettering headings and sub-headings numbering highlighting techniques margins and spacing. Look out for any factual or word processing errors. Are there any obvious errors or ambiguities? What changes or improvements would they suggest? What impact is it likely to have on your readers? You have been too closely involved with the report to assess this objectively. Is every section. paragraph. sub-section. So ask a sympathetic colleague. who knows as much about the subject as your readers – but not much more – to give his or her candid comments on the amended report.
If the report was authorised by a senior officer. arguments. your line manager will be particularly concerned that it does credit to the section. your manager will probably be considering wider aspects of the report: its technical content its overall relevance whether it is politically sensitive. Managers often follow these steps as they appraise draft reports: Assimilate. Will the writer need to provide any further evidence or reassess the practicality of any recommendations? Amend. convincing and justified? Be prepared to face some very detailed questioning. What changes will need to be made to the content or presentation? Are the most important findings. What is the report trying to achieve? How has the writer attempted to achieve this? Question. Evaluate. How significant are the findings? Check.64 / WRITING A REPORT Your line manager's check Now pass the further amended report to your line manager. firm or profession. conclusions and recommendations accurate. Will the report need to be re-structured? Edit. an appendix. As well as asking the same sort of questions about it as you and your colleague did. conclusions and recommendations given due prominence? Are less important findings confined to the main body. complete. or perhaps omitted? . Are all the facts.
the section and paragraph headings can be finalised.WRITING AND REVISING YOUR REPORT / 65 Finalise. You may conclude that there is no point in spending so much effort on subsequent reports if they are going to be re-written by superiors. the pages numbered. You will not learn from the experience as you can only guess what was wrong with your version. It will show that you have grasped any points of criticism. to the standard other senior levels require? If everything is now considered satisfactory. . There are three reasons for this: It will save your line manager's time. Preparing the final version You should be responsible for preparing the final version. rewriting as a matter of course is a very bad and wasteful practice. You should be given the opportunity to discuss the reasons for any changes made by your line manager. This is likely to be the final draft. an index compiled. all paragraph and report references checked or amended. After three drafts it is probable that the report will not get better anyway. or. if necessary. By now this draft will have so many comments and amendments on it that it will almost certainly need to be re-printed. the frontispiece drawn up and. Re-writing to get it right is an excellent practice. If this does not happen: You may feel that this is no more than unjustified criticism. in an organisation with many levels of management. Is the report now written to the standard the recipients require.
rather than a patchwork from different hands. you would be expected to have spotted the extra 'the's. Now. Here is another little proofreading exercise. How many errors are there in this sentence? .66 / WRITING A REPORT It will result in a report written in one style. What does this say? Paris in the the spring And this? A bird in the the hand If you were proofreading. The answer will be given towards the end of this section. Proofreading It is essential that reports are carefully proof-checked before they are issued. read the sentence below: FINISHED FILES ARE THE RESULT OF YEARS OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY COMBINED WITH THE EXPERIENCE OF YEARS. Go back and count the number of 'F's in the sentence.
Spell-checkers and grammarcheckers miss things. therefore. . Proofreading your own work is difficult and inefficient. must be identified and corrected. A poorly presented report. Use a ruler to slow down your reading and make yourself read line by line.WRITING AND REVISING YOUR REPORT / 67 THIS SENTENCE CONTAINES FOUR MISSTAKES. the answer will be given below. full of errors and inconsistencies in layout. This process slows down your reading and makes you listen to how it sounds. However much time and effort are put into researching and writing the report. Someone else who has not been working on the report can give it much fresher and more objective scrutiny. Limit your proofreading to one small section at a time. there really is no excuse for failing to do this properly. Mistakes. Read the report out aloud. Read the report backwards. Because you are so familiar with the report. Again. Then take a short break before proceeding to the next small section. has a damaging effect regardless of the quality of the content. you tend to race through and think of the bigger picture – the next report. and people do not read text onscreen with the same diligence as they read from a page. Obviously it will not make sense but it is an excellent way to spot spelling mistakes. Here are some useful proofreading techniques: Print out a copy of the report. the required result will not be achieved without sufficient care being devoted to the process of proofreading.
The writer discusses his or her findings with the key recipients and confirms the factual accuracy of significant points. There are important advantages in following these additional steps: It paves the way for the recommendations. The human brain tends to see the 'F' in 'OF' as a 'V. clearly annotated 'Draft' on the cover and on every page. Issuing. The revised report.68 / WRITING A REPORT Proofread when you are most fresh. Now for the answers to those exercises. Try to proofread when you know you will have peace and quiet and can avoid interruptions from the telephone or visitors. The final report is issued. Agreeing. This time may be early in the morning or whenever you feel the most alert. ISSUING THE REPORT In some organisations the report would now be issued. Any corrective action is agreed and/or the report is amended in the light of any mistakes or misapprehensions shown to have occurred during the investigation. It prepares the recipients for any criticisms which may be in the final report. Clearing. Circulation. is circulated. . the following final steps are taken: Discussion. whereas there are actually six. The second sentence contains three errors: two spelling mistakes and one false claim about its content. It is probable that you counted three 'F's. In others. The findings are agreed.
SUMMARY If sufficient time and thought have been devoted to preparing and planning. addresses and designations of all the recipients should be known and checked. developing and checking). or make. It enables the writer to avoid errors and misunderstandings which would otherwise undermine his or her credibility and damage the department's or company's reputation. and 'put flesh on the bones'. the correct number of bound copies.WRITING AND REVISING YOUR REPORT / 69 It enables the writer to adapt the tone and emphasis of the report in the light of the recipients' initial reactions. You will need to amplify the points in each section of the framework. Pre-write (targeting. Once this approval has been obtained arrange for. The responsibility for final approval of the report often rests with the writer's line manager. The order of writing and revising is important. including at least one for file. if further enquiry or comment is desired. and should be: 1. a suitable skeletal framework. and possibly revising. writing the report will be reasonably straightforward. outlining. It increases the probability that the findings will be accepted if they have been fully discussed and the recipients' views have been taken into account. Record full details of all issues in a register and try to ensure that each person receives his or her copy at the same time. By publication day the names. covering letters or compliments slips prepared to explain why the report has been sent and to provide a contact point (probably you). Envelopes. and to collecting and handling the information required. wrappers and labels should have been made up. . structuring.
Review the main body and appendixes. . Draft the conclusions. circulating and agreeing a draft report. 4. recommendations. Check and amend the report with the assistance of a colleague and your line manager. possibly after discussing.70 / WRITING A REPORT 2. 6. subsection or appendix you feel particularly confident about. introduction summary. and 3. Draft the main body and appendixes. 5. Issue the report. beginning with a section. in that order. clearing.
Part Two The Creative Side of Report Writing .
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while the discipline of setting out the real points concisely will prove an aid to clearer thinking. But the saving in time will be great. crisp paragraphs. which set out the main points in a series of short. Let us not shrink from using the short expressive phrase. Most of these woolly phrases are mere padding. I ask my colleagues and their staff to see to it that their reports are shorter. while energy has to be spent looking for the essential points.A Style Guide to Good Report Writing 4 During World War II. Let us end such phrases as these: 'It is also of importance to bear in mind the following considerations'. or 'Consideration should be given to the possibility of carrying into effect'. The aim should be reports. Winston Churchill. the Prime Minister sent this memo to his War Cabinet: CONCISENESS To do our work. Nearly all of them are far too long. we all have to read a mass of papers. This wastes time. 9 August 1940 . If a report relies on detailed analysis of some complicated factors. or on statistics. these should be set out in an appendix. Reports drawn up on the lines I propose may first seem rough as compared with the flat surface of officialese jargon. even if it is conversational. which can be left out altogether. or replaced by a single word.
Accept the facts. and considers that elusive concept known as style. It is very easy to criticise a writer's style as 'poor' or 'inappropriate'. It also demands that you communicate in a way that is . This chapter turns to the highly subjective and mentally demanding process of effective written communication. a report which makes recommendations must ensure that the persons for whom the report is intended: Read it without unnecessary delay. This chapter attempts to do just that under these headings: Report style. findings. Achieving a good style. Chapter 3 took a clinical view of report writing (the ordering. Principles for effective report writing. Achieving this demands more of you than merely presenting relevant facts accurately. what is not so easy is to specify the stylistic improvements that should be encouraged. Style is the most nebulous area of report writing. conclusions and recommendations. REPORT STYLE To be completely successful. classifying and sequencing of a document). Decide to take the action recommended. Understand everything in it without undue effort.74 / WRITING A REPORT This advice and instruction remains as valuable today as it was some 70 years ago – perhaps even more so. Choosing your words carefully.
A ST YLE GUID E TO GOOD R E P O RT W R I T I N G / 75 both acceptable and intelligible to the readers. This is far more difficult to achieve than many writers realise. The expression of every point must therefore be drafted with the new situation in mind. the reader may get the wrong meaning. if the report is written in a bad style. Orthodoxy and imitation (for their own sake) are the refuge of the bad report writer. and to ensure that what they understand when they read the report is what you intended them to understand. should be to make the readers' task easier. therefore. Perhaps the nearest working definition is that good style is the best way to get your message across each time you write. to explain. facial expressions. If this were not so. Take a look at Appendix 1 for some examples of how this can be achieved. or modify what you have written. at the time the recipients read it. The readers get no further assistance from you: they have to work on their own to understand what you have said and to fathom your meaning. You cannot reinforce your message by non-verbal communication (as a speaker can by using gestures. Once you have issued the report you have no opportunity. expand on. intonations and so on). at least slightly. there would be no need for the report to be written. The word 'style' is not used here – as it is normally used in discussing literature – as a term for appraising the quality of a writer's method of . Your constant aim. Reports abound with sentences which their readers have to read two or three times before they can understand. Every situation on which a report is prepared will vary. A good style in report writing involves constructing sentences and paragraphs in such a way that the message you wish to convey is conveyed accurately and quickly to the reader. Good style It is not possible to define precisely what good style is. or perhaps no meaning at all. And.
yet use a bad style in writing a report – because he or she fails to communicate with the reader. Similarly. Experts nowadays agree that the factors that most affect readability are: an attractive appearance non-technical subject matter a clear and direct style short sentences short and familiar words.76 / WRITING A REPORT expression. the writing should be easy to read. at a wedding and at work. Good style is good manners. ACHIEVING A GOOD STYLE Your style of dress is different on a beach. A good style in business communication – unlike a good literary style – should combine: clarity conciseness and directness. Research into what makes a piece of writing readable started in America over seventy years ago. Above all else. in a prepared wedding speech and in a report. if the reader becomes aware of the style of writing it probably means that the writing is pompous. A person may be well-educated and write in an excellent literary style. or ostentatious. or ambiguous. In a report the style of writing should be unobtrusive. or difficult to follow. your style of writing should be different on a postcard. .
You should not write anything that will misinform. The facts should be capable of being verified. or at the very least undermined. You cannot find a word you have forgotten or do not know in a dictionary. arguments should be soundly based and your reasoning should be logical. or perhaps an even more appropriate one which you had not even considered. reports should always be serious (concerned with important matters) without ever becoming solemn (gloomy and sombre). leads to better report writing. less inhibited writing style which. a writer should be given as much freedom as possible within these conventions. However. This encourages the development of a natural. in order to press a case. The danger with such an approach is that you only have to be found out once for your entire credibility to be destroyed. . Look up a word of similar meaning in a thesaurus and you will find a variety of words and expressions which should include the one in the back of your mind. There are numerous ways in which you can bring individuality to whatever you write. in turn. mislead or unfairly persuade your readers. you will be doing a disservice not only to yourself but also to your department and organisation. Selectivity Careful choice of words can enable you to convey many subtleties of meaning.A ST YLE GUID E TO GOOD R E P O RT W R I T I N G / 77 There are certain conventions within the field of report writing. If you do. which will not only enable you to communicate more effectively. If you are writing as a specialist for non-specialists you may feel that you can make statements which you would not make for a technical readership. It is sometimes tempting to take short-cuts. but also give your writing extra colour and impact. Moreover. Accuracy Check that everything you write is factually accurate. Accurate information is essential for effective communication and decision making. For example.
or an interpretation of the evidence – not on personal opinions and feelings. Vidi. A concise report. is short but still contains all the essential details. I saw. do not mistake brevity for conciseness. In any case. In doing this. A report may be brief because it omits important information. Conciseness Veni. In these situations. The emphasis. Making it clear that you have an open mind when writing your report will. That is how Julius Caesar reported his visit to our shores. you should aim to keep them concise.78 / WRITING A REPORT There is an old saying that liars must have good memories. Vici (I came. conclusions and recommendations. make your conclusions and recommendations more acceptable to your readers. it is much easier to write honestly and fairly. rather than on any personal beliefs. This makes for an enhanced personal reputation. Objectivity A report should not be an essay reflecting personal emotions and opinions. I conquered). you should not ask: 'Can this information be included?' Rather. . and a growing confidence in the reliability of your findings. in most cases. you should ask: 'Is it necessary for this information to be included?' In this way. biases or prejudices. decisions are based on the results. should be on the factual material presented and the conclusions drawn. To ensure you do not include material which can safely be left out. on the other hand. The role is similar to that of a sports referee or a High Court judge. therefore. While none of your reports will be as short as this. you will be sure to put into your report only as much information as your readers need in order to respond as you wish them to. You must look at all sides of a problem with an open mind before stating your conclusions. the evidence.
It is essential to have a period of time. that every sentence in a section must contain no more than twenty words. and the reader's motivation and level of prior knowledge. Try to leave it over the weekend. increase your chances of writing with clarity and consistency if. Few serious writers bother to use them. you can look at it with a degree of objectivity. If you are really under pressure and this is simply not possible. Fry's Readability Graph and Morris's Clear River Test. at least leave it over a lunch or coffee break. This does not mean. you try to keep certain things in mind.) Clarity and consistency The best way to achieve clarity in your writing is to allow some time to elapse between the first draft and its revision. keeping the average length of sentences short is one of the best ways of ensuring conciseness. While they all have at least something to offer. they disregard such things as the use of actives and passives. no matter how short.A ST YLE GUID E TO GOOD R E P O RT W R I T I N G / 79 Several software grammar-checkers aspire to provide general advice on conciseness. when you can think of other things. or at least overnight. of course. . These include Gunning's Fog Index. (That sentence has thirty-four words. however. Flesch's Reading Ease Score. the way the information is organised. how it looks on a page. They give only the merest hint about how to write better text and they encourage the idea that a clear document is one that scores well on a formula. otherwise your writing will have a staccato rhythm or a terseness which many readers may find either childish or otherwise irritating. In fact. and make sure you are writing for them and not for yourself. While it may be a truism. when you come back to the report. You can. Aim for an average sentence length of less than twenty words. In this way. it is preferable to vary the lengths and constructions of sentences. as you write. Concentrate on a mental picture of your readers.
They forget. This simply will not do. If the writer depends on their approval for a course of action. objective. It is always easier for readers to process information when they have some knowledge of it in advance. then tell them what you said. the summary tells them the essential points being made. Even if recipients are going to read the whole report. he or . for example to the point of missing out information which the reader needs to fully understand what you are trying to say. Many problems in communicating are caused by making things more difficult than they need to be. Keeping technical writing simple The problem of how to keep things simple is particularly acute for technical writers. Many writers also over-estimate the reading capacity of the report's recipients. If they do not understand. accurate. if your writing is selective. It is all too easy for them to shrug their shoulders and tell themselves that it is not their fault and their readers will just have to follow them the best they can. The information they have to convey is difficult for non-technical readers to understand. that the average manager has a reading speed of about 225 words per minute and comprehends only about seventy-five per cent of what is read.80 / WRITING A REPORT Simplicity Usually. it will also be as simple as it can be. You should guard against over-simplifying. then say it. If they simplify their expression too much they may distort the meaning of whatever they are trying to say. or do not know. The readers. after all. clear and consistent. concise. Remember the adage: tell them what you are going to say. they will reject what the writer has to say. You should again keep your readers firmly in mind and keep asking yourself whether or not they will be able to follow the logic of your presentation. are the really important people. That is why the summary is so important.
ask yourself: 'Do I really need to use this word?' The overuse of uncommon words will make your report seem pompous. is never undignified. not to impress. however modest. CHOOSING YOUR WORDS CAREFULLY When children are learning English at school. Benefits of simplicity The rewards of writing simply are considerable. Prefer words your readers are likely to understand. Paradoxically. Readers will at least understand what has been said and will be more likely to respond favourably to conclusions drawn and recommendations made. Prefer plain words Do not be afraid of plain English. Not that anyone should forbid you from . Generally. the report writer should be encouraged to do just the opposite. officious and long-winded.A ST YLE GUID E TO GOOD R E P O RT W R I T I N G / 81 she is helping no one by refusing to take their limitations into account. Computer-based tutorials associated with applications software have become readily available since the development of Microsoft Windows. Write to express. not The ready availability of computer-based tutorials associated with applications software has become prevalent since the development of Microsoft Windows. but If you find yourself about to write a word that you would not use in everyday conversation. prefer short words in short sentences: the right word. they are encouraged to use longer and longer words in progressively more complex sentences. They will form a higher opinion of the writer and they will read subsequent reports with greater attention and enthusiasm. No writer can afford to be so self-indulgent.
Avoid overwriting and padding Weed out any meaningless. The board of governors urged the headteacher to take a strong line on absenteeism. actually. Avoid redundant words Repetition of a word can keep the reader aware of the topic. not but Accounts Receivable is not concerned with the follow-up of any of the items with the exception of delinquent accounts. Avoid pointless words Some words and phrases – like basically.82 / WRITING A REPORT ever using them. not but The headteacher was urged to take a strong line on absenteeism by the board of governors. You will find your sentences survive. . History suggests that our prospects are bright. However. Yet they add nothing to the message and often can be removed without changing the meaning or the tone. not but Past history suggests that our future prospects are bright. each and every one and during the course of our investigation – keep cropping up in reports. Try leaving them out of your writing. Accounts Receivable follows up delinquent accounts only. excess words. undoubtedly. saying the same thing twice over in different words for no good reason is tautology. Avoid the careless positioning of words This can cause misunderstanding and confusion. simpler and more conversational in style. succeed and may even flourish without them. but judicious use of the alternatives will make your report shorter.
per se. Try to avoid qualifying introductions Readers. Repayment of these amounts is provided for. With a little clarification. age or disability. This irritates. not but While repayment of these amounts is provided for. Place emphasis at the end of the sentence The strength of a sentence is at its end. and sine die may look like showing off. not but We do not believe the backup files are adequate. the subcontractor would have solved the difficulties occasioned by the specification changes more readily. not With a little clarification. the ten per cent interest is not included. but the ten per cent interest is not included. are put on notice that they must keep this in mind until they read the rest of the report. religion. the subcontractor would more readily have solved the difficulties occasioned by the specification changes. Avoid sexist language The tone of your writing should not reflect a gender bias – or any other bias.A ST YLE GUID E TO GOOD R E P O RT W R I T I N G / 83 Prefer the positive Try to use positive statements wherever possible. We believe the backup files are inadequate. seeing a qualification. Such writing can . Avoid them unless there are no good English equivalents – and unless you are sure that your audience will understand them. but Prefer English to foreign words and phrases Using uncommon foreign-language terms like inter alia. such as race.
you are stereotyping. businessman. not not not policeman.84 / WRITING A REPORT send the wrong or hidden message and may alienate readers. changing to the plural form when possible. Various words and expressions can also be perceived as indicating a gender bias. but but but police officer fire fighter businessperson. it was in the 1980s that acceptance of this need became widespread. For example. Impetus was given by the increase in the number of women in the workplace and today many schools and colleges teach non-sexist writing. However. it is not easy to prepare a long report which is entirely gender-neutral. You can avoid this by omitting pronouns. A secretary should be loyal to her boss. The use of pronouns in a sentence where the gender of the noun has not been revealed is often perceived as sexist. Also. not but not but not but A good manager will gain the respect of his staff. it is possible to use more acceptable alternatives. To do so tends to produce immoderately long sentences. With a little thought. A report writer should get to know his or her readers. Secretaries should be loyal to their bosses. ambiguous writing. whether intentional or not. if you use personal pronouns referring to a manager as 'he' and a secretary as 'she'. fireman. A report writer should get to know his readers. sometimes. A good manager will gain the respect of staff. excessive use of the passive and. it . or by using both genders. While an awareness of the need to avoid sexual discrimination in writing goes back many decades.
It should not be silent on all your hard work. PRINCIPLES FOR EFFECTIVE REPORT WRITING There are several well-known and well-tested pieces of advice to people who wish to communicate effectively on paper. often without knowing why. The rest. Use warm words Words are powerful. as they say. In the early days of instant coffee. These are all words without warmth and feeling. advertisers got off to a bad start by stressing words like quick. appetising words like aroma. Writer Henry James said the two most beautiful words in the English language are summer afternoon because they evoke just the right emotions. Once you get into the habit of looking at the emotional colouring of words. you will find yourself using the kind of language that puts readers at ease and causes them to react more favourably to your reports and to you. Makers of instant coffee soon learned the lesson and their product became delicious. There is as . rich and satisfying. evoke emotions and trigger responses deep within us so that we react. time-saving and efficient. So-called warm words make us feel secure and comfortable. Here are some that should prove particularly valuable to report writers. is history. The importance of reports The report is the major product of your project or investigation. fresh and tasty. as well as their meanings. for most people it is the only tangible evidence that any work has been undertaken. Makers of fresh coffee fought back with warm. while cold words leave us uneasy and unsure.A ST YLE GUID E TO GOOD R E P O RT W R I T I N G / 85 seems reasonable that where there is an overwhelming majority of one sex in the report's readership. Indeed. They conjure up images. happy. Sales blossomed. the use of pronouns should reflect this.
Never start a writing session without being clear what you intend to achieve. you are failing. where and when you did it. who asked you and when. Say how. Never be afraid of explaining too much. . each followed by a short break. You may have to postpone a writing session to do some other work. flexibility works both ways. If it sounds like the latest news from Afghanistan. Always explain what you are talking about. or staccato or complicated. in four days you will do four times what you might in two. what is not reported will soon be forgotten. Drafting the report Try to write your draft report over consecutive days. Read a passage aloud to yourself. However.86 / WRITING A REPORT much importance in presenting facts as in finding them. Write in bursts of about forty minutes to an hour. keep the momentum going. There will be time for this later. Once you have started. Be flexible. You will find that in two days you will achieve three times what you can in one. A ten-minute solo walk can often be more useful than an hour sitting at your desk. and with whose help. and might as well never have been discovered. so make the most of any unexpected writing opportunities. Do not be overconcerned with writing conventions at this stage. The need for explanation Always begin by saying what you have been asked to do.
and what you have verified. Always say in words what they mean. How do things come to be where they are now? Be specific. Differentiating between important facts and details The best report writers are those who know which are the main facts. It is possibly the most important there is in this book. .A ST YLE GUID E TO GOOD R E P O RT W R I T I N G / 87 Try to consolidate highly factual reference into self-contained sections which will be seen as help for those who require it. When you have verified something. Words like 'mostly'. Begin at the beginning. 'about half'. Say instead 'three-quarters'. 'largely' and 'substantially' merely raise the question 'how much?'. there is no need to be finicky. please read it again. Avoiding too many figures A common mistake in writing reports is to produce too many figures and too few explanations. Always make it clear what you have accepted. or they may fail to make any conclusion. 'twothirds'. You cannot explain the present without first explaining the past. or they may read them and make the wrong conclusion. and which are the details that illustrate them. The principles to follow are two-fold: Restrict figures to those which are meaningful. Make sure they are consistently produced and interpreted. Never assume that the readers will draw the right conclusion from the figures. but not as required reading for those who do not. say how. If you did not fully understand that sentence. but you must say what you mean. They may quite easily not be reading them at all when they read the text.
Perhaps the nearest we can get to a working definition is that good style is the best way to get your message across each time you write. if you describe a unit in the main body as 'the manufacturing department'. 2009). The layout of headings. larger numbers look better in figures.88 / WRITING A REPORT Layout Be consistent: Do not change names or descriptions without good reason. not vice-versa. If something does have to be mentioned in two places. To be told that something is going to come up again casts doubt on what you have just read. where appropriate. give the reference to the first discussion the second time you deal with it. Write dates the same way throughout (6th December 2009. . For example. acted upon. or perhaps December 6. pages and paragraphs should not vary. do not refer to it as 'the factory' in the summary. The numbers one to ten look better in words. Wherever possible exhaust a topic the first time it comes up. Cross-reference to part and section numbers. not to pages or paragraphs. Your aim should be to write reports which are: read without unnecessary delay understood without undue effort accepted and. SUMMARY Style is an elusive concept. Keep cross-references to a minimum. the parts of the draft report already revised can then be typed in final form before the later parts are finished.
. Short sentences. Be consistent throughout. familiar words. Avoid too many figures. concise. A clear and direct style. which will not only enable you to communicate more effectively. objective. Pay particular attention to the need for explanation.A ST YLE GUID E TO GOOD R E P O RT W R I T I N G / 89 Research has suggested that the factors that most affect readability are: An attractive appearance. A report is an important document. but also give your writing extra colour and impact. consistent and simple. accurate. Non-technical subject-matter. Differentiate between important facts and details. There are numerous ways in which you can bring individuality to whatever you write. clear. It should be selective. Short. Draft it in short. concentrated bursts.
To demonstrate your professionalism and. typist. the two areas overlap extensively and are frequently used interchangeably.Improving the Presentation of Your Report 5 Technology provides new. The differences between word processing and desktop publishing (DTP) are fading. where appropriate. Today. A computer equipped with word processing or desktop publishing software not only makes the work easier but also provides the opportunity for you to create a report every bit as polished and professional as one produced by an expert team including a writer. Word processing can be used to design documents. The objectives of good presentation are: To attract and retain the interest of the readers. exciting and better ways of improving the presentation of a report. that of your department and/or your organisation. To help them understand the contents of the report without undue effort. typesetter and graphic artist. To enable them to find their way around the report quickly. simple documents as well as highly sophisticated publications. . Desktop publishing can be used for ordinary.
In most applications what you see onscreen is an accurate representation of how the document you are working on will print out. binding and indexing. professional-looking report. Pronounced whizzywig. WORD PROCESSING AND DESKTOP PUBLISHING Flexibility is the key attribute of word processing and desktop publishing. This means you can adjust the appearance of your report. until you are completely happy with the result. Let us begin with the overview. namely: layout and design typography illustrations colour. Whole blocks of text can be inserted or deleted in the middle of a report with everything else . Finally. This chapter provides a guide to determining the appearance of your report. Unless you are using a steam-driven PC. save your work as a file and print it out. through careful choice of paper. It begins with an overview of what word processing and desktop publishing can do for the report writer. making revisions to the look. it looks at other ways of making a report stand out from the pack. Then it considers how this technology can be used most effectively to enhance each of the four elements which collectively create a high quality. covers.IMPROVIN G T H E PR ESEN TAT ION OF YO U R R E P O RT / 91 Word processing or desktop publishing software can help you achieve these objectives. you can edit it. Once you have got your text onscreen. you will be able to work wysiwyg. this acronym stands for what you see is what you get. format it.
Task-specific programs that help you structure. Facilities for numbering pages and providing headers and footers can be found in most word processors. You can change the fonts that you use in a report at will. you can expect style functions that allow you to save the attributes of text – font. size. a marketing plan can help you and your word processor enter into new fields by providing the examples and expertise needed to create detailed and competent reports. Paragraphs can be shifted from one section of a report to another.92 / WRITING A REPORT moving around to accommodate the change. Sentences can be amended. which are referred . most word processors allow graphics and tabular information to be imported from other programs – including accounts packages and spreadsheets that can prepare charts and tables from the data they hold. These automate repetitive processes. you can create them as templates. If you have standard reports that need to be revised each time they are used. As well as providing basic tools for drawing line rules. On the design front. say. This facility helps to keep consistency both within a report and between reports. In short. then personalise copies just before they are printed without the need to retype from scratch or take the unprofessional-looking route of typing or writing onto a photocopied standard report. Words can be highlighted. providing you have installed fonts under your operating system. you can do pretty much what you like with it. You may wish to consider add-on packages in order to improve the more popular word processing software. There are numerous business-specific applications that are designed to address particular sectors of commerce or industry. colour and so on – as a style you can apply easily to sections of text you highlight using the mouse. boxes and other embellishments.
. then you should get in contact with your professional body or institute. Some can be applied generally. Buying programs of this nature is a complex subject. you are unlikely to need the facilities of high-end desktop publishing. and with practice your speed will improve. insurance or the like. Develop a filing system on your computer so you can easily find and reload reports. but more likely will leave the research side up to you. Consider setting up a 'house-style' to use in your report. keeping the number of fonts to a minimum but using standard. Most two-finger typists can type faster than they think. If you are dealing with a large number of reports. It will sometimes be able to make specific recommendations as to which package will be best for you. check that your word processor can search by summary information or the content of a report. but many are only relevant to one field – estate agency. A set of templates can then be used as the starting point for all your reports. Unless you are a graphic designer or have a real need to produce documents for professional printing. Talk to other people who use word processors and see how they use the features their program offers. such as Computer Aided Design (CAD) packages. Checklist: word processing and desktop publishing Don't worry about your typing speed. If you are looking for a solution of this kind.IMPROVIN G T H E PR ESEN TAT ION OF YO U R R E P O RT / 93 to as 'vertical' applications. attractive layouts. rather than just the filename under which reports have been saved. which will maintain a list of recognised software suppliers. as your own requirements may in reality be quite different from someone working in a different area of the same profession.
changing font sizes and using italics.or three-column format.94 / WRITING A REPORT LAYOUT AND DESIGN Many considerations and decisions are required when choosing your overall layout and design. In particular. journals and magazines presented in this way. reader-friendly reports in exciting formats such as modern. Figure 5 illustrates three designs which offer possible starting points for creating your own page layouts. An ultra-modern report has the additional feature of a two. A traditional report is the kind produced on a typewriter. This is an excellent format for reports because people are used to reading newspapers. Format Reports of today do not have to look like the traditional reports of yesterday. . Word processing and desktop publishing techniques can be used to create new. People read faster and comprehend more information when reading short rather than long lines of text. you will need to think about: format page size and orientation margins and spacing headings and subheadings numbering. In an enhanced modern report. images are added and manipulated. They can look interesting and make people want to read them. A modern report takes this format one stage further by adding lines and boxes. ultra-modern and enhanced modern.
IMPROVIN G T H E PR ESEN TAT ION OF YO U R R E P O RT / 95 Fig. Three page designs. . 5.
4 x 33.96 / WRITING A REPORT Throughout the remainder of this chapter you will find everything you need to know to be able to create a professional report in any format. If you choose a traditional single-column layout.1 16. Page orientation.8 x 8.3 x 11.5 x 23. A variation to this is to use just one column but to shorten the line length. headings and subheadings.7 5. The use of two. This not only makes the material easier and faster to read.or even three-column formats gives a report a very professional look and increases the readability of copy.5 8. Page size and orientation What size of paper will you use? The standard pages are these: Paper size Al A2 A3 A4 A5 mm 594 x 841 420 x 594 297 x 420 210 x 297 148 x 210 inches 23.3 Portrait Landscape Fig.4 11. captions. graphics. 6. or 11-type size is recommended. 10-. it is advisable to use 12point type. Smaller 9-. but also allows space for artwork.7 x 16. .
you will need to think about its orientation (see Figure 6). Using short bulleted lists of related items (such as the one above) is another good way of breaking up paragraphs of text to make it easier to read. If you are using a photocopier or laser printer. However. Consider whether a landscape orientation for your report might work even more effectively. Clear and consistent gaps between sections and paragraphs. but also to give the report a professional look. The list may be introduced by a colon. Pages with too much type and artwork give the appearance of being too heavy and hard to read. In addition to size of paper. White space (or whatever colour background is used) is very important not only to help the reader. A margin of at least an inch at the top (the header zone) and bottom (the footer zone) of the page. It is important to allow: Adequate space between the lines of print (reports are often double-spaced with 1½-spacing for sub-paragraphs). a dash. make sure the paper you choose will go through your machine. at least consider other options. Will the report be portrait (vertical/tall) or landscape (horizontal/wide)? Most reports are portrait. or both (:-).IMPROVIN G T H E PR ESEN TAT ION OF YO U R R E P O RT / 97 Writers tend to choose standard A4 paper as a matter of course. An adequate and consistent margin on the left of the page for binding (the size of margin on the left will vary according to the type of binding selected). and the size of any indentations must be consistent. uninterrupted blocks of print. . Margins and spacing It is far easier for a reader to assimilate information presented in small sections than in huge.
Paradoxically. section headings more prominent than paragraph headings. 'Accounts Department' and 'Personnel Department'. Remember that the title of the report should be more prominent than section headings. in chronological order. headings of the same rank should represent topics of roughly equal importance. 'ABC Limited – Production Department'.98 / WRITING A REPORT Headings and subheadings Headings and subheadings help busy readers of today by identifying and labelling blocks of type. For example. There is no need to write. you cannot leave that topic and move on to another one until you provide another heading or subheading. your subheadings could be 'Production Department'. though. or at least would be easily interpreted cover all the ground (collectively) do not overlap (although the same information may appear under more than one heading if it supports more than one argument) are never vague (for example. You must invent them. Make sure that they: are comparatively short are descriptive would be expected. Similarly. if your heading is 'ABC Limited'. or in order of importance) are identical to those listed in the table of contents (if used). 'Miscellaneous' and 'Other') are in an order which readers will find logical (perhaps in alphabetical order. avoid headings such as 'General'. . Once you have introduced a topic with a heading or subheading. They are not standard. For this reason subheadings should not repeat information provided in headings. paragraph headings more prominent than sub-paragraph headings. and so on.
but you must determine where you want the page . 'Town Centre'. Computer software has the capability of performing this function automatically. than to have just a few sections. As you approach the motorway you see a large sign giving fairly general directions: 'Wales and the West'. 'Tesco'. each with several subheadings. You are driving from London to South Wales. Numbering The role of numbering systems is simply to identify the various components of a report for reference and indexing purposes. As you leave the motorway at Newport you observe an even smaller sign giving quite detailed information: 'Retail Park'. Pages Any time you have more than one or two pages. the less specific the text.IMPROVIN G T H E PR ESEN TAT ION OF YO U R R E P O RT / 99 the less prominent the heading. the more specific the text. As you cross the Severn Bridge you face a smaller sign providing more detailed information: 'Newport'. sub-subheadings or even sub-sub-subheadings. 'Swansea'. 'The Docks'. the less prominent the heading. each containing a few subheadings. There are two aspects to this: numbering pages numbering sections and paragraphs. It is better to structure the report with several short sections. Think of it this way. The principle applies equally to reports: the more prominent the heading. 'Cardiff'. the more specific and precise must be the wording below it. 'Comet'. As you enter the industrial estate you see a very small sign giving details of every individual store: 'B&Q'. you need to number them.
numbers. Several choices are acceptable – either the upper or lower outside corners or the middle of the bottom of the page. Placing the numbers on the outside corners allows readers to locate a specific page more easily when scanning through a report. You can number the pages by following one of two methods. Either simply number the pages from 1 to n (n representing the final page number), beginning with the page after the title page. Or number the 'preliminaries' (the components before the main body) as (i), (ii), (iii), etc – again beginning with the page after the title page, and number the remainder of the report from 1 to n. Sections and paragraphs When it comes to numbering sections and paragraphs, it is very important to keep the system simple. For many writers the numbering seems to be an end in itself; and sometimes it appears that it determines the structure rather than vice versa. Here are some possible methods: (i) Combination of Roman and Arabic numbers Popular throughout continental Europe, and used in all European Commission reports, Roman numerals identify sections and Arabic numerals identify related text. The breakdown is extended by decimals, if required. For example, the third section of a report could be numbered as follows: III III.1 III.1.1 III.1.2 III.1.3 III.2 III.2.1 III.2.2
(ii) Sections with unique sequential paragraph numbers Here Arabic numbers are used to identify sections, letters are used for subheadings and Roman numerals for sub-subheadings. For example: 5(a)i 5(a)ii 5(b)i 5(b)ii 5(b)iii (iii) Simple decimal numbers This method uses a two- or three-decimal numbering system, combined with Roman numerals to identify paragraphs within subsections or subsubsections: 4. 4.1 4.1.1 4.1.2 (a) (b) 4.1.3 (iv) All-decimal system However, the most popular scheme of numbering is the all-decimal system. There is no provision for any symbols other than decimal combinations. Reports numbered in this way are clear and unambiguous, but they can easily become extremely cumbersome: 126.96.36.199 126.96.36.199 126.96.36.199 126.96.36.199 188.8.131.52 184.108.40.206 220.127.116.11
By numbering paragraphs rather than headings or subheadings, you can avoid the complexity of three-part (1.1.1), four-part (188.8.131.52), or even five-part (18.104.22.168.1) numbering. If your organisation has no standard numbering system for use in all its reports (it should have one), ask yourself what system would make things as easy as possible for your readers. Look at earlier reports. What numbering systems did they employ? Which of them worked best? Would it work equally well for this report? Always remember that a numbering system should be determined by the structure of the report, not vice versa.
Checklist: layout and design
Keep paragraphs fairly short (generally five to eight lines) – particularly when using two- or three-column layouts. Break up text by using the technique of listing (enumerating) with bullet, checkmark, arrow, or some other interesting character. Make your page breaks so that you avoid widow or orphan lines – one line stranded from the rest of the paragraph. Avoid mixed or uneven columns, which result in a lack of visual continuity. Stick to one column grid for each page. Aim for a minimum of 30 per cent and an average 50 per cent white space on each page.
Typography is the art and style of printing. Today users have at their disposal literally thousands of typefaces (specific type designs) and fonts (sets of characters in one weight and style of typeface) from which to choose. The choice of type is important because it will set the
psychological mood and style of a report and create an impression of formality or informality. Be selective, and, if appropriate, consider taking advice from a designer who could help you develop a departmental or corporate identity that works for your business. But more likely, you will choose the type for your report. Three elements must be considered: kinds of type size of type type alignment.
Kinds of type
Type can be classified into many different categories. One category is serif or sans serif. Serif is the French word for tails and it refers to the small cross strokes or flares at the end of a letter's main stems. Even though sans serif (meaning without tails) provides a cleaner, simpler look, some people believe that a serif type is more distinguished as well as easier to read.
Serif Sans Serif
Typeface refers to a specific type design. Limit your selection to just one or two typefaces in any particular report.
Centur y Old Style Bold Arial Narrow
numbers and symbols) in one weight and style of typeface. A point (1/72 of an inch) is the smallest typographical unit of measurement. A pica is approximately 12 points or 1/6 of an inch. Sizes of type Type is measured by using the language of printer-points and picas. On a computer. . These variations are also called typestyle and include: Bold Italics Bold Italics Underline Fonts are complete sets of characters (the alphabet. Here are Gill Sans Light (regular) and Univers Condensed (bold): AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJjKkLlMmNnOoPpQq RrSsTtUuVvWwXxYyZzO123456789!"#$% AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJjKkLlMmNnOoPpQqRrSs TtUuVvWwXxYyZzO123456789!"#$%&shifted()*+.104 / WRITING A REPORT A type family includes all the variations of a basic design in every weight and point size. text can range in size from very small to very large.
For this reason. it could be an indented paragraph heading using italicized type the size of the text. For instance. under this hierarchy of sizes and styles. If you recall the analogy of the car journey from London to South Wales. If a fourth level is needed. the larger the letters. the more important the heading. the signposts you encounter would have looked like this: Heading: Subheading: Sub-subheading: Fourth level: Wales and the West Newport Retail Park B&Q . a heading could use an 18-point. A subheading could be reduced to 14-point bold. bold font.or 12-point. As we have already seen. Headings are normally made in bold to capture the reader's attention.IMPROVIN G T H E PR ESEN TAT ION OF YO U R R E P O RT / 105 4 6 8 9 10 12 16 18 20 36 42 72 The usual size for report text is 10. and can vary in size to show the level of importance. A sub-subheading could be 12-point bold italics. a hierarchy of sizes and styles is needed for showing the various levels of headings and subheadings. The plan should be consistent and logical and progress from higher to lower levels in an obvious pattern.
when highlighting text. The major ways of doing this are by: Using upper case (capital) rather than lower case (small) letters. Type alignment Type alignment of left. The more things you emphasise. gives a report a blocked look and is preferred by some report writers. centred. MAKES SENTENCES DIFFICULT TO READ AND COMPREHEND. it is important to be consistent and not to overdo it. With any form of emphasis. Double spacing the text. Using characters with different width (pitch). Indenting the words or text. right or justified is possible either before or after the words are keyed into the computer. Changing the spacing either before or after the emphasised word(s). However. The . the less powerful each emphasis becomes. research has shown that readability is improved if a ragged right margin is used. Also. Bulleting the words or text.106 / WRITING A REPORT Sometimes it is useful to draw attention to parts of the text by methods other than headings. Using different typefaces or fonts. Underlining the words or text. Justification. Using bold lower-case letters makes life much easier for the reader. SPECIALLY IN ITALICS AND IN AN UNFAMILIAR TYPEFACE. making both the left and right margins flush. remember that: USING UPPER-CASE LETTERS.
Checklist: typography Use no more than two different fonts in any one document – possibly a sans serif for headings and a serif for the body. or vice versa. Type alignment. Keep everything neat and tidy. Prefer clear typefaces that invite the readers' attention. shadow. Do not cram too much in. Experiment with different typestyles – bold. Set up a house-style to use in your reports. Fig. 7. Watch out for poor alignment. Remember to vary font size for better reading. Space creates a light.IMPROVIN G T H E PR ESEN TAT ION OF YO U R R E P O RT / 107 uneven line endings provide a visual support for the eyes in addition to giving a more artistic look to the page. Use italics rather than underlining the names of books or magazines. italics. . outline or a combination of these styles. The choice is one for personal judgement (see Figure 7). readable quality.
108 / WRITING A REPORT ILLUSTRATIONS Well produced and appropriate illustrations really enhance a report. Ask yourself the 'so what?' question: does every illustration have something to say within the overall context of the report? If there is no meaningful answer to 'so what?'. or supplementary to them. such as photographs. If the answer is 'no'. such as lines. after. drawings and cartoons. easily digestible and memorable. graphics are image enhancements. They should not be used without a specific reason or purpose. put it in an appendix. boxes and background tints. If the answer is 'yes'. then the illustration is worthless. Artwork and graphics should clarify. If the reader needs to see an illustration in order to understand the text – or if it is referred to several times – it should be placed within the main body of the report. If you have a positive answer to the question. they will merely distract and confuse your readers. When to use illustrations Illustrations are useful only when they are easier to understand than the words or figures they represent. They make the information readily understandable. or enhance the document in some way. If the reader . Another good way to help you decide the placing of an illustration is to ask yourself whether it is fundamental to the arguments in the text. The word artwork refers to the images in the report. place it in the main body of the report. It is much easier to assimilate information presented pictorially. Anything on a page other than text is either artwork or graphics. Ask yourself whether it would break the flow of the report or distract the reader. and as close as possible to the point of reference. then the illustration should be included. Otherwise. illustrate. Where to use visual illustrations The algorithm on page 20 will help you decide where the illustration should be placed. add to.
when stored on a computer. Before reproducing the copy on a duplicating machine. particularly if there are several other illustrations. How to use illustrations Artwork can be inserted in your report in two ways – by using either the traditional pasteup method or the electronic pasteup method. make it simple to experiment with hundreds of special effects. In an electronic pasteup. provided with the software. vector and bitmap. Illustrator. you simply leave space for the art. you paste the artwork in place. Bitmap images describe a colour photograph type of image. Artwork created by someone else and sold as clip art that you can copy and paste into your document. Computer images come in two types. FreeHand or MacDraw. While it is not possible to manipulate an element of an image as you can with vector. clever software offers smart tools which allow areas of a picture to be selected and transformed and smart filters. In the traditional pasteup method. The advantage with vector images is that they can be manipulated by element and easily resized. Electronic art can come from a variety of sources and can be imported into your document from: Drawings or diagrams created on the computer from a draw or paint program such as CoralDRAW. it may be preferable to place it in an appendix.IMPROVIN G T H E PR ESEN TAT ION OF YO U R R E P O RT / 109 does not need to see it. Vector images are created from lines and shapes. you will have the entire document on disk and can make a copy or copies from the printer. Drawings or photographs scanned into the computer using a special scanner – such work may need to be modified or retouched using . each being mathematically described within the software.
110 / WRITING A REPORT a computer program such as Adobe Photoshop. That also means that the number of images you can capture in a minute will be much less with TIFF than with JPG. but when you have both TIFF and JPG available. TIFF and RAW. Digital cameras. Corel's PaintShop Pro or Macromedia's Fireworks. consider the following facts. TIFF files are higher quality than JPEGs yet they are also much larger. then a spreadsheet would allow you to produce these. if they want the highest quality . If you wanted a pie chart showing which product ranges make up which part of your business. However. Most medium to high-end cameras will offer you a choice of file formats in which to save your images. or a bar chart showing turnover each month of the year. RAW files also take the most work to get great-looking images. Kodak Photo CD will provide this service. However. used in conjunction with their own software. For an additional charge. but also written onto a CD-Rom in the form of high-resolution scans that can read straight into an image manipulation package on a PC. The most popular ones are JPEG. This will cause your camera to slow down when trying to write your images to the memory card loaded into your computer. Standard camera film can be developed and printed in the normal way. Not all digital cameras will offer TIFF as a choice. As far as quality and versatility goes. Most professionals will choose JPG when they either want to fit a large number of images on a storage card. Graphs or charts created from a spreadsheet program such as Excel or Quatro Pro. when they are capturing fast action or when they do not want to spend time in Photoshop adjusting their images. RAW files are the best. enable easy storage of and access to your images.
edited. Uninterrupted blocks of text are daunting. The choice of illustrations Your aim is to include artwork which arouses readers' interest and helps them to a quicker and fuller understanding. However. before they are used in reports created by your word processing or desk top publishing package. Once an image is captured. To show the structure and working of a system. Lines. patterns and background tints – you can make your report even more stimulating and appealing to readers. frames and shading are useful in creating divisions (see Figure 8). arrows. simple. Icons or symbols available in various fonts will help focus or direct the readers' attention. Logos provide a subtle way of marketing your company or providing a theme for a product or topic. the effects you can apply are almost limitless. Use clear. Do not try to be clever. Ask yourself: What is the purpose of the illustration? Let us consider three of the most common answers to this question: To give a general impression. concentrating on the essentials. combined and retouched at will. the quality is inferior to that of digital or scanned photographs. uncluttered and appropriate illustrations. boxes. boxes. . By also including some graphics – lines. Video can be captured as stills with a video capture card. they will choose RAW. To show detailed information.IMPROVIN G T H E PR ESEN TAT ION OF YO U R R E P O RT / 111 possible. and do not mind spending some time adjusting their images. or they can be re-sized.
boxes. Fig. 8. Pie charts A pie chart is a circle divided by radii into sectors whose areas are proportional to the relative magnitudes of a set of items. It is an excellent method of illustrating such relative proportions. . Lines.112 / WRITING A REPORT Illustrations which give a general impression Three of the best ways of illustrating this are by the use of a: pie chart bar chart pictogram. frames and shading. arrows.
the calculation for the press is: 8303 x 360° ______________ = 157° 19021 Three variations on the basic pie chart are the: illustrated pie chart half-pie chart multi-pie chart. use this equation: Sector total x 360° _______________ Total population For example.083 million £532 million £190 million Computer software will do all the calculations for you.016 million £1. The illustrated pie chart simply includes some illustration or drawing relevant to each slice of the pie. but if you need to work out the number of degrees in each sector yourself. In 2006. .IMPROVIN G T H E PR ESEN TAT ION OF YO U R R E P O RT / 113 Here is an example. In the example given in Figure 9.579 million £2.303 million £4. and so on.318 million £2. total advertising expenditure in the UK was as follows: Press Television Direct mail Internet Outdoor Radio Cinema : : : : : : : £8. a television set. it probably would be a few newspapers.
The size of each pie chart will depend on its relative importance. To calculate the number of degrees appropriate to each division. drawn to scale. For example. . Bar charts This is a simple way of comparing values by using bars of various lengths. The multi-pie chart consists of two or more pie charts each with similar component parts. it is an excellent way of illustrating relationships between items. The half-pie chart depicts only the top half of a circle. A pie chart. Figure 10 is a bar chart showing the main crops grown in Britain during 2007. multiply by 180° instead of 360°. 9. In other words. These charts are quite difficult to draw. a pie chart illustrating the distribution of trade in the USA would be larger than one for Britain.114 / WRITING A REPORT Fig.
For example. if you wanted to compare the number of votes cast for political parties at the last general election with the number of candidates elected. Variations on the basic bar chart include the: Sectional bar chart Percentage bar chart Dual bar chart. . you would show two bars of identical size. a chart showing passenger traffic at Britain's four main airports in 1995. one divided to reflect the percentage of total votes cast for each party. A bar chart. each divided into four (showing the traffic going through the individual airports). 10. Percentage bar charts show the percentage a constituent part bears to the whole. For example. 2000 and 2005 would comprise three bars (showing the total traffic for the three years).IMPROVIN G T H E PR ESEN TAT ION OF YO U R R E P O RT / 115 Harvest (million tonnes) Fig. the other the percentage of total MPs elected. Sectional bar charts show the magnitude of items and their constituent parts.
central heating and telephones in 1998 and 2008. Three of the most effective ways of achieving these aims are by the use of: . 11. For each of these there would be two bar charts. one for 1998 and one for 2008. A pictogram. Figure 11 is a pictogram which shows the passenger traffic at Britain's main airports in 2007. Illustrations which show detailed information These illustrations must facilitate detailed readings or provide detailed answers to questions.116 / WRITING A REPORT Dual bar charts compare two or more related quantities over time. Pictogram This is similar to a bar chart except that it is usually horizontal and it uses symbols instead of bars to represent magnitudes or frequencies. they could show the percentage of households with cars. = 5 million passengers London (Heathrow) London (Gatwick) London (Stanstead) Manchester Fig. For example. next to each other.
sensitivity analyses. if you were comparing the efficiency of postal services in different parts of the world. investment risk profiles. you could superimpose national stamps to distinguish the countries represented by the various lines on the graph. be careful not to make any graph too complex. Here are some rules to follow when drawing graphs: When undertaking experimental work. and it is an excellent method of illustrating detailed relationships between items. each associated with one or more professions. A variation on the simple graph is the pictorial line graph where 'pictures' are added. However. . while the horizontal axis is usually scaled in units of the independent variable (the quantity being observed). For example. Choose a scale in which the lines or the curve will occupy most of the graph. For example. and so on. a financial or management accountant would be interested in break-even charts. Graph A graph shows the relationship between two variables. The vertical axis is usually scaled in units of the dependent variable (the quantity which is being controlled or adjusted). draw a rough graph as you record your results.IMPROVIN G T H E PR ESEN TAT ION OF YO U R R E P O RT / 117 graph algorithm table. There are also several other types of graph. If possible the graph should be arranged so that it reads the same way up as the text. In this way you can check any irregularities immediately.
118 / WRITING A REPORT In most experimental work. The principles to follow are three-fold: Always check figures very carefully before including them. A common mistake in writing reports is to produce too many figures and too few explanations. there is a very simple algorithm to help the report writer decide whether to include a particular piece of information in the report and. For example. or where the graph does not represent experimental findings (perhaps it shows sales results). It does this by considering only those factors that are relevant to the question. Where this occurs you cannot read off between the points as with a curve. Restrict figures to those which are meaningful. once prepared. where to place it. particularly for instructional manuals. In Chapter 1 (Figure 2). within a finite number of steps. they are excellent illustrations. lines should form smooth curves. or how to carry out complicated checks on machinery. . detailed information. or solve a problem. Algorithm An algorithm is a flow chart which will answer a question. or undertake a procedure. Make sure they are consistently produced and interpreted. Algorithms are often difficult to write but. Where results do not follow a smooth curve. They can be used by readers with no knowledge of operational theory. they can be used to describe fault finding procedures. points should be joined by straight lines. problem or procedure. Table Your aim is to make the report as readable as possible and the use of a table is often the best way of achieving this aim while also presenting some essential. if so.
The strength of these reports is often based almost entirely on their factual content. Never assume that your readers will draw the right conclusion from the figures. Here are some rules when compiling statistical tables: Avoid tables where there are over ten columns. or interacting . If a particular column or row lacks data. use dashes in each space lacking the data. double space after every fifth entry. or they may read them and come to the wrong conclusions. it is perfectly acceptable for your appendixes to be longer than all the rest of the report. or perhaps no conclusions. Always say in words what they mean. If a column shows amounts. They may quite easily not be reading them at all. in some reports it is essential to include a large number of highly detailed findings. Where appropriate. If columns are too long. it is better to include them in the main body. Illustrations which show the structure and working of a system Here the word system is used in its widest sense to include any structure or process composed of interrelated. How are they likely to read the report? They will probably read the preliminaries and then the main body. Do not mix decimals (29. interdependent. The appendixes may well be an afterthought. So highlight any particularly significant findings in these preliminaries and in the main body. state the units. If you find it necessary to refer to certain tables on several occasions. Label each column and row to identify the data. use vertical lines to separate columns. If they improve legibility.3) with fractions (17½). In such cases it is usually best to use appendixes.IMPROVIN G T H E PR ESEN TAT ION OF YO U R R E P O RT / 119 However. But think of your readers.
Three of the best ways of illustrating the structure and working of a system are by the use of a: chart diagram photograph. .120 / WRITING A REPORT elements forming a collective entity. As you will see. and computer systems and programs. A flow chart is a diagrammatic representation of the sequence of operations or equipment in a natural. So is a clerical or production process. It is commonly used to describe industrial and clerical processes. Figure 12 is a flow chart illustrating inventory control by means of the calculation of the value of the inventory. a flow chart uses a standard set of symbols. bar charts and graphs. In this instance the symbols are those associated with computer science. industrial or organisational process. The management structure of a company is a system. and is used. Chart We have already considered pie charts. Other charts of potential value to report writers include: flow charts organisational charts maps and plans systematic diagrams. So is the way a piece of machinery is built.
When maps or plans are included in a report it is important to state whether or not they are completely to scale. The famous map of the London Underground is an example of a systematic diagram. an organisation. . 12. Always include a small arrow pointing northwards. They are commonly used for wiring diagrams and transport connections. A flow chart.IMPROVIN G T H E PR ESEN TAT ION OF YO U R R E P O RT / 121 Fig. Systematic diagrams are useful when you wish to illustrate what connects with what. An organisational chart depicts the hierarchy of. and the lines of command within. Figure 13 represents a simple organisation which could well exist within the transport services function of a small manufacturing company.
While it is very useful for designers and manufacturers. it is of little value for anyone who wants to know what it actually looks like. It is easy to draw but the lack of perspective makes it look peculiar. front and side elevations of an object. 13. all the lines that are parallel on the object are drawn parallel. An organisational chart. It must be drawn to scale.122 / WRITING A REPORT Fig. An orthographic drawing is composed of the plans of the back. Three faces are shown at once but no allowance is made for perspective. There are several types of diagram. An isometric drawing provides a pictorial method of illustrating something. . Diagram This is a drawing or sketch which demonstrates the form or working of something. as can be seen in Figure 14. including: orthographic drawing isometric drawing perspective drawing exploded drawing cut-away drawing.
IMPROVIN G T H E PR ESEN TAT ION OF YO U R R E P O RT / 123 Fig. A perspective drawing. It is more difficult to draw but it looks more natural. on the other hand. shows an object as it is seen by the human eye. Fig. An isometric drawing. An exploded drawing. . 15. 14.
A cut-away drawing shows an object with its 'cover off' in certain places. It also reproduces well. or with a slice removed to reveal the inside. However. Figure 16 is a cutaway drawing of an electric bell. Figure 15 is an exploded drawing of a lawn mower dog clutch.124 / WRITING A REPORT An exploded drawing provides a pictorial representation of how something is constructed. In general. A cut-away drawing. . a report writer should also consider whether the inclusion of a photograph would be useful and justifiable. a line drawing is better for technical illustrations than a photograph since it can be shaded or highlighted to emphasise essential points. 16. It does this by showing its components in assembly as though they were spread out along an invisible axis. Fig.
ones at the end of a particular stage of development. It is therefore useful for showing newly created objects. illustrate or provide additional information. not after. a finger. a coin. it is a good idea to include some familiar object in the photograph – perhaps a hand. it is best to keep things as simple as possible. things do go wrong – especially if you are not an experienced photographer. Refer to it in the text before it appears. If you need to show the size of an object. However.IMPROVIN G T H E PR ESEN TAT ION OF YO U R R E P O RT / 125 Photograph A good photograph will show the exact appearance of an object or a situation at a particular moment in time. . or ones worn out or damaged. and you can expect good results in a variety of lighting conditions. or a ruler. Make sure it proves what you intended it to prove. Unless you are already a very competent photographer. Discuss and explain its significance. keep clicking away until you are. you will be using a system of lenses and accessories which will allow an enormous variety and flexibility of output. For this reason also use a back up Polaroid camera. If you are not satisfied with them. you will achieve an accurate focus. Checklist: visual illustrations Use artwork to enhance. You will see exactly what has been captured. Use a sensible scale and give details of this scale. You will be able to see your results within seconds. ones never seen before. Use an automatic 35mm SLR (Single Lens Reflex) or a digital camera. Size art to fit your needs but be sure that you keep it in proportion.
Light-tinted paper with black type is less glaring for readers.126 / WRITING A REPORT Crop art to eliminate unwanted portions. full-colour computer-generated reports can be a reality through ink jet. Where appropriate. list them on the contents page. In addition. Do not overdo it. If colour printers are not available to you. the use of a variety of colours of paper is helpful in coding your work. Give each illustration a caption and figure number. thermal or laser printing. so the price of having colour printers connected to your computer is decreasing. Keep it simple. Make sure that any artwork (including charts and graphs) is viewed at the same distance as the text – a reader should not have to hold a page closer or farther away when looking at an illustration. Systems are becoming more sophisticated all the time and as the technology is advancing. For instance. acknowledge your source. Today. One large image is far more eye-catching than half a dozen small ones. do not include too much detail. Black and white reports are rapidly becoming as outdated as black and white television sets. Remember that non-digitized art can be mechanically pasted up and reproduced on a copying machine or taken to a professional printer. different sections can be produced . If there are more than just one or two illustrations. too many illustrations will overwhelm the reader. Do not use so many special effects that they cease to be special. COLOUR Colour adds a whole new look to a document. you still have the option of using coloured paper.
Several companies now provide paper with pre-printed colour designs. sensations and impressions that can be highly effective in achieving your objectives. for most documents you will want to use a light background with dark type (see Figure 17). In general. Use this to your advantage. Print. A revolution is now underway in using colour for presentations. you are able to run black print onto the design. The result is the look of a full-colour document. Checklist: colour Be sure that you have the capability to print in colour at an affordable price before planning and producing your report in colour. . Full-colour clip art is available for importing into your documents. yet you are using only a traditional black and white printer. Coloured paper: prevents glare codes pages adds variety. and the use of colour for reports will become more and more available in the future. When you insert the paper into the tray of the computer. Colour creates moods. graphics and art can then be planned and keyed aesthetically around them. Many also offer computer templates which enable you to see these designs onscreen.IMPROVIN G T H E PR ESEN TAT ION OF YO U R R E P O RT / 127 in different colours or a variety of handouts can be made in a variety of colours for easier referencing. Sophisticated readers of today expect and deserve more than black printing on a white background.
PAPER. it is rarely . Appearance really does matter. a word about the choice of paper. COVERS. such as green leaves or yellow bananas. covers. It is obvious that glossy. Dark Text Light Text Fig. professional-looking reports will project the sort of image that most companies wish to foster with existing and potential customers and/or shareholders. Perhaps what is less obvious is that sometimes it is desirable to produce low-budget reports for more than just reasons of economy. For example. Remember that approximately ten per cent of males and seven per cent of females are colour-blind – red and green used side by side may merge. Give objects their proper colour. Use sufficient contrast for effective reading – dark print on light background or light print on dark background. 17.128 / WRITING A REPORT Limit the use of colour to about three or four pages unless full colour is used. Contrasting backgrounds and type. So does durability. binding and possible indexing for your report. BINDING AND INDEXING Finally.
Most reports are written on A4 size paper (210 x 297 mm). For example.IMPROVIN G T H E PR ESEN TAT ION OF YO U R R E P O RT / 129 necessary to produce an ornate product if it is for internal consumption only. there are other possibilities (see page 96). The importance of conciseness has been stressed throughout this book. The quality of paper you choose will depend on all the factors listed above. it is not a good idea to advertise the fact. this does not mean use as little paper as possible. and facilities are available within your The cost of these various options (and your budget). namely its: size quality colour. However. bear these points in mind: Your purpose (the action you intend the report to generate). Paper There are three aspects to consider when choosing paper. What materials organisation. As you think about the physical construction and appearance of a report. It is also important not to present the reader with huge blocks of uninterrupted . However. The readership (number and nature). Even if your department does have money to burn. do not use poor quality paper if the report is likely to be referred to frequently. The expected life of the report (including the number of likely references to be made to it).
as we have seen. Many reports will have no more than a title on their covers. Others will include the organisation's name and logo and/or a space for a reference number. the amount of paper saved at the planning stage will more than compensate for an extra few sheets in the report itself. Covers Every report should have covers. If you do this be sure that: The colours are easily distinguishable. perhaps with a pocket so that other related documents can be kept with the report. Dark colours are avoided. Alternatively. you could use white paper throughout and coloured partitions between the sections. A report is twice as likely to be read and three times as likely to be saved if it has attractive (though not necessarily expensive) covers. Sometimes a 'window' will have been .130 / WRITING A REPORT type. Customised covers on a report can set it apart. the date of issue and the name of the department responsible for the production of the report. You could also think about using recycled paper. However. sometimes it is useful to use different colour paper in different sections of the report. However. It is customary for reports to be written on white paper. The different sections are logical and rational. Covers protect reports which are likely to be read by many people or saved for a long period of time. Other covers will be made of plastic or even imitation leather. most reports will be enclosed by glossy boards (cards). if only an extra sheet of paper at the back and front to serve as a dust jacket. If you are really concerned about the future of the Scandinavian and Amazonian forests.
The distribution requirements. . Think carefully about the colour of your covers. Whether amendments will be necessary.IMPROVIN G T H E PR ESEN TAT ION OF YO U R R E P O RT / 131 cut out of the front cover. Your choice will depend largely upon: The size of the report. The binding methods used for other related reports. This allows the reader to see the title as it appears on the title page. Here are some common methods of binding: treasury tag stapling plastic gripper gluing stitching ring binding. What system or systems are available within your organisation. The quality requirements. Binding There are several inexpensive binding systems available. Dark ones are often very depressing while very light ones or ones using a combination of bright colours may give an unwanted impression of light-heartedness. 'Safe' colours for reports are either blue or green. Whether inserts will be necessary.
Punch a hole in the top left of the report. Do not use tags to bind reports which are larger than 100 sheets. card or plastic cover. For reports of 10 to 20 pages. and double staple at the top and bottom of the report. Stitching Here the report is made up of sheets folded in the middle to make two single-sided or four double-sided pages. Pins are slightly better. Once again. Never use paper clips. Plastic gripper This method is an improvement on the use of staples down the left side of the report. or use a fourhole punch. Use a plastic slide-grip along the left hand edge of the assembled covers and sheets. Be sure to leave wide margins. A more sophisticated method is known as hot metal gluing. it is best to staple them from the front and the back. Gluing The edges of the sheets are glued and fixed into the spine of a fabric. Then place the report in a plastic wallet. also punch a hole at the bottom left. For larger reports. This method of binding is suitable where amendments will be likely and/or where inserts such as maps and plans are expected. otherwise sheets will soon become detached. but for reasons of safety they are not recommended. Make sure it is at least an inch into the paper both from the top and the left. Stapling Here you simply staple the covers and pages at the top left corner.132 / WRITING A REPORT Treasury tag Tags come in various sizes identified by their colour. but the principle is the same. A more sophisticated method is to staple down the left hand side and cover them with adhesive binding strip. They are then bound by . remember to leave wide margins if you intend to use this system. This method is suitable only for reports of about 25 pages or more and it should be attempted only by the most dexterous of report writers.
This can be done in a number of ways. the overlapping pages method is very simple: each section is identified by pages of unique width. Plastic binding is preferred because sheets can be added or removed. The thumb-index pages method is quite complex and it needs to be undertaken professionally. You will need to have access to a special machine which perforates the binding edge and then threads the binding (plastic or wire) through the holes in the covers and the report. . It is possible to improve the presentation further by making it even easier for readers to find their way around the report. This is not possible with wire binding. It is possible to have reports stitched and cased commercially in hardback form. This system is not suitable for larger reports because the pages tend to become distorted. The pages of the report will then lie flat when opened. this would be a far more expensive exercise. Ring binding This gives a report a professional appearance and it is suitable for works of up to around 20 sheets. Side indexing is another straightforward method. However. It is most suitable for short reports. as required. On the other hand. Any organisation which produces reports regularly and/or in quantity should seriously consider acquiring a ring binding machine. It is achieved simply by attaching protruding self-adhesive labels to the first page of each section of the report. Therefore it is only appropriate where there will be a wide external circulation.IMPROVIN G T H E PR ESEN TAT ION OF YO U R R E P O RT / 133 a method known as saddle stitching. as illustrated in Figure 18. Indexing The report will have a contents page and it may have an index. Each of these methods can be complemented by the use of different colour pages to identify the various sections of the report.
The way you present your text and artwork. SUMMARY Appearance matters. the options available to you within your organisation.134 / WRITING A REPORT Fig. your readership. binding and possibly indexing. and your choice of paper. Remember . and their relative cost. However. Indexing a report. Word processing and desktop publishing Modern word processing and desktop publishing packages present opportunities to the report writer that were unthinkable a decade ago. covers. the expected life of the report. will be strongly influenced by your purpose. do not get carried away with the possibilities. 18.
Ask yourself: are they relevant to the text? . However. Be selective. easily digestible and memorable. It is easier to assimilate information presented pictorially. and choose ones that will help you develop the right departmental or corporate image and identity for your business. Illustrations Well produced and appropriate illustrations really enhance a report. They should never be included for their own sake. Layout and design Presentation can be greatly assisted if sufficient thought is given to the report's: format page size and orientation margins and spacing headings and subheadings numbering. A very wide range of typefaces and fonts is available. illustrations should only be used if they are easier to understand than the words or figures they represent. Typography This is the art and style of printing. They make information readily understandable.IMPROVIN G T H E PR ESEN TAT ION OF YO U R R E P O RT / 135 that your purpose is to communicate simply and effectively with your readers.
to show some detailed findings. Ask yourself whether the report should be indexed and.136 / WRITING A REPORT Before you decide the kind of illustration you will use. place it as close to the point of reference as possible. consider the overall appearance and required durability of your report. ask yourself what is its purpose: is it intended to give an overall impression of something. Think about the size. If a reader will need to see the illustration in order to understand the text. quality and colour of paper you will require. covers. binding and indexing Finally. Consider which binding system you will use. . it is often preferable to place it in an appendix. and always against a white background. which would be the best method to employ. Colour Reports printed only in black. Paper. Remember that your report should have covers and that customised ones would set it apart. However. or to show the structure and working of a system? Then choose the most appropriate illustration to achieve this end. Today's technology can make full colour printing a reality. if so. are rapidly becoming as old fashioned as black and white television sets. if it is merely supplementary to the text.
Part Three Some Common Types of Report Accident reports Agendas for committee meetings Annual reports Appraisal reports Audit reports Comparative testing reports Duty notes reports Explanatory reports Feasibility reports Informative reports Instructional manuals .
For this reason they have different structures. They cover different subjects. What points should I bear in mind? What would be a suitable format? . summaries. The comments here are intended to complement that discussion by pointing out the particular emphases associated with each report type. In Chapter 1 we discussed report components in some detail. and these components are often given different names in different types of report. and they have different purposes and readerships.138 / WRITING A REPORT Interview reports Investigation into financial affairs of a company reports Minutes Process description reports Progress reports Research reports Scientific reports Student project reports Systems evaluation reports Technical reports Technological reports Trouble-shooting reports. This section considers some of the most common types of report which you may be required to produce. they are made up of a variety of combinations of report components (introductions. and so on). 2. We shall do this by answering two questions: 1. Every report should have a title page.
As you plan and later draft your report. Your objective(s). In other words. Only then can you expect to achieve these three essential aims: to be read without unnecessary delay to be understood without undue effort and to be accepted. it must have a beginning. every report also should have some similarities. If you do not help them. Common sense. House-style. a middle and an end. So always think about the needs of your readers. Your readership. . why should they help you? Refer also to Appendix 1 to see how the style.SOM E C OM M ON T YPE S O F R E P O RT / 139 Use this information and advice to help you decide the most appropriate style. layout and content of a report should reflect its overall purpose and readership. you must also bear in mind: The requirements of the person who commissioned the report. use them flexibly. However. remember that while every report should be different. They are the important people. format and contents for your report. It must present relevant facts accurately and in a way that is both acceptable and intelligible to its readers. and they have a right to expect you to make things as easy for them as possible. Custom and conventions.
. It must be drawn up in advance. The reason for speed is so that all salient facts are accurately recorded before details are forgotten.140 / WRITING A REPORT ACCIDENT REPORTS These reports hopefully will not be required on a regular basis. What points should I bear in mind? Balance speed with accuracy. to comply with the law and to be prepared to face a possible claim for damages. 2. 4. What would be a suitable format? If you have no formal report form. what was it? Who reported the accident? What medical treatment was applied – when and by whom? What caused the accident? What has been done to correct the trouble? What recommendations do you have to avoid a recurrence? AGENDAS FOR COMMITTEE MEETINGS An agenda is a list of items to be discussed during a meeting. What was the accident? Where and when did it occur? Who was involved? Was any injury sustained? If so. 8. 9. The reasons for accuracy are to minimise the risk of any possible recurrence. use these headings: 1. witnesses and experts. 6. 3. 5. You will require accurate illustrations supplemented by statements from participants. 7.
in some cases. and it is within the power of the committee to deal with it. quarterly or monthly recurring items. The standard agenda simply lists the subjects to be discussed. Refer to the minutes of previous meetings for any business or discussions which were then deferred. It is often used for 'one-off' meetings. Sort and arrange them before drafting the agenda. Be sure you know precisely what is expected of you. Conversely. Keep a special file of documents which are likely to be required at the next meeting. and the order in which they will be taken. according to the requirements and. The discussive agenda is designed to stimulate thought before and comment at the meeting. . half-yearly. no relevant item of business should be omitted. Here are two common forms of committee agenda: the standard agenda the discussive agenda.SOM E C OM M ON T YPE S O F R E P O RT / 141 What points should I bear in mind? An agenda may take various forms. In deciding what to include on an agenda. and for reminders of routine annual. bear these points in mind: Talk to the chairperson and other committee members who may have business to include. the kind of meeting to which it refers. No business should be placed on an agenda unless it comes within the scope of the committee.
say so. uncontentious items so that the meeting will end amicably.142 / WRITING A REPORT Then think carefully about the order in which items should come up for discussion. or handed out at the meeting. Consider these factors when deciding the order: Refer to any rules governing the meeting which regulate the order in which items of business are dealt with. in the order in which they will be needed. with some simple. If separate documents are required for any item. Then move on to your more 'difficult' subjects. uncontentious items before and after them. It is normally preferable to put routine business first. Make it easy for the committee members to find their way through the agenda by using these devices: Number all items consecutively. . This is known as a bell-curve structure. At the end of the agenda provide a checklist of the documents required for the meeting. make sure the items are in a logical order. Wherever possible. Where an item on the agenda is being continued or carried forward from a previous meeting. quote the minute and date of that meeting. Conclude with more simple. beginning with '1'. the end of the discussion on one item should lead naturally on to the next. If they are to be circulated later. If there are no such rules. Try to place difficult or contentious items just after half-way through the agenda. Begin with some items likely to achieve a consensus. quote the reference number under the appropriate heading together with the date of circulation.
9. 5.SOM E C OM M ON T YPE S O F R E P O RT / 143 Finally. Heading (including where and when the meeting will take place) Apologies for Absence 2. 10. not items that should have been discussed within section 4–7) Date of Next Meeting (also give the time and location) Papers Required for the Meeting (in the order that they will be needed). 3. Discussive agenda A discussive agenda could be structured as follows: 1. 7. } Minutes of the Previous Meeting Items requiring the attention of the committee Any Other Business ('leftovers'. 8. 4. Items 1–3 and 8–10 are standard. What would be a suitable format? Standard agenda A suitable format for a standard agenda would be as follows: 1. Heading (including where and when the meeting will take place) . obtain the chairperson's approval of the agenda before circulating it. 6. Between them come all other items requiring the attention of the committee. This agenda will form the basis of the minutes of the meeting (see below).
144 / WRITING A REPORT 2. or whatever. what it hopes to achieve and why members should attend and contribute) Papers required for the meeting (in the order that they will be needed). For that reason they are usually prepared professionally. It is a progress report in which every department is accounted for. Include illustrations to attract interest and to break up overbearing columns of figures. like chairpersons. Make the cover attractive and eye-catching. 5. The cover and the first few pages must attract and then maintain the readers' interest. 7. . Begin with some simple facts about the organisation and what it does. 6. What points should I bear in mind? The physical appearance of annual reports is crucial. ANNUAL REPORTS An annual report lists the achievements and failures of an organisation. Use short paragraphs with bold print to emphasise the key points. keep the text well spaced and content not too heavy. have names. 4. Too many reports give the name of their chairperson but then describe a member of staff as 'an engineer'. and why – keep it fairly general) Scope (what are the boundaries of the discussion?) Discussion points (list the items to be discussed and the reasons for discussing them) Possible action (what options are open to the committee?) Summary (the reason for the meeting. When you use photographs of people. 3. Introduction (what will be discussed. Workers. record their names.
000 words (less if possible). What would be a suitable format? This depends on the nature of the organisation and the readership. Here is one possible format: contents list what the organisation does some of the year's highlights chairperson's statement main body (possibly department to department. For this reason the use of standard questionnaires is recommended. Most of these statements are far too long. It should be informative. Use this as the basis of the main body of the report.SOM E C OM M ON T YPE S O F R E P O RT / 145 As a general rule. Obviously every department will wish to emphasise its successes and gloss over (or simply ignore) its failures. Annual reports usually include a chairperson's statement. This will provide only the information you require. This section should pass logically from topic to topic. Tactfully explain that all that is required is a résumé and critical analysis of the past year's work. It should also be concise – no more than 1. or task to task) accounts appendixes. and an assessment of prospects. businesslike and balanced. the shorter the report the better the chances of attracting a fringe readership. . and it will be in a uniform format and style. A standard format is useful for year-to-year comparisons. So make sure you gather relevant data from all parts of your organisation.
Be specific and avoid euphemisms. highlight training needs. You must be able to justify every tick in the matrix boxes. identify methods of improving this performance. Ask yourself: 'Are they really typical?' Try keeping a notebook and update it regularly in order to build up an accurate and balanced picture of people. The dilemma is that. Also talk with them about this throughout the year. For example behavioural patterns are likely to change according to circumstances. not just at counselling and appraisal interviews. you will need to decide what is relevant and what is not. and often assess suitability for another job. you need to know a person quite well in order to write a fair report while. What would be a suitable format? You may be required to complete a standard form. methods and resources. and every word and phrase you use. on the other hand. The Job The job description. but the broad outline of an appraisal report should cover the following headings and questions: 1. component tasks. What points should I bear in mind? Appraisal reports are very important because what you write will have a direct effect on people's career prospects. on the one hand. Details will vary from organisation to organisation. They are very difficult to write. and we tend to remember extremes of behaviour. promotion. The responsibilities of an appraisal report writer. are acute. Not only that. its objectives. and/or a change in salary. . therefore. it can be difficult to be objective when you know a person quite well.146 / WRITING A REPORT APPRAISAL REPORTS These appraise a person's performance in his or her current job.
The role of the former is laid down by statute and in case law. Summary of Action Proposed What action has been agreed to be taken by whom. Therefore the . indicating success or failure? How far have any failures been within or outside the job-holder's control? What does the evidence of past performance show about the strengths and weaknesses in knowledge. is ultimately what management wants it to be. why not? What changes are required? What action is recommended – by whom. while also affected to some extent by case law.SOM E C OM M ON T YPE S O F R E P O RT / 147 Are they satisfactory? If not. how and when – to build on strengths. that of the latter. how and when? AUDIT REPORTS There are two types of auditor: the external auditor and the internal auditor. skills and attitudes of the job-holder? What precise action is recommended – by whom. how and why? 2. to remedy weaknesses and to develop the individual by means of training and further work experience? 3. Job Performance What objectives must be met and what tasks must be fulfilled? Have these been achieved? • What is the actual evidence from work performance.
. therefore.148 / WRITING A REPORT structure of audit reports will depend on the type of audit work being undertaken. skill and diligence expected of a qualified person. and sufficiently clear as to leave no likelihood of misinterpretation by those whom it concerns. If the contents of the report do not reflect the due care. the auditor may be held liable for damages. If they are uncertain. However. The structure of their reports tends to be fairly consistent. It is now normal practice also for external auditors to issue reports to management which are more akin to internal audit reports. Internal auditors are concerned with the segregation of duties and the internal control of the business for which they are employed. What points should I bear in mind? In a few words the external auditor commits himself or herself to a high degree of responsibility. the internal auditor must always strive for objectivity and accuracy. External auditors are independent of the companies on which they report. like all report writers. They are required to report to the shareholders at general meetings on whether the final statements of a company give a 'true and fair view' of the state of the company's affairs. or if they do not believe this to be so. but it is not defined by any Auditing Standards. It is essential. they must say so in what is known as a qualified audit report. that the report should be carefully prepared to reflect an opinion within the limits of the examination. The internal auditor does not face such an onerous responsibility because the report is not written for the same audience – it is for internal consumption (although the external auditor may decide to place some reliance upon it).
3. An external auditor's report to management will include any or all of the following sections: 1. Weaknesses in internal control and recommendations on how they may be rectified. 6. Breakdowns in the accounting systems and any material errors arising. and 2. or the client's failure to adhere to timetables. Suggestions as to how financial and accounting efficiency may be improved. Additional audit time required as a result of either section 1 or 2. 4. Introduction Respective responsibilities of directors and auditors Basis of opinion Opinion. with the benefit of an outsider's viewpoint. 2. A suitable format for an internal audit report is as follows: 1. recommendations as to how they may be improved. Constructive suggestions not necessarily related to accounting procedures but noted by the auditor during the course of his or her investigations.SOM E C OM M ON T YPE S O F R E P O RT / 149 What would be a suitable format? The usual format for an external audit report on the financial statements of a company incorporated in Great Britain is as follows: 1. 5. Contents page . Unsatisfactory accounting procedures or policies. 4. 3.
150 / WRITING A REPORT 2. 3. where and when) Scope (what precisely was audited. What points should I bear in mind? It is essential to choose sensible standards and then to define them very carefully at the beginning of the report. and possibly what was not) Main body (the findings. make comparisons of these standards from item to item. Is it fit for its purpose? A portable television should be portable. and then reach logical conclusions and recommendations about which are the best and/or which represent the best value for money. 4. 6. Here are some standards important in any well-designed product: Does it work properly? A pop-up toaster should pop up toast. are spare parts readily available? Is it safe and easy to use? A cooker should have no sharp edges and its controls should be clear. 8. 7. Its purpose is to select a number of standards. . Can it cope with the likely conditions of use? A public telephone should be vandal-resistant. 5. divided into logical sub-sections) Conclusions (flowing naturally from the main body) Recommendations (flowing naturally from the conclusions) Appendixes. COMPARATIVE TESTING REPORTS Perhaps the best known of these reports is Which? magazine. Summary (the main findings. conclusions and recommendations) Introduction (what broad subjects were audited. Is it durable and easy to maintain for its expected lifespan? For example.
It should be aesthetically pleasing. as follows: . The second is to name the first item and then record how it matches up to various standards. Does it have 'style'? A well-designed product combines a careful choice of colours. Obviously the precise standards you choose will depend on the items being compared. What would be a suitable format? There are two basic ways of presenting these reports. Here are some examples of standards important when choosing a telephone: target price (comparing similar models) colour options features: —last number redial —number of memories —a display —battery back-up —weight of handset —maximum loudness of ring. The first is to define the first standard and then compare the performance of each item before moving on to the next standard. patterns and textures.SOM E C OM M ON T YPE S O F R E P O RT / 151 Is it pleasing to look at and to handle? Wallpaper must be attractive to potential customers. before moving on to the next item. There are three customary formats for comparative testing reports.
5. Comparison by Standard: Standard A – Item (i) – Item (ii) – Item (iii) Standard B – Item (i) – Item (ii) – Item (iii) Etc. Recommendations 6. Contents page 2. 6. Explanation and description of items to be compared 4. Summary of Standards and Data 4. Introduction 3.152 / WRITING A REPORT Comparison by Standard – Format A 1. Conclusions 5. Contents page 2. Conclusions Recommendations. Comparison by Standard – Format B 1. Introduction 3. Appendixes (i) Explanation and description of items to be compared (ii) Comparison by Standard A: – Explanation of Standard A – Comparison of items (iii) Comparison by Standard B: – Explanation of Standard B – Comparison of items .
Explanation of Standards 4. If the comparison requires quite sophisticated technological investigation. EXPLANATORY REPORTS These are factual reports which provide an account of something that has happened. Comparison by items: Item (i): – Standard A – Standard B – Standard C Item (ii): – Standard A – Standard B – Standard C Etc. Introduction 3. Conclusions Recommendations. . 6. you should also consider the use of formats B or C of Technological Reports. DUTY NOTES REPORTS See Instructional Manuals. Comparison by Items 1.SOM E C OM M ON T YPE S O F R E P O RT / 153 – Etc. Contents page 2. 5.
Action taken – List all the critical actions taken in the order in which they occurred and the reasons for them. What would be a suitable format? This is a suitable format for an explanatory report: 1.154 / WRITING A REPORT What points should I bear in mind? You must be unbiased and objective. – What is the position and authority of the writer? Persons involved – Give their names and positions. 6. 7. Cause and effect – What were the causes and effects of these actions? Conclusions – How was the information for the report gathered? – How long did this take? – What degree of accuracy can the reader reasonably assume? – Are any important facts omitted – If so. 7. . Sequence of events – A simple. why? Recommendations – If required. Do not give any recommendations unless you are asked to do so. 2. where relevant. Contents page Introduction – Why was the report prepared. 9. and who requested it? – Give a 'pen picture' of whatever has happened. Appendixes – See section 5. straightforward account of what happened. 4. If necessary use appendixes. 3. See also Informative Reports. 5.
6. Abstract Summary Contents list (including a separate list of illustrations) Glossary Introduction (purpose and scope) Discussion (the main body providing the evidence – use appendixes if necessary) 7. What points should I bear in mind? You must be unbiased and your approach must be logical. and must recommend that some action is taken or is not taken and/or that some choice is adopted or is rejected. Conclusions (flowing naturally from the discussion) 8. both in physical and economic terms. References (if necessary) 10. They also discuss the desirability of the proposed project from the viewpoint of those who would be affected by it. Appendixes (see section 6). 5. See also Systems Evaluation Reports.SOM E C OM M ON T YPE S O F R E P O RT / 155 FEASIBILITY REPORTS These discuss the practicality. and possibly the suitability and compatibility of a given project. Sometimes sections 1 and 2 are combined. What would be a suitable format? This is a suitable format for a feasibility report: 1. Be sure that you know the precise purpose of the proposed project and also its scope. Recommendations (flowing naturally from the conclusions) 9. 3. 4. Report writers must come to a conclusion. . 2.
Contents page Introduction (why was the report produced and what is hoped to be achieved by it?) Plan (how the Main Body is structured) Main Body (possibly one subsection for each main piece of information) Conclusions (flowing naturally from the Main Body – also what. 2. there must be a good reason for including it. but there is a degree of overlap. 5. INSTRUCTIONAL MANUALS Instructional manuals and duty notes are written to explain how a job or process (or perhaps how a particular aspect of a job or a process) is to be performed.156 / WRITING A REPORT INFORMATIVE REPORTS These are more general than explanatory reports (see above). if anything. It is important to provide a logical plan because some readers may be interested in perhaps just one or two sections of the report. The purpose of an informative report is to increase the readers' knowledge of an event or to bring them up to date. 3. . What points should I bear in mind? You must present a clear overall theme. See also Explanatory Reports. 4. Sometimes sections 2 and 3 are combined. Each section of the report must be appropriate to this theme. is it hoped will happen next?). What would be a suitable format? This is a customary format for an informative report: 1.
List and number of steps necessary to complete the job 7. Do not confuse instructional manuals with Process Description Reports. Contents page Job/Duty/Process objective (a brief statement of subject. the former explain how a process is to be performed. What would be a suitable format? This is a typical format for an instructional manual or a set of duty notes: 1. Theory or principles of the operation (the mechanics of the process) 4. Description of the mechanism (an overview of the equipment. purpose and scope) 3. As already stated. Once you have drafted your instructions. Precautions necessary (explain why) 9. possibly breaking it into its component parts) 6. .SOM E C OM M ON T YPE S O F R E P O RT / 157 What points should I bear in mind? Good instructional manuals and duty notes are written by people who know the job or process well. and how much to leave out. List of materials and equipment needed 5. try them out first on someone who is likely to use the report. 2. the latter help the reader understand that process. The degree of difficulty at each stage. So be absolutely sure of your purpose before deciding on a suitable format. Instructions for each step (the main body) 8. Show what must be done (use illustrations to support section 7) 10. Sections 3–5 and 8 are often omitted from clerical duty notes. They know how much detailed instruction to include.
a brief discussion on the preparation of interview reports is appropriate. The second is used to evaluate the material gathered during the interview. Interviewee. Attainments: – Work – Educational – Extramural . date. reference. and that adequate and relevant notes are taken. The first is designed to ensure that an interview is well-structured. A Structured Interview Report 1. What would be a suitable format? The following format provides a useful framework for an interview. However. time and location 2. Interviewers who lack the technique of interview report writing will merely attempt to rationalise their decision. Physical: – First impression – Appearance – Speech – Health 3. A good interview is organic. What points should I bear in mind? Clear and adequate reports are essential to an interviewer who seeks a detailed and accurate recall and evaluation of interviewees (perhaps job applicants). There will also be several sub-subheadings which are not given here. interviewer. However the framework must be used with discretion.158 / WRITING A REPORT INTERVIEW REPORTS Effective interviewing techniques are not within the scope of this book. There are two types of interview report. comprehensive. not mechanical.
However. The top scorer is not necessarily the best candidate. and the separate products will be totalled. This report format will be of assistance: An Interview Evaluation Summary Report 1. this method does force the interviewer to think about the specific requirements of the job. 5. Recommendation. they will all be given a weighting. Interviewee. 7. 8. there may be a minimum total required for some or all the qualities. For example. Before sections 2 and 3 can be completed the candidate will first be given a raw score of 1–5 (poor to outstanding) for every ability and willingness raised by the interviewer. and these may not have all been met. time and location 2. and about how far the various interviewees meet them. reference. Interests Circumstances: – Family background – Domestic and social situation. After the interview the interviewer will need to evaluate the interviewees. The raw score will then be multiplied by the weighting. However. or relative importance score (often 1–7. Special aptitudes General intelligence Disposition. Able to do 3. date. 6.SOM E C OM M ON T YPE S O F R E P O RT / 159 4. interviewer. . useful to vital). as some of these qualities will be more important to the job than others. Willing to do: – Disposition – Motivation 4. Summary 5.
Then undertake all the necessary detailed work. From these the final report will be drafted. but a typical structure is as follows: 1. . 4. the accountant must obtain precise instructions from his or her client (the terms of reference). In the case of an investigation governed by statute. Draft a skeletal framework. What points should I bear in mind? In the case of a private investigation. recording your findings on working papers. Throughout the investigation never lose sight of your purpose. 5. Introduction (including the terms of reference and the nature and history of the enterprise being investigated) Main body (the work performed and the facts ascertained – see below) Conclusions (drawn from the main body) Recommendations (drawn from the conclusions) Appendixes (any voluminous statistics). reports for prospectuses and for Department of Trade investigations). What would be a suitable format? This will depend on the nature of the investigation. detailing the headings which will be used in the final report. 2.160 / WRITING A REPORT INVESTIGATION INTO THE FINANCIAL AFFAIRS OF A COMPANY REPORTS There are numerous types of investigation – some private (for example. ones undertaken on behalf of a prospective purchaser of a business). and must also obtain necessary instructions where applicable. 3. First make preliminary inquiries to ascertain the information that is necessary to be able to plan the investigation. It is all too easy to become side-tracked. others governed by statute (for example. the reporting accountant must be fully conversant with the statutory regulations.
Selective note taking at the meeting will greatly assist this process. state what was decided.6 Assets and Liabilities. Ask yourself.2 Sales and Marketing 2.). Those of a standing committee must provide enough information and discussion so that absent members can participate on equal terms at the next meeting. .5 Prospects and Trends 2. the fewer the words used the better. motions passed and the names of the people who attended. Minutes of a subcommittee must include enough to keep its parent committee in touch with developments and to explain the reasons for decisions.SOM E C OM M ON T YPE S O F R E P O RT / 161 In the case of an investigation into a retail business on behalf of a potential purchaser. . Concentrate on conclusions. MINUTES Minutes can be defined as a written record of the business transacted at a meeting. section 2 – the main body – could be subdivided as follows: 2. what was the purpose of the meeting? Minutes of a formal meeting must include: decisions taken.1 Management and Staff 2. They may well have some legal and authoritative force. and as soon as possible after the meeting.4 Trade Results (per audited accounts) 2. Write in the simple past tense (Mr Smith reported that . .3 Purchases and Supplies 2. Do not record controversy. What points should I bear in mind? As a general rule.
The chairperson will then sign them as correct. Once the minutes have been drafted. ask the chairperson to check them. are as concise as is compatible with the degree of accuracy required. not what they actually said. If someone asks for a correction. It is a good idea to clearly identify these people by putting their names in an 'action' column on the right of the page and opposite the appropriate references in the text. as follows: .162 / WRITING A REPORT The way minutes are numbered varies from organisation to organisation. What would be a suitable format? Headings in the minutes of a meeting should broadly correspond with those which appear in its agenda. follow a method of presentation which helps the reader assimilate the contents. beginning each set of minutes with ' 1' and consecutively. beginning each year with '1'. Here are three common methods: consecutively. impartial and balanced account of the proceedings. from the first meeting onwards consecutively. concise and unambiguous language. try to negotiate an acceptable form of words. Check that your minutes: provide a true. are written in clear. However do not be fooled by people who want you to report what they should have said. Then circulate them to anyone who will be expected to act upon them. At the following meeting these minutes will be discussed and any arguments over them will be resolved.
5. the latter help the reader understand that process. The former explain how a process is to be performed. 2. 10. but was not) Minutes of the Previous Meeting (note any corrections and state 'The minutes were accepted as a true record of the meeting [with the above corrections]') Simple statements of what actually occurred at the meeting Any Other Business (the 'leftovers') Date of Next Meeting (also give the time and location). Process description reports are used to describe the following: how something is made how something is done (for information. 6. PROCESS DESCRIPTION REPORTS A process is a specific series of actions that bring about a specific result.SOM E C OM M ON T YPE S O F R E P O RT / 163 1. 7. . What points should I bear in mind? It is important not to confuse instructional manuals (see above) with process description reports. not instruction) how a mechanism works how a natural process occurs. 8. 4. 9. } Heading (including where and when the meeting was held) Present (who was there) Apologies for Absence (who should have been there. 3.
What would be a suitable format? A suitable format for a process description report would be as follows: 1. supervisors' reports. 2. PROGRESS REPORTS These are periodic reports which. What points should I bear in mind? Progress reports will be required in one of three circumstances: on a regular basis at certain times during an activity or process. Contents page (with a separate list of illustrations) Introduction (identify the process. and they make comparisons from period to period by identifying changes and their underlying causes and effects. describe how some activity or process is progressing. 4. . accurate and unambiguous. Almost every such report will include illustrations. 3. They are essential for effective decision making so they must be clear. They record progress over a specific period of time.164 / WRITING A REPORT The report is essentially chronological or sequential and it is most commonly used within the world of business and industry. and so on. as their name suggests. or as and when required. record its purpose and significance. They are often built up from workers' daily logs. give an overview of the steps involved) Main body (discuss each step in turn) Summary (concentrate on the purpose and importance of the actions or the significance of the facts).
give a clear statement of the objectives and scope of the research. RESEARCH REPORTS The purpose of a research report is to extend our understanding of the world by reducing uncertainty and increasing our understanding of it. and how it was analysed. you must be able to assess and then evaluate the reliability of the results. what methods were used to collect the data. Introduction – the period of work covered – the work planned – the authority for the work – the progress to date Main Body – the work completed – how the work has been completed – the work planned for the future – an overall appraisal of the progress to date. What points should I bear in mind? Results alone are never enough. Here is one simple format: 1.SOM E C OM M ON T YPE S O F R E P O RT / 165 What would be a suitable format? Most organisations have standard printed progress report forms. Contents page Introduction – Set the scene. You must say precisely how the work was carried out. although headings vary considerably. . 2. 2. What would be a suitable format? This is a typical format for a research report: 1. As you will see from the typical format described below. Conclusions and recommendations must be drafted with great care.
– Distinguish 'facts' from interpretations. – Discuss the events which led up to it. then say so. – Structure your results around these objectives. – Do not see relationships that do not exist. form links. probably in chronological order. 4. Conclusions – Make sure they flow naturally from the results. . – Explain how the results were analysed (for example. – In a non-academic report. 5. – Assess the importance of other. build up an overall picture. sampling methods). – Discuss the results. – Describe the methods used (for example. with no surprises.166 / WRITING A REPORT 3. Recommendations – These should flow naturally from your conclusions. Work carried out – Describe the overall shape and design of the research. – Each one must be supported by your findings and/or other research. inferences. – Concentrate on each objective of the research in turn. 6. – Give the reason(s) for the research. – Describe the actual work carried out. you can omit some results (or at least put them in an appendix) and emphasise significant results. give full results (with an interpretation in a separate section). related work. The Results – In an academic report. – If no clear picture has emerged. predictions or deductions. input to a computer). – What was known about the subject at the beginning of the research? – Put the project into its proper context.
231 and 0. There is no point in giving a reading of. All readings must be consistent. 0. then record the result only to the degree of precision to which you have confidence – perhaps 0. Ensure you observe and record accurately. recording every observation as you proceed.232mm.2317mm unless you have a good reason to believe that it lies somewhere between 0. If you are not familiar with the relevant theory. Always record the units of measurement. If you do not have good reason to believe this. What points should I bear in mind? Before you can write the report. Ensure you know how the equipment works. . and then set it up in the most sensible way for you to make all the required measurements and observations. Carry out the test or experiment. Here are some points to bear in mind: Make sure you understand the purpose of the test or experiment. look it up before you start. say. for example to two decimal places. sensitivity and safety.SOM E C OM M ON T YPE S O F R E P O RT / 167 7. SCIENTIFIC REPORTS A scientific report consists of an account of a test or experiment.23mm. Appendixes – Include items which would disturb the flow of the report (for example. you must carry out the test or experiment accurately and you must record your results as you proceed. of its findings. survey forms and questionnaires). and of its conclusions. Make sure you select appropriate equipment with reference to its accuracy.
date and time – The time is relevant only if it is likely to affect results (for example. you should record this as. Apparatus – A list of apparatus and details of its arrangements. . 5. What would be a suitable format? This is the usual format for a scientific report: 1. 2. so record this as.7 ± 0. reference. Introduction – Your purpose and scope.1mm on both figures. Title of experiment. 4.2mm Calculate the results and draw any necessary rough graphs in pencil. with diagrams. If a spring can measure with an accuracy of plus or minus 0. why the experiment was carried out. and the significance of what you found. Form a conclusion based on your accumulated evidence. 6.9 ± 0. length of spring = 21. then make the tests again. Name of class. group or department.1mm If you add a mass to the spring and re-measure. say. change of length of spring = 14. If the results are unreasonable or inconsistent (out of line). was barometric pressure a factor?). say. what you found. Write the report.168 / WRITING A REPORT Record the estimated limits of error. the error could be plus or minus 0. Contents page.1mm. 3. experiment number. Summary (or Abstract or Synopsis) – A brief statement about the structure of the report.
STUDENT PROJECT REPORTS Many students are required to undertake projects and produce reports. . . Conclusion (or Discussion) – The inferences drawn from the results obtained (these results show . Method – A full and clear account of how the experiment was carried out. Interpret results and explain their significance. Circuit theory – Where applicable. Results (or Findings) – All your readings neatly tabulated with graphs neatly drawn. What points should I bear in mind? Here are some points to bear in mind when carrying out a project: Be aware of who will choose the topic. If necessary use appendixes. or through discussion between the two of you. . So talk to your teacher and refer to your syllabus. or by you. Then select a suitable topic. 11. if necessary. preferably one that can be investigated locally. Appendixes – To support section 9. The topic chosen must be acceptable to your examining group. A brief account of the theory underlying the experiment.). Give the estimated limits of error (see above). 10. explain why and how. they are an important part of many GCSE examination schemes. 8. – Could this experiment have been improved in some way? If so.SOM E C OM M ON T YPE S O F R E P O RT / 169 7. For example. Write in the passive (A glass stopper was weighed). 9. It may be chosen by your teacher.
4. 5.170 / WRITING A REPORT Decide what sources of information you will require. John Bowden (Cassell. What would be a suitable format? If your teacher tells you the required format. Write the report. SYSTEMS EVALUATION REPORTS A systems evaluation report serves one of these purposes: To discover which system out of several alternatives is most suitable for a particular application. refer to Chapters 9 and 10 of How to Succeed at GCSE. Decide how you will gather this information. 1989). Contents page Introduction Main body Conclusions Recommendations (where appropriate) Appendixes Sources Beginning Middle End See also Technological Reports. Analyse the information. 7. consider this simple format: 1. . Gather the information. comply with it. 6. If you have no such instruction or guidance. or if it is given in your syllabus. 3. 2. If you want to know more about student project reports.
flow charts and perhaps photographs). if the initial operation is deemed worthwhile. You must be independent. footnotes. 2. What would be a suitable format? A suitable format for a report with the purpose of discovering which system out of several alternatives is most suitable for a particular application is as follows: 1. What points should I bear in mind? The purpose of the first two types of report is to inform those concerned with selection. or with multiple applications. The last of these is considered under Trouble-Shooting Reports. To enquire into the causes of failures in an existing operational system.SOM E C OM M ON T YPE S O F R E P O RT / 171 To test an apparatus or system which it is intended to employ on a large scale. implementation and utilisation about: the requirements of the application the criteria by which the systems should be judged the features of available systems data on their performance in the field and recommendations or conclusions about the best course of action. You probably will need to use supplementary text. a glossary and illustrations (diagrams. do not rely on the word of manufacturers or suppliers. Contents page Preface (personal background: why have you written the report?) . These reports are important – mistakes are costly.
TECHNICAL REPORTS Technical reports are often written at an early stage in a production process. 6. . 5. Contents page Preface (personal background: why have you written the report?) Apparatus/System Requirements Apparatus/System Performance (use appendixes. System Requirements Systems Available Criteria for Selection The Final Choice Appendixes (System Data Sheets). 5. 7. 4. 6. See also Feasibility Reports and Trouble-Shooting Reports. either by the technical publications department of an organisation or by staff involved in this production process. if necessary). 2.172 / WRITING A REPORT 3. A report on the initial performance of an apparatus or a system could follow this format: 1. 7. 3. if necessary) Conclusions Recommendation Appendixes (to support section 4. They are usually generated internally. 4. Here are some examples of technical reports: a technical proposal a feasibility study design and research reports pre-production reports evaluation documents ad hoc reports.
refer to Spring into Technical Writing. This is a typical layout: 1. Rosenberg (Addison Wesley. therefore. its terms of reference and its general purpose) Summary (the salient facts and a concise summary of conclusions.SOM E C OM M ON T YPE S O F R E P O RT / 173 What points should I bear in mind? These reports are often written by engineers who are not always familiar with the techniques of effective writing. will be of assistance. 5. TECHNOLOGICAL REPORTS A technological report is concerned with the application of practical or mechanical sciences in order to achieve a desired aim. Contents page Aims (why it was written. 3. What would be a suitable format? Every organisation will have its own format requirements. What points should I bear in mind? A good technological report should combine and demonstrate these qualities: planning communication . 2. The advice given throughout this book. Barry J. 2005). If you wish to read more about this wide yet specialised area of report writing. 6. 7. if any) Main body (main discussion of the subject matter) Conclusions (if necessary) Bibliography (if required) Index (in larger reports only). 4.
Evidence (include drawings. Make sure it is well organised and well-presented. such as a working model or a piece of woodwork). Contents page 2. Reach a solution which achieves your objective. select the one that best suits your needs: Format A 1. Evaluate your work: are you satisfied with it? Is it economically viable? What would be a suitable format? Here are three formats. Brief (what you were attempting to do) 3. Format B 1. Present it logically to show a wellconstructed development of the problem-solving process.174 / WRITING A REPORT ability to reason ability to evaluate a logical and realistic solution. This format would be suitable for a Student Project Report about the production of an artefact (a physical thing created by one or more human beings. Show the 'thinking' that has gone into the report. Analysis (your analysis of the problem – include the research material you have gathered) 4. Purpose – why was the work undertaken? . Thinking (your initial thinking and your evaluation of it) 5. photographs and other evidence of your solution – the artefact) 7. Solution (explain how you developed your solution) 6. As always. Contents page 2. Evaluation (an objective evaluation of your solution).
6.SOM E C OM M ON T YPE S O F R E P O RT / 175 3. if necessary. Format C 1. Introduction – why was the work undertaken? – provide any relevant background information – discuss any limitations/conditions you faced (for example: cost. time. Methods Used – the apparatus and equipment used (with illustrations) – a step-by-step account of the procedure – observations taken (tabulated) – use appendixes. if necessary) Conclusions – a survey of the work undertaken: compare actual results with theoretical results compare actual results with others obtained elsewhere give reasons for such discrepancies or variations assess the relevance of the methods used assess the efficiency of the equipment used discuss any human errors and/or any relevant environmental factors Recommendations – flowing naturally from your conclusions Appendixes – to support sections 3 and/or 4. or environmental) . Object – a brief statement of your aim 3. Contents page 2. 7. if necessary – calculations necessary to give meaning to the observations Results – use tables and illustrations (and appendixes. 4. 5. Summary – concentrate on your findings 3.
8. 12. 11. your comments Recommendations – flowing from your conclusions Appendixes – to support sections 7 and/or 9. if necessary . 7. where appropriate. 10. 9. if necessary Comments – discuss the degree of accuracy achieved – compare your results with those from other sources – comment on quality of the materials and workmanship of the item tested – what alternative method(s) of presenting your findings could you have used? – why did you present your findings as you have? – make your acknowledgements Conclusions – flowing from your results and. equipment or machinery during and after the test – record the readings made during the investigation in tables and/ or illustrations – use appendixes.176 / WRITING A REPORT 5. specimens. Apparatus – describe it (with illustrations) – why was it chosen? Procedures – a step-by-step account of what was done Observations – give details of components. 13. 6. if necessary Calculations – based on your observations – based on theoretical considerations – analyse errors – summarise your results Results – use a separate section or appendix.
Be candid but be fair. When you are discussing problems caused by the structure of an organisation. unambiguous and concise) 5. Index – in larger reports only. What would be a suitable format? Here are four possible structures. Present situation (the salient points) 3. Recommendations (well-argued. be accurate. organisations or hardware. Contents page 2. In the main they deal with people. Reports on hardware are less complicated and often less contentious. Formats B and C are suitable for technological tests or investigations.SOM E C OM M ON T YPE S O F R E P O RT / 177 14. Choose the one that best suits your needs: Format A 1. References (if required). When they are caused by people you must be especially careful to word the report thoughtfully. People are generally not keen on change. Format C is particularly useful for a long report. clear. TROUBLE-SHOOTING REPORTS These reports aim to locate the cause of some problem. you must expect to meet the objection: 'But we've always done it this way'. What points should I bear in mind? These reports highlight problems. perhaps assessing the suitability of two or more items for a defined purpose. . See also Comparative Testing Reports. Most of all. Options for Change (the pros and cons of each option) 4. and then suggest ways to remove or treat it.
Format B 1. Contents page 2. Introduction (purpose and scope) 3. Evidence (concise, balanced and unambiguous – use appendixes, if necessary) 4. Arguments for (present all the pros logically and objectively and respond positively to weaknesses in your case) 5. Arguments against (list them and refute them in turn) 6. Recommendation (be clear, unambiguous and precise) 7. Appendixes (to support section 3, if necessary). Format C 1. Contents page 2. Introduction (your purpose) 3. Summary of Recommendations (clear, unambiguous and precise) 4. Present Position (the salient points) 5. Scope (what work was done, and possibly what was not) 6. Observations on Recommendations (the main body – repeat each recommendation and give the main pros and cons for each – say why the pros prevailed) 7. Conclusion (keep it concise) 8. Appendixes (if required). Format D 1. Contents page 2. The Problem – nature and cause – extent – effects (perhaps on safety or production) 3. The Need for Change – reasons (perhaps labour problems or competition) 4. Proposed Solution – options available – details of proposed solution
– previous experience of this scheme (perhaps elsewhere) – advantages – disadvantages (and how they can be overcome) – effects (perhaps improved efficiency or sales prospects) 5. Time Factors – when can it be implemented? 6. Costs – for each option: – implementation costs – running costs – estimated savings, if applicable 7. Conclusion – for the chosen option: – overall effects – overall benefits 8. Recommendations – item by item, clear and unambiguous 9. Appendixes – if required. See also Feasibility Reports and Systems Evaluation Report.
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Sample Reports
Appendix 1
Here are excerpts from four recent BMA reports, written in differing styles reflecting their differing purposes and readerships. The premise of the first report is that an essential component of the relationship between the medical profession and disabled citizens is not just about the way disabled patients are treated, but also the way healthcare organisations treat their disabled employees. The report unequivocally places disability as a mainstream priority concern and gives a powerful insight into the cultural challenges faced by healthcare service employees with impairments and/or long-term health conditions. It also demonstrates how issues need to be addressed by tackling traditional fears, attitudes and myths. The language used is direct and uncompromising. The publication is aimed at policy makers; healthcare, academic training and regulatory organisations that have strategic and operational responsibilities within the medical profession; the UK health departments; and medical workshop managers. The BMA intends this seminal report to be the basis for a significantly improved relationship for disabled people working in and using healthcare services.
As a result. Royal College. Significant difficulties are also faced in accessing the medical profession. failure to make reasonable adjustments) and from more implicit forms of discrimination that can be attitudinal. assumptive. It is essential that disabled doctors. yet. This implicit discrimination results from the culture in the medical profession where doctors are traditionally viewed as having to be flawless and fully fit. disabled doctors and disabled medical students are disproportionately undervalued. postgraduate deanery or general practitioner (GP) directorate.182 / WRITING A REPORT DISABILITY EQUALITY IN THE MEDICAL PROFESSION Equal opportunities for disabled doctors and disabled medical students Disabled doctors and disabled medical students are invaluable within the medical profession. training or practising medicine have appropriate support and are provided with the same opportunities as their non-disabled colleagues. exclusionary or segregational. Barriers to a career in medicine for disabled people The lack of equality for disabled doctors and disabled medical students results from direct forms of disability discrimination (for example. There are numerous examples of disabled people with successful careers in the medical profession. as evident from the low numbers of disabled people applying to study medicine. disabled medical students and any individual who acquires an impairment while studying. be that a medical school. they are uniquely placed in terms of responding to the healthcare needs of disabled people and fostering a diverse and inclusive environment. . a medical career is often not supportive or enabling towards disabled doctors and disabled medical students. In living with an impairment and/or disability discrimination. The amount and type of support available and the reasonable adjustments which are made for disabled doctors and disabled medical students is entirely dependent on the organisation involved.
not unique to medicine as it is generally acknowledged as being prevalent throughout the higher education sector and in the workplace. The problem of under-reporting of impairment is however. This is compounded by external pressures on how disability is viewed. In its Recommendations to Government July 2006 (DRC. and the stigma attached to the term 'disabled'. the definition of disability in the DDA 1995 (as amended) also corresponds to the traditional models of disability. as it is felt this may adversely affect career progression. One example of this is the GMC publication Tomorrow's doctors (GMC. The . 2003) which states that graduates must recognise the importance of 'reducing or managing impairments. mental health problems). Under-reporting of impairment is also probable among medical students and those applying to study medicine. There are a number of potential reasons why individuals choose not to disclose information on their impairment. For example. 2006) the DRC suggests changing the DDA definition to one consistent with the social model of disability. It is likely that many doctors and medical students find it difficult to move away from this traditional mind-set. including: concerns about discrimination or being rejected by people with pre-set ideas about the effects of a particular impairment. where an individual's impairment is seen as the problem. Under-reporting of impairment Due to the culture within the medical profession.APPENDIX 1 – SAMPLE REPORTS / 183 The historical culture behind medicine and medical training means the approach to disability has traditionally focused on finding a cure or providing care in accordance with the traditional models. particularly in the case of hidden impairments (for example. disabilities and handicaps'. there is a great deal of underreporting of impairment by doctors. Viewing disability in this way sees the individual disabled person's impairment as the problem and ignores the social model of disability.
that is asking them if they experience discrimination on the grounds of impairment. It necessitates a fundamental shift towards a culture and environment that encourages openness about impairment and views disability positively. rather than if they are unable to carry out normal day-today activities. as well as the types of impairment that are most/least likely to be declared and the barriers to declaration in the medical profession. One approach towards reducing under-reporting is to ask doctors and medical students to identify as disabled people using the social model.184 / WRITING A REPORT reluctance of doctors and medical students to declare their impairment most likely arises as a result of concern that an impairment may be considered by colleagues and employers to be a sign of weakness that limits professional competence concerns that it will give the employer or education provider the chance to label individuals by their impairment and make assumptions about what they can and cannot do on the basis of their impairment a reluctance to provide information on an impairment as this may not allow an individual to convey an accurate understanding of their impairment. or they may find it difficult to explain it in words the belief that their impairment will have no effect on their ability to do a job or undertake a course. This would encourage more disabled people to self define. It is important to understand the extent to which impairments are under-reported. It also requires a better understanding of the barriers to declaring impairments and targeted approaches to encourage doctors and medical students to declare information on their impairment. and related . and encourage a culture where organisations and individuals recognise and deal with discrimination on grounds of impairment. Under-reporting of impairment is not easily solvable.
such as that relating to impairment. . Using the application process for the Access to Work scheme. Organisations that collect. and only then when it is of relevance to the provision of a service.APPENDIX 1 – SAMPLE REPORTS / 185 matters. Personal sensitive information must only be obtained and held where consent has been given. and access to this information should be strictly regulated. store. and storing paper-based records in lockable cabinets or cupboards. would provide a more accurate reflection of the number of disabled employees. and should be disposed of following the elapse of a reasonable time. Disclosure of impairments Personal and sensitive information. for example. to allow employees the opportunity to disclose as disabled people for monitoring purposes. monitor and analyse personal sensitive information are governed by eight principles set out in the Data Protection Act 1998. relevant and not excessive accurate and up to date not kept for longer than is necessary processed in line with [the individual's] rights secure not transferred to other countries without adequate protection'. Data must be safeguarded by technical and organisational measures. password-protecting electronic information. should be treated as confidential. which 'make sure that personal information is: fairly and lawfully processed processed for limited purposes adequate. It is important that data are accurate and be kept up to date.
training and employment. and not to influence the admission selection procedures regarding academic performance and personal qualities.186 / WRITING A REPORT 'Experience shows that anonymous monitoring leads to a better response rate – because individuals are often concerned about disclosing personal information. Developing disability equality Disability equality must be a central component of all equal opportunities policies and strategies in the medical profession. It is important that equal opportunity policies are developed and kept up-to-date and that disabled people are consulted about. and are not sufficiently focused on providing disability equality for doctors and medical students which may lead them to believe that these initiatives are not relevant to them. It is important that personal information is only provided when necessary and only where appropriate. and involved in. as well as commitment at the most senior levels. Documents such as application forms and CVs should not include sensitive information. confidentiality must be guaranteed and reports of such exercises should be anonymised so that individuals cannot be identified. This commitment must extend throughout all organisations with strategic and operational responsibility for doctors and medical students and cover all aspects of education.' Where it is not possible to collect information on an anonymous basis. This requires leadership from the GMC. These initiatives are NHS-wide. Information such as disclosure of a specific impairment should be used by occupational health services to assess an applicants' physical and mental ability to practise as a doctor. It is important that all organisations clearly . their on-going development. for example. when tracking the progress of individuals. There have been a number of recent initiatives aimed at improving disability equality within the National Health Service (NHS) such as Improving Working Lives (IWL) and positive action. however.
meaning that it can relate to the needs of disabled patients and create a more responsive service. . including heath professionals. It is aimed at a wide audience. 2007). The approach is to provide a clear synthesis of the available research. the required actions and adjustments relating to education. There is evidence to show that exposure to SHS in pregnancy causes harm that extends through infancy and childhood into adulthood. It is important to acknowledge that in addition to addressing disability equality among doctors and medical students. In this way the workforce will better reflect the user population. BREAKING THE CYCLE OF CHILDREN'S EXPOSURE TO TOBACCO SMOKE Smoking in pregnancy and the impact on neonatal health Maternal smoking during pregnancy is the largest preventable cause of neonatal and infant ill health and death in the UK. This is further discussed in the BMA publication Disability equality within healthcare: the role of healthcare professionals (BMA. and that these policies are communicated to all members of staff.APPENDIX 1 – SAMPLE REPORTS / 187 set out their equal opportunities policies with respect to disability. It places the mother at risk of life-threatening complications. Improvements in patient care should result directly from the adjustments and policies put in place within healthcare organisations and also indirectly through having a workforce which supports and includes a greater number of people with impairments. policy makers and members of the public. training and employment can have a significant impact upon service provision for disabled patients. and to develop evidence-based recommendations for policy. * * * This second report describes the damage that adult smoking causes children.
Maternal smoking in pregnancy is a cause of low birth-weight.5 and 3.188 / WRITING A REPORT Smoking is associated with an increased risk of ectopic pregnancy and miscarriage. babies of mothers who smoke during pregnancy are 200 to 250g lighter than those of non-smokers. via both interuterine growth retardation and premature delivery.0 times. or sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) (see page 18). Smoking increases the risk of placental abruption by between 1. In both cases. Babies born with low birth-weight are at increased risk of illness and death in infancy. On average. . Smokers have a two to three-fold increased risk of rupture of the chorion and amnion membranes that surround the fetus in the womb before 37 weeks of pregnancy. Smoking in pregnancy has been established as a cause of placental abnormalities and premature rupture of the fetal membranes. In developed countries.4 and 2. Babies born to mothers who smoke are around 40 per cent more likely to be stillborn or to die within the first four weeks of life. A review in 2004 found that the risk of premature birth was between 20 and 30 per cent higher for smoking mothers than for non-smokers. Smoking also increases the risk of placenta praevia by between 1. One study found that first-time mothers who smoked up to a pack a day were 25 per cent more likely to experience a stillbirth or neonatal death than non-smoking mothers. Women who smoke are between 50 and 150 per cent more likely to experience an ectopic pregnancy. Smoking in pregnancy is also a cause of cot death. cigarette smoking is the most important factor affecting birth-weight. the greater the risk. and 25 per cent more likely to miscarry. The more cigarettes that are smoked during pregnancy.4 times. the risk increases with cigarette consumption. although the impact of smoking on fetal growth is greater. while those smoking more than a pack a day had a 56 per cent increase in risk. SHS exposure is also associated with low birth-weight.
Mothers who smoke are less likely to start breastfeeding their babies than non-smoking mothers. and urogenital abnormalities. although the evidence is complex and difficult to interpret. the sooner the baby is weaned. putting them at higher risk of cardiovascular disease later in life. In one study. The more cigarettes smoked. A review in 2005 concluded that children exposed to maternal smoking in utero were more than twice as likely to develop ADHD. A 2004 review has resolved that there is insufficient evidence to conclude that smoking in pregnancy increases the risk of fetal abnormalities in general. There is substantial research linking maternal smoking in pregnancy to the development of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). No safe level of exposure to tobacco smoke during pregnancy has been identified. Another study has found that women who smoke during pregnancy can cause permanent cardiovascular damage to their children.APPENDIX 1 – SAMPLE REPORTS / 189 There is conflicting evidence about whether reducing tobacco consumption during pregnancy reduces risks such as low birth-weight. The strongest evidence is for oral clefts (cleft lip and cleft palate). children of mothers who smoked . milk output is reduced by more than 250 ml/day compared with non-smoking mothers. Smoking in pregnancy has been associated with a modest increase in risk for specific fetal malformations. The study found that pregnancy was a critical period for harm from exposure to tobacco smoke and that the effect was independent from exposure to SHS after birth. There is more limited evidence that smoking may be associated with absent or shortened limbs. and tend to breastfeed for a shorter time. In breastfeeding mothers who smoke. Some research suggests that maternal smoking in pregnancy may predispose those exposed to tobacco smoke in utero to become addicted smokers later in life.
Women smokers who are pregnant are more likely to give up smoking if it is their first pregnancy compared to women who have smoked during their previous pregnancies. Women who contributed to a 2004 review identified that guilt. In 1999. but many downplay the impact that it will have on their baby as a process of rationalising this knowledge.190 / WRITING A REPORT more than 10 cigarettes a day while pregnant were five and a half times more likely to start smoking than the children of non-smoking mothers. increasing the risk of addiction if smoking is taken up later in life. Smoking in pregnancy – women's experiences More women give up smoking while planning to conceive or while pregnant than at any other point in their lives. Women who continue to smoke while they are pregnant report strong feelings of guilt. Survey data show that more women report cutting down on smoking while they are pregnant than quitting. which can prevent them from admitting how much they smoke. but approximately half of the women who smoke in the year before they become pregnant continue to smoke throughout their pregnancy. Most women are aware that smoking in pregnancy is harmful to the baby. It is possible that smoking in pregnancy may affect the development of nicotine receptors in the brain. four out of five pregnant smokers surveyed agreed with the statement that "there are things which are far worse for an unborn baby than smoking". . and women with partners are more likely to smoke while they are pregnant if their partners are smokers. Single mothers are more likely to smoke while pregnant than those with partners. anxiety and stress resulting from continuing to smoke could damage relationships with their families and antenatal care staff. A study which analysed cotinine levels in urine suggests that women may not actually reduce consumption during pregnancy.
a series of totally preventable mental and physical birth defects resulting from maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy. there was a reduced risk of caesarean section due to fetal distress. * * * The third report cited is intended to raise awareness of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD). To date.APPENDIX 1 – SAMPLE REPORTS / 191 It has been reported that some women mistakenly believe that low birth-weight babies are desirable or that they result in easier labours. In addition to the potential to support mothers to quit. One study has shown that women with partners who smoke are four times more likely to smoke while pregnant than those with non-smoking partners. as well as on children is a strong argument for encouraging fathers to quit. One study that modelled the impact of a 100g increase in birth weight found that the overall risk of caesarean section was greatly reduced. Some research has shown that expectant fathers did not believe that their SHS would have an effect on the fetus. while making no real changes to their own smoking behaviour. the impact of continuing paternal smoking on maternal and fetal health. there has been limited research into FASD in the UK. . Other studies have suggested that fathers can undermine women's quit attempts by giving 'negative support' in response to smoking cues and lapses. One recent Northern Ireland study showed that the majority of male partners wanted their partners to quit or cut down smoking. While there was a slightly increased risk of caesarean section due to obstruction. Smoking in pregnancy – the role of partners A number of studies have shown that partners have a strong influence on whether women continue to smoke while they are pregnant.
The report identifies and examines the incidence, cause and outcomes of the various associated disorders and is targeted at healthcare professionals and relevant bodies in the fields of education and social services with strategic or operational responsibility for public health and health protection.
FETAL ALCOHOL SPECTRUM DISORDERS (FASD) Alcohol consumption in women of childbearing age and during pregnancy
Approximately 90 per cent of women in Britain consume alcoholic beverages at least occasionally, and there has recently been a significant increase in heavy drinking among young British women. A survey in 2000 showed that eight per cent of women aged 18–24 years had consumed at least units of alcohol during the previous week. A study of drinking trends in the UK found 38 per cent of women in their 20s had engaged in binge drinking. The General Household Survey (GHS) 2003 found that the proportion of women aged 16–24 years who had consumed six units or more on at least one day in the past week had risen from 24 per cent to 28 per cent over the period 1998-2002. It also found that women aged 16–24 were far more likely than other age groups to have consumed six units or more in one day and that nine per cent of all women aged 16 and above were heavy drinkers in 2003. A report from the Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology (POST) found that 60 per cent of alcohol consumed by women aged 20 to 29 is consumed in bouts of heavy drinking. The increasing level of alcohol consumption among women in the UK has been accompanied by a substantial rise in alcohol-related morbidity and mortality. According to the ONS, the number of alcohol-related deaths among UK women aged 35–54 years has doubled between 1991 and 2005, from 7.2 to 14.2 per 100,000 population. Recent years have
seen a significant rise in deaths from liver disease in England and Wales and an increasing proportion of such deaths involve relatively young adults. In 2000, cirrhosis accounted for nearly 300 deaths in women aged 25–44 years. In the past decade the most common age for mortality from chronic liver disease has dropped from 55–64 years to 45–54 years. If the age at which the onset of chronic liver disease continues to fall this may increasingly affect women of childbearing age who may be at risk of becoming pregnant with a liver which is already less able to process alcohol efficiently. In the 2000 UK survey on infant feeding, the reported rates of drinking during pregnancy were found to have declined consistently since 1995 when two-thirds of mothers throughout the UK consumed alcohol during pregnancy. The survey found that 87 per cent of mothers had sometimes consumed alcohol before pregnancy; around six in 10 drank alcohol while they were pregnant, and approximately three in 10 drinkers gave up during pregnancy. In 2000, 71 per cent of a sample of mothers who continued to drink during their pregnancy reported drinking on average less than one unit of alcohol in a week. In light of the recent increasing levels of alcohol consumption in women of childbearing age in the UK, it is reasonable to suggest that this will lead to an increased risk of heavy drinking during pregnancy and subsequently an increased risk of having a baby who is affected by prenatal alcohol exposure. According to the 2003 BMA report, Adolescent health, adolescents in the UK have one of the highest levels of alcohol use, binge-drinking and getting drunk in Europe. The rate of teenage pregnancies in the UK is the highest in Western Europe. In England and Wales the rate of conception in women under 18 was 41.3 per 1,000 in 2005, and in Scotland it was 42.4 per 1,000 in 2003–04. In Northern Ireland, 6.9 per cent of total live births in 2001 were to women under the age of 20.
The rate of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in the UK increased significantly between 1996 and 2005 with the numbers of individuals presenting with an STI at genitourinary medicine (GUM) clinics across the UK increasing by 60 per cent. Recent evidence suggests that unplanned pregnancies are common, not only in young women but in women throughout their childbearing years. Many women will not therefore know they are pregnant during the early part of the first trimester, during which time they may continue to drink in their prepregnancy fashion with no awareness of the risk to their unborn child.
Underestimating maternal alcohol consumption
Data on rates of drinking during pregnancy are commonly based on self reporting and therefore often unreliable as a result of poor estimation, poor recollection and the social stigma associated with heavy drinking during pregnancy. This is compounded by variation in the alcoholic concentration of different types of drink, variation in serving size (different sizes of wine glass), and the difference between the standard measures used in bars and restaurants as well as measures poured in the home. Maternal alcohol consumption levels are therefore often significantly underestimated. This can lead to difficulties in studying the association between alcohol and poor health outcome, and in recording patient histories of alcohol consumption. Underestimating alcohol consumption can also affect an individual's perceptions of their level of drinking and how much they think is safe to drink.
Is there a safe level of exposure to alcohol during pregnancy?
The damage caused by alcohol on the developing fetus is dependent on the level of maternal alcohol consumption, the pattern of alcohol exposure and the stage of pregnancy during which alcohol is consumed. This is confounded by a number of other risk factors including the genetic makeup of the mother and the fetus, the nutritional status of the mother, hormonal interactions, polydrug use (including tobacco
use), general health of the mother, stress, maternal age and low socioeconomic status. For example, research to identify specific genetic factors contributing to FASD has found that polymorphisms of the gene for the alcohol dehydrogenase enzyme ADH1B in both the mother and the fetus, can contribute to FASD vulnerability. There is robust and consistent evidence from human and animal studies that heavy maternal alcohol use is associated with FAS. This is particularly apparent in cases of alcohol dependence or severe alcohol problems; however, only four to five per cent of children born to women who consumed large amounts of alcohol during pregnancy are affected by the full syndrome presentation. The pattern and duration of drinking are important considerations in defining the risk of heavy drinking during pregnancy. The occurrence of FAS has been found to be associated with the frequency of heavy dose drinking (binge drinking). Women who binge drink are much more likely to have children with facial dysmorphology, cardiac anomalies or cognitive impairment than women who drink the same total amount of alcohol over an extended period of time. The stage of pregnancy during which alcohol is consumed determines how and which cells of the developing fetus are affected. Research has shown there to be vulnerable periods of neonatal development that can be adversely affected by exposure to heavy doses of alcohol intake. Evidence from animal experiments suggests these critical periods of exposure occur during the first and third trimesters in humans. Studies in mice have found the very early stages of embryogenesis to be critical periods for damage to the developing brain and induction of alcoholinduced craniofacial alterations. Prenatal alcohol exposure during the third trimester is highly-related to damage to the cerebellum, hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. A smallscale study examining children with school problems who had been prenatally exposed to alcohol found that damage to the cerebellum
Existing evidence on the adverse irreversible effects of prenatal alcohol exposure at low-to-moderate levels is inconclusive and there is currently no consensus on the level of risk or whether there is a clear threshold below which alcohol is non-teratogenic. fetus and child conducted by the National Perinatal Epidemiology Unit (NPEU) found there to be no consistent evidence of adverse health effects from low-to-moderate prenatal alcohol exposure. This may be explained by the variability in the definitions of consumption levels. There is considerable debate as to the adverse effects of maternal alcohol consumption at low-to-moderate levels of drinking. Moreover. A 2006 review of the existing evidence on the effects of alcohol on the developing embryo. The occurrence of PFAS. and that exposure to heavy doses throughout pregnancy results in the development of the pattern of anomalies found in FAS. Other reviews have drawn similar conclusions. It is worth noting that the current evidence is not robust enough to exclude any risk from low-to-moderate levels. differences in the way drinking behaviour is characterised. It has been postulated that the anomalies characteristic of PFAS. methodological problems in the design and analysis of relevant studies. genetic predisposition). and that evidence is continuing to emerge as to the possible effects of prenatal alcohol exposure at these levels. A dose-response .196 / WRITING A REPORT can also occur following heavy maternal alcohol consumption during the first trimester of pregnancy. a prospective study of 501 mother-child dyads found that the child's behaviour at age six to seven was adversely related to lowto-moderate levels of prenatal alcohol exposure. Evidence from animal experiments suggests that damage to the CNS may occur at low levels of alcohol exposure. and in determining the relative effect of confounding factors (for example. ARBD and ARND is not fully understood. ARBD and ARND result from exposure to heavy doses of alcohol intake on specific days of fetal development.
APPENDIX 1 – SAMPLE REPORTS / 197 relationship between the level of alcohol consumed and the behaviour exhibited was also found. There is a significant amount of research currently focused on this area. As many of the epidemiological methods used to examine the risk factors associated with FASD rely on retrospective extrapolation from existing cases and information. Studies examining the effects of alcohol on the fetus have shown that exposure at low-to-moderate levels can alter fetal behaviour. Studies examining the effects of chronic consumption indicate that low-to-moderate levels of exposure (two to five units per week) elicit a developmental delay in the functioning of the fetus's nervous system and may result in a permanent effect. This should then help inform the debate on whether there is a safe threshold for prenatal alcohol exposure. A recent large prospective study has found that occasional low-tomoderate drinking during the first trimester may have a negative and persistent effect on children's mental health. It is important that this is consolidated with further research to generate a consensus on the relationship between different levels of prenatal alcohol exposure and the range of conditions associated with FASD. patterns and timings of prenatal alcohol exposure on the health outcomes of pregnancy. Clarification is required as to the effect of different levels. * * * . It is not currently clear what effect these changes in behaviour have on fetal development and the health outcomes of pregnancy. These studies have consistently shown that acute exposure to one to two units of alcohol rapidly suppresses fetal behaviour through a rapid decrease in fetal breathing. it is important that future research – if methodologically possible – is based on a prospective ascertainment process of whole populations with better recording and stratification of alcohol dose levels.
275 children. and to encourage research to understand the prevalence. Children can witness domestic abuse in a variety of ways and suffer a broad range of both physical and psychological consequences as a result. however. it is a crime that is largely under-reported. not within the remit of this report because by definition. not just the health service. It is a challenging crime to tackle as it occurs within relationships. DOMESTIC ABUSE Specific vulnerable groups The impact of domestic abuse on children Child abuse usually takes place within the immediate family circle. it is. It is therefore intended for a wide readership and advocates a multi-agency approach to facilitate co-ordination of action against family abuse. which in England (2002) would equate to nearly 19. outcomes and optimal care for victims of family abuse. risk factors. children witness about three-quarters of abusive incidents occurring within relationships where there is domestic abuse. ChildLine receives almost 2.000 calls a year from children who are experiencing problems with domestic abuse. where emotions are highly entwined. Approximately half the children in such families have themselves been badly hit or beaten. The DH (2002) found that a minimum of 750. as well as others explored in the report.000 people in England and Wales alone. as reported by the Royal College of Psychiatrists (RCPsych) in 2004. Domestic violence affects over 350.000 children a year witness domestic abuse. Nearly three-quarters of children on the child protection register live in households where domestic abuse occurs. domestic abuse only involves abuse between adults. In nine out of 10 cases of domestic abuse. Nevertheless.198 / WRITING A REPORT This final excerpt is from a report which aims to publicise domestic abuse as a highly important healthcare concern that must be tackled from many different angles. For this reason. children are in .
It is. All children witnessing domestic abuse. children who have witnessed abuse are more likely to be either abusers or victims themselves. Adults who witnessed domestic abuse as children have been found to experience depression. Edleson (1999) reviewed several studies on the impact on children who witness domestic abuse. Children from such environments can exhibit more aggressive and antisocial behaviour as well as fearful and inhibited characteristics. and will try not to repeat it. become anxious or depressed. In addition to these emotional wounds. are being subjected to emotional abuse. depression. wetting the bed. such as complaining of tummy-aches. Boys have been shown to express their distress more outwardly with hostility and aggression. whereas girls are commonly found to show evidence of more internalised problems. or simply witnessing the physical injuries inflicted on a parent. having difficulty sleeping and having temper tantrums. caught in the middle of an incident. whether they are in the same room. They may withdraw from other people. thus putting themselves at risk in the process and experiencing feelings of guilt when they are unable to help. however. A child's behavioural and emotional functioning can be severely influenced by living within a household where domestic abuse is occurring. There are also long-term effects seen in these children. but this effect has been found to differ between boys and girls. anger and behavioural difficulties. Younger children may demonstrate their anxiety with physical problems. Many children may want to protect the parents from abuse. . and reported some robust underlying themes. Children who witness abuse may also learn to use it.APPENDIX 1 – SAMPLE REPORTS / 199 the same or next room when the abuse is taking place. It is natural for children to learn from their parents and this can therefore lead to a child falling into an abusive adult relationship. trauma-related symptoms and low self-esteem. also the case that children who witness domestic abuse may reject such behaviour. They show signs of anxiety.
neighbours and colleagues in helping victims of domestic abuse is underestimated. Educating the public about domestic abuse would help to reduce cases such as that described by Channel Four television programme 'Dispatches'. while her neighbours watched and did nothing. Working within schools to build awareness and change attitudes towards domestic abuse is described by the Home Office as a primary prevention method. 'When did you last beat your wife?' where a women ran from her home as her partner was violently abusing her. She was subsequently dragged back in and subjected to further physical abuse. calling for help. . Both family and friends of the victim are also well placed to encourage and support the victim to seek help. it is less well known whether there is a link between raised awareness and any long-term domestic abuse reduction. Women's Aid believes that 'the most positive way to reduce and eliminate domestic violence and its effects on children and young people is through a strategy of preventive education work' and 'all children and young people should have access to domestic violence preventive education programmes'. It is recognised that educating children about domestic abuse is a key step in the process of eliminating domestic abuse. The role of friends. Research by Hague et al (2001) indicates that violence prevention programmes may change attitudes. When a parent is suffering abuse they will almost certainly strive to continue to provide love and support for their children yet this may be extremely difficult in such circumstances. however. It is vital that the public are aware that there are domestic abuse helplines that can be contacted should they suspect domestic abuse.200 / WRITING A REPORT Neglect is a form of child abuse which can result from domestic abuse. Children living in abusive family environments may be left to look after themselves at an age where hands-on parenting would normally still be occurring. relatives. Education at a young age should catalyse a change in the public perception of domestic abuse.
In the WHO worldwide survey. Studies. Of these 34 projects.APPENDIX 1 – SAMPLE REPORTS / 201 In July 2000 the Home Office awarded £6. pupils had increased awareness of factual information regarding domestic abuse training for teachers is important and teachers who do not feel supported are likely to feel underconfident in using the materials and dealing with domestic abuse education in schools can make both primary and secondary school pupils think more deeply about domestic abuse in line with the recommendations stated by the Home Office in 2001. however. rape and sexual assault. were assaulted during pregnancy. The impact of domestic violence on pregnant women It has been estimated by the Confidential Enquiry into Maternal and Child Health for England and Wales (CEMACH) that around 30 per cent of domestic abuse begins during pregnancy. between 11 per cent and 44 per cent of pregnant women who had been abused in the past.3m as part of the £250m Crime Reduction Programme to fund 34 pilot projects that aimed to develop and implement local strategies to reduce domestic abuse. have shown a variable incidence of domestic abuse of pregnant women. 27 focused on domestic abuse and as a result of three 'education' projects the following has been found: children and young people want and value lessons on relationships and on abuse following a primary prevention project. . it was reported that in the majority of settings. and that in 90 per cent of all settings this abuse was carried out by the father of the unborn child. the BMA would support implementation of domestic abuse education programmes in all primary and secondary schools.
smoking.000 pregnant women in the country are abused by their intimate partner. stillbirth. gynaecological problems. The CEMACH reported that in its 2000/ 02 study Why mothers die? 14 per cent of maternal deaths occurred in women who have either self-reported a history of domestic abuse to a healthcare professional caring for them. of domestic abuse in pregnant women.202 / WRITING A REPORT An American study found that each year approximately 324. or the abuse was already known to health and social services. including the breasts and abdomen. support and information to the woman'. alcohol and drug abuse. or suspected cases. which makes abuse more common for pregnant women than gestational diabetes or pre-eclampsia – both conditions for which pregnant women are routinely screened. The impact of domestic abuse during pregnancy is recognised to be a significant contributory factor to maternal and fetal mortality and morbidity. The RCM states that 'midwives are ideally placed to recognise and detect ongoing domestic abuse and to offer care. The RCM advises midwives to look for a number of possible indicators of domestic abuse. implying that the fetus as well as the woman herself is the focus of the perpetrator's anger. physical symptoms related to stress or depression and signs of rape or sexual assault. repeated chronic injuries. pregnant women are more likely to have multiple sites of injury. which include a high incidence of miscarriage and termination of pregnancies. Research has found that in comparison with other victims of domestic abuse. . The RCM has produced guidance for midwives dealing with cases. preterm labour/prematurity.
or undertake a procedure within a finite number of steps. Appendix (pl. Annual Report. An author's statement of thanks to people and organisations who helped during the preparation of a report. It has two functions: either to provide a précis of what the recipient is about to read. Addendum (pl. or Synopsis). Agenda. Additional material. who requested it. A condensed version of a report which outlines the salient points and emphasises the main conclusions (qv) and. It provides additional information for readers who require it without breaking the thread of argument in the main body for readers who do not. A statement of why a report was written. Acknowledgements. an update or afterthought often produced and circulated after a report has been issued. Addenda). A section of a report which gives details of matters discussed more broadly in the main body (qv). A type of report which lists the achievements and failures of an organisation. Algorithm. Therefore it must be drawn up in advance. a progress report (qv) in which every department is accounted for. It usually appears in the introduction (qv). or to provide a summary of a report if the recipient is not going to read all of it. or has just read. and its terms of reference (qv). A type of report listing items to be discussed during a meeting. where appropriate. A flowchart (qv) which will answer a question. . when it was requested.Glossary Abstract (or Summary. Appendixes or Appendices). the main recommendations (qv). or solve a problem. Aims.
Circulation list. A type of report which evaluates a person's performance in his or her current job. The images in a report. Very useful for illustrating relationships between items. See Distribution list. A computer image. The process of assembling the pages of a report in order and then enclosing them within covers. but considered potentially valuable or of interest to readers – cf References.204 / WRITING A REPORT Appraisal report. such as clip art (qv). or Underline). like a colour photograph – cf Vector. Bibliography. promotion and/or a change in salary. Bias. A method of refining the appearance of text (qv) where each line is placed centrally between the right and left margins. Bulleting. Bar chart. and often assesses suitability for another job. Bitmap. Binding. Centring text. This can be used for whole blocks of text but is more frequently applied to headings (qv). . Errors that occur in statistical sampling (qv) if the sample is not random (qv) or if the questioning is not objective and consistent. and is more concerned with segregation of duties and internal control. A full list of books and other material used in the preparation of a report. A method of highlighting (qv) important text (qv) by indenting (qv) it and placing a bold dot or bullet in front of the first word. it may also include publications not referred to in the report. See Leading question. Audit report. Unlike a reference section. A method of presenting figures visually. An internal audit report is addressed to the management of a company by which the auditor is employed. original art or photographs. Descriptive words or lines accompanying an illustration (qv). Artwork. Caption (or Legend. identifies methods of improving this performance. An external audit report is addressed to shareholders and contains an independent assessment of whether a company's final statements provide a true and fair view of its affairs.
and reaching logical conclusions (qv) and recommendations (qv) about which are the best and/or which represent the best value for money. Comparative testing report. assessing each against a number of well-defined standards. A format (qv) using one. and reaches clear. It should be given in a report's covering letter (qv). Reports are often classified as confidential when they contain politically or industrially sensitive information or comment. The various sections which collectively make up a report. Column. simply stated and objective conclusions (qv) that are fully supported by evidence and arguments and which come within and satisfy the terms of reference (qv). A list of the various sections of a report in the order in which they appear. or when they discuss personnel. with the appropriate page and/or paragraph numbers alongside them. Components. Contact point.G LO S S A RY / 205 Clip art illustrations (qv) available commercially in digital form. Confidential reports should be stamped as such on the title page (qv) and should be kept under physically secure conditions. A type of report which tests similar items. two. Copyright. Confidentiality. Conclusions. giving their captions (qv). or three vertical groupings on a page. If there are more than just one or two illustrations (qv) they should be listed separately below the main contents. The degree to which the availability of a report is restricted. as presented in the main body (qv). The name. The Consumers' Association Which? magazine contains such reports. Legal protection against the use of literary or artistic property without permission. address and telephone number of a person the reader can contact if further enquiry or comment is required. Contents page. A section of a report where the author links the terms of reference (qv) with the findings. figure numbers and page and/or paragraph numbers. The protection afforded by English law lasts for the duration of the author's life and seventy years .
An early version of a report drawn up for initial consideration. 1½. End matter. Double the usual space between each line of text (qv). Enhanced modern format. It helps a typist or printer read a manuscript (hand written) report. and it can help readers of a report. its readership (qv). Cut-away drawing. Desktop Publishing (DTP). but only in its expression. An explanatory letter accompanying a report and including a contact point (qv). . Obviously the choice will affect the number of lines on a page. A hybrid of the logical substructure (qv) and the sectional substructure (qv). Cross-reference. Draft.206 / WRITING A REPORT thereafter. Double spacing. A pictorial method of illustrating what something looks like. The use of a personal computer system as an inexpensive production system for generating typeset-quality text (qv) and graphics (qv). it makes it easier to correct and amend drafts (qv). It usually appears on the title page (qv). An object is shown with part or all of its outer casing cut away to reveal its internal components. ½. An ultra-modern format (qv) of report with the additional features of added and manipulated images – cf Modern format and Traditional format. Distribution list (or Circulation list). Copyright is different from a patent in that it cannot exist in an idea. Desktop publishers often merge text and graphics on the same page and print pages on a high resolution laser printer or typesetting machine – cf Word processing. A type of report which explains how a job is to be performed. Digital. Covering letter. A list of people who will see a report. A method of directing readers to another part of a report for related information. A substructure (qv) where information is presented in an apparently haphazard way. Duty notes report. The pages of a report after the main body (qv) – cf Prelims. Other line spacings include 0. Creative substructure. A format (qv) used by a computer system that scans the image into computer bits. 2½ and 3.
binding (qv). Particularly useful for . shape and size. Foreword. numbers and symbols) in one weight and style of typeface (qv). Format. Identifying information placed at the bottom of each page of a report – cf Headers. It must come to a conclusion (qv) and must recommend (qv) that some action is taken or is not taken and/ or that some choice is adopted or is rejected. To actually undertake a statistical survey (or to operate a system). industrial or organisational system. A note or reference (qv) placed at the foot of the relevant page. specialised or technical words and phrases. layout (qv). or towards the end of a report. A diagrammatic representation of the sequence of operations in a natural. acronyms and abbreviations used in a report. The components of an object are shown in assembly as if they were spread out along an invisible axis. card or plastic cover. Exploded drawing. A type of report which provides a factual account of something that has happened. Front matter.G LO S S A RY / 207 Explanatory report. Glossary (of Terms) (or Gloss). both in physical and economic terms. and possibly the suitability and compatibility of a given project. A set of characters (the alphabet. as distinct from pilot testing (qv) it. See Prelims. Feasibility report. Graph. but usually written by someone other than the author of the report. An alphabetical list of unfamiliar difficult. A method of binding (qv) a report where the sheets are glued and fixed into the spine of a fabric. covers. paper. similar to a preface (qv) and an introduction (qv). Gluing. Go live. Footers. A pictorial method of illustrating what something looks like. Footnote. A method of presenting figures visually. Flowchart. at the end of the relevant section. More specific than an informative report (qv). An introductory section of a report. A type of report which discusses the practicality. Font. The general appearance of a report including type style.
If there are more than just one or two illustrations. such as lines. Image enhancements. or to break up a large passage.208 / WRITING A REPORT illustrating detailed relationships between items or to show a trend over time. Every illustration should have a caption (qv) and figure number and must be referred to in the text. and should cover all the ground collectively. An index should contain more entries than a contents page (qv). It should be specific. The various sections or subsections are separated and distinguished. comparatively short. Illustration. boxes and background used to create interesting and appealing visual design. A pictorial representation of information as distinct from text (qv). Drawing attention to important parts of the text (qv) by methods other than headings (qv) e. A consistent style of report writing developed by and used within an organisation. Graphics. A method of improving the presentation of a report and a way of helping readers find their way around it. for emphasis. Highlighting. Headings of similar rank should introduce topics of roughly equal importance. Index. they should be listed separately on the contents page (qv). Indentation. A means of identifying and labelling a block of type. House-style. It should be more prominent than a subheading (qv).g. expected. Necessary only in a large report. Informative report. Identifying information placed at the top of each page of a report – cf Footers. perhaps by means of overlapping pages or protruding self-adhesive labels. An alphabetical list of items discussed in a report together with their page and/or paragraph numbers. Heading. using upper case or changing spacing (qv). Indexing. Headers. A method of refining the appearance of text (qv) where the beginning of a line is inset a number of spaces to indicate a new paragraph. but less prominent than the title (qv). or at least easily interpreted. A type of report which increases the readers' .
Leading question. Stands for Keep It Short and Simple. Interview report. A type of report which explains how a process (a specific series of actions that bring about a specific result) is to be performed – cf Process description report. . Therefore it must be avoided. Internet. Landscape. A type of report concerned with some specific aspect of a company's financial affairs as defined by the terms of reference (qv) and/or by statutory regulations. More general than an explanatory report (qv). Justification. The most famous computer network (qv) which connects thousands of smaller networks and millions of users all around the world. Layout. KISS. A type of report which forms the framework of an interview (although it must not dictate it). and which records facts and opinions about a candidate in a consistent format to facilitate subsequent evaluation and comparison with other candidates. A page orientation (qv) where printing is aligned horizontally on the long edge of the paper – cf portrait. A section of a report which sets the scene. A question phrased so as to suggest the answer expected. The arrangement of illustrations (qv) and text (qv). A method of refining the appearance of text (qv) where both the left and the right-hand edges are straight. Isometric drawing. Easy to draw but the lack of perspective makes the object look peculiar. A very useful principle in all aspects and in all stages of report writing. Introduction. Instructional manual. Investigation into the financial affairs of a company report. A pictorial method of illustrating what something looks like. An introduction must include everything the readers will need to know before they read the rest of the report.G LO S S A RY / 209 knowledge of an event or brings them up to date. It states the author's intentions – the terms of reference (qv) – and gives the aims (qv) and scope (qv) of the report. In statistical sampling (qv) it leads to a bias (qv) in the results obtained.
Orthographic drawing. Modern format. It shows the back. such as computers. Organisational chart. used to interconnect devices. Network. Main body. 80% of what is important is represented by 20% of what exists. A type of report which provides a record of business transacted at a meeting. such as in writing. an organisation.210 / WRITING A REPORT Legend. See Caption. Minutes. both already known and to be . Orientation. A method of identifying the various components of a report for reference and indexing (qv) purposes. Lower case. A collection of telecommunications equipment and transmission lines. Non-capital letters – cf Upper case. qv) of the paper. Otherwise it is basically like a traditional format (qv) – cf Enhanced modern format and Ultra-modern format. A substructure (qv) where procedures or events are discussed in the sequence in which they occur or occurred. Pareto principle. qv) or vertically on the short edge (portrait. Libel. A false statement of a defamatory nature about another person that tends to damage his or her reputation and which is presented in a permanent form. at different locations so they can exchange information. front and side elevations of an object. Patterned notes. The section of a report which contains the main discussion on the subject-matter as defined by the terms of reference (qv). Of little use where the reader needs to know what it actually looks like. A pictorial method of illustrating something. It may well have some legal and authoritative force. Keep it simple. Numbering system. change font size (qv) and use italics. A method of note taking based on the formation of visual links between facts and ideas. and the lines of command within. but a very useful general concept to consider during all stages of report writing. A report which takes advantage of the ability to add lines and boxes. Whether the print of a report is aligned horizontally on the long edge (landscape. Logical substructure. Not to be taken literally. A diagram which depicts the hierarchy of.
Population. omissions. An introductory section to a report. Very useful for illustrating relationships between items.G LO S S A RY / 211 discovered. A method of presenting figures visually by the use of symbols. Checking and making corrections on a document prepared by a typist or printer. Pie chart. A type of report which describes how some activity or process is advancing. Prelims (or Preliminaries. A very useful way of planning a report. Proofreading. A pictorial method of illustrating what something looks like. The total number of people or items within a defined group. Very useful for illustrating relative proportions – or how the total pie is divided up. The pages of a report before the main body (qv) – cf End matter. Often used to convey some personal background details behind the production of a report. Progress report. A page orientation (qv) where printing is aligned vertically on the short edge of the paper – cf Landscape. or observation. A method of binding (qv) a report by placing a plastic slide grip along the left hand edge of the assembled covers and sheets. Often difficult to draw. Portrait. ambiguities or other shortcomings before it goes live (qv). Perspective drawing. as distinct from writing it – cf Traditional notes. Pilot test. experiment. It is very important to identify and . An initial test of a questionnaire (qv) or other statistical device among a small number of respondents (qv) (or an initial test of a new system) to highlight any obvious errors. or Front matter). Process description report. The basis of statistical sampling (qv). A statistical concept concerned with the effects of chance on an event. Pictogram. It shows what an object actually looks like. Preface. A type of report which helps readers understand a process (a specific series of actions that bring about a specific result) – cf Instructional manual. Plastic gripper. A method of presenting figures visually. Probability theory.
However. Report. or from which extracts have been quoted – cf Bibliography. Recommendations therefore must look to the future and should always be realistic. The report is written for them so they must be given the information they need and in a form that they can understand without undue effort. Do not make them unless they are required by the terms of reference. A method of statistical sampling (qv) used to obtain a balanced view from people based on their sex. Females. The people who will read a report. and the conclusions (qv) reached.212 / WRITING A REPORT correct spelling mistakes and errors and inconsistencies in layout before a report is reproduced and issued. Random sample. Ring binding. Research report. A section of a report where the author states what specific actions should be taken. Reference number. each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. A type of report which extends our understanding of the world by reducing our uncertainty and increasing our comprehension of it. References. A section of a report which provides full details of publications mentioned in the text (qv). A unique number allocated to a report. Quota sampling. within every defined group or population (e. given the terms of reference (qv). as listed on the distribution list (qv). aged 21–30. Respondent. the sample is random. Questionnaire. and by whom and why. aged 41–50). A method of binding (qv) a report where a special machine . A person who answers questions. age and possibly social class. Recommendations.g. or Males. A method of gathering information by questioning respondents (qv). the findings as presented in the main body (qv). perhaps posed in the form of a questionnaire (qv). A document produced to convey information to a specific audience at a certain moment in time. Readership. In statistical sampling (qv). It should appear on the title page (qv).
A method of drawing conclusions about a population by testing a representative sample of it. See Double spacing. SQ3R. A method of statistical sampling (qv) where every person or item in a population has an equal chance of being selected. It usually appears in the introduction (qv). and the structure (qv) of the report. the working methods employed. e. A well-planned skeletal framework is the key to effective report writing. e. Statistical sampling. Scientific report. Spacing. the work of each department in turn or each engineering or clerical function in turn. See Statistical sampling. Looks very professional. A method of binding (qv) a report by means of thread or wire through the fold. See Stitching.g. and perhaps what was not done – and why it was not done – if the readers could reasonably have assumed that it would have been. Recall. Question. An initial overall plan of the structure (qv) of a report.g. Saddle stitching. The way you read should vary according to the complexity of the material and the reasons for reading it. A method of reading. Sectional substructure. Scope. Read. A substructure (qv) where information is presented in meaningful sections. It is based .G LO S S A RY / 213 perforates the binding edge and then threads the binding through the holes in the covers and the report. Any person. A type of report which gives an account of a test or experiment together with findings and conclusions (qv). Source (of information). take ten names out of a hat. It may be revised at any stage(s) during the preparation of the report. It may also include discussion on the resources available to and utilised by the report writer. A statement of what was done. Sampling. Review. the sources of information (qv). organisation etc supplying information or evidence (specially of an original or primary character) used in a report. Simple random sampling. Skeletal framework. book. Stands for Survey.
A secondary title expanding the main title (qv). every 100th name on the electoral register. Systems evaluation report. The arrangement of the components which collectively make up a report. Sectional substructure. A method of binding (qv) a report where sheets are folded in the middle to make two single-sided or four double-sided pages.g. Synopsis. and Creative substructure. eg the map of the London Underground shows how stations are connected. Substructure. See Quota sampling. Structure. the number of observations of specified items. A sheet used to mark or set down. Summary. A type of report that evaluates which system out of several alternatives is most suitable for a particular application. . but the choice is made to a prearranged plan. and later to total. Do not use too many subheadings. See Abstract. A visual method of illustrating how items within a system are connected to one another. When it serves the last of these purposes. e. Tally sheet. if necessary re-structure the report to have more headings. A method of statistical sampling (qv) where every person or item in a population has an equal chance of being selected. See Logical substructure. or which tests an apparatus or system with a view to possible large scale employment or multiple applications. although often applied specifically to the main body (qv). A means of more specifically and precisely identifying and labelling a block of type which comes under an overall heading (qv). Subheading. Stitching. See Abstract. or to mark or set down. Subtitle. and are then bound by saddle stitching (qv). and Systematic random sampling. The arrangement of material within each of the components of a report.214 / WRITING A REPORT on probability theory (qv). it is sometimes referred to as a trouble-shooting report (qv). Make the subheadings less prominent. Systematic diagram. Systematic random sampling. or which enquires into the causes of failures in an existing operational system. Simple random sampling.
relevant and unique and should be more prominent than any other heading which appears in the report. Trouble-shooting report. A method of note taking where relevant material is condensed using headings (qv) and subheadings (qv). Technological report. The words of a report as distinct from its illustrations (qv). Treasury tag. with the most important points and arguments being highlighted (qv). concise. and other important information.G LO S S A RY / 215 and later to total. It is essential that these are known/agreed before any work is undertaken and they should be referred to in the introduction (qv). A type of report which is concerned with the application of practical or mechanical sciences in order to achieve a desired aim. It should be clear. Title. and then suggests ways to remove or treat it. Traditional format. Modern format and Ultra-modern format. Technical report. but usually using different words. where appropriate). Title page. the reference number (qv). Traditional notes. Every report should have a title page. A type of report which locates the cause of some problem. the name of the author. A concise statement of precisely what a report is about. A type of report often written at an early stage in a production process. Useful where amendments and/or inserts such as maps and plans are expected. A sheet at the beginning of a report which bears the main title (and subtitle [qv]. the various answers given by all respondents (qv) to a questionnaire (qv). A simple method of binding (qv) a report. This method is also the basis of report writing. A report produced on a typewriter – cf Enhanced modern format. Terms of Reference (T of R). The overall heading (qv) of a report. Holes are made in the pages and covers using a punch and then tags are inserted. a restatement of the terms of reference (qv). as distinct from report planning – cf Patterned notes. It can . Text.
216 / WRITING A REPORT deal with people or organisations. Therefore they must be complete and accurate. In other words. Upper case. Wysiwyg. Typeface. or open a 'standard' document and then edit. such as Times New Roman or Rockwell. A type of computer image created from lines and shapes – cf Bitmap. Underline. where it is sometimes referred to as a systems evaluation report (qv). or hardware or systems. and of any appendixes (qv). Working papers. The use of a personal computer system to enter text from a keyboard. Capital letters – cf Lower case. See Caption. evidence. findings and sources (qv) that will form the basis of the main body (qv). import it from a file. format. Notes recording the detailed information. most word processors allow graphics and tabular information to be imported from other programs – cf Desktop publishing (DTP). An acronym meaning what you see is what you get. what you see onscreen is an accurate representation of how the report will print out. The empty space on a page. As well as offering tools for basic graphic (qv) embellishments. A specific type design. The art and style of printing. save or print it. . Typography. Ultra-modern format. Word processing. White space. Vector. A modern format (qv) of report with the additional feature of two or more columns – cf Enhanced modern format and Traditional format.
A complete step-by-step handbook which covers all the basics from editing right through to publication. straightforward and comprehensive book illustrated with numerous examples. The Complete Plain Words. Longman and Oxford University Press each offer a comprehensive range to suit every need and every pocket. It starts with basic pie charts and ends with sophisticated computer graphic programs. Graham Jones (How To Books). Judith Butcher (Cambridge University Press). Learn to Draw Charts and Diagrams Step-by-Step.). Dictionary of Modern English Usage. An excellent guide to using plain English and avoiding jargon. Mastering Business English. Bruce Robertson (Macdonald Orb). Michael Bennie (How To Books). Chambers. A very practical.W. H. Marion Field (How To Books). A classic guide to English usage. Fowler. How to Write and Speak Better (Reader's Digest Association Ltd. Sir Ernest Gowers (Penguin). . An authoritative text used by professional publishers and their editors. revised by Sir Ernest Gowers (Oxford University Press). Copyediting: The Cambridge Handbook. Excellent but expensive.Resources BOOKS A good dictionary is an essential tool for any writer expecting his or her work to be read by others. Collins. How to Publish A Newsletter. full of fascinating information. Improving Your Written English.
and to . Taking research into the twenty-first century. you may first need to filter your search in order to focus on styles. (A. Carey (Penguin). The Oxford Writers' Dictionary. when checked in a dictionary.E. As the majority will be US-based. proves even more appropriate. The Handbook of Non-Sexist Writing for Writers. Everything you ever wanted to know about punctuation.V.M. Casey Miller and Kate Swift (Women's Press). Kirkpatrick (Longman).218 / WRITING A REPORT Mind the Stop. Chriss McCallum (How To Books). compiled by R. Graham Jones (How To Books). or perhaps an unfamiliar word which. such as Yahoo! or Google. such as engineering or accountancy. It is therefore advisable to use a major search engine. You cannot find a word you have forgotten or do not know in a dictionary. John Bowden (How To Books). approaches and conventions that apply in your own country. books. A handbook which concentrates on the essentials of report writing. dramatic or other works. Black). Roget's Thesaurus. ONLINE Pages on the Internet are added. Writing for Publication. There are many versions available. removed and revised so rapidly that any listing provided here would soon become obsolete. Allen (Oxford University Press). A really writer-friendly introduction for everyone wishing to write articles. & C. Look up a word of similar meaning in Roget and you will find a variety of words and expressions which should include the one in the back of your mind. Using the Internet. Editors and Speakers. You will find that your results will include many pages that are dedicated to specific fields. to establish which sites are currently available to you. The Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors (Oxford University Press). Titles and Forms of Address – A Guide to Their Correct Use. including a revision by E. Writing Good Reports. G.
html http://unilearning. such as undergraduates or scientists.ac.pdf http://www.uk/reportsguides.uow. Much of their advice and instruction is likely to be of value to all report writers.plainenglish. Do not immediately dismiss them if they do not coincide with your particular background and interests.co.au/main.edu.surrey.R E S O U R C E S / 219 specific users. Three excellent introductions to report writing available at the time of writing are: http://www.uk/skills/pack/report.html . not merely to target audiences.
126–7 checklist. 126–7 comparative testing reports. 63 your line manager's check. see layout desktop publishing (DTP) (see also . see obtaining colour. see summaries accessing information (see also information technology). 15–16 agendas for committee meetings. 63 your check.). 55. see illustrations audit reports. 62–3. 48–51 accident reports. 107 (illus. suitable for. 18. proofreading. 59–60 reviewing. the choice of (see also colour. 17–18 alignment. 146–7 importance of confidentiality. see skeletal frameworks conclusions. type. see distribution lists collecting information. 61 confidentiality. 144–5 appendixes. 150–3 components of a report. 130 printing. see checking annual reports. spelling. punctuation. page. 69 contents pages (see also headings. the choice of. see issuing artwork. 140–4 aims. 133 paper. 140 acknowledgements (see also copyright). vocabulary). 147–50 bibliographies (see also copyright). 130–1 cross-referencing. 22 binding. 14 approval. 131–3 checking and amending drafts and reports (see also figures. 55. 54. 131. 65–6 a colleague's check.Index abstracts. numbering). covers). 18–19. 64–5 circulation lists. 14 contact points. seeking final. 60 appraisal reports. 20–1 (illus. 16 copyright. grammar. 108–9 drafting. 27–8. 127–8 covers.) amending drafts. the English law of. 88 designs. 14 covering letters (see also letters). 69 covers. 17.
methods of. compiling. see highlighting evaluating information. see illustrations headings and subheadings. 63. 30–51 books and other publications. 51–2. 34–6 information technology. 86–7 explanatory reports. 61 investigations into the financial affairs of a company report. 117. 105–6 identifying and finding relevant information. 108 where to use. 54–5. 87. 125–6 how to use. 59–60. 60. 119 footnotes (see also copyright). 54–5. 36–7. 160–1 . see audit feasibility reports. 63. 17–18. 119 statistical tables of. 155 figures in reports. identifying. 90–134 checklist. 15 drafting. 61–2. 52–4 experiments (see also scientific reports). 106. 133–4 (illus. 48–51 people. 31–2 illustrations checklist. obtaining. 16. 108 listed on contents page?. 33–4. 119 reasons for. 33–4 accessing. recording and sorting informative reports. 118 explanation. 86 duty notes reports. 118. collecting and handling. 156–7 internal audit reports. 41–2 introductions.INDEX / 221 presentation). evaluating. advice on. see presentation and skeletal frameworks glossaries. the. 21 forewords. 111–25 when to use. 153 emphasising. see audit Internet. 91–3 distribution lists. 20–1. 7–9. 22–3 potential problems with computer generated. 98–9. 22–3 indexing. prioritising. see checking. 93 overview.) information. 48–51 interview reports (see also interviewing). 22 graphics. 109–11 in appendixes. importance of. 108–9 indexes (see also numbering). 32–3 events and places. 27. 126 options available. 16–17. 118. 156 instructional manuals. 105–6 highlighting (see also headings) most significant findings. 14 interviewing (see also interview reports). the need for. 153–4 external audit reports. 158–9 confidentiality. 15 formats.
28. 74. 94–102 checklist. skeletal frameworks). 106–7 readers accessing. 164–5 proofreading techniques for efficient. skeletal frameworks). see planning presentation improving. reviewing and amending. 60 substructures of.) planning a report (see also skeletal frameworks). 42–3 libel. margins.) obtaining information.) readability. 4–5 objectivity. 76. 16. 88. 100–2 numbers in reports. the correct. numbering. 67–8. 90 pre-writing. 59–60 reviewing. 41–2 (illus. see skeletal frameworks. see investigations progress reports. 68–9 recording date of.222 / WRITING A REPORT investigations. 16. 14 . 97 minutes. 3–28 (illus. 63. 6. 13–14 summary instead of?. 14 listening. 24–7 drafting. 139 reading. 58–66 paper (see also colour. of. 19. 87 process description reports. 36–9 recommendations. 99–102 pages. 128–30 size and orientation. 16. presentation. of. knowing your precise. 63. factors affecting. 90 specific reports. see terms of reference questionnaires. 44–7 (illus. 16–17 observation. see figures objectives common types of report. 163–4 projects. 39–41 main bodies. undertaking. 78 the choice of. 24–7 margins and spacing. 66–7 (illus. 15 preparation. influences report writers. 61 reference numbers. 36–51 order of writing. 102 letters requesting information (see also covering letters). the importance of. 161–3 numbering. 99–100 sections and paragraphs. systems for.) prefaces. the stages of. 67–8 purpose. possible. the English law of. 59 prioritising findings (see also highlighting. 137–79 overall. 90–134 objectives of good. 28. paper) layout and design (see also headings. 30–55 issuing reports final steps before. 54–5.
93 overview. 27–8. 85–8 report. 83–5 technical. 137 specific. 75–6. 169–70 style good. 167–9 sexist language. requesting information. see issuing research. see word processing sorting and grouping information (see also skeletal frameworks). 76–81 principles for effective. 107 vocabulary general rules about. 80 word processing (see also desktop publishing) checklist. 81–5 selecting appropriate. 80 importance of simplicity. avoiding.INDEX / 223 references. 9–27 amending. 61–2. 74–5. 9–28 software. 91–3 software. 9–12 planning. 80–1 technological reports. 47–8 structures of reports. (see also copyright). 76–7 importance of accuracy and precision. 51–2 sources (of information). 24–8 summaries. see statistical sampling scientific reports (see also experiments). 43–4 terms of reference. 19 title pages. 54 for various types of report. see summaries systems evaluation reports. see investigations research reports. 98 trouble-shooting reports. 125–6 statistical sampling (see also figures). 172–3 sampling. 21 registers of issues. business-specific. 140–7 typestyle. 109–11. 10–11. 22. 173–7 telephone calls. 83–5 skeletal frameworks. 170–2 technical reports. see identifying spacing. 74–6 subheadings. 16–17. 97 special effects. 12–15 titles. 137–79 passim influences affecting the choice of. 102–7 checklist. 4–5. see skeletal frameworks student project reports. 17. 7. 13. see investigations synopses. 92–3 . 177–9 importance of confidentiality. 14 typefaces. see typography typography. 165–7 surveys. see typography types of report a list of.
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