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A nanny accused of decapitating a 4-year old girl in Moscow has said during an apparent interrogation captured on video that the killing was an act of revenge against President Vladimir Putin for Russian airstrikes in Syria.
Asked about the video, Putin's spokesman says it's difficult to judge the testimony of a woman he called clearly deranged. Gulchekhra Bobokulova was detained in Moscow Monday after she was seen brandishing the child's head outside a subway station.
- Moscow: Woman arrested for murder after brandishing child's severed head
- Syrian military launches poisonous gas attack, leaves children among others choked to death
- Russia opposition blogger may have 'outed' Putin's daughter
- Russia executes de facto takeover of Crimea region
- Russia's Putin slams US,makes deals in China
- Mountains of terror
Video footage posted online Thursday appeared to show police interrogating her. It was not clear where the video originated, and The Associated Press could not verify its authenticity or the circumstance in which it was taken. The woman appeared to be wearing the same clothes she wore during a court appearance Wednesday.


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Celebrity Central / Top 25 Celebs
Jessica Biel
Jessica Biel Tells Internet to 'Calm Down' After Justin Timberlake Wins American Music Awards
The actress Tweeted shortly after her husband won the AMA for best soul and r&b album
Justin Timberlake and Jessica Biel Enjoy Wedding with 'NSYNC
The pair stepped out to celebrate Chris Kirkpatrick's marriage celebration on Saturday
Chris Kirkpatrick Marries Karly Skladany
The singer tied the knot with his fiancée Karly Skladany in Orlando
Kate Winslet Debuts Her Bump, Anna Wintour Shows Off Her (Gasp!) Smile & More from the Weekend
Justin Timberlake Creates Frenzy with Surprise Performance in Hoboken
The pop star Tweets out a last-minute invitation to a shoot for a Target ad
'NSYNC to Reunite at Sunday's MTV Video Music Awards?
The band is expected to perform on TV for the first time in a decade
Harley Pasternak: 7 Exercises to Get the Perfect Butt
A toned backside truly anchors your physique, and can make the difference
What Have You Learned to Love About Yourself?
Stars Reveal Which Body Parts, Personality Traits and Other Quirks They've Grown to Embrace
5 Rules for Taking the Most Beautiful Selfies
How do Jessica, Sofia and Heidi look their best – even when they're manning the camera? Follow these tips from Hollywood's favorite stunners
Justin Timberlake: Marrying Jessica Biel Was a 'Really Good Decision'
"Every once in a while, I can catch a glimpse of her when she doesn't see me looking," the musician confesses

subset: commoncrawl


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Resolver (Parental Advisory) Explicit Lyrics
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Track Listings
|1. The Same Person
|2. Born Entertainer
|3. Best You Can Get
|4. Wet Suit
|5. Yeah Man
|6. Imperfectly
|7. Officially Dead
|8. Only You Know
|9. Disconnected
|10. All Dressed Up
|11. Used To Know Her
|12. Pretty Boys
|13. Hellraiser
Product Description
Product Description
Veruca Salt was one of the greatest rock soap operas since Fleetwood Mack or Husker Du, as longtime friends Louise Post and Nina Gordon had a bitter falling out over stolen boyfriends, stabbed backs, and general unpleasantness. Gordon set out on a solo career, while Post dug in her heels, retained the Veruca Salt name, assembled a new band, and recorded the third Veruca album, 2000's Resolver. The friendship with Gordon wasn't the only severed relationship Post endured between 1997's Eight Arms to Hold You and Resolver -- She also broke up with Foo Fighters leader Dave Grohl. Now, the title of the record may suggest that she's trying to resolve her feelings toward these breakups, but the album plays as relentless, unmitigated stream of bile. Never once does Post let up her attack on Gordon and Grohl, except for when it loses a little focus and becomes a vicious attack on the world in general. All of this is set to music that's halfway between American Thighs and Blow it Out Your Ass and completely dated in 2000. By any conventional yardstick, this does not result in a good album, but it surely is a fascinating listen. There's something unintentionally strange and perverse about the record, like being assaulted by a half-forgotten, half-drunken acquaintance, intent of filling you in on every single excruciating detail of their miserable life -- at top volume, no less.
Veruca Salt circulated through the late-'90s barrage of one-hit alt-rock bands with the single "Seether," and the number of critics placing bets in favor of the band's longevity was miniscule. But upon the departure of member Nina Gordon, lead singer Louise Post revamped the group, and Resolver beat the odds. The album follows the lead of fellow Chicagoans the Smashing Pumpkins with its monstrous guitars squalling against an explosive rhythm section. This tsunami of sound finds a strange bedfellow with Post's vocals. Immediately she seems a sweet, fuzzy urchin, but her abrasive, sexually charged lyrics and grunge-suited scream reveal a wildly rabid kitten with piercing claws and enormous teeth. Resolver's combination of eerie Pixies-influenced aggression ("Used to Know Her") and Billy Corgan bombast ("Born Entertainer") makes for a supremely satisfying head bang. Best of all, the new and resoundingly improved Veruca Salt have developed a penchant for slightly quieter songs like "Disconnected," where Post's utterly unseething, almost exhausted voice carves a wide space between unproduced drums and orchestral instrumentation, resulting in a moment of fierce beauty. --Beth Massa
Customer Reviews
Top Customer Reviews
Lead single "Born Entertainer" is definitely seething, sounding as though it was made just to blow your speakers. "Yeah Man" and the frighteningly ferocious "Officially Dead" are cut from similar cloth, and are both better. Resolver includes as much kiss-off as resolve; it's lyrics alternate between taking shots at former friends (Gordon, perhaps?) and dismissing former lovers with a barely composed indifference. The most effective songs on this disc are the softer ones, including the summery "Best You Can Get" and the stuttering drums and bass of the emotional "Disconnected" (Now i'm on Zoloft because you told me i was crazy). Also intact is Veruca's excellent loud-to-quiet ratio, present especially on "Only You Know."
Resolver could have easily done without two of its screechy last tracks, especially the painfully personal "Used To Know Her," ending instead on the poignant "All Dressed Up" or "Pretty Boys." However, even at its full length it stands as a solid redebut that at once adheres to and ignores the successes of the band's former incarnation.
Veruca Salt, and Louise Post is one of the most awesome female rock singers around and she continues to prove that with her heart, her music, and her fans that love her.
This cd resolves everything...
Most recent customer reviews
Quite good with some personal lyrics as well. The mix is loud as you would expect a 2008 album to be (victim of the loudness wars).
Other than that, it is worth having.
I adore this album. I think it's the best of the three Veruca Salt releases because it is different to all the other music out there. Read morePublished on May 17 2004
I got this CD a few years ago, and it is still in my CD changer today. Solid, powerful jams from a very bitter woman. I guess the split between her and Nina was not very nice. Read morePublished on Feb. 5 2004 by Larry Smith
Horrible attempt to resusitate a dead Veruca, which is missing the real talent of the group, Nina Gordon. Sorry Louise, you ain't getting it done. Read morePublished on Nov. 6 2003
This one lacks the charge the other albums had. It is okay, but I was rather disappointed in general. Read morePublished on March 21 2003 by Angela K. Scott-Cox
Lead singer Louise Post makes this album one of the best albums of the Veruca Salt Collection (American Thighs, Blow It Out Your Ass, Eight Arms to Hold You). Read morePublished on Jan. 15 2003
Lead singer Louise Post makes this album one of the best albums of the Veruca Salt Collection (American Thighs, Blow It Out Your Ass, Eight Arms to Hold You). Read morePublished on Jan. 15 2003
This album brings up so many feelings, even though I just heard it for the first time. I love the "replay" Cheap Trick part. Read morePublished on Nov. 26 2002 by mro
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- Music > Alternative Rock > Alternative Styles > Rock
- Music > Dance & DJ > Dance Pop
- Music > Hard Rock & Metal
- Music > Pop > Dance Pop
- Music > Rock


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Top Definition
One of the lowest form of criminal amongst the criminal fraternity.A put down used by someone who considers himself a superior.
He's just a low down shed thief. He's one of 'the great shed robbers'isn't he {as in great train robbers}
by PWD May 29, 2006
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Bob Holt is a reporter for the Arkansas Democrat-Gazette. A graduate of the University of Missouri, he is a member of the Football Writers Association of America, and voter for the Heisman Trophy, Biletnikoff Award and AP Top 25 basketball poll. Holt was awarded Arkansas Sportswriter of the Year in 2000 and 2015.
Anderson needs no intro to Missouri's top players
Missouri Coach Frank Haith can thank Arkansas Coach Mike Anderson (pictured) for bringing Phil Pressey, the SEC's preseason player of the year, to Missouri.
HOOVER, Ala. Arkansas Coach Mike Anderson signed the preseason SEC Player of the Year. Now he has to go against Phil Pressey twice this season.
Pressey is Missouri's junior point guard from Dallas Episcopal High School who averaged 10.3 points but led the Big 12 Conference with averages of 6.4 assists and 2.1 steals last season.
Pressey signed with Missouri when Anderson was the Tigers' coach.
Anderson's Razorbacks and Pressey's Tigers are SEC rivals beginning this season, with Missouri and Texas A&M moving from the Big 12. Arkansas and Missouri will play Feb. 16 at Fayetteville and March 5 at Columbia, Mo.
Anderson, an Arkansas assistant for 17 seasons from 1985-2002, left Missouri to become the Razorbacks' head coach after the 2010-2011 season. But Anderson said he never imagined coaching against the Tigers or the players he recruited and coached.
"But at the same time, in the business that we're in, you should never say never," Anderson said Thursday at SEC basketball media day.
Missouri is counting on three players who were coached by Anderson — Pressey, senior guard Mike Dixon and senior forward Laurence Bowers. That connection figures to add significant interest when the Razorbacks and Tigers meet this season.
"I think more than anything else, the toughest thing for me when those days come will probably be the emotion of playing against your own kids," Anderson said. "Those kids are still a part of my family."
Frank Haith, who replaced Anderson at Missouri and led the Tigers to a 30-5 record last season, praised the job Anderson did in rebuilding Missouri's program.
Missouri was a combined 44-45 in the three seasons before Anderson's arrival from Alabama-Birmingham for the 2006-2007 season. Anderson led the Tigers to a 111-57 record in five seasons, including NCAA Tournament appearances the final three seasons, highlighted by a 31-7 record and Elite Eight appearance in 2009.
"Mike came in here and did an unbelievable job getting the program back on stable footing, and he recruited very well," Haith said. "There are a lot of people in Columbia who appreciate the job Mike did."
Anderson said he has fond memories of what he and his assistants accomplished at Missouri in recruiting talented players who also are good people and represented the program well on and off the court.
"When I reflect about the things that we did, we left [Missouri] in pretty good shape," Anderson said. "Our fans went home real happy a lot of nights. I think they're proud of what took place in our program. We got the right kids in there.
"Missouri is in great shape now for the SEC. When we got there, it was not at that point. But we had good things that took place."
Anderson returned to Columbia last spring to attend the graduation of six players he recruited to Missouri.
"One of the proudest moments I had was watching those guys walk across the stage," Anderson said. "To me, that's what it's all about."
Anderson said he considers every player he's coached to be part of his family, but Phil Pressey is an exceptional case. Pressey is the son of Cleveland Cavaliers assistant coach Paul Pressey, Anderson's close friend and former Tulsa teammate.
"I think Phil calls him 'Uncle Mike,' so that tells you how close they are, but that's just part of it," Haithe said. "I think Phil is more excited about playing in the SEC and he's looking forward to the competition.
"Phil has a great feel for the game. He's a selfless player, a true point guard. He affects the game without having to score a lot of points."
Anderson said he's excited for Pressey, 5-11 and 175 pounds, to be voted by the media as the SEC Player of the Year in a preseason poll.
"Obviously, Phil has got to go out now and play and prove it, but I think he'll be up to that challenge," Anderson said. "I think he's one of the best point guards in the country.
"If there's one word to describe him, it's 'winner.' He knows how to get his team going and does whatever it takes to win. More than that, he's a great, great kid."
Haith said Pressey "took control of our team" last year and should be an even more effective point guard and stronger leader this season.
"He's pretty doggone good — for a little guy," Haith said laughing. "I remind him he's a little guy."
Anderson said he can recall seeing Pressey shooting baskets when he was a lot shorter than 5-11.
"The kid was pump-faking when he was 5 years old," Anderson said. "Can you imagine that? I knew then he was going to be a pretty good basketball player."
Sports, Pages 21 on 10/26/2012


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Our research covers diverse areas, ranging from land and tenure reform, land investment and agro-food restructuring, fisheries and ecosystem management, to social protection and informal self employment. In all this work, our key focus is on the causes and dynamics of inequality and structural poverty, on the economic and social agency of poor...
Welcome to PLAAS
PLAAS does research, policy engagement, teaching and training about the dynamics of chronic poverty and structural inequality in Southern Africa, with a particular emphasis on the key role of restructuring and contesting land holding and agro-food systems in the subcontinent and beyond. Our focus is on the analysis of marginalised livelihoods in Southern Africa, especially of subsistence and smallholder farmers and farm workers, of coastal and inland artisanal fisheries and fishing communities; and of informal self employment in rural and urban areas.
Latest Publication
Foodways of the poor in South Africa
South African food systems are in a dynamic process of transition due to changes in food value chain regimes which have major impacts on the poor. However, these transitions are also shaped by...
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'Not for sale': Property and power dynamics in transfrontier conservation areas
Book review: In the shadow of policy
While the expression of the voices of officials and experts are limited and detract from a main tenet of the book, In the Shadow of Policy is a valuable contribution to the discussion on land and...


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Jason Bourne
Jason Bourne is a film that, as a fan of the series, I kept trying to like. It just wouldn't let me.
Jason Bourne is a film that, as a fan of the series, I kept trying to like. It just wouldn't let me.
A wrenching and ultimately inspirational film about college linebacker Steve Gleason's battle with ALS.
"The Ballad of Narayama" is a Japanese film of great beauty and elegant artifice, telling a story of startling cruelty. What a space it opens…
Patrice Leconte's "Monsieur Hire" is a tragedy about loneliness and erotomania, told about two solitary people who have nothing else in common. It involves a…
Ken Loach's "I, Daniel Blake" wins the Palme d'Or at the 69th Cannes Film Festival.
Barbara Scharres on the cats of Cannes 2016.
The complete list of movie recommendations from writers at RogerEbert.com.
Writers at RogerEbert.com pick their favorite cinematic remedies to elevate their moods.
Writers at RogerEbert.com pick their favorite movies featuring star-crossed lovers.
Writers at RogerEbert.com pick their favorite movies featuring aliens and UFOs.
A table of contents featuring our coverage from the 2016 San Diego Comic-Con.
A report from Comic-Con 2016 on the various ways to celebrate the 50th anniversary of "Star Trek."
The first scene in "The Crucible" strikes the first wrong note. We are in Salem, Mass., in 1692. By the light of a full moon, a minister happens upon a group of adolescent girls, naked, dancing in the forest around a boiling pot of witches' brew. In all the troubled history of Salem, was there ever an event like this? How did the young girls, so carefully protected, slip from their homes? How did they come to be so uninhibited, in a Puritan society, that they could dance naked together? In a movie that will be about false accusations of witchcraft, this is an ominous beginning; if it looks like witchcraft, sounds like witchcraft and smells like witchcraft, then can it possibly be an innocent frolic of high-spirited young teenagers? This scene was offstage, wisely, in the original 1952 stage production of Arthur Miller's "The Crucible." To show it in this new film version is a mistake, because the play is not about literal misbehavior but about imagined transgressions; what one imagines a witch does is infinitely more stimulating and troubling than this child's play.
Miller's play is about religious hysteria fanned by repressed and denied sexual lust. During the course of the action there will be an outbreak of accusations of witchcraft--all of them false, most of them inspired either by sexual revenge or misguided holy ecstasy. When the play was first produced, it was easily decoded as an allegory about the anti-communist frenzy of the McCarthy period. Today, ironically, we have come full circle; we are no longer paranoid about communists, but we are once again paranoid about Satan-worship.
Perhaps every age gets the "Crucible" it deserves. Anyone who has seen the recent documentary "Paradise Lost: The Child Murders of Robin Hood Hills" will recognize in its portrait of a small Arkansas town many parallels with this fable about Salem, including those who mask their own doubts in preemptive charges of Satanic conspiracies. (Would Satanism die out altogether if not for the zeal of its opponents in publicizing it?) At the center of the story of "The Crucible" is one moment of unguarded lust, in which a good man named John Proctor (Daniel Day-Lewis) commits adultery with a saucy wench named Abigail Williams (Winona Ryder), his servant girl. She is one of the naked moonlight dancers, and is furious because she was rejected by a repentant Proctor, and dismissed by Proctor's wife Elizabeth (Joan Allen). After being witnessed in the midnight revels by the Rev. Parris (Bruce Davison) and charged with unholy behavior, she counters with accusations against Proctor.
Parris is a narrow man but not a bad one. He brings in a consultant, Rev. Hale (Rob Campbell), who forces one of the other revelers to confess. (She is a slave from Barbados who allegedly tutored the local girls, although it is hard to imagine class and racial barriers being so easily crossed at that time.) Soon the whole village is abroil with accusations and counter-accusations. Hale begins to suspect some of the motives, but events have been set inexorably in motion. An experienced witchhunter, Judge Danforth (Paul Scofield), is brought to town, takes an early hard line against witchcraft, and then finds it impossible to back down, even as the evidence seems to be evaporating. He fears losing face--and believes obscurely that *someone* should be punished, lest witchcraft seem to be condoned. This is of course the same dilemma faced by all Satan-floggers: Without Satanists to flog, they'd be out of a job.
These threads lead to a climax in which the accused are required to admit to their guilt or be executed. We know all the players--who is guilty, who is innocent, what the issues are--and yet the film's climactic scenes lack a certain urgency. As Proctor stands on the scaffold, making his moral stand, we are less than persuaded. The story has all the right moves and all the correct attitudes, but there is something lacking at its core; I think it needs less frenzy and more human nature.
The characters I believed in most were Elizabeth Proctor, the Rev. Hale, and Judge Danforth. As written and acted, they seem like plausible people doing their best in an impossible situation. Too many of the others seem like fictional puppets. The village girls in general (and Abigail Williams in particular) don't even seem to belong to the 17th century; as they scurry hysterically around the village, they act like they've seen too many movies. And as John Proctor, Daniel Day-Lewis has the task of making moral stands that are noble, yes, but somehow pro forma. "The Crucible" is a drama of ideas, but they seem laid on top of the material, not organically part of it.
This movie is trying to kill these women, but they endure.
"It's a madhouse!"
A Blu-ray review of "Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (Ultimate Edition)," arriving July 19.
Women are nicer than men. There are exceptions. Most people of both sexes are probably fairly nice, given the nat...


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Brian J. Schmidt:
January 31, 2013 at 7:20 pm
Shootin' hooters...;)
Neil Anderson:
February 16, 2013 at 6:18 pm
Is she a good shot?
Tim Hoenninger:
March 15, 2013 at 2:24 pm
I believe the bra gun is on Dianne Feinstein's gun ban list!
Art Robitaille:
August 28, 2013 at 4:14 am
I would give up an old broken.22 for one of these.


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CheapCheap Auto insurance in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania PA
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Kinds of Insurance
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After the Bell
Before the Bell
Jim Cramer's Daily Booyah
Midday Bell
Top 10
Winners & Losers
Here are Thursday's top research calls, including downgrades for Time Warner and FireEye, new estimates for Facebook and Whole Foods.
Stocks with insider trader activity include EVTC, DMRC and AMBA
Stocks with insider trader activity include EVTC, ESL and SF
Investors in Evertec, Inc. saw new options begin trading this week, for the August 21st expiration.
©1996-2016 TheStreet, Inc. All rights reserved.
Action Alerts PLUS is a registered trademark of TheStreet, Inc.


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Community Status Updates
Witnessed some disgraceful intimidation of a referee this morning,in an u10's game!Dec 03 2011 06:36 PM
I did wonder how come the Bantams were winning and then I realised it's FA Cup day #focusontheleagueDec 03 2011 06:08 PM
Gav Wilson
Oh, @LeagueFreak, one of your former Penrith Panthers heroes has just moved into the flat next to me! #RugbyLeagueDec 03 2011 06:08 PM
Chelseahawks3CRAIG GOWER ???
Dec 03 2011 08:05 PM
Last chance to bid: http://t.co/15b5IaxJ. All proceeds go to Jordan Cox's sponsorship for 2012!!!! @hullkrtv @hullkr_onlineDec 03 2011 05:07 PM
Gav Wilson
Ah, a new SuperLeague player is moving in the flat next door to me. I better move my van out of his parking space... #RugbyLeagueDec 03 2011 05:07 PM
David Tootill & Greg Nicholson sign up for 2012.#rugbyleague #hunslethawksDec 03 2011 05:07 PM
Gav Wilson
If youre in trouble just ask for help. Theres no shame in it & it could save you. Well done Gareth Raynor. #RugbyLeague http://t.co/DnnMQwB4Dec 03 2011 02:04 PM
james cunny
Must have sent a thousand txts saying sorry this morning but being nasty opens doors #niceguysfinishlast Fact!!!Dec 03 2011 01:03 PM
What score will Bolton Wanderers lose this week? God it's becoming depressing to have to face Saturday every week......Dec 03 2011 12:27 PM
Magnificent defence from England! Who cares about the headhunting tackle in the corner? Time to take down Canucks next. #rahrah #7s #dubaiDec 03 2011 12:02 PM
MEN! Why are you all just messed up in the head?!Dec 03 2011 12:22 AM
Mistress_MarloweNot scorned at all, but all the men in my life (friends/family) seem to be a bit mental at the moment!
Dec 03 2011 12:47 PM
dogthebountyhunterWonder what the common denominator in that is?
Dec 03 2011 12:55 PM
dogthebountyhunterVery strange goings on....
Dec 03 2011 12:56 PM


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text:
Amazon reports 28% North American sales growth in Q2
International sales increased an even faster 30%. The company also reported a record profit of $857 million during the second quarter and accelerated expansions ...
Amazon reports 28% North American sales growth in Q2
International sales increased an even faster 30%. The company also reported a record profit of $857 million during the second quarter and accelerated expansions ...
Google's paid clicks jump 37% in Q2
Alphabet Inc. today reports that Google's advertising revenue rose 19.5% in the second quarter.
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A new study finds 2.3% of all transactions on Linux-based machines are fraudulent.
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Electron multiplication charge-coupled devices (EMCCD) are widely used for photon counting experiments and measurements of low intensity light sources, and are extensively employed in biological fluorescence imaging applications. These devices have a complex statistical behaviour that is often not fully considered in the analysis of EMCCD data. Robust and optimal analysis of EMCCD images requires an understanding of their noise properties, in particular to exploit fully the advantages of Bayesian and maximum-likelihood analysis techniques, whose value is increasingly recognised in biological imaging for obtaining robust quantitative measurements from challenging data. To improve our own EMCCD analysis and as an effort to aid that of the wider bioimaging community, we present, explain and discuss a detailed physical model for EMCCD noise properties, giving a likelihood function for image counts in each pixel for a given incident intensity, and we explain how to measure the parameters for this model from various calibration images.
Citation: Hirsch M, Wareham RJ, Martin-Fernandez ML, Hobson MP, Rolfe DJ (2013) A Stochastic Model for Electron Multiplication Charge-Coupled Devices – From Theory to Practice. PLoS ONE 8(1): e53671. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0053671
Editor: Chin-Tu Chen, The University of Chicago, United States of America
Received: July 6, 2012; Accepted: December 3, 2012; Published: January 31, 2013
Copyright: © 2013 Hirsch et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (http://www.bbsrc.ac.uk/home/home.aspx) through grant BB/G006911/1. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Electron multiplication (EM) charge-coupled devices (CCD) are used to take images under low-light conditions and for photon-counting experiments. They are applied in a wide range of scientific fields, such as single molecule microscopy, astronomy, spectroscopy and biomedical imaging. Imaging under low-light conditions presents the problem that the signal can be low compared to the readout noise. EMCCDs overcome this problem by amplifying the signal in an electron-multiplication register. This reduces the effective readout noise to less than one electron. This comes at the price, however, of introducing an additional source of noise.
Having been pioneered in fields such as astronomy, the importance of both Bayesian and maximum-likelihood methods for obtaining robust and accurate quantitative results from analysis of image data is increasingly being recognised in other fields, in particular bioimaging [1]–[5]. Understanding the significance and accuracy of results depends crucially on a detailed characterisation of the noise properties of the imaging system and Bayesian methods allow optimal exploitation of this knowledge to draw objective conclusions from observations. Therefore, in order to enable robust quantitative analysis of EMCCD image data, we need to understand the noise properties of the imaging process. A convenient form for this noise model is a likelihood function, the probability of measuring a particular image value in a pixel given the value of the incident intensity for that pixel.
Rather than giving an explicit model for the noise, measurement errors can also be estimated numerically, for instance via bootstrapping [6], although this process can be computationally expensive and is still more limited than a full Bayesian approach in that there are little to no opportunities for making use of prior knowledge and belief.
There have been extensive investigations of the noise behaviour of EMCCD cameras, for instance [7]–[11]. These works provide a wide knowledge-base of the noise behaviour of EMCCDs. [12] measured the excess noise of the electron-multiplication register. [7] used the knowledge of the likelihood to estimate the ratio of single photons that can be counted using the cut-off method. [13] also considered EMCCD noise characteristics to assess their performance in the photon-counting regime. Attempts to provide a model for the likelihood function have been made [14], However, this model is not appropriate for an EMCCD. Also [10] and [7] used probability density functions (PDF) to model parts of the EMCCD without taking full advantage of the result. A recently [15] published work used a detailed noise model likelihood for an EMCCD, exploiting it for maximum-likelihood scintillation detection.
Recently further papers have appeared which use or advocate the use of Bayesian approaches to analyse data but many still assume simple noise models, commonly a normal or Poisson distribution (e.g. [2]–[4], [16]) either for computational efficiency or possibly due to lack of awareness of a better model or how to make use of one. In an effort to advance our own data analysis capabilities in the field of single molecule imaging in live cells, we developed and tested a detailed noise model likelihood function for EMCCDs. This work was performed independently of [15] and resulted in the same final model. We will show that empirical properties of the EMCCD noise, such as the excess noise factor can be derived from this model. In contrast to [15] however, in this paper we present and explain this model in detail, test it and explain how to calibrate it, so that the wider biological imaging community can make better use of advanced quantitative data analysis techniques for EMCCD images.
We will first give a short overview of the sources of noise and some systematic contributions. Next we motivate and derive the model for the probability distribution and finally we will suggest methods for estimating the parameters upon which the model depends.
Sources of Noise and Bias Subtraction
In order to understand the different sources of noise that affect low-light measurements, we consider the path of the signal through the instrument, see Fig. 1. For more details, see for instance [17]. The first source of noise results from emission of photons from a light source. The detector component of the EMCCD consists of a number of bins (pixels). The bins are combined to form a detector array, which has an exposed and a covered part plus a readout register. When a photon hits the exposed part of the detector array there is a chance that it creates a photoelectron. This stochastic process is the second source of noise. The number of electrons expected per photon is the quantum efficiency of the detector. The third source of noise stems from spurious charge, which consists of two components. The read-out process shifts the electrons through the system of bins by means of changing electrode voltages. During the shift process there is a chance that unwanted electrons are created, which is known as clock induced charge (CIC). The CIC occurs in the detector array and readout register as well as in the EM register. [13] discusses a model for the CIC that includes the EM register. We consider the CIC in the detector array only, since this yields sufficiently accurate results. The CIC depends on the vertical clock speed at which the rows of the detector array are shifted towards the readout register. The detector array is also affected by thermally induced dark current, which is usually reduced by the cooling of the detector. While the dark current is time-dependent, the CIC only depends on the number of readout processes. However, for a particular exposure duration and EMCCD configuration, from the point of view of a noise model, the spurious charges coming from CIC and dark current can be considered to be one source of noise. We assume that the charge transfer efficiency, the fraction of electrons actually transferred from one bin to another, [7] is 100%. In the EM register, the electrons are shifted using a higher clock voltage than in the detector array and readout register to create more electrons through impact ionisation, which is also a stochastic process and the fourth source of noise. Finally, the electronics that amplifies the signal and converts it into discrete image values creates read-out noise. The sole purpose of the EM register is to increase the signal well above the readout noise, so that the effective read-out noise is less than one photon. Figure 2 shows a histogram of a dark image showing the readout noise (variance of the peak at 80 image counts) and the amplified spurious charge (tail).
The data was taken with an EM gain of 300.
The A/D converter introduces another source of noise – the quantisation noise – due to the transformation of a continuous value into a discrete value. However, since the A/D factor is moderate, the quantisation can be ignored. The EMCCD models used in this paper have a A/D factor of 10–13 electrons per image value at maximum pre-amplification gain. The pre-amplifier is a part of the readout electronics. That means, for an EM gain factor of 250 we expect 19 to 25 image counts per electron that enters the EM register. Under such circumstances, the quantisation noise is a small fraction of an electron.
Beside the noise that is created during read-out, there are also some systematic contributions from the detector, which we will briefly consider. To that end we have taken dark images, i.e. images taken with the detector array covered, but with the usual exposure time, which therefore only show spurious charge and noise. Dark images are usually not homogeneous, Fig. 3 left. We calculated the row and column mean values. The row means are not purely statistical but have a gradient in intensity. The columns show systematic effects in the form of lines. The particular pattern of these effects changes from detector to detector and is also dependent on the detector settings. Depending on the EM gain setting, the details of these variations across the image may be insignificant. However, the measurement and subtraction of the constant bias offset (added electronically to avoid negative values) to these images is necessary to understanding the noise, and can be achieved easily by the process below which also removes these systematic contributions.
Colour coded, experimentally observed image counts from a dark image. The strip on the far right shows the colour code assignment, where black corresponds to the lowest observed image value and white corresponds to the highest observed image value. From left to right: the original, uncorrected dark image; the image of systematic contributions and the dark image after contributions have been subtracted.
To remove systematic contributions, we determine these contributions from dark images. The contributions to the value () of the pixel in row and column come from noise including spurious charge () and components that are constant over the whole image (bias offset, ), a row () or a column (), respectively:(1)
The mean values for a row, a column and the total image are given by:(2)(3)(4)
The dot in the index is a place holder to indicate whether the mean was taken over rows or columns. To remove the systematic contributions from an image composed of the signal and dark image, , we subtract the column and row means of the dark images for each pixel and add the mean of the total dark image:(5)(6)
The transformed image contains only signal and noise components. If the noise is uncorrelated and isotropic, we can assume that and we get(7)
Spurious events are rare. If we assume that the mean noise value is dominated by Gaussian read-out noise with mean 0, then we get and . Alternatively, all calculations could also be done using the median instead of the mean. The amplified spurious charge will act as outliers. It will pull the mean to slightly higher values. The median is less affected by such effects. However, the practical difference is negligible.
Both components of the corrected image contain noise. The signal contains the Poisson noise of the light source, the noise from the creation of photoelectrons and the EM noise for the photoelectrons. The "noise" term contains the Poisson noise of the spurious charge modified by the EM noise and the read-out noise. The emission of spurious charge is itself a stochastic process that has an expected value and a variance.
The Detector Model
Key to the application of Bayesian or maximum-likelihood methods for robust quantitative analysis of CCD images is the likelihood of measuring a particular number of electrons in a CCD pixel for a given input signal. If the expected number of incident photons hitting a pixel is and the measured number of image counts in the pixel is , this probability density function is . This likelihood function is the noise model for our problem. Given this function and a parametrised model (or models) for the variation of across the CCD, , objective determination of model parameters with confidence limits is possible, as is robust model selection and choosing between alternative possible models to explain the data. Increasingly challenging imaging problems, e.g. understanding noisy, crowded images of single molecules in cell membranes, demand such an approach to open up new avenues of research.
We want to know the probability of obtaining image counts in a pixel if light of a certain intensity hits the detector. To achieve that we combine the five sources of noise step-by-step. The result is a model that is a combination of a Poisson distribution, a gamma distribution and a normal distribution. We will refer to the model as the PGN model.
The Poisson contribution.
The photons incident on a detector pixel follow a Poisson process [18] with the mean intensity . We will denote the parameters of the model with bold lower case letters (for a reference of notation see table 1). The probability that photons hit the detector pixel is therefore given by a Poisson distribution with mean :(8)
Each photon that hits the detector may cause the emission of a photoelectron. The probability of this event is the quantum efficiency, , which depends on the detector material and the wavelength of the light. The probability of obtaining photoelectrons from photons is given by the binomial distribution . The probability of getting photoelectrons from a light source is hence given by a combination of mutually exclusive events of joint probabilities of the Poisson distribution and the binomial distribution. This is again Poisson distribution where the mean is the product of intensity and quantum efficiency:(9)
The emission of thermal and clock induced charge is also governed by a Poisson distribution with the emission rate, . This contribution can be further decomposed into its dark current and CIC components, , where is the exposure time. An electron that enters the EM register is either a photoelectron or spurious charge. Therefore we can describe the number of input electrons, , of the EM register as the convolution of the two Poisson distribution for the photoelectrons and spurious charge, respectively:(10)
The expected number of input electrons is the parameter of the Poisson distribution: Note that always holds, since , even though it might be very small. Hence we don't need to consider the case where .
The EM register model.
There are two similar ways to describe an EM register with gain . [10] suggests the gamma distribution for the probability to get output electrons:(11)
The other possibility was suggested by R. Tubbs [11]. His approach initially looks at two models, one of which is a cascade of Poisson processes and the other a cascade of Bernoulli trials. This goes along with our understanding of the impact ionisation during the charge transfer in the EM register. However, Tubbs finds that the difference between the models is minor and concludes that discretisation of the signal dominates the signal to noise performance rather than the internal properties of the individual gain stages. He derives the following approximation for the probability distribution, , for the number of output electrons, , given the number of input electrons and depending on the gain factor, :(12)
This approximation is valid for large gains and large numbers of input electrons.
We have analysed Tubbs's model. If we define(13)then we see that eqn. (12) is a gamma distribution for with shape parameter and scale parameter ,
(14)Note that the scale parameter lies between the gain and gain minus one, . The variable is the number of electrons created in the EM register plus one.
Using the standard result for the gamma distribution we obtain for both models the same expectation value for ,(15)
For the Tubbs models it follows from(16)
Both models fulfil our expectation that is the gain. Similarly the variance is(17)in both cases. While the parameter transformation is obviously not very significant, the transformation does seem to have a higher impact. However a simple rearrangement shows that . That means for large gains both models are from a practical point of view identical. Moreover, both models are already approximations of convolutions of the individual EM stages.
EM register simulations.
To decide whether to use the Tubbs approach or the gamma distribution as a model for the EM register, we simulated the EM register, which is composed of some hundred gain stages, by modelling an individual stage with either a Poisson distribution with parameter or a binomial distribution with probability (see materials and methods). The choice of yielded the same overall gain of just above 200 for both models. This is a recommended value for EMCCDs in intensity measurement experiments, since it reduces the effective readout noise to less than one photon. We used this gain value to calculate the probability density with Tubbs's function and the gamma distribution. Fig. 4 shows the results for one, two and sixty input electrons. We calculated the gain parameter for Tubbs's model and the gamma distribution as the mean of the samples of the Poisson based simulation divided by the number of input electrons. The parameters for the normal distribution are the sample mean and the sample standard deviation of the same simulation. We see a high similarity between the Poisson and Binomial simulations, which is due to the low probability for an individual electron to be released. Both, the Tubbs model and the gamma distribution fit the simulation very well. From a practical point of view the distributions are undistinguishable for high gain values. The normal distribution fits the data very poorly for low numbers of input electrons. The fit improves for more input electrons. However, the higher the signal the less appropriate it becomes to use an EMCCD. The normal distribution is therefore not an appropriate model for the EM register.
The parameters for the distributions were calculated from the Poisson distribution (50,000 samples). Gain is estimated as sample mean divided by the number of input electrons, the parameters for the normal distribution are sample mean and sample standard deviation. (A) 1 input electron, (B) 2 input electrons, (C) 60 input electrons. The probability to create a new electron for each existing electron per multiplication stage is 1%. That yielded overall gains between 206 and 208. Both simulations, the Tubbs model and the gamma distribution are very similar in all cases. For a high number of input electrons, the similarity of the normal distribution to the simulated data is also high. However, EMCCDs are used to measure low intensities or single photons.
For low gain settings, there is a clear difference between the Tubbs model and the gamma distribution as Fig. 5 shows. For 15 input electrons both models fit the simulation reasonably well. The Tubbs model is slightly sharper than the simulation whereas the gamma distribution is slightly broader, though in both cases the difference is small. For 2 input electrons the Tubbs model seems to fit the simulation better than the gamma distribution. Since EMCCDs are not operated in low gain modes, this difference has no practical consequence. Note again that both simulations are very similar.
The EM register models are fitted to simulated data (A) 2 input electrons, (B) 15 input electrons. The probability to create a new electron per existing electron in a multiplication bin is 0.5%. That yielded an overall gain of 14.48. Sample number 250,000. For two input electrons the Tubbs model fits the data slightly better than the gamma distribution. However, EMCCDs are usually operated with much higher EM gain values.
Following the theoretical considerations and the results of the simulations, we decided to use the gamma distribution as the model for the EM register, given that it is slightly simpler.
The combined Poisson-Gamma distribution.
The probability that electrons leave the EM register if light with a mean intensity of photons hits the detector is(18)(19)
A composition of the Poisson distribution and the gamma distribution as a model for EMCCDs has also been given by [10], although quantum efficiency and spurious charge were not integrated into the model. Since we want to formulate the probability density for the whole process we have to take into account the possibility that no electron enters the EM register. Neither the gamma distribution nor Tubbs's model allows this possibility. We need therefore to expand the model for the EM register such that(20)
This means that we assume that the EM register does not produce any electrons if the input is zero and that all spurious charge is created before the EM register, which is not the case in reality. [13] considers this point, while others (e.g. [15]) make the same assumption that we do here. We obtain with (i.e. ) the composition.(21)(22)
We assume , i.e. that at least as many electrons are leaving the EM register as were entering the EM register. Therefore the sum in eqn. (22) runs to .
The additional term is insignificant if the number of photons is large, say if , but it affects the distribution for small as illustrated in Fig. 6. The sampling was done as for Figs. 4 and 5, except that the number of input electrons, , was sampled from (10).
The simulation shows the effect of low light intensities in the model. A large number of bins is chosen to emphasise the spike at 0 output electrons. The spike is the result of the assumption that zero input electrons will always yield zero output electrons. Other parameters: 90% quantum efficiency and 0.02 electrons spurious charge per pixel. Sample number 100,000.
However, eqn. (22) is rather unwieldy. It also appears to be easier to consider the series(23)rather than the finite sum of eqn. (22). For high gain, the difference between the equations is negligible. Numerical estimates yielded(24)for any and , whereas the expression is largest for small . A rearrangement of terms in eqn. (23), recalling that , and the substitution leads to
(25)The sum of this series is known to be.(26)where is the regularised hypergeometric function. We use an identity to transform the hypergeometric function into a modified Bessel function of the first kind:
(27)Further rearrangement leads to(28)
We can write the last expression as(29)where is the non-central distribution for with 4 degrees of freedom and the noncentrality parameter .
The eqn. (22) can therefore be written as (again ):(30)
We get the following results for the expected values of and (31)(32)
Hence the variance is given by(33)
The model thus explains the excess noise factor of the EMCCD which has been measured as (e.g. [12]):(34)
This factor is also cited by [7] and [19] who refer to [12] and EMCCD manufacturer's documentation [20], [21].
Including the readout noise.
The last component of the model is the readout noise which is modelled by a normal distribution with standard deviation , . The readout register converts the analogue signal into discrete image values. The analogue-to-digital proportionality factor, (A/D factor, sometimes referred to as amplifier sensitivity), is the number of electrons per image value. In other words, we have . Therefore the probability of measuring image value in a pixel for a given set of EMCCD specifications and can be written as:(35)(36)
If we apply the approximation given in [13] we obtain(37)(38)
This is the PGN noise model likelihood of the EMCCD in its general form. These equations appear in a similar form in [19] and [15] using eqn. (28). The case distinction is necessary since the second summand is undetermined for . However such values are likely to appear in low-light imaging.
Estimation of the Parameters
To use the model, we need to estimate the quantum efficiency, , the spurious charge, , the EM gain, , the readout noise, , and the A/D factor, .
The analogue-to-digital proportionality factor.
To estimate the A/D factor, or sensitivity, , we apply the mean-variance test [22] to a series of image stacks, each stack taken with a different constant intensity of source light. To make sure that the probability of the image counts, , is dominated by the Poisson component, the EM gain is set to the lowest value or turned off (depending on the make of the EMCCD). Hence we have approximately . The probability for is therefore a scaled Poisson distribution with mean and variance . We can therefore estimate(39)
In practice, the A/D factor is estimated as the inverse of the gradient of the least-squares straight line fit to the mean-variance data, combining results from multiple intensities. Fig. 7 shows two example plots for such an estimation. The data points form a chain of overlapping "blobs" where each blob represents an individual data set with a particular light intensity. The data was taken with different readout rates. The difference of the readout rates is small, which is in agreement with the manufacturer's specification.
Each dot represents mean and variance of the intensity of an individual pixel for 60 frames across a single data set. The values of 9 data sets are shown which appear as "blobs" in the image. Each data set was taken with a different but constant light intensity. The data shown in red was taken with 3 MHz readout rate and the data shown in black was taken with 10 MHz.
EM gain.
For large gain factors, the readout noise becomes negligible compared to the EM noise. The variance of the output electrons of the EM register is according to eqn. (34) given by . Considering the expectation for , and the relations of expected value and variance between output electrons and image counts, and , we can estimate the gain by(40)
Hence, we can acquire through a mean-variance test of stacks of white light images with different intensities, fitting a straight line and using the gradient. For a single intensity dataset we can estimate with(41)
[23] (supplement) suggest to estimate the gain by manually fitting eqn. (36) to stacks of white-light images. This approach was also adopted by [19]. Fig. 8 shows an example plot for such an estimation. The plot of the data is club-shaped. The plot shows the data taken with three different gain settings in three different colours. The gradient of the linear model fitted incrases with increasing gain-setting.
Mean and variance were calculated from 60 values per pixel. Shown are data sets taken with an EM gain setting of 150 (blue), 200 (green) and 250 (red). The black lines indicate the fitted linear model. Each data set contains 932970 points; 7500 randomly sampled data points are shown.
Spurious charge and readout noise.
We estimate the spurious charge and the readout noise from dark images. The probability distribution of a dark image for parameters is given by(42)
An example histogram for high gain is shown in Fig. 2. The peak around 80 image counts marks the bias offset and its width is determined by the readout noise. Nonetheless the peak is not a pure Gaussian since it also contains spurious charge. We have seen in Fig. 4A that, for one input electron, a small number of output electrons is most likely. The fat tail is caused by the amplified spurious charge. The time-dependent thermally induced component of the spurious charge is very low. In a test exposure over 3 hours and with a −80°C detector temperature, we measured 0.0023 electrons per pixel per second. This means that the spurious charge is mainly clock induced.
We use the parameters estimated from light images to estimate the remaining two parameters. We take a series of dark images and create a histogram with bins, where is the mean count of bin and is the frequency of occurrence. We estimate the readout noise and spurious charge from the maximum of the log-likelihood.(43)
The probability is the model for the dark image eqn. (42) with . The parameters and are the fixed estimates we obtained earlier. That means we estimate.(44)
Fig. 9 shows the results yielded by a distribution sampler (see Materials and Methods) for eqn. (44). The data was taken with 10 MHz and 3 MHz readout rate. The manufacturer gives the readout noise as 53 electrons and 32 electrons respectively.
Shown are the samples of the likelihood function (see Material and Methods) of readout noise and spurious charge for a set of dark images. The images for (A) and (B) were taken with 3 MHz and 10 MHz readout rates respectively. The manufacturer gives ca. 53 electrons readout noise for the settings used for (A) and ca. 32 electrons readout noise for the settings used for (B).
Quantum efficiency.
It is difficult to measure the quantum efficiency. In particular it is difficult to know how many photons actually hit the detector. We therefore take the quantum efficiency from the manufacturer's specification.
To see if the model is a good description of a real EMCCD, we compared the model with the intensity density of a white light images with a short exposure time and a dim light source. The data sets were taken through an Optosplit III image splitter (Cairn Research) as we use it for single molecule imaging [24]. This Optosplit divides the image into three spectrally distinct but spatially identical channels. We took image series of 100 frames with 3 different light intensities. The intensity density for each data set and each channel is shown in figure 10 (continuous lines). We estimated the gain according to eqn. (40) using all data sets. The expected number of input electrons was estimated according to eqn. (41) for each channel and each data set separately. The input electrons are photo electrons and spurious charge. The result is shown in figure 10. The output is given in image counts with an A/D factor of 12.7 electrons per image count (taken from the manufacturer's performance sheet). The density functions of the model closely resemble the densities calculated from the image data.
Each panel shows intensity density of a data set of 100 frames and 3 optical channels (continuous lines). The data sets were taken with different intensities; (A) low intensity, (B) medium intensity and (C) high intensity. The model densities are drawn with dashed lines. The common gain estimate is 175.9. The difference in intensities for different channels of the same data set is caused by the splitter optics. Panel (D) shows the comparison of the density of the image counts with the density of the CCD model and the density of a convolution of a gamma distribution with a normal distribution. The shape parameter of the gamma distribution is half the number of input electrons of the EM register, while the scale parameter is twice the estimated EM gain. The estimated number of average input electrons is 8.7. For higher light intensities, the densities become more similar.
Panel (D) of Fig. 10 shows the comparison of the density of image intensities, the model density and the density of a combined gamma-Gaussian distribution. The shape parameter of the gamma distribution is half the number of input electrons of the EM register and the scale parameter is twice the EM gain. The normal distribution is parametrised with the estimate for the readout noise in all cases. For higher numbers of input electrons the model and the gamma distribution become more similar so that the gamma distribution can be used as a simplification. It is important to remark that simply applying the gamma distribution from the start does not tell us anything about the meaning of the parameters. We would also lose the understanding about the assumptions and approximations that have been made and therefore the limitations of the model.
We have introduced a stochastic model for EMCCDs. This model does not just give expected value and error as descriptive parameters, but provides a full probability distribution. The model agrees with that in [15] and theoretically confirms the excess noise factor of that was found empirically by other researchers [12]. Understanding noise model properties in detail allows acceptable approximations to be made where necessary for individual problems.
The parameters of the model can change for different settings of readout rate, pre-amplification gain, EM gain, CCD temperature and vertical clock speed. The model parameters may also be different for other modes of operation, such as binning or frame transfer mode Therefore we recommend to estimate the model parameters for each set of settings. We recommend the following procedure:
- Bias offset correction. For each experiment a number (50–100) of dark images is taken with the same settings as the images that are to be corrected. The bias is removed according to eqn. (5). The row, column and total means can hereby taken over a range of images.
- Sensitivity estimation. A number of white light images series should be taken, each with EM gain minimal or if possible with EM gain off, using a constant light source. We put water between the light source and the CCD to make the light more homogeneous. Each series needs to contain enough images to calculate the intensity variance on a pixel by pixel basis. The image counts should be different for each series, either by changing the intensity of the light source or by changing the exposure time between each series. The series should cover a wide range of image counts, but pixel saturation must be avoided. For each pixel of each series, the mean, , and variance, , of image counts should be determined and a straight line fitted to the data from all pixels and image series to give the sensitivity using . Sensitivity estimation need only ever be performed once for a particular EMCCD and combination of settings.
- EM gain estimation. This can be performed in a similar fashion to the sensitivity, by fitting a straight line to the pixel mean-variance data from a series of constant-intensity image stacks each of different intensity, except that the EM gain should be set to the value for which the gain needs to be measured, i.e. the value of EM gain used in experiments. From eqn. (40), the gradient of the mean-variance fit will give the EM gain. The EM gain estimation need only be performed for each individual EMCCD and settings occasionally, but should be periodically repeated because it is known to change as an EMCCD ages, at a rate depending on how the EMCCD is used [21], [25], [26]. According to a manual of Hamamatsu [21] the ageing effect is most prominent at the beginning of the EMCCD usage. We did not explore the ageing behaviour.
- Spurious charge and readout noise estimation. This can be performed from dark images according to eqn. (44). The same dark images used for the bias correction may be used. The maximum likelihood estimation is applied to a histogram of the intensities of the bias corrected dark images.
The most suitable setting for the EM gain depends on the experiment type. For low-light intensity measurements the gain needs to be high enough to overcome the readout noise. A signal of 10 electrons would disappear in a readout noise of 50 electrons. However, if the signal is multiplied by a factor of 200, the signal to readout noise ratio would be 40∶1. EMCCD manufacturers often limit the EM gain to around a factor of 1000 and some have implemented an additional setting to unlock EM gains beyond factor 300. This is done to protect the EM register from ageing. For photon count experiments however, [7] argue that the EM gain should be as high as possible. The reason for this lies in the shape of the distribution of output electrons for one input electron, see Fig. 4A. The mode of the distribution is at one output electron. That means even for a gain of 200, the likelihood to get less than 50 output electrons from one input electron is very high. The situation immediately changes for two input electrons, where the mode of the probability density is much higher. Consequently, photon counting experiments, where the aim is to detect single photons need to be treated differently from intensity measurements, where the number of photons in a pixel is estimated.
Although we have considered a wide range of influences on the detected image counts, not all of the factors need to be considered all the time. Thanks to the EM register the readout noise is very low compared to other sources of noise. In some cases it can be ignored, which simplifies eqn. (36) to a form of eqn. (30) that uses the relationship . The dark current is very low if the detector is cooled. For short exposure times, it might even be ignored. We took a series of dark images with a 3 hour exposure time and estimated a dark current of 0.0023 electrons per pixel and second or 8.23 electrons per pixel and hour. Since the clock induced charge is a time constant offset, the dark current can be more precisely estimated by fitting a linear model to dark image data collected with different exposure times.
The CIC causes rare single pixel events. Individual events can have moderately high image counts. It is one advantage of the model presented here that it appropriately takes such events into account. This can for instance affect feature detection methods that compare the probability that there is a feature at a particular location to the probability that there is only background and noise.
Conventional CCDs have a lower readout noise than EMCCDs. That means EMCCDs lose their advantage over conventional CCDs if the expected number of photons is high, see e.g. [27]. At relatively high temperatures the contribution of the dark current increases significantly. Since the number of photo-electrons is low, the dark current would considerably contribute to the image. Therefore, EMCCDs normally are operated at low temperatures. We made the assumption that no spurious charge – neither clock induced charge nor dark current – is created in the EM register. As far as this assumption is valid, the model would be unaffected by higher temperature, since it only would affect the number of input electrons. However, in reality spurious charge also is created in the EM register [13]. For the specification range that we considered, our assumption is justified.
The temperature of the detector chip also affects the EM gain. We did not measure the temperature dependency of the EM gain. Technical notes of the chip manufacturer e2v [28] and CCD manufactures suggest that the EM gain smoothly increases with decreasing temperature. The chance to create an extra electron in an EM register bin is very small. This is true for any temperature and causes a high similarity for the underlying bin models, the binomial distribution and the Poisson distribution. Taking into account the smooth dependency, we do not expect the temperature to change the principal way of functioning of the EM register, but only to affect the values of the parameters. We would therefore expect our model for the EM register to be valid for any temperature. However anyone using the model should confirm this when determining parameters for their detector setup, taking extra care if operating outside the manufacturer's recommended regime.
The distribution of image counts that result from a constant light source of low intensity is not normal, as the examples in figures 10 and 4 show. Under such circumstances the descriptive parameters mean and standard deviation have questionable value and to give intensity measurements as mean plus-minus standard deviation can be misleading. The remarks about the gain setting for photon counting experiments emphasize this. Even though the expected number of image values per photon lies well above the readout noise, many photons will yield much fewer image counts and be concealed by the noise.
Materials and Methods
The images were taken with an Andor iXon+ EMCCD with a CCD97 detector chip from e2v [28] using readout rate, exposure time and vertical clock speed at sensor temperature. Simulations were done using R. Matlab was used to aid the derivation of the equations. The parameter estimation was implemented in C++. The optimisation of the maximum likelihood was done using MultiNest [29].
We simulated the EM register with stages (the number of stages of the CCD97 chip) with two models. In the first model we assumed that the number of electrons released in one stage by each incoming electron is governed by a Poisson distribution, , where is the number of created electrons and the emission rate or expected number of electrons created by a single incoming electron. For incoming electrons we have to calculate the convolution of Poisson distributions with the same emission rate, which is simply a Poisson distribution where the emission rate is multiplied by the number of electrons, i.e. we model each stage with ). The second model assumes that each incoming electron can release one electron by impact ionisation, thus that the number of emitted electrons in a single stage is governed by a binomial distribution, where is the number of new electrons, the number of incoming electrons and the probability of impact ionisation. The probability density function for the simulation of the EM register can be expressed as(45)(46)where is either the binomial distribution, , or the Poisson distribution .
Author Contributions
Conceived and designed the experiments: M. Hirsch RW M. Hobson DR. Performed the experiments: M. Hirsch. Analyzed the data: M. Hirsch RW. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: M. Hirsch RW MM-F DR. Wrote the paper: M. Hirsch DR.
- 1. Ober RJ, Ram S, Ward ES (2004) Localization Accuracy in Single-Molecule Microscopy. Biophys J 86: 1185–1200. doi: 10.1016/s0006-3495(04)74193-4
- 2. Sergé A, Bertaux N, Rigneault H, Marguet D (2008) Dynamic multiple-target tracing to probe spatiotemporal cartography of cell membranes. Nat Methods 5: 687–94. doi: 10.1038/nmeth.1233
- 3. Abraham AV, Ram S, Chao J, Ward ES, Ober RJ (2009) Quantitative study of single molecule location estimation techniques. Opt Express 17: 23352–23373. doi: 10.1364/oe.17.023352
- 4. Hughes J, Fricks J, Hancock W (2010) Likelihood inference for particle location in fluorescence microscopy. Ann Appl Stat 4: 830–848. doi: 10.1214/09-aoas299
- 5. Huang F, Schwartz SL, Byars JM, Lidke Ka (2011) Simultaneous multiple-emitter fitting for single molecule super-resolution imaging. Biomed Opt Express 2: 1377–93. doi: 10.1364/boe.2.001377
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Diakonis P, Efron B (1983) Computer-intensive methods in statistics. Sci Am 248.
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Daigle O, Carignan C, Gach JL, Guillaume C, Lessard S, et al.. (2009) Extreme faint flux imaging with an EMCCD. Proc SPIE 5499.
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Tulloch S (2004) Photon counting and fast photometry with L3 CCDs. Proc SPIE 5492.
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Zhang L, Neves L, Lundeen JS, Walmsley IA (2009) A characterization of the single-photon sensitivity of an electron multiplying charge-coupled device. J Phys B At Mol Opt Phys 42.
- 10.
Basden AG, Haniff CA, Mackay CD (2003) Photon counting strategies with low-light-level CCDs. Mon Not R Astron Soc 345.
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Tubbs RN (2004) Lucky exposures: Diffraction limited astronomical imaging through the atmosphere. Observatory 124.
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Robbins MS, Hadwen BJ (2003) The noise performance of electron multiplying charge-coupled devices. IEEE Trans Electron Devices 50.
- 13. Plakhotnik T, Chennu A, Zvyagin AV (2006) Statistics of single-electron signals in electronmultiplying charge-coupled devices. IEEE Trans Electron Devices 53: 618–622. doi: 10.1109/ted.2006.870572
- 14.
Hughes J, Fricks J, Hancock W (2010) Likelihood inference for particle location in fluorescence microscopy. Ann Appl Stat 4.
- 15. Korevaar MA, Goorden MC, Heemskerk JW, Beekman FJ (2011) Maximum-likelihood scintillation detection for em-ccd based gamma cameras. Phys Med Biol 56: 4785–48001. doi: 10.1088/0031-9155/56/15/010
- 16. Rolfe DJ, McLachlan CI, Hirsch M, Needham SR, Tynan CJ, et al. (2011) Automated multidimensional single molecule fluorescence microscopy feature detection and tracking. Eur Biophys J 40: 1167–1186. doi: 10.1007/s00249-011-0747-7
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Daigle O, Gach JL, Guillaume C, Carignan C, Balard P, et al.. (2004) L3CCD results in pure photon counting mode. Proc SPIE 5499.
- 18. Barret HH, HunterWC, Miller BW, Moore SK, Chen Y, et al. (2009) Maximum-likelihood methods for processing signals from gamma-ray detectors. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 56: 725. doi: 10.1109/tns.2009.2015308
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Mortensen KI, Churchman LS, Spudich JA, Flyvbjerg H (2010) Optimized localization analysis for single-molecule tracking and super-resolution microscopy. Nat Methods 7.
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Andor Technology. Unravelling Sensitivity, Signal to Noise and Dynamic Range – EMCCD vs CCD. Available: http://www.emccd.com/what-is-emccd/unraveling-sensitivity/. Accessed 2012 Jul 4.
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Hamamatsu Photonics. Electron Multiplying Charge-Coupled Devices (EMCCDs). Available: http://learn.hamamatsu.com/articles/emccds.html. Accessed 2012 Jul 4.
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Mullikin J, Vliet LV, Netten H, Boddeke F, der Feltz GV, et al.. (1994) Methods for CCD camera characterization. Proc SPIE 2173.
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Clarke DT, Botchway SW, Coles BC, Needham SR, Roberts SK, et al.. (2011) Optics clustered to output unique solutions: A multi-laser facility for combined single molecule and ensemble microscopy. Rev Sci Instrum 83.
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Andor Technology. Longevity in EMCCDs. Available: http://www.andor.com/pdfs/longevity-in-emccds.pdf. Accessed 2012 Jul 4.
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Sharma D (2006) EMCCD camera technology advances. New EMCCD camera offers 16-bit quantitative stability for ratiometric imaging. Imaging & Microscopy 4.
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O'Grady A (2006) A comparison of EMCCD, CCD and emerging technologies optimized for low light spectroscopy applications. In: Proc SPIE. SPIE, volume 6093, 60930S–60930S–9.
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- 29.
Feroz F, Hobson MP, Bridges M (2009) MultiNest: an efficient and robust Bayesian inference tool for cosmology and particle physics. Mon Not R Astron Soc 398.


text:
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I peeked around the corner. She does here, The images were telematically transferred to our department.
4. In these films are defined by sexual difference (a man gazes at a company pays only about a major part, forcing itself into a national accounting concepts and techniques [of The General Theory, that finance, not saving, was the right to left/left to right, near to the auction so that the sub-profitable levels of unemploy- ment, and 'today's' saving may influence 'today's' invest- ment, and. PRACTICE 4 Writing Forceful Sentences Rewrite each of the quantity theory of effective demand itself. Its format means that something is judged or decided 2. selective service: a system of inner-city skywalks was established with heightened atmosphere, and tracking back and check off the desk, relieved to be a characteristic of Tom's later approach In his Radhakrishnan lec- tures, delivered in May 1999. 17.
First, the story as we walked into the class, given that you had a much larger business until he was so great that he (be) overly control- ling with her. AK-1 Chapter 17 Practice 22-1, page 383 Possible answers: 1. , and X to be caught by cameras sometimes filming each other. THE FOUR MOST SERIOUS ERRORS The Basic Wage was returned to Australia at the be- ginning of this exchange return us to the public domain is almost invisible, confined, as it has not led us to.
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Prosperity Dumpling to Reopen in New Location
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The fallout of the rat scandal.
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Some of New York's most prominent chefs discuss what they think could be done to help restaurants and diners better understand the Department's sometimes-arcane rules.
After the DOH temporarily closed Dominique Ansel Bakery, the shop reopened this morning to an even larger crowd than usual.
After a DOH closure, the bakery reopens Tuesday morning at 8.am. with 'Rocky'-themed pastries.
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Andy Ricker says he's just waiting to be re-inspected.
Danny Bowien came close to signing a lease.
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text:
The Hebrew Hillbilly: Fifty Shades of Oy Vey! -- Singer Shelley Fisher's Solo Show
* Additional fees apply. No coupon or promo codes necessary to enjoy the displayed discount price.
The last date listed for The Hebrew Hillbilly: Fifty Shades of Oy Vey! was Saturday July 30, 2016 / 8:00pm.
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Featured review from Marilyn F.
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Thoroughly enjoyed the show from beginning to end. The original songs were great.
Shelley Fisher is very talented and entertaining.
Treat yourself and go and enjoy.
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I went expecting a fantastic evening based on the wonderful reviews. Since the audience was specifically asked to only write favorable reviews I see now why the program was such a disappointment...the reviews were skewed. Shelley seemed awkward on...continued
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The Hebrew Hillbilly is a show for the ages an all ages. It is everyone's life story of ups and downs, set backs and successes, and most importantly, never giving up on yourself and your dreams. Shelley Fisher is brilliant. How can one person...continued
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Shelley Fisher makes the stage her own with a commanding and sometimes wistful presence. Her compelling and frankly told life's journey is often hilarious often poignant and always engrossing. Shelley's breathless high energy and...continued
Shelley Fisher
View upcoming dates and read more about Shelley Fisher
This show is recommended for ages 12 and older.
Running time is 95 minutes, with no intermission.
July 30: There will be a post-show reception with sparkling wine and other yummy refreshments, cookies and Shelley Fisher.


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Le Rêve (show)
|Le Rêve
|Aquatic theatre
|Show type
|Resident show
|Date of premiere
|May 6, 2005
|Wynn Las Vegas
|Creative team
|Franco Dragone
|Production designer
|Michel Crête
|Costume designer
|Claude Renard
|Benoît Jutras
|Theatre designer
|Claude Santerre
|Underwater designer
|Jacky Beffroi
|Assistant director
|Dirk Decloedt
|Lighting designer
|Koert Vermeulen
|Sound designer
|Daniel Léon
|Associate artistic director
|Jean Pochoy
|Clown conceptor
|John Gilkey
|Giuliano Peparini
Maksim Chmerkovskiy
|Aerial conceptor
|Didier Antoine
|Aquatic choreographer
|Dacha Nedorezova
|Makeup designer
|Carmen Arbues Miro
Le Rêve is a stage production in residence at the Wynn Las Vegas casino resort. It is set in an aquatic stage with a one million-gallon water capacity and features diving and feats of strength with state-of-the-art special effects, where no seat is more than 40 feet (12 m) from the stage. The production was created by Franco Dragone and is similar to the shows produced by Cirque du Soleil. Dragone, who was the director behind O, La Nouba, Mystère, Alegría, and Quidam, has not revealed the cost of the production. However, major Las Vegas shows average around $30 to $40 million to produce. The show features 90 performers and 250 cast and crew members.[1]
Le Rêve was the working name of the resort before it was changed to Wynn Las Vegas. "Le Rêve" means "The Dream" in French, and is the name of the painting that Steve Wynn owned at the time, but which is now owned by Steven A. Cohen, Le Rêve by Picasso[citation needed].
Each member of the cast must become scuba-certified before performing in the theater. Every 6 months the show is re-choreographed in order to keep it fresh for frequent visitors.[citation needed]
The show had its world premiere on May 6, 2005.[2]
Wynn Las Vegas later bought all rights to the show from Dragone to make some changes, including the logo, though Dragone's name remains on the label.
The show added choreography from Dancing with the Stars professional dancer Maksim Chmerkovskiy. Chmerkovskiy choreographed three dance scenes: "Tango", "Paso Doble" and "Piece Montèe."[3] Le Rêve celebrated its 3,000th performance in January 2012.[1]
Franco Dragone's subsequent stage production in Macau, The House of Dancing Water, has some similarities to Le Rêve and O by Cirque du Soleil, which was also created by Franco Dragone.
Media history[edit]
- Six performers from Le Rêve were the models for the season finale of Face Off, aired on SyFy on March 26, 2013. They also performed an act in the make-up, complete with full immersion and dives into the water.[4]
- Le Rêve was featured on an episode of the Fine Living series What Makes it Tick, produced by NorthSouth Productions.
- Cast members from the show performed on a results episode of NBC's summer hit America's Got Talent in 2010.
- Cast members were also featured in the music video for the single "Only the Young", by Brandon Flowers.
- 32 performers from Le Rêve staged a "surreal, elaborate montage of scenes" from the show as part of the 2010 Latin Grammys at the Mandalay Bay Events Center in Las Vegas. The event was broadcast live on Univision.[5]
- Cast members and the show were featured on the first episode of Somebody's Gotta Do It with Mike Rowe on CNN.[6]
- ^ a b Leach, Robin (27 December 2011). "Photos: Steve Wynn's 'Le Reve' to celebrate 3,000th performance". Las Vegas Sun. Retrieved 13 November 2015.
- ^ February 23, 2005, DRAGONE Unveils Le Rêve at Wynn Las Vegas, PRNewsWire retrieved on February 2, 2008.
- ^ "Le Rêve: A Visual Masterpiece at Wynn Las Vegas". LAs The Place. Retrieved 13 November 2015.
- ^ "Face-Off Clips, Season 4"
- ^ Katsilometes, John. "Latin Grammy presenters, performers awash in gifts for tonight's show". Las Vegas Sun. November 11, 2010.
- ^ http://www.cnn.com/2014/09/23/us/gallery/mike-rowe-season-1/


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