text:
Buddhism and psychology
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The Buddhist religion and the modern discipline of Psychology have multiple parallels and points of overlap. These include:
- Descriptive phenomenology: Western and Buddhist scholars have found in Buddhist teachings a detailed introspective phenomenological psychology (In the Abhidhamma which outlines various traits, emotions and personality types and in Yogacara).
- Psychotherapeutic meaning: humanistic psychotherapists have found in Buddhism's non-dualistic approach and enlightenment experiences (such as in Zen kensho) the potential for transformation, healing and finding existential meaning. In 1993 Oliver Kress published a theory explaining this connection by introducing the process of initiation.[1]
- Clinical utility: some contemporary mental-health practitioners such as Jon Kabat-Zinn increasingly find ancient Buddhist practices (such as the development of mindfulness) of empirically proven therapeutic value.[2]
- 1 Interaction
- 2 Psychology in the Tripitaka
- 3 Buddhism and Psychology
- 3.1 Western Psychology
- 3.2 Japanese Psychology
- 3.3 Buddhism and Psychoanalysis
- 3.4 Gestalt therapy
- 3.5 Humanistic psychotherapy
- 3.6 Naropa University
- 3.7 Mind and life institute
- 3.8 Gestalt therapy
- 4 Buddhist techniques in clinical settings
- 5 Criticism
- 6 Popular psychology and spirituality
- 7 Education and research
- 8 See also
- 9 Notes
- 10 References
- 11 Sources and bibliography
- 12 External links
The establishment of Buddhism predates the field of psychology by over two millennia; thus, any assessment of Buddhism in terms of psychology is necessarily a modern invention.[a] One of the first such assessments occurred when British Indologists started translating Buddhist texts from Pali and Sanskrit. The modern growth of Buddhism in the West and particularly the development of Buddhist modernism worldwide has led to the comparing and contrasting of Western psychology and psychiatry with Buddhist theory and practice. According to Austrian psychologist Gerald Virtbauer, the contact of Buddhism and Western Psychology has generally followed three main approaches:[3]
- The presentation and exploration of parts of Buddhist teachings as a Psychology and psychological method for analyzing and modifying human experience.
- The integration of parts of the Buddhist teachings in already existing psychological or psychotherapeutic lines of thought (such as in Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy and in Acceptance and commitment therapy).
- Buddhist integration of Western psychological and social science knowledge into the Buddhist system (ex Buddhist modernism, Vipassana movement)
Psychology in the Tripitaka[edit]
|Figure 1: The Pali Canon's Six Sextets:
|sense bases
|Source: MN 148 (Thanissaro, 1998) diagram details
| The Five Aggregates (pañca khandha)
according to the Pali Canon.
|Source: MN 109 (Thanissaro, 2001) | diagram details
The earliest Buddhist writings are preserved in three-part collections called Tipitaka (Pali; Skt. Tripitaka). The first part, the Sutta Pitaka contains a series of discourses attributed to the Buddha containing much psychological material.
One example is the Buddha's theory of human motivation. In the suttas, human beings are said to be motivated by craving (tanha) of three types:[4]
- kama tanha (craving for sensory gratification)
- bhava tanha (craving for survival or continued existence)
- vibhava tanha (craving for annihilation, non-existence)
These three basic drives have been compared to the Freudian drive theory of libido, ego, and thanatos respectively (de Silva, 1973).
The suttas also enumerate three "unwholesome roots" (akusala mulas) of suffering and negative behavior: raga (passion or lust); dosa (hatred or malice); and moha (delusion, or false belief).[4]
The early texts also outline a theory of perception, which is based on the Ayatanas (sense bases, sense media, sense spheres). These include the sense organs, sense objects and sense consciousnesses. The contact between these bases leads to feeling a perceptual event. The process of sense cognition then leads to what the Buddha terms "papañca" (conceptual proliferation), a distortion and elaboration in the cognitive process of the raw perceptual sensation.[4] This is linked with craving, manas (conceit) and ditthi (dogmas, views). One of the most problematic views according to the Buddha, is the notion of a permanent and solid Self. This is because in early Buddhist psychology, there is no fixed self (atta; Sanskrit atman) but the delusion of self and clinging to a self concept affects all one's behaviors and leads to suffering.[4] For the Buddha, there is nothing uniform or substantial about a person, only a constantly changing stream of events or processes categorized under the five skandhas, which includes the stream of consciousness (Vijñāna-sotam).
The psychologist Daniel Goleman states:
The notion of an "empty self" posits that there is no "CEO of the mind," but rather something like committees constantly vying for power. In this view, the "self" is not a stable, enduring entity in control, but rather a mirage of the mind—not actually real, but merely seemingly so. While that notion seems contrary to our own everyday experience, it actually describes the deconstruction of self that cognitive neuroscience finds as it dissects the mind (most famously, Marvin Minsky's "society of mind"). So the Buddhist model of the self may turn out to fit the data far better than the notions that have dominated Western thinking for the last century.[5]
Buddhist unconscious[edit]
The early Buddhist texts such as the Pali Canon present a theory about latent mental tendencies (Anusaya, "latent bias," "predisposition", "latent disposition") which are pre-conscious or non-conscious[6][4] These habitual patterns are later termed "Vāsanā" (impression) by the later Yogacara Buddhists and were held to reside in an unconscious mental layer. The term "fetter" is also associated with the latent tendencies.
A later Theravada text, the Abhidhammattha-sangaha (11th-12th century) says: "The latent dispositions are defilements which 'lie along with' the mental process to which they belong, rising to the surface as obsessions whenever they meet with suitable conditions" (Abhs 7.9).[7] The Theravada school also holds that there is a subconscious stream of awareness termed the Bhavanga.
Another set of mental factors which are unconscious and influence one's behavior are termed the asavas (Sanskrit asrava, "influx, canker, inflows"). These factors are said to "intoxicate" and "bemuddle" the mind. The Buddha taught that one had to remove them from the mind through practice in order to reach liberation. The asavas are said to arise from different factors: sensuality, aggression, cruelty, body, and individuality are some of the factors given.[4]
The Yogacara school of Mahayana Buddhism (starting from the 3rd to 5th century CE) extended these ideas into what has been called a Buddhist theory of the Unconscious mind.[8] This concept was termed the ālaya-vijñāna (the foundation consciousness) which stores karmic seeds (bija) and undergoes rebirth. This theory was incorporated into a wider Yogacara theory of the Eight Consciousnesses and is also held in Tibetan Buddhism.
Self development and cognitive behavioral practices[edit]
According to Padmal de Silva "Buddhist strategies represent a therapeutic model which treats the person as his/her agent of change, rather than as the recipient of externally imposed interventions."[9] Silva argues that the Buddha saw each person responsible for their own personal development and considers this as being similar to the humanistic approach to psychology. Humanistic psychotherapy places much emphasis on helping the client achieve self-actualization and personal growth (e.g. Maslow).[10]
Personal development in Buddhism is based upon the noble eightfold path which integrates ethics, wisdom or understanding (pañña) and psychological practices such as meditation (bhavana, cultivation, development). Self-actualization in traditional Buddhism is based on the ideas of Nirvana and Buddhahood. The highest state a human can achieve (an Arahant or a Buddha) is seen as being completely free from any kind of dissatisfaction or suffering, all negative mental tendencies, roots and influxes have been eliminated and there are only positive emotions like compassion and loving-kindness present.[4]
Buddhist meditation of two main types, Samatha is meant to calm and relax the mind, as well as develop focus and concentration by training attention on a single object. Vipassana is a means to gain insight or understanding into the nature of the mental processes and their impermanent, stressful and self-less qualities through the application of continuous and stable mindfulness and comprehension (Sampajañña).[4] Though the ultimate goal of these practices are nirvana, the Buddha stated that they also bring mundane benefits such as relaxation, good sleep and pain reduction.[4]
Buddhist texts also contain mental strategies of thought modification which are similar to Cognitive behavioral therapy techniques.[11] A comparison of these systems of cognitive behavioral modification has been discussed by professor William Mikulas[12] and Padmal de Silva.[13]
According to Padmal de Silva these similarities include: "fear reduction by graded exposure and reciprocal inhibition; using rewards for promoting desirable behavior; modelling for inducing behavioral change; the use of stimulus control to eliminate undesirable behavior; the use of aversion to eliminate undesirable behavior; training in social skills; self-monitoring; control of intrusive thoughts by distraction, switching/stopping, incompatible thoughts, and by prolonged exposure to them; intense, covert, focusing on the unpleasant aspects of a stimulus or the unpleasant consequences of a response, to reduce attachment to the former and eliminate the latter; graded approach to the development of positive feelings towards others: use of external cues in behavior control; use of response cost to aid elimination of undesirable behavior; use of family members for carrying out behavior change programs; and cognitive-behavioral methods--for example, for grief."[4]
An important early text for these cognitive therapeutic methods is the Vitakkasanthana Sutta (MN 20) (The Removal of Distracting Thoughts) and its commentary, the Papancasudani. For removing negative or intrusive thoughts, the Buddha recommended five methods in this sutta:
- Focus on an opposite or incompatible thought or object.
- Ponder on the perils and disadvantages of the thought, its harmful consequences.
- Ignore the thought and distract yourself from it through some other activity.
- Reflect on the removal or stopping of the causes of the target thought.
- Make a forceful mental effort.
Another recommended technique is from the Satipatthana Sutta, which outlines the practice of mindfulness, which is not just a formal meditation, but a skill of attentive awareness and self monitoring. In developing mindfulness, one is advised to be aware of all thoughts and sensations that arise, even unwanted or unpleasant ones and continuously attend to such thoughts. Eventually, through habituation and exposure, the intensity and unpleasantness of such thoughts will disappear.[4] Buddhist texts also promote the training of positive emotions such as loving-kindness, compassion, empathetic joy and equanimity.
Abnormal Psychology[edit]
The Pali Canon records that the Buddha distinguished between two kinds of illness (rogo): physical illness (kāyiko rogo) and mental illness (cetasiko rogo). The Buddha attributed mental illness to the arising of mental defilements (Kleshas) and ultimately based in the unwholesome roots (three poisons) of greed, hatred and confusion.[14] From the perspective of the Buddha, mental illness is a matter of degree, and ultimately, everyone who is not an awakened being is in some sense mentally ill. As the Buddha in the Pali canon states: "those beings are hard to find in the world who can admit freedom from mental disease even for one moment, save only those in whom the asavas are destroyed."[15]
According to Edwina Pio, Buddhist texts see mental illness as being mainly psychogenic in nature (rooted mainly in "environmental stress and inappropriate learning").[16]
The Pali canon also describes Buddhist monks (epitomized by the monk Gagga) with symptoms of what would today be called mental illness. An act which is against the monk's code of discipline (Vinaya) committed by someone who was "ummatta" - "out of his mind" was said by the Buddha to be pardonable. This was termed the madmans leave (ummattakasammuti)[17] The texts also assume that this 'madness' can be cured or recovered from, or is at least an impermanent phenomenon, after which, during confession, the monk is considered sane by the sangha once more.[18]
There are also stories of lay folk who show abnormal behavior due to the loss of their loved ones.[19] Other Buddhist sources such as the Milinda Panha echo the theory that madness is caused mainly by personal and environmental circumstances.[20]
Other abnormal behaviors described by the early sources include Intellectual disability, epilepsy, alcoholism, and suicide. Buddhagosa posits that the cause of suicide is mental illness based on factors such as loss of personal relations and physical illness.[21]
Abhidhamma psychology[edit]
The third part (or pitaka, literally "basket") of the Tripitaka is known as the Abhidhamma (Pali; Skt. Abhidharma). The Abhidhamma works are historically later than the two other collections of the Tipitaka (3rd century BCE and later). The Buddhist Abhidhamma works analyze the mind into elementary factors of experience called dharmas (Pali: dhammas). Dhammas are phenomenal factors or "psycho-physical events" whose interrelations and connections make up all streams of human experience. There are four categories of dharmas in the Theravada Abhidhamma: Citta (awareness), Cetasika (mental factors), Rūpa (physical occurrences, material form) and Nibbāna (cessation).[22] Abhidhamma texts are then an attempt to list all possible factors of experience and all possible relationships between them.
Ven. Bhikkhu Bodhi, president of the Buddhist Publication Society, has synopsized the Abhidhamma as follows:
- "The system that the Abhidhamma Pitaka articulates is simultaneously a philosophy, a psychology, and an ethics, all integrated into the framework of a program for liberation.... The Abhidhamma's attempt to comprehend the nature of reality, contrary to that of classical science in the West, does not proceed from the standpoint of a neutral observer looking outwards towards the external world. The primary concern of the Abhidhamma is to understand the nature of experience, and thus the reality on which it focuses is conscious reality.... For this reason the philosophical enterprise of the Abhidhamma shades off into a phenomenological psychology. To facilitate the understanding of experienced reality, the Abhidhamma embarks upon an elaborate analysis of the mind as it presents itself to introspective meditation. It classifies consciousness into a variety of types, specifies the factors and functions of each type, correlates them with their objects and physiological bases, and shows how the different types of consciousness link up with each other and with material phenomena to constitute the ongoing process of experience." [23]
Buddhism and Psychology[edit]
Western Psychology[edit]
The contact between Buddhism and Western psychology began with the work of the Pali Text Society scholars, whose main work was translating the Buddhist Pali Canon. In 1900, Indologist Caroline A. F. Rhys Davids published through the Pali Text Society a translation of the Theravada Abhidhamma's first book, the Dhamma Sangani, and entitled the translation, "Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics".[24] In the introduction to this seminal work, Rhys Davids praised the sophistication of the Buddhist psychological system based on "a complex continuum of subjective phenomena" (dhammas) and the relationships and laws of causation that bound them (Rhys Davids, 1900, pp. xvi-xvii.).[b] Buddhism's psychological orientation is a theme Rhys Davids pursued for decades as evidenced by her further publications, Buddhist Psychology: An Inquiry into the Analysis and Theory of Mind in Pali Literature (1914) and The Birth of Indian Psychology and its Development in Buddhism (1936).
An important event in the interchange of East and West occurred when American psychologist William James invited the Sri Lankan Buddhist Anagarika Dharmapala to lecture in his classes at Harvard University in December 1903. After Dharmapala lectured on Buddhism, James remarked, "This is the psychology everybody will be studying 25 years from now."[25] Later scholars such as David Kalupahana (The principles of Buddhist psychology, 1987), Padmal de Silva (Buddhism and behaviour modification, 1984), Edwina Pio (Buddhist Psychology: A Modern Perspective, 1988) and Hubert Benoit (Zen and the Psychology of Transformation, 1990) wrote about and compared Buddhism and Western psychology directly. Writers in the field of Transpersonal psychology (which deals with religious experience, altered states of consciousness and similar topics) such as Ken Wilber also integrated Buddhist thought and practice into their work.
The 1960s and '70s saw the rapid growth of Western Buddhism, especially in the United States. In the 1970s, psychotherapeutic techniques using "mindfulness" were developed such as Hakomi therapy by Ron Kurtz (1934–2011), possibly the first mindfulness based therapy.[26] Jon Kabat-Zinn's Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) was a very influential development, introducing the term into Western Cognitive behavioral therapy practice. Kabat-Zinn's students Zindel V. Segal, J. Mark G. Williams and John D. Teasdale later developed Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) in 1987.[27]
More recent work has focused on clinical research of particular practices derived from Buddhism such as mindfulness meditation and compassion development (ex. the work of Jon Kabat-Zinn, Daniel Goleman) and on psycho-therapeutic practices which integrate meditative practices derived from Buddhism. From the perspective of Buddhism, various modern Buddhist teachers such as Jack Kornfield and Tara Brach have academic degrees in psychology.
Applying the tools of modern Neuropsychology (EEG, fMRI) to study Buddhist meditation is also an area of integration. One of the first figures in this area was neurologist James H. Austin, who wrote Zen and the Brain (1998). Others who have studied and written about this type of research include Richard Davidson, Alan Wallace, Rick Hanson (Buddha's Brain, 2009) and Zoran Josipovic.[29] A recent review of the literature on the Neural mechanisms of mindfulness meditation concludes that the practice "exerts beneficial effects on physical and mental health, and cognitive performance" but that "the underlying neural mechanisms remain unclear." [30]
Japanese Psychology[edit]
In Japan, a different strand of comparative thought developed, beginning with the publication, "Psychology of Zen Sect" (1893) and "Buddhist psychology" (1897), by Inoue Enryō (1858–1919).[31] In 1920, Tomosada Iritani (1887–1957) administered a questionnaire to 43 persons dealing with Zen practice, in what was probably the first empirical psychological study of Zen.[31] In the field of psychotherapy, Morita therapy was developed by Shoma Morita (1874-1938) who was influenced by Zen Buddhism.
Koji Sato (1905–1971) began the publication of the journal, Psychologia: An International Journal of Psychology in the Orient in 1957 with the aim of providing a comparative psychological dialogue between East and West (with contributions from Bruner, Fromm, and Jung). In the 1960s, Kasamatsu and Hirai used Electroencephalography to monitor the brains of Zen meditators. This led to the promotion of various studies covering psychiatry, physiology, and psychology of Zen by the Japanese ministry of education which were carried out in various laboratories.[31] Another important researcher in this field, Prof. Yoshiharu Akishige, promoted Zen Psychology, the idea that the insights of Zen should not just be studied but that they should inform psychological practice. Research in this field continues with the work of Japanese psychologists such as Akira Onda and Osamu Ando.[31]
In Japan, a popular psychotherapy based on Buddhism is Naikan therapy, developed from Jōdo Shinshū Buddhist introspection by Ishin Yoshimoto (1916–1988). Naikan therapy is used in correctional institutions, education, to treat alcohol dependence as well as by individuals seeking self development.[32]
Buddhism and Psychoanalysis[edit]
Buddhism has some views which are comparable to Psychoanalytic theory. These include a view of the unconscious mind and unconscious thought processes, the view that unwholesome unconscious forces cause much of human suffering and the idea that one may gain insight into these thought processes through various practices, including what Freud called "evenly suspended attention." A variety of teachers, clinicians and writers such as D.T. Suzuki, Carl Jung, Erich Fromm, Alan Watts, Tara Brach, Jack Kornfield and Sharon Salzberg have attempted to bridge and integrate psycho-analysis and Buddhism. British barrister Christmas Humphreys has referred to mid-twentieth century collaborations between psychoanalysts and Buddhist scholars as a meeting between: "Two of the most powerful forces operating in the Western mind today."[c]
D.T. Suzuki's influence[edit]
One of the most important influences on the spread of Buddhism in the west was Zen scholar D.T. Suzuki. He collaborated with psycho-analysts Carl Jung, Karen Horney and Erich Fromm.
Carl Jung wrote the foreword to Suzuki's Introduction to Zen Buddhism, first published together in 1948.[d] In his foreword, Jung highlights the enlightenment experience of satori as the "unsurpassed transformation to wholeness" for Zen practitioners. And while acknowledging the inadequacy of Westerners' attempts to comprehend satori through the lens of Western intellectualism,[e] Jung nonetheless contends that due to their shared goal of self transformation: "The only movement within our culture which partly has, and partly should have, some understanding of these aspirations [for such enlightenment] is psychotherapy."[33]
Referencing Jung and Suzuki's collaboration as well as the efforts of others, humanistic philosopher and psychoanalyst Erich Fromm noted that: "There is an unmistakable and increasing interest in Zen Buddhism among psychoanalysts". One influential psychoanalyst who explored Zen was Karen Horney, who traveled to Japan in 1952 to meet with Suzuki and who advised her colleagues to listen to their clients with a "Zen-like concentration and non attachment".[34][35][f]
Suzuki, Fromm and other psychoanalysts collaborated at a 1957 workshop on "Zen Buddhism and Psychoanalysis" in Cuernavaca, Mexico.[g] Fromm contends that, at the turn of the twentieth century, most psychotherapeutic patients sought treatment due to medical-like symptoms that hindered their social functioning. However, by mid-century, the majority of psychoanalytic patients lacked overt symptoms and functioned well but instead suffered from an "inner deadness" and an "alienation from oneself".[36] Paraphrasing Suzuki broadly, Fromm continues:
Zen is the art of seeing into the nature of one's being; it is a way from bondage to freedom; it liberates our natural energies; ... and it impels us to express our faculty for happiness and love.[37] [...] [W]hat can be said with more certainty is that the knowledge of Zen, and a concern with it, can have a most fertile and clarifying influence on the theory and technique of psychoanalysis. Zen, different as it is in its method from psychoanalysis, can sharpen the focus, throw new light on the nature of insight, and heighten the sense of what it is to see, what it is to be creative, what it is to overcome the affective contaminations and false intellectualizations which are the necessary results of experience based on the subject-object split"[38]
Buddhist psychoanalytic dialogue and integration[edit]
The dialogue between Buddhism and psychoanalysis has continued with the work of psychiatrists such as Mark Epstein, Nina Coltart, Jack Engler, Axel Hoffer, Jeremy D. Safran, David Brazier, and Jeffrey B. Rubin.
Nina Coltart (1927-1997) was the Director of the London Clinic of Psychoanalysis, a neo-Freudian and a Buddhist. She theorized that there are distinct similarities in the transformation of the self that occurs in both psychoanalysis and Buddhism.[39] She believed that the practice of Buddhism and Psychoanalysis where "mutually reinforcing and clarifying" (Coltart, The practice of psychoanalysis and Buddhism).
Mark Epstein is an American psychiatrist who practiced Buddhism in Thailand under Ajahn Chah and has since written several books on psychoanalysis and Buddhism (Thoughts Without a Thinker 1995, Psychotherapy Without the Self, 2008).[40] Epstein relates the Buddhist Four Noble Truths to primary narcissism as described by Donald Winnicott in his theory on the true self and false self.[41][42] The first truth highlights the inevitability of humiliation in our lives of our narcissistic self-esteem. The second truth speaks of the primal thirst that makes such humiliation inevitable. The third truth promises release by developing a realistic self-image, and the fourth truth spells out the means of accomplishing that.[43][44]
Jeffrey B. Rubin has also written on the integration of these two practices in Psychotherapy and Buddhism, Toward an Integration (1996). In this text, he criticizes the Buddhist idea of enlightenment as a total purification of mind: "From the psychoanalytic perspective, a static, conflict-free sphere-a psychological "safehouse" -beyond the vicissitudes of conflict and conditioning where mind is immune to various aspects of affective life such as self-interest, egocentricity, fear, lust, greed, and suffering is quixotic. Since conflict and suffering seem to be inevitable aspects of human life, the ideal of Enlightenment may be asymptotic, that is, an unreachable ideal."[45] He points to scandals and abuses by American Buddhist teachers as examples. Rubin also outlines a case study of the psychoanalytic treatment of a Buddhist meditator and notes that meditation has been largely ignored and devalued by psychoanalysts.[46] He argues that Buddhist meditation can provide an important contribution to the practice of psychoanalytic listening by improving an analyst's capacity for attention and recommends meditation for psychoanalysts.[47]
Axel Hoffer has contributed to this area as editor of "Freud and the Buddha", which collects several essays by psychoanalysts and a Buddhist scholar, Andrew Olendzki. Olendzki outlines an important problematic between the two systems, the Freudian practice of free association, which from the Buddhist perspective is based on: "The reflexive tendency of the mind to incessantly make a narrative of everything that arises in experience is itself the cause of much of our suffering, and meditation offers a refreshing refuge from mapping every datum of sensory input to the macro-construction of a meaningful self."[48] Olendzki also argues that for the Buddhist, the psychoanalytic focus on linguistic narrativity distracts us from immediate experience.
David Brazier[edit]
David Brazier is a psychotherapist who combines psychotherapy and Buddhism (Zen therapy, 1995). Brazier points to various possible translations of the Pali terms of the Four Noble Truths, which give a new insight into these truths. The traditional translations of samudhaya and nirodha are "origin" and "cessation". Coupled with the translation of dukkha as "suffering", this gives rise to a causal explanation of suffering, and the impression that suffering can be totally terminated. The translation given by David Brazier[49] gives a different interpretation to the Four Noble Truths.
- Dukkha: existence is imperfect, it's like a wheel that's not straight into the axis;
- Samudhaya: simultaneously with the experience of dukkha there arises tanha, thirst: the dissatisfaction with what is and the yearning that life should be different from what it is. We keep imprisoned in this yearning when we don't see reality as it is, namely imperfect and ever-changing;
- Nirodha: we can confine this yearning (that reality is different from what it is), and perceive reality as it is, whereby our suffering from the imperfectness becomes confined;
- Marga: this confinement is possible by following the Eightfold Path.
In this translation, samudhaya means that the uneasiness that's inherent to life arises together with the craving that life's event would be different. The translation of nirodha as confinement means that this craving is a natural reaction, which cannot be totally escaped or ceased, but can be limited, which gives us freedom.[49]
Gestalt therapy[edit]
Gestalt Therapy, an approach created by Fritz Perls, was based on western phenomenology, existentialism and also Zen Buddhism and Taoism.[50] Perls spent some time in Japanese Zen monasteries and his therapeutic techniques include mindfulness practices and focusing on the present moment.[51] Practices outlined by Perls himself in Ego, hunger and aggression (1969), such as "concentration on eating" ("we have to be fully aware of the fact that we are eating") and "awareness continuum" are strikingly similar to Buddhist mindfulness training.[52] Other authors in Gestalt Therapy who were influenced by Buddhism are Barry Stevens (therapist) and Dick Price (who developed Gestalt Practice by including Buddhist meditation).
According to Crocker, an important Buddhist element of Gestalt is that a "person is simply allowing what-is in the present moment to reveal itself to him and out of that receptivity is responding with 'no-mind'".[53]
More recently, Claudio Naranjo has written about the practice of Gestalt and Tibetan Buddhism.
Humanistic psychotherapy[edit]
Humanistic psychology's focus on developing the 'fully functioning person' (Carl Rogers) and self actualization (Maslow) is similar to the Buddhist attitude of self development as an ultimate human end. The idea of person-centered therapy can also be compared to the Buddhist view that the individual is ultimately responsible for their own development, that a Buddhist teacher is just a guide and that the patient can be "a light unto themselves".[54]
Carl Rogers's idea of "unconditional positive regard" and his stress on the importance of empathy has been compared to Buddhist conceptions of compassion (Karuṇā).[55][56]
Mindfulness meditation has been seen as a way to aid the practice of person centered psychotherapy. Person centered therapist Manu Buzzano has written that "It seemed clear that regular meditation practice did help me in offering congruence, empathy and unconditional positive regard."[57] He subsequently interviewed other person centered therapists who practiced meditation and found that it enhanced their empathy, nonjudgmental openess and quality of the relationship with their clients.[58]
A comparison has also been made between Marshall Rosenberg's Nonviolent Communication and Buddhist ideals of right speech, both in theory and in manifesting Buddhist ideals in practice.[59][60][61]
Naropa University[edit]
"Buddhism will come to the West as a psychology."
In his introduction to his 1975 book, Glimpses of the Abhidharma, Chogyam Trungpa Rinpoche wrote:
Many modern psychologists have found that the discoveries and explanations of the abhidharma coincide with their own recent discoveries and new ideas; as though the Abhidharma, which was taught 2,500 years ago, had been redeveloped in the modern idiom." [62]
Trungpa Rinpoche's book goes on to describe the nanosecond phenomenological sequence by which a sensation becomes conscious using the Buddhist concepts of the "five aggregates."
In 1974, Trungpa Rinpoche founded the Naropa Institute, now called Naropa University. Since 1975, this accredited university has offered degrees in "contemplative psychology."[63][i]
Mind and life institute[edit]
Every two years, since 1987, the Dalai Lama has convened "Mind and Life" gatherings of Buddhists and scientists.[j] Reflecting on one Mind and Life session in March 2000, psychologist Daniel Goleman notes:
Since the time of Gautama Buddha in the fifth century BC, an analysis of the mind and its workings has been central to the practices of his followers. This analysis was codified during the first millennium after his death within the system called, in the Pali language of Buddha's day, Abhidhamma (or Abhidharma in Sanskrit), which means 'ultimate doctrine'.... Every branch of Buddhism today has a version of these basic psychological teachings on the mind, as well as its own refinements" [64]
Gestalt therapy[edit]
Gestalt Therapy, an approach created by Fritz Perls, was based on western phenomenology, existentialism and also Zen Buddhism and Taoism.[65] Perls spent some time in Japanese Zen monasteries and his therapeutic techniques include mindfulness practices and focusing on the present moment.[66] Practices outlined by Perls himself in Ego, hunger and aggression (1969), such as "concentration on eating" ("we have to be fully aware of the fact that we are eating") and "awareness continuum" are strikingly similar to Buddhist mindfulness training.[67] Other authors in Gestalt Therapy who were influenced by Buddhism are Barry Stevens (therapist) and Dick Price (who developed Gestalt Practice by including Buddhist meditation).
According to Crocker, an important Buddhist element of Gestalt is that a "person is simply allowing what-is in the present moment to reveal itself to him and out of that receptivity is responding with 'no-mind'".[68]
More recently, Claudio Naranjo has written about the practice of Gestalt and Tibetan Buddhism.
Buddhist techniques in clinical settings[edit]
For over a millennium, throughout the world, Buddhist practices have been used for non-Buddhist ends.[k] More recently, Western clinical psychologists, theorists and researchers have incorporated Buddhist practices in widespread formalized psychotherapies. Buddhist mindfulness practices have been explicitly incorporated into a variety of psychological treatments.[69] More tangentially, psychotherapies dealing with cognitive restructuring share core principles with ancient Buddhist antidotes to personal suffering.
Mindfulness practices[edit]
Fromm [70] distinguishes between two types of meditative techniques that have been used in psychotherapy:
- auto-suggestion used to induce relaxation;
- meditation "to achieve a higher degree of non-attachment, of non-greed, and of non-illusion; briefly, those that serve to reach a higher level of being" (p. 50).
Fromm attributes techniques associated with the latter to Buddhist mindfulness practices.[l]
Two increasingly popular therapeutic practices using Buddhist mindfulness techniques are Jon Kabat-Zinn's Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) and Marsha M. Linehan's Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT). Other prominent therapies that use mindfulness include Steven C. Hayes' Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), Adaptation Practice founded in 1978 by the British psychiatrist and Zen Buddhist Clive Sherlock and, based on MBSR, Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) (Segal et al., 2002).
Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)[edit]
Kabat-Zinn developed the eight-week MBSR program over a ten-year period with over four thousand patients at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center.[71] Describing the MBSR program, Kabat-Zinn writes:
This 'work' involves above all the regular, disciplined practice of moment-to-moment awareness or mindfulness, the complete 'owning' of each moment of your experience, good, bad, or ugly. This is the essence of full catastrophe living.[72]
Kabat-Zinn, a one-time Zen practitioner,[m]
Although at this time mindfulness meditation is most commonly taught and practiced within the context of Buddhism, its essence is universal.... Yet it is no accident that mindfulness comes out of Buddhism, which has as its overriding concerns the relief of suffering and the dispelling of illusions.[73]
In terms of clinical diagnoses, MBSR has proven beneficial for people with depression and anxiety disorders; however, the program is meant to serve anyone experiencing significant stress.
It would be based on relatively intensive training in Buddhist meditation without the Buddhism (as I liked to put it), and yoga.[74]
Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT)[edit]
In writing about DBT, Zen practitioner[n] Linehan [75] states:
As its name suggests, its overriding characteristic is an emphasis on 'dialectics' – that is, the reconciliation of opposites in a continual process of synthesis.... This emphasis on acceptance as a balance to change flows directly from the integration of a perspective drawn from Eastern (Zen) practice with Western psychological practice."[o]
Similarly, Linehan [76] writes:
Mindfulness skills are central to DBT.... They are the first skills taught and are [reviewed] ... every week.... The skills are psychological and behavioral versions of meditation practices from Eastern spiritual training. I have drawn most heavily from the practice of Zen
Controlled clinical studies have demonstrated DBT's effectiveness for people with borderline personality disorder.[p]
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)[edit]
ACT did not explicitly emerge from Buddhism, but its concepts often parallel ideas from Buddhist and mystical traditions.[77][78] ACT has been defined by its originators as a method that "uses acceptance and mindfulness processes, and commitment and behavioral activation processes to produce psychological flexibility.".[79]
Mindfulness in ACT is defined to be a combination of four aspects of the psychological flexibility model, which is ACT's applied theory:
- Acceptance (openness to and engagement with present experience);
- Cognitive defusion (attending to the ongoing process of thought instead of automatically interacting with events as structured by prediction, judgment, and interpretation);
- Contact with the present moment (attention to the present external and internal world in a manner that is flexible, fluid, and voluntary);
- A transcendent sense of self or "self as context" (an interconnected sense of consciousness that maintains contact with the "I/Here/Nowness" of awareness and its interconnection with "You/There/Then").[79]
These four aspects of mindfulness in ACT are argued to stem from Relational Frame Theory, the research program on language and cognition that underlies ACT at the basic level. For example, "self as context" is argued to emerge from deictic verbal relations such as I/You, or Here/There, which RFT laboratories have shown to help establish perspective taking skills and interconnection with others.[80][81]
Most ACT self-help books (e.g.,[82]) and many tested ACT protocols teach formal contemplative practice skills, but by this definition of mindfulness, such defusion skills as word repetition (taking a difficult thought, distilling it to a single word, and saying it repeatedly out loud for 30 seconds) are also viewed as mindfulness methods.
Adaptation Practice[edit]
The British psychiatrist Clive Sherlock, who trained in the traditional Rinzai School of Zen, developed Adaptation Practice (Ap), the foundation of mindfulness, in 1977 based on the profound mindfulness/awareness training of Zen daily-life practice and meditation. Adaptation Practice is used for long-term relief of depression, anxiety, anger, stress and other emotional problems.
Cognitive restructuring[edit]
Dr. Albert Ellis, considered the "grandfather of cognitive-behavioral therapy" (CBT), has written:
Many of the principles incorporated in the theory of rational-emotive psychotherapy are not new; some of them, in fact, were originally stated several thousands of years ago, especially by the Greek and Roman Stoic philosophers (such as Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius) and by some of the ancient Taoist and Buddhist thinkers (see Suzuki, 1956, and Watts, 1959, 1960).[83][q]
To give but one example, Buddhism identifies anger and ill-will as basic hindrances to spiritual development (see, for instance, the Five Hindrances, Ten Fetters and kilesas). A common Buddhist antidote for anger is the use of active contemplation of loving thoughts (see, for instance, metta). This is similar to using a CBT technique known as "emotional training" which Ellis [84] describes in the following manner:
Think of an intensely pleasant experience you have had with the person with whom you now feel angry. When you have fantasized such a pleasant experience and have actually given yourself unusually good, intensely warm feelings toward that person as a result of this remembrance, continue the process. Recall pleasant experiences and good feelings, and try to make these feelings paramount over your feelings of hostility.[r]
Some traditional Buddhist practitioners have expressed concern that attempts to view Buddhism through the lens of Western psychology diminishes the Buddha's liberating message.
Patrick Kearney has written that the effort to integrate the teachings of the Buddha by interpreting it through the view of Western psychologies has led to "a growing confusion about the nature of Buddhist teachings and a willingness to distort and dilute these teachings".[85] He is critical of Jack Kornfield and Mark Epstein for holding that Western psychological techniques are a necessity for some Western Buddhists and of Jeffrey Rubin for writing that enlightenment might not be possible. Kearney writes:
"Epstein and Rubin want to rewrite Buddhism on their own terms, taking the ocean of the Buddha's wisdom and reducing it to a puddle small enough to accommodate the views of Freud and his successors."[86]
|Romantic /
|divided self
|feeling of
|knowledge of
American Theravada monk Thanissaro Bhikkhu[87] has also criticized the interpretation of Buddhism through Western Psychology, which has different values and goals, derived from roots such as European Romanticism and Protestant Christianity. He also identifies broad commonalities between "Romantic/humanistic psychology" and early Buddhism: beliefs in human (versus divine) intervention with an approach that is experiential, pragmatic and therapeutic. Thanissaro Bhikkhu traces the roots of modern Western spiritual ideals from German Romantic Era philosopher Immanuel Kant through American psychologist and philosopher William James, Jung and humanistic psychologist Abraham Maslow.[88] Thanissaro sees their view as centered on the idea of healing the 'divided self', an idea which is alien to Buddhism. [89] Thanissaro asserts that there are also core differences between Romantic/humanistic psychology and Buddhism. These are summarized in the table to the right. Thanissaro implicitly deems those who impose Romantic/humanistic goals on the Buddha's message as "Buddhist Romantics."
The same similarities have been recognized by David McMahan when describing Buddhist modernism.[90]
Recognizing the widespread alienation and social fragmentation of modern life, Thanissaro Bhikkhu writes:
When Buddhist Romanticism speaks to these needs, it opens the gate to areas of dharma [the Buddha's teachings] that can help many people find the solace they're looking for. In doing so, it augments the work of psychotherapy [...] However, Buddhist Romanticism also helps close the gate to areas of the dharma that would challenge people in their hope for an ultimate happiness based on interconnectedness. Traditional dharma calls for renunciation and sacrifice, on the grounds that all interconnectedness is essentially unstable, and any happiness based on this instability is an invitation to suffering. True happiness has to go beyond interdependence and interconnectedness to the unconditioned [...] [T]he gate [of Buddhist Romanticism] closes off radical areas of the dharma designed to address levels of suffering remaining even when a sense of wholeness has been mastered."[87]
Another Theravada monk, Bhikkhu Bodhi has also criticized the Western presentation of certain Buddhist teachings mixed with psychological and Humanistic views as being authentic Buddhism. This risks losing the essence of the liberating and radical message of the Buddha, which is focused on attaining nirvana:
What I am concerned about is the trend, common among present-day Buddhist teachers, of recasting the core principles of the Buddha's teachings into largely psychological terms and then saying, "This is Dhamma." When this is done we may never get to see that the real purpose of the teaching, in its own framework, is not to induce "healing" or "wholeness" or "self-acceptance," but to propel the mind in the direction of deliverance – and to do so by attenuating, and finally extricating, all those mental factors responsible for our bondage and suffering. We should remember that the Buddha did not teach the Dhamma as an "art of living" – though it includes that – but above all as a path to deliverance, a path to final liberation and enlightenment. And what the Buddha means by enlightenment is not a celebration of the limitations of the human condition, not a passive submission to our frailties, but an overcoming of those limitations by making a radical, revolutionary breakthrough to an altogether different dimension of being.[91]
Popular psychology and spirituality[edit]
Mainstream teachers and popularizers[edit]
In 1961, philosopher and professor Alan Watts wrote:
If we look deeply into such ways of life as Buddhism and Taoism, Vedanta and Yoga, we do not find either philosophy or religion as these are understood in the West. We find something more nearly resembling psychotherapy.... The main resemblance between these Eastern ways of life and Western psychotherapy is in the concern of both with bringing about changes of consciousness, changes in our ways of feeling our own existence and our relation to human society and the natural world. The psychotherapist has, for the most part, been interested in changing the consciousness of peculiarly disturbed individuals. The disciplines of Buddhism and Taoism are, however, concerned with changing the consciousness of normal, socially adjusted people." [92]
Since Watts's early observations and musings, there have been many other important contributors to the contemporary popularization of the integration of Buddhist meditation with psychology including Kornfield (1993), Joseph Goldstein, Tara Brach, Epstein (1995) and Nhat Hanh (1998).
Education and research[edit]
Researchers interested in studying the intersection of Buddhism and psychology in North America have had to either fit themselves into Eastern Studies programs, psychology programs or engage in a program of private study. North American programs at accredited institutions dedicated to Buddhism and psychology are few. There is a minor (soon to be major) program at the University of Toronto called Buddhism and Mental Health.[93]
As for clinical training, there is an accredited Master's program in Contemplative Psychotherapy offered at Naropa University in Boulder, CO. The curriculum is a hybrid of Buddhist psychology and Western psychotherapeutic approaches, and incorporates several group retreats and ongoing meditation practice. The program, which was founded in 1978, is designed to prepare for licensure as a professional counselor.[94]
See also[edit]
- ^ Buddhist doctrine was first articulated by the Buddha (ca. 563 BCE to ca. 483 BCE). The establishment of a self-conscious field of psychology as the empirical assessment of human mental activities and behavior is often identified with the work of Wilhelm Wundt (August 16, 1832 – August 31, 1920).
- ^ The notion that consciousness is a sequence of states, like cells in a film strip, while not explicitly contrary to notions of consciousness found in the Pali nikayas, is found explicitly in the Pali Abhidhamma (see Bodhi, 2000, p. 29).
- ^ Fromm et al., (1960), back cover. Explicitly, in regards to the book associated with the 1957 Cuernavaca, Mexico conference mentioned below, Humphries wrote: "This is the first major attempt to bring together two of the most powerful forces operating in the Western mind today."
- ^ Both Fromm (1960) and Ellis (1962) cite this text as influential.
- ^ In particular, Jung quotes Rudolf Otto's stating, "Zen is neither psychology nor philosophy" (Suzuki & Jung, 1948, p. 11, n. 1).
- ^ To support this statement, Fromm (1960, p. 78, n. 1) refers to Jung's foreword to Suzuki (1949), Benoit (1955), and Sato (1958). Fromm et al.. (1960, p. 78) also refers to Karen Horney who "was intensely interested in Zen Buddhism during the last years of her life."
- ^ Fromm et al.. (1960, p. vii). Selected presentations from this conference are included in Fromm et al. (1960). Fromm's interest in Buddhism extended to multiple Buddhist schools as evidenced by his writing the foreword for Nyanaponika et al. (1986).
- ^ Cited in Goleman, 2004, p. 72. Goleman, who was teaching psychology at Harvard University at the time, goes on to write: "The very idea that Buddhism had anything to do with psychology was at the time for most of us in the field patently absurd. But that attitude reflected more our own naivete than anything to do with Buddhism. It was news that Buddhism — like many of the world's great spiritual traditions — harbored a theory of mind and its workings" (p. 72).
- ^ Naropa University has also been a training ground and meeting place for many of today's most prolific popularizers of a Buddhism-informed psychology such as Jack Kornfield and a psychologically savvy Buddhism such as Joseph Goldstein
- ^ Books that have documented these meetings include Begley (2007), Davidson & Harrington (2002), Goleman (1997), Goleman (2004), Harrington & Zajonc (2006), Haywood & Varela (2001), Houshmand et al.. (1999), Varela (1997), and Zajonc & Houshmand (2004).
- ^ For instance, ninth-century Chinese Patriarch Zongmi referred to non-Buddhist uses of Buddhist meditation practices as bonpu meditation. For more information, see Zongmi's "Five Types of Zen"
- ^ For an authoritative source regarding Buddhist mindfulness meditation, Fromm (2002) references Nyanaponika (1996). Fromm (2002, pp. 52-53) goes on to write:
[T]here are two core doctrines acceptable to many who, like myself, are not Buddhists, yet are deeply impressed by the core of Buddhist teaching. I refer first of all to the doctrine that the goal of life is to overcome greed, hate, and ignorance. In this respect Buddhism does not basically differ from Jewish and Christian ethical norms. More important, and different from the Jewish and Christian tradition, is another element of Buddhist thinking: the demand for optimal awareness of the processes inside and outside oneself.
For an overview of Buddhist mindfulness practices, see Buddhist meditation and Satipatthana Sutta.
- ^ In Kabat-Zinn (2005, p. 26), for instance, he writes:
Because I practice and teach mindfulness, I have the recurring experience that people frequently make the assumption that I am a Buddhist. When asked, I usually respond that I am not a Buddhist (although there was a period in my life when I did think of myself in that way, and trained and continue to train in and have huge respect and love for different Buddhist traditions and practices), but I am a student of Buddhist meditation, and a devoted one, not because I am devoted to Buddhism per se, but because I have found its teachings and its practices to be so profound and so universally applicable, revealing and healing." He goes on to write:
- ^ According to Kabat-Zinn (2005, p. 431): "Marsha [Linehan] herself is a long-time practitioner of Zen, and DBT incorporates the spirit and principles of mindfulness and whatever degree of formal practice is possible."
- ^ The parenthetical "(Zen)" is included in Linehan's actual text.
- ^ Regarding DBT's empirical effectiveness, Linehan (1993b, p. 1) cites Linehan et al.. (1991), Linehan & Heard (1993), and Linehan et al.. (in press). Clinical experience has shown DBT to be effective for people with borderline personality disorder as well as other Axis II Cluster B disorders.
- ^ Elsewhere in Ellis (1991, pp. 336-37), in response to concerns voiced by Watts (1960) regarding overly rationalistic psychotherapy, Dr. Ellis expresses a caveat specifically regarding Zen-like spiritual pursuits. Dr. Ellis notes that "perhaps the main goal" of a patient of rational-emotive therapy "is that of commitment, risk-taking, joy of being; and sensory experiencing, as long as it does not merely consist of short-range self-defeating hedonism of a childish variety...." Dr. Ellis then adds:
Even some of the Zen Buddhist strivings after extreme sensation, or satori, would not be thoroughly incompatible with some of the goals a devotee of rational-emotive living might seek for himself — as long as he did not seek this mode of sensing as an escape from facing some of his fundamental anxieties or hostilities
- ^ In the example cited from Ellis (1997), a person attempts to replace their hostile feelings with pleasant feelings associated with the same individual. In general, with Buddhist metta practice, one elicits feelings of loving kindness by contemplating on a benefactor and one then uses these self-elicited warm feelings to then permeate the experiencing of a perceived "enemy." Moreover, Buddhist metta practice directs loving kindness towards all beings, near or far, kind or brutal, human or non-human.
- ^ Kress, Oliver (1993). "A new approach to cognitive development: ontogenesis and the process of initiation". Evolution and Cognition 2(4): 319-332.
- ^ DeAngelis, Tori; A blend of Buddhism and psychology, February 2014, Vol 45, No. 2 Print version: page 64, http://www.apa.org/monitor/2014/02/buddhism-psychology.aspx
- ^ Virtbauer, G. Buddhism as a Psychological System: Three Approaches; University of Vienna ©2008
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Silva, Padmal; Buddhist psychology: A review of theory and practice; Current Psychology Vol. 9 No. 3 Fall. 1990 Pp. 236-254
- ^ Szpir, M. Increasing use of Buddhist Practices in Psychotherapy; American Scientist Volume 92, Number 1 January-February 2004, http://www.buddhanet.net/psychotheraphy3.htm
- ^ Tan, Piya; Anusaya, latent tendencies; http://dharmafarer.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/31.3-Anusaya.-piya.pdf
- ^ Tan, Piya; Anusaya, latent tendencies; http://dharmafarer.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/31.3-Anusaya.-piya.pdf
- ^ Waldron, William; The Buddhist Unconscious: The Alaya-vijñana in the context of Indian Buddhist Thought (Routledge Critical Studies in Buddhism) Paperback – June 8, 2003; page
- ^ de Silva, Padmal; Buddhism and Psychotherapy: The Role of Self-Control Strategies; Hsi Lai Journal of Humanistic Buddhism V.1 (2000); pp. 169-182. Copyright 2000 by The International Academy of Buddhism, Hsi Lai University, http://enlight.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-JHB/jhb94220.htm
- ^ de Silva, Padmal; Buddhism and Psychotherapy: The Role of Self-Control Strategies; Hsi Lai Journal of Humanistic Buddhism V.1 (2000); pp. 169-182. Copyright 2000 by The International Academy of Buddhism, Hsi Lai University, http://enlight.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-JHB/jhb94220.htm
- ^ de Silva, P. (1984). Buddhism and behaviour modification. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 22, 661-678.
- ^ MIkulas, W; Buddhism and Western Psychology: Fundamentals of Integration, University of West Florida, Journal of Consciousness Studies 2007, 14(4), 4-49
- ^ de Silva, Padmal; Early Buddhist and modern behavioral strategies for the control of unwanted intrusive cognitions; 1985.
- ^ Bhikkhu Nandisena; Mental Illness according to Theravada Buddhism Towards a Theory of Mental Illness Based upon the Buddha´s Teachings; http://btmar.org/files/pdf/Mental-Illness-Paper.pdf
- ^ A.II.143, cited in De Silva, P. An Introduction to Buddhist Psychology (2000) op. cit. p.123
- ^ Pio, Edwina; Buddhist Psychology: A Modern Perspective, page 127
- ^ T. W. Rhys Davids and Hermann Oldenberg; THE MAHAVAGGA, SECOND KHANDHAKA (THE UPOSATHA CEREMONY, AND THE PATIMOKKHA), Chapter-25 : Madman's Leave. http://tipitaka.wikia.com/wiki/Mahavogga_2.25
- ^ Pio, Edwina; Buddhist Psychology: A Modern Perspective, page 127
- ^ Pio, Edwina; Buddhist Psychology: A Modern Perspective, page 128
- ^ Pio, Edwina; Buddhist Psychology: A Modern Perspective, page 128
- ^ Pio, Edwina; Buddhist Psychology: A Modern Perspective, page 148
- ^ Ven. Rewata Dhamma, Process of Consciousness and Matter: The Philosophical Psychology of Buddhism, chapter 1
- ^ Bodhi, 2000, pp. 3-4.
- ^ Rhys Davids, 2003
- ^ Kato, Hiroki, The Relationship between the Psychology of Religion and Buddhist Psychology, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jpr.12121/full
- ^ Kato, Hiroki, The Relationship between the Psychology of Religion and Buddhist Psychology, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jpr.12121/full
- ^ Kato, Hiroki, The Relationship between the Psychology of Religion and Buddhist Psychology, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jpr.12121/full
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- ^ Danzico; Brains of Buddhist monks scanned in meditation study, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-12661646
- ^ Tang, Hölzel, Posner; The neuroscience of mindfulness meditation, Nature Reviews Neuroscience 16, 213–225 (2015)
- ^ a b c d Kato, Hiroki; Zen and psychology, Japanese Psychological Research 2005, Volume 47, No. 2, 125–136, file:///home/oem/Downloads/j.1468-5884.2005.00280.x.pdf
- ^ Kato, Hiroki, The Relationship between the Psychology of Religion and Buddhist Psychology, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jpr.12121/full
- ^ Suzuki & Jung, 1948, p. 25
- ^ Dockett, Dudley-Grant, Bankart (editors); Psychology and Buddhism: From Individual to Global Community
- ^ Fromm et al., 1960, pp. 77-78).
- ^ Fromm et al. pp. 85-86
- ^ Fromm, p. 115
- ^ Fromm, p. 140
- ^ Paul Williams,"Nina, Anatta, and No-Self," British Journal of Psychotherapy, Volume 14, Number 4, (Summer 1998), pp. 527-530
- ^ Epstein, Freud and Buddha, http://spiritualprogressives.org/newsite/?p=651
- ^ Epstein 2004.
- ^ Winnicott: Ego distortions in terms of true and false self Winnicott
- ^ Epstein 2004, p. 42.
- ^ Janice Priddy, Psychotherapy and Buddhism: An Unfolding Dialogue. The Four Noble Truths in Buddhism
- ^ Rubin, Psychotherapy and Buddhism, Toward an Integration, page 90
- ^ Rubin, Psychotherapy and Buddhism, Toward an Integration, page 117
- ^ Rubin, Psychotherapy and Buddhism, Toward an Integration, page 124
- ^ Hoffer (ed.); Freud and the Buddha: The Couch and the Cushion, page 85
- ^ a b Brazier 2001.
- ^ Crocker, S. F. (2005). Phenomenology, Existentialism, and Eastern thought in Gestalt Therapy. In Woldt & Toman (Eds), Gestalt Therapy (pp. 65-80). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
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- ^ Winghart, Olivier; Effects of Buddhist meditation on Gestalt therapists: a qualitative study, http://gestaltakademin.se/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/DissT_OlivierWinghart_2008.pdf
- ^ Crocker, S. F. (2005). Phenomenology, Existentialism, and Eastern thought in Gestalt Therapy. In Woldt & Toman (Eds), Gestalt Therapy (pp. 65-80). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
- ^ Kumar Aich; Buddha philosophy and western psychology, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3705677/
- ^ Levine, Marvin; The Positive Psychology of Buddhism and Yoga: Paths to A Mature Happiness, 54
- ^ Wilkins, Paul; Bozarth, Jerold D, Unconditional positive regard
- ^ Buzzano, Manu; The Buddha as a fully functioning person: toward a person-centered perspective on mindfulness ,New School of Psychotherapy and Counselling, London
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- ^ "NVC in the FWBO: Heart-to-Heart Communication", Shantigarbha, FWBO & TBMSG News, May 8, 2008
- ^ "Buddhism and Nonviolent Communication", Jason Little, Shambhala Times, January 31, 2009
- ^ Lasater, Judith Hanson; Lasater, Ike K. (2009). What We Say Matters: Practicing Nonviolent Communication. Rodmell Press. p. 192. ISBN 978-1-930485-24-2.
- ^ Trungpa, 1975, p.2.
- ^ Schwartz, 1995, pp. 315-16).
- ^ Goleman, 2004, pp. 72-73
- ^ Crocker, S. F. (2005). Phenomenology, Existentialism, and Eastern thought in Gestalt Therapy. In Woldt & Toman (Eds), Gestalt Therapy (pp. 65-80). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
- ^ Tapas Kumar Aich; Buddha philosophy and western psychology, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3705677/
- ^ Winghart, Olivier; Effects of Buddhist meditation on Gestalt therapists: a qualitative study, http://gestaltakademin.se/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/DissT_OlivierWinghart_2008.pdf
- ^ Crocker, S. F. (2005). Phenomenology, Existentialism, and Eastern thought in Gestalt Therapy. In Woldt & Toman (Eds), Gestalt Therapy (pp. 65-80). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
- ^ Adelman, K. (2005, May 1). What i've learned: Tara Brach. Washingtonian Magazine.
- ^ 2002, pp. 49–52
- ^ Kabat-Zinn, 1990, p. 1
- ^ Kabat-Zinn, 1990, p. 11)
- ^ Kabat-Zinn 2005, pp. 12-13
- ^ Kabat-Zinn, Jon (May 2011). "Some Reflections on the Origins of MBSR, Skillful Means, and the Trouble with Maps". Contemporary Buddhism 12 (1): 294.
- ^ Linehan 1993a, p. 19
- ^ Linehan 1993b, p. 63
- ^ Shenk, C., Masuda, A., Bunting, K., & Hayes, S. C. (2006). The psychological processes underlying mindfulness: Exploring the link between Buddhism and modern contextual behavioral psychology. In D. K. Nauriyal (Ed.), Buddhist thought and applied psychology: Transcending the boundaries (pp. 431-451). London: Routledge-Curzon.
- ^ Hayes, S. C. (2002). Buddhism and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 9, 58-66.
- ^ a b Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K., & Wilson, K. G. (2011). Acceptance and Commitment Therapy: The process and practice of mindful change (2nd edition). New York: Guilford Press.
- ^ Vilardaga, R., Estévez, A., Levin, M. E., & Hayes, S. C. (in press). Deictic relational responding, empathy and experiential avoidance as predictors of social anhedonia: Further contributions from relational frame theory. 'The Psychological Record.'
- ^ Weil, T. M., Hayes, S. C., & Capurro, P. (2011). Establishing a deictic relational repertoire in young children. 'The Psychological Record,' 61, 371-390.
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- ^ Ellis, 1991, p. 35.
- ^ Ellis 1997, pp. 86–87
- ^ Kearney, Patrick, Still Crazy after all these Years: Why Meditation isn't Psychotherapy
- ^ Kearney, Patrick, Still Crazy after all these Years: Why Meditation isn't Psychotherapy
- ^ a b Thanissaro Bikkhu (2012)
- ^ Thanissaro Bhikkhu, The Roots of Buddhist Romanticism
- ^ Thanissaro Bhikkhu, The Roots of Buddhist Romanticism
- ^ McMahan 2008.
- ^ Climbing to the Top of the Mountain, An interview with Bhikkhu Bodhi; Reprinted with permission from Insight Journal, Barre Center for Buddhist Studies Volume 19, Fall 2002; http://obo.genaud.net/backmatter/gallery/bhk_bodhi.htm
- ^ Watts, 1975, pp. 3-4.
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- ^ MA Contemplative Psychotherapy department site. [2]. Accessed November 4, 2013.
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- Linehan, M. M., H. E. Armstrong, A. Suarez, D. Allmon & H. L. Heard (1991). "Cognitive-behavioral treatment of chronically parasuicidal borderline patients." Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 100-1064. Cited in Linehan (1993b).
- Linehan, M. M., & H. L. Heard (1993). "Impact of treatment accessibility on clinical course of parasuicidal patients." In reply to R.E. Hoffman [Letter to the editor]. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 157-158. Cited in Linehan (1993b).
- Linehan, M. M., H. L. Heard, & H. E. Armstrong (in press). "Naturalistic follow-up of a behavioral treatment for chronically suicidal borderline patients. Archives of General Psychiatry. Cited in Linehan (1993b).
- McMahan, David L. (October 2008). The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518327-6.
- Ñanamoli Thera (trans.) (1993). Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta: Setting Rolling the Wheel of Truth (SN 56.11). Available on-line at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn56/sn56.011.nymo.html.
- Nhat Hanh, Thich (1998). Mindfulness and Psychotherapy (audio). Louisville, CO: Sounds True. ISBN 1-56455-632-8.
- Nyanaponika Thera (1954, 1996). The Heart of Buddhist Meditation: A Handbook of Mental Training based on the Buddha's Way of Mindfulness. York Beach, ME: Samuel Weiser. ISBN 0-87728-073-8.
- Nyanaponika Thera, Bhikkhu Bodhi (ed.) & Erich Fromm (fwd.) (1986). Visions of Dhamma: Buddhist Writings of Nyanaponika Thera. York Beach, ME: Weiser Books. ISBN 0-87728-669-8.
- Rhys Davids, Caroline A. F. ([1900], 2003). Manual of Psychological Ethics, of the Fourth Century B.C., being a Translation, now made for the First Time, from the Original Pāli, of the First Book of the Abhidhamma-Piṭaka, entitled Dhamma-Saṅgaṇi (Compendium of States or Phenomena). Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-4702-9.
- Rhys Davids, Caroline A. F. (1914). Buddhist Psychology: An Inquiry into the Analysis and Theory of Mind in Pali Literature, London: Bell and sons.
- Rhys Davids, Caroline A. F. (1936). Birth of Indian Psychology and its Development in Buddhism.
- Sato, Koji (1958). "Psychotherapeutic Implications of Zen" in Psychologia, An International Journal of Psychology in the Orient. Vol. I, No. 4 (1958). Cited in Fromm et al.. (1960).
- Schwartz, Tony (1996). What Really Matters: Searching for Wisdom in America. NY: Bantam Books. ISBN 0-553-37492-3.
- Segal, Zindel V., J. Mark G. Williams, & John D. Teasdale (2002). Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Depression: A New Approach to Preventing Relapse. NY: Guilford Press. ISBN 1-57230-706-4.
- Suzuki, D.T. & Carl G. Jung (fwd.) (1948, 1964, 1991). An Introduction to Zen Buddhism. NY: Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3055-0.
- Suzuki, D.T. (1949, 1956). Zen Buddhism. NY: Doubleday Anchor Books. Cited in Ellis (1991) and Fromm (1960).
- Thanissaro Bhikkhu (2012). The Roots of Buddhist Romanticism.
- Trungpa, Chogyam (1975, 2001). Glimpses of Abhidharma: From a Seminar on Buddhist Psychology. Boston, MA: Shambhala Publications. ISBN 1-57062-764-9.
- Varela, Francisco J. (ed.) (1997). Sleeping, Dreaming, and Dying: An Exploration of Consciousness with the Dalai Lama. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-123-8.
- Watts, Alan W. (1959). The Way of Zen. NY: New American Library. Cited in Ellis (1991).
- Watts, Alan W. (1960). Nature, Man and Sex. NY: New American Library. Cited in Ellis (1991).
- Watts, Alan W. (1961, 1975). Psychotherapy East and West. NY: Random House. ISBN 0-394-71610-8.
- Zajonc, Arthur (ed.) with Zara Houshmand (2004). The New Physics and Cosmology: Dialogues with the Dalai Lama. NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515994-2.
Related texts[edit]
- Fryba, Mirko (1995). The Practice of Happiness: Exercises & Techniques for Developing Mindfulness, Wisdom, and Joy. Boston: Shambhala. ISBN 1-57062-123-3.
- Segal, Zindel V., J. Mark G. Williams, & John D. Teasdale (2002). Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Depression. NY: Guilford. ISBN 978-1-57230-706-3.
External links[edit]
Early scholarship[edit]
- Rowell Havens, Teresina (1964). "Mrs. Rhys Davids' Dialogue with Psychology (1893-1924)," in Philosophy East & West. V. 14 (1964) pp. 51–58, University of Hawaii Press.
- Sarunya Prasopchingchana & Dana Sugu, 'Distinctiveness of the Unseen Buddhist Identity' (International Journal of Humanistic Ideology, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, vol. 4, 2010)
Mainstream teachers and popularizers[edit]
Caveats and criticisms[edit]
- "Buddhist Romanticism," talk by Thanissaro Bhikkhu (03/25/02)
- "Buddhist Romanticism Discussion," follow-up to Thanissaro Bhikkhu talk by Gil Fronsdal (04/01/02)
Psychotherapy and Buddhism[edit]
- Lorne Ladner, Positive Psychology & the Buddhist Path of Compassion
- Paul C. Cooper, Attention & Inattention in Zen and Psychoanalysis
- Ann Gleig, The Culture of Narcissism Revisited: Transformations of Narcissism in Contemporary Psychospirituality
- Jakob Håkansson, Exploring the phenomenon of empathy
- Linda A. Nockler, The Spiritual and the Psychological Meet: Lessons from for Students of Awareness Practices
- Daniel G. Radter, A Buddhist reinterpretation of Winnicott
- FREDRIK FALKENSTRÖM, A Buddhist contribution to the psychoanalytic psychology of self
- Janice Priddy, Psychotherapy and Buddhism: An Unfolding Dialogue. The Four Noble Truths in Buddhism
Bhante Kovida


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Buck Knives Made in the USA Knives
This bigger knife is comfortable and sturdy. My one complaint (if it matters) is I'd prefer if the pocket clip was on the hinge side instead of the the opposite.
Already wrote one review, but forgot to add something. This knife would be perfect if the handle was a little less flat. I realize it is a trade off between portability and grip power. If the handle profile was closer to a KABAR handle, this knife would be a real gem. It would make for a more confident grip under combat applications. This may be a personal preference, however. This is a great knife for the price of entry.
The 4 stars is with the caveat that I have not had a chance to use it in the field yet. If it proves durable, then the 5th star is warranted. Good build overall. The knife, grip, and sheath system seem reliable. The sheath can be configured to attach to your body a number of ways. Great for military applications. The factory edge is very nice; I have nothing bad to say about the knife and it's build, and ergonomics. The sheath has a pressure release system that you can thumb down fairly quietly to pull out the blade. The full tang blade has a good heft to it and probably will not break under duress. I can't comment on how well the edge keeps at this point.
Yes, it's expensive. And, yes, it FEELS expensive. In one word: solid. Closed, it feels like it was carved out of a single block. Open, the blade is locked in place with no wobble.The way the handle parts when the hinge-area buttons are pressed is just...well...so cool.
Awesome tool
The Bucklite max small fixed blade knife, is very comfortable in youre hand, very light weight on youre belt, does not get in the way getting in and out of veichles. Very sharp, stays sharp razer sharp , great for fishing,I carry mine most everyday in summer great utility knife. good knife for beginners or anyone. I might even get the buck lite max large fixed blade.
Nothing but sweet
Another great Kershaw knife. Great Ken onion design


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Alarm Will Sound is celebrating 15 years of performing, commissioning, and recording contemporary music. We have an event-filled year ahead of us with performances in Washington, D.C.; Cleveland, OH; Columbia and St. Louis, MO; and New York City, and we look forward to seeing you in the audience.
Help us celebrate our 15th birthday by making a tax-deductible donation to Alarm Will Sound today! Your gift ensures that we are able to continue performing new music staged in innovative and imaginative ways. In the spirit of giving, we have some exciting rewards in recognition of your donation.
To celebrate 15 years of music making, any donation over $15 will receive a free, exclusive download of David Lang's Increase, recorded by Alarm Will Sound. This track will not be officially released until the end of the year, but with your donation to Alarm Will Sound, you can have advance access to it. And to really kick off our 15th year, any donation over $100 will receive an invitation to a listening party hosted by David Lang at his NYC space. The party will feature Increase, a screening of Zoetrope, and a special performance by Alarm Will Sound members.
Other rewards for giving include an Alarm Will Sound t-shirt with a $30 donation, your choice of Alarm Will Sound cd with a $50 donation, or two cd's with a $75 donation. Your contribution enables us to bring you the new music and concert experiences that you've come to expect from Alarm Will Sound, as well as new initiatives that continue to revolutionize our musical community. Thank you for your support!
Make checks payable to Alarm Will Sound, Inc. and send to
Alarm Will Sound
c/o Tracy Mendez, Development Manager
124 W 109th Street, Suite 5A
New York, NY 10025
As a growing arts organization, Alarm Will Sound is often in need of professional services. If you would like to offer pro bono legal, financial, marketing, or design services, send an email.
Beth found her tribe when she started playing in Musica Nova and Ossia at Eastman with the people who would become the founders of Alarm Will Sound. Between AWS performances, she plays chamber music with cool people in the Mid-Atlantic area, teaches clarinet, chamber music, and music theory at Dickinson College and directs the open-instrumentation Dickinson Improvisation and Collaboration Ensemble (DICE) which explores concepts and materials of music in a collaborative performance context. She holds degrees in performance, music theory, and music education from the Eastman School of Music, Ohio State University and Shenandoah Conservatory.
This is our world premiere performance at the Mizzou International Composers Festival in 2010.
Visit our Soundcloud for more recordings.
Aaron Given
Alan Pierson
Arthur Leonard
Barry & Donna Lesser
Brian Chin
Bruce Gordon
Cameron Tonkinwise
Carol Bellamy
Chris Lotts
Christian Ryan
Christopher Stark
Collin Canright
Dale Stimpert
Daniel Baldini
David Bloom
Daniel Butts
David Drexler
David Herszenson
Edward Pierson
Eileen Shin
Elisabeth Stimpert
Eric Moss
Felicia Thompson
Franklin Hecker
Gregg McCrary
Hester Diamond
Howard & Marianna Price
James Undercofler
John Adams
John Pickford Richards
John R. Foster
Jude Stewart
Kate Sheeran
Kathleen Aeschliman
Kenneth Kaplan
Laurie Robinson
Lisa Kaplan
Mark Willsher
Mary Beth Schiffman & David Tochen
Mary Kouyoumdjian
Mary Neal
Michael Baccash
Michael Jolkovski
Mont and Karen Levy
Nancia Dalimonte
Nancy Kranzberg
Ola Tortensson
Payton MacDonald
Peggy Monastra
Peggy Parker
Penelope Pi-Sunyer
Pete Osornio
Peter Mason
Philip Stimpert
Phoebe Lam
Rad Widmer
Rebecca Moore
Rick & Sheila Hofstetter
Robert D Bieleci Foundation
Robert Pettus
Robert Saler
Shane Courville
Shuai Wang
Steve Reich
Suzanne Bocanegra & David Lang
Ted Fishman
Texu Kim
Thomas Leonard
Timothy Myers
Truman Bullard
Valentine Schaffner
Yvonne Lam
Pacific Harmony Foundation
The Aaron Copland Fund for Music, Inc.
The Gilman Foundation
Anna-Maria and Stephen Kellen Foundation


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Hotels You might also like
Choose your room
No rooms available for the selected dates: 9/6/2016 - 9/9/2016.*
Get an overview of this hotelSleek, contemporary hotel near Old Town Square
On River Vltava
Within walking distance to Prague's Old Town major tourist attractions and the Palladium shopping mall, Hilton Prague offers comfort and excellent facilities. The Florence Metro Station is 150 metres away, reachable through a shopping passage. Underground parking is available on site.
Spa and massage
Guests can relax with Oriental massage, mud wraps, and hot stone therapy in the spa centre. The bright and airy rooms, designed with convenience in mind, provide a place to unwind or start a new day. Panoramic views can be enjoyed from the award-winning Cloud 9 Sky Bar. A modern twist on traditional Czech cuisine can be enjoyed in CzecHouse. Cafe & Bistro welcomes guests around the clock. A complimentary state-of-the-art fitness centre with a sun terrace, an indoor swimming pool, and a spa is also available.
High-speed Internet
The air-conditioned Hilton Prague guestrooms are decorated in warm tones and feature cable TV, high-speed Internet connections, and minibars.Would you like to give us feedback? Share it! Opens in a new window
Hilton PraguePobrezni 1 Prague 186 00
Hotel Amenities
Hotel Amenities
The Hilton Prague is home to the Cybex Health Club and Spa where guests may choose from a range of fitness machines in the two-level gym; trainers are on-hand to assist with personalised programmes. Other facilities include a solarium, spinning room, indoor pool, and squash court. For those seeking relaxation, a full-service health spa offers treatments such as Oriental massage, mud wraps, hot stone therapy, Swedish massage, and wild mint foot massages.
Grab a bite to eat at one of the hotel's dining venues, which include 5 restaurants and a coffee shop/café, or relax with a drink at one of the 4 onsite bars/lounges. After dinner, guests can head to the Atrium Casino where games on offer include Blackjack, Poker, Pontoon, and American Roulette; the casino stays open until 6 AM daily. For kids, there's a children's play area.
Multilingual staff will arrange tickets and reservations for local attractions at the dedicated recreation desk. The hotel has a full-service business center with free WiFi, plus 38 well-equipped meeting rooms and the Grand Ballroom. Free WiFi is available in all public areas, too.
- 24-hour front desk
- Airport transportation (surcharge)
- ATM/banking
- Babysitting or childcare
- Babysitting or childcare (surcharge)
- Breakfast available (surcharge)
- Business center
- Casino
- Coffee shop or café
- Free newspapers in lobby
- Concierge services
- Dry cleaning/laundry service
- Elevator/lift
- Express check-in
- Express check-out
- Fitness facilities
- Free WiFi
- Full-service spa
- Garden
- Gift shops or newsstand
- Hair salon
- Health club
- Indoor pool
- Laundry facilities
- Limo or Town Car service available
- Luggage storage
- Meeting rooms 38
- Multilingual staff
- Number of bars/lounges - 4
- Number of meeting rooms - 37
- Number of restaurants - 5
- Picnic area
- Porter/bellhop
- Rooftop terrace
- Safe-deposit box at front desk
- Sauna
- Self parking (surcharge)
- Shopping on site
- Spa services on site
- Spa treatment room(s)
- Spa tub
- Steam room
- Total number of rooms - 791
- Tours/ticket assistance
- Turkish bath/Hammam
- Valet parking (surcharge)
- Wedding services
Family Friendly Amenities
- Babysitting or childcare (surcharge)
- Cribs/infant beds (complimentary)
- Free Wi-Fi
- In-room childcare (surcharge)
- Indoor pool
- Laundry facilities
- Refrigerator
Available in all rooms: Wireless internet access ( EUR 22 per day )
Available in some public areas: Free WiFi
Self parking (surcharge), Valet parking (surcharge)
Room Amenities
- Air conditioning
- Blackout drapes/curtains
- Cable TV service
- In-room climate control (air conditioning)
- Coffee/tea maker
- Free newspaper
- Free toiletries
- Free cribs/infant beds
- Daily housekeeping
- Desk
- Flat-panel TV
- Hair dryer
- In-room childcare (surcharge)
- In-room massage available
- In-room safe
- Iron/ironing board
- Minibar
- Pay movies
- Phone
- Pillow menu
- Premium bedding
- Private bathroom
- Refrigerator
- Room service
- Separate sitting area
- Shower/tub combination
- WiFi (surcharge)
Where to Eat
Atrium - Primarily a breakfast buffet restaurant that is situated in the hotel lobby. Also serves lunch and dinner for groups booked in advance.
CzecHouse Grill & Rotisserie - Intimate, contemporary restaurant that features earthy colors and walls adorned with old black and white photographs of Prague. Serves classic Czech cuisine with a modern twist for dinner each evening. Local specialties include Svícková beef fillets and stone-grilled fish. Wine list available.
Cafe & Bistro - Situated in the hotel lobby this modern wood-paneled cafe is open 24 hours a day and serves an international menu of dishes and Italian specialties. Monthly culinary specials are available. Serves breakfast, lunch, dinner, and light snacks.
Zest Bar - Cocktails, Czech beers, and a wide selection of vodkas are available. Features live entertainment and a sports corner with plasma screen TVs. Open daily until 2 AM.
Cloud 9 Sky Bar & Lounge - Spectacular views. Wide selection of cocktails, including special signature drinks, plus meals. Music provided by guest DJ's. Open 6 PM - 2 AM, Monday through Sunday.
Nearby Things to Do
The recreational activities listed below are available either on site or near the hotel; fees may apply.
- Golfing nearby
- Racquetball/squash on site
Spa Services
The two-level gym, Cybex Health Club & Spa offers complimentary use of cardio and weights machines while watching plasma screens. The facilites include a swimming pool and solarium. For those seeking relaxation a full service health-spa offers treatments including Oriental massage, mud wraps, hot stone therapy, Swedish massage and wild mint foot massages.
- Hot stone massage
- Ayurvedic treatments
- Spa tub in spa
- Hot springs/mineral springs in spa
- Massages
- Body treatments
To make requests for specific accessibility needs, complete the "Special or Accessibility Requests" section of "Trip Preferences" when you book your hotel.
- Accessible bathroom
- In-room accessibility
Hotel Policies
Check-in time ends at 2 AM
Check-in time starts at 3 PM
Special check-in instructions:
Check-out time is Noon
Payment types
- Pets allowed for an extra charge of EUR 30 per pet, per stay
You need to know
Extra-person charges may apply and vary depending on hotel policy.
Government-issued photo identification and a credit card or cash deposit are required at check-in for incidental charges.
Special requests are subject to availability upon check-in and may incur additional charges. Special requests cannot be guaranteed.
- Deposit: EUR 74.00 per day
- A tax is imposed by the city: EUR 0.56 per person, per night
Optional extras
- Fee for buffet breakfast: EUR 25 per person (approximately)
- Fee for in-room wireless Internet: EUR 22 per day (rates may vary)
- Airport shuttle fee: EUR 33 per vehicle (one way)
- Self parking fee: EUR 28.00 per day
- Valet parking fee: EUR 28.00 per day
- Pet fee: EUR 30 per pet, per stay
Hotel Name
- Hilton Hotel Prague
- Hilton Prague
- Prague Hilton
- Hilton International Prague
- Hilton Prague Old Town Hotel Prague
- Hilton Prague Hotel
- Hilton Prague Hotel Prague
- Prague Hilton International
Kids stay and eat free at Hilton hotels
Time spent together as a family is very precious. And Hilton knows how important it is for everyone to be happy. Hilton takes care of the little things which make all the difference, so everyone has an enjoyable, relaxing stay.
Hilton offers a whole host of benefits for you and your little ones in the UK and Europe:
- Children up to and including the age of 10 can eat and drink for free from the children's menu, which features a range of freshly prepared treats for little ones
- Children under the age of 18 can stay for free when sharing your room


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Book your room at Villa Margherita
Get an overview of this hotelRomantic hotel with free breakfast and restaurant
Situated in Mira, this romantic hotel is steps from Villa Widmann Rezzonico Foscari and Villa Valmarana at Mira. Villa Foscari La Malcontenta and Villa Ferretti Angeli are also within 6 mi (10 km).
Hotel Features
This hotel features a restaurant, a bar/lounge, and a rooftop terrace. Free buffet breakfast and free self parking are also provided. Additionally, WiFi in public areas, a meeting room, and concierge services are onsite.
Room Amenities
All 19 soundproofed rooms feature free WiFi and minibars. Guests will also find balconies, TVs, and room service.Would you like to give us feedback? Share it! Opens in a new window
Villa MargheritaVia Nazionale, 416/417 Mira VE 30034
Hotel Amenities
Hotel Amenities
The hotel offers a restaurant. A bar/lounge is on site where guests can unwind with a drink. Guests can enjoy a complimentary breakfast each morning. High-speed wireless Internet access is available for a surcharge.
Business-related amenities at this 4-star property consist of limo/town car service and a meeting room. This romantic hotel also offers a rooftop terrace, a library, and tour/ticket assistance. Complimentary self parking is available on site.
- 24-hour front desk
- Airport transportation - drop-off (surcharge)
- Babysitting or childcare
- Bar/lounge
- Concierge services
- Dry cleaning/laundry service
- Free breakfast
- Free self parking
- Garden
- Laundry facilities
- Library
- Limo or Town Car service available
- Luggage storage
- Multilingual staff
- One meeting room
- Restaurant
- Rooftop terrace
- Total number of rooms - 19
- Tours/ticket assistance
- WiFi (surcharge)
Family Friendly Amenities
- Babysitting or childcare
- Free Wi-Fi
- Laundry facilities
- Rollaway/extra beds available
- Soundproofed rooms
Available in all rooms: Free WiFi
Available in some public areas: WiFi (surcharge)
Free self parking
Room Amenities
- Air conditioning
- Balcony
- In-room climate control (air conditioning)
- Free newspaper
- Desk
- Free WiFi
- Hair dryer
- In-room safe
- Minibar
- Phone
- Rollaway/extra beds available
- Room service (limited hours)
- Soundproofed rooms
- Television
Where to Eat
Guests are offered a complimentary buffet breakfast each morning.
Villa Margherita has a restaurant on site.
Room service (during limited hours) is available.
Start your morning with a free buffet breakfast, available each day of your stay. You can order up room service during limited hours.
Nearby Things to Do
The recreational activities listed below are available either on site or nearby; fees may apply.
- Bicycle rentals nearby
Hotel Policies
Check-in time starts at 2 PM
Check-out time is noon
Payment types
- Pets allowed
- Dogs only
You need to know
Extra-person charges may apply and vary depending on hotel policy.
Government-issued photo identification and a credit card or cash deposit are required at check-in for incidental charges.
Special requests are subject to availability upon check-in and may incur additional charges. Special requests cannot be guaranteed.
Hotel Name
- Margherita Villa
- Villa Margherita
- Villa Margherita Hotel
- Villa Margherita Hotel Mira
- Villa Margherita Mira
- Villa Margherita Hotel Mira, Italy - Province Of Venice
We should mention
Cash transactions at this property cannot exceed EUR 2999.99, due to national regulations. For further details, please contact the property using information in the booking confirmation.


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ACE Fit Share
Use a combination of these core back exercises to strengthen your lower, upper or middle back areas. Whether you're interested in barbell deadlifts or reverse extensions, we have back strengthening exercises for every level. These exercises are also featured in convenient workout routines that include proper warm-up and cool-down techniques, which greatly reduces the risk of injury.
Fit Life Articles
Exercises that feature single-leg work are beneficial, particularly because they mimic how we move in day-to-day life and while playing sports. These six exercises featuring the TRX Suspension Trainer enable you to work unilaterally and create enough instability to...
If you enjoy running and want to maximize the enjoyment of your workouts, this workout can help improve the strength of the core muscles that are responsible for controlling stability of the body during the impact of running. These exercises can also be used as an effective...
You are the only person in charge of you, and if you want something (better health, a more fulfilling job or a more nourishing relationship), you need to take action. Let go of these five habits in order to be the healthiest version of yourself.


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Australia beat Portugal, Scotland and Fiji on opening day of world sevens tournament in Wellington
- From: AAP
- February 01, 2013
Australia crushed Scotland 29-5 to complete a surprisingly dominant opening day at the world series sevens rugby tournament in Wellington.
The young side coached by Michael O'Connor eased past Portugal 24-5 and stunned Fiji 21-12 to top pool D on Friday and reverse their previous form in the International Rugby Board series.
They were knocked out in the Cup quarter-finals of the opening tournament on the Gold Coast and failed to advance beyond pool play at Dubai and Port Elizabeth.
The previously unbeaten Scots had no answer to Australia's pressure game in defence which was also effective against Fiji.
The Australians attacked the breakdowns with vigour to dominate possession and score five tries to one.
As with their first two games, their tries were shared around. Con Foley, Lewis Holland and Allan Fa'alava'au put them 17-0 clear at halftime before Jordan Tuapau and Shannon Walker completed the second-half scoring.
James Fleming crossed for a consolation for Scotland.
Both teams upset Fiji, who failed to qualify for the Cup quarter-finals for the first time in the series' history.
Australia will face the runners-up from pool A, which could potentially be New Zealand, assuming the tournament hosts win their final game against the United States and unbeaten England beat Spain.
England toppled the series-leading New Zealanders in the opening round of matches.
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2 items from 2015
29 September 2015 9:55 AM, PDT | Trailers from Hell | See recent Trailers from Hell news »
What would seem the perfect project for tough-guy director Robert Aldrich still commands a high reputation with some. Ambitious top-dog hobo Lee Marvin squares off against Ernest Borgnine's nearly demonic railroad conductor who routinely murders bums that dare to hitch a ride. The mayhem culminates in a battle on a moving flat car, between Ernie's log chain and Lee's fire ax. But the poetic dialogue and allegorical pretension may be more lethal. Emperor of the North Blu-ray Twilight Time Limited Edition 1973 / Color / 1:85 widescreen / 120 min. / Ship Date September 8, 2015 / available through Twilight Time Movies / 29.95 Starring Lee Marvin, Ernest Borgnine, Keith Carradine, Charles Tyner, Malcolm Atterbury, Simon Oakland, Harry Caesar, Hal Baylor, Matt Clark, Elisha Cook Jr., Joe Di Reda, Liam Dunn, Diane Dye, Robert Foulk, Sid Haig, Vic Tayback, Dave Willock, Lance Henricksen. Cinematography Joseph Biroc Art Direction Jack Martin Smith Film Editor Michael Luciano Original Music Frank De Vol »
- Glenn Erickson
23 January 2015 5:01 PM, PST | Alt Film Guide | See recent Alt Film Guide news »
Pioneering woman director Lois Weber socially conscious drama 'Shoes' among Library of Congress' Packard Theater movies (photo: Mary MacLaren in 'Shoes') In February 2015, National Film Registry titles will be showcased at the Library of Congress' Packard Campus Theater – aka the Packard Campus for Audio Visual Conservation – in Culpeper, Virginia. These range from pioneering woman director Lois Weber's socially conscious 1916 drama Shoes to Robert Zemeckis' 1985 blockbuster Back to the Future. Another Packard Theater highlight next month is Sam Peckinpah's ultra-violent Western The Wild Bunch (1969), starring William Holden and Ernest Borgnine. Also, Howard Hawks' "anti-High Noon" Western Rio Bravo (1959), toplining John Wayne and Dean Martin. And George Cukor's costly remake of A Star Is Born (1954), featuring Academy Award nominees Judy Garland and James Mason in the old Janet Gaynor and Fredric March roles. There's more: Jeff Bridges delivers a colorful performance in »
- Andre Soares
2 items from 2015
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I looked through quite a few posts and I couldn't find this answer, so I do apologize if it was answered some time ago.
I absolutely LOVE this theme, and I like using featured images but the Featured Posts slider that appears at the top of my posts page has to stretch the images so that they look terrible.
Is there a simple way to remove the feature posts slider? Or, do you happen to have the image dimensions that would look best on the slider the way it is?
Thank you! Here's the site if you need to see what I'm referring to.


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I've just returned from a four-night stay at the Porta Rossa in Florence. It was wonderful! Like others who have reviewed the property I arrived a little sooner than the official check in time (35 minutes) and instead of making me wait, the front desk graciously offered me an upgraded room that was available. My room was a gorgeous and quiet respite from all of my sight seeing. I looked forward to coming back each evening. One night I hosted a couple of friends for a pre-dinner drink. The front desk was kind enough to bring us wine glasses so that we could fully enjoy our chianti. I found the location itself perfect. In a few minutes I could walk to the Duomo, Uffizi, Ponte Vechhio, The Pitti Palace, Santa Croce...the list goes on an on.
I mean it when I say that when I return to Florence, the Porta Rossa is where I will stay.
- Official Description (provided by the hotel):
- The NH Collection Firenze Porta Rossa hotel in Florence is a historical landmark, offering modern adaptations of classical beauty. Built in the 12th century, the NH Collection Firenze Porta Rossa hotel is one of the oldest hotels in Italy. ... more less
- Reservation Options:
- TripAdvisor is proud to partner with Expedia, Orbitz, Booking.com, Hotels.com, NHHotels, Hotwire, Cheap Tickets, Agoda, Priceline, Travelocity and Odigeo so you can book your NH Collection Firenze Porta Rossa reservations with confidence. We help millions of travelers each month to find the perfect hotel for both vacation and business trips, always with the best discounts and special offers.
- Also Known As:
- Nh Porta Rossa Hotel Florence
- Hotel Porta Rossa
- Porta Rossa Florence