text:
Sea Peoples
The Sea Peoples are a purported seafaring confederation of groups known to have attacked Ancient Egypt prior to the Bronze Age Collapse.[1][2] Since the creation of the concept in the 19th century, the various Sea Peoples have been proposed to have originated from either western Anatolia or from southern Europe.[3] Although the archaeological inscriptions do not include reference to a migration,[2] the Sea Peoples are conjectured to have sailed around the eastern Mediterranean and invaded Anatolia, Syria, Canaan, Cyprus, and Egypt toward the end of the Bronze Age.[4]
French Egyptologist Emmanuel de Rougé first used the term peuples de la mer (literally "peoples of the sea") in 1855 in a description of reliefs at Medinet Habu documenting Year 8 of Ramesses III.[5][6] Gaston Maspero, de Rougé's successor at the Collège de France, subsequently popularized the term "Sea Peoples"—and an associated migration-theory—in the late 19th century.[7]
Hypotheses regarding the origin of the various groups identified as Sea Peoples remains the source of much speculation.[8] These theories variously propose equating them with several Aegean tribes, raiders from central Europe, scattered soldiers who turned to piracy or who had become refugees, and links with natural disasters such as earthquakes or climatic shifts.[2][9]
- 1 History of the concept
- 2 Primary documentary records
- 3 Other documentary records
- 4 Hypotheses about identity
- 5 See also
- 6 Notes
- 7 Sources
- 8 External links
History of the concept[edit]
The term "Sea Peoples" was first used by Emmanuel de Rougé in 1855, then curator of the Louvre, who noted that "in the crests of the conquered peoples, the Sherden and the Teresh bear the designation of the 'peuples de la mer'".[10] De Rougé later became chair of Egyptology at the Collège de France, and was succeeded by Gaston Maspero. Maspero built upon de Rougé's work, and in 1895 published The Struggle of the Nations,[11] in which he described the theory of the seaborne migrations in detail for a popular audience. The theory was taken up by other scholars such as Eduard Meyer, and became the generally accepted theory amongst Egyptologists and orientalists.[7]
The historical narrative stems primarily from seven Ancient Egyptian sources,[12] and although in these inscriptions the designation "of the sea" appears in relation to only three groups of people (the Sherden, Shekelesh, and Eqwesh),[13][1][14] the term "Sea Peoples" is commonly used to refer to the following nine peoples, in alphabetical order:[15][16]
|Egyptian name
|Original identification
|Other theories
|Greek Danaoi[18]
|Israelite tribe of Dan[18]
|de Rougé[17]
|Greeks (Achaeans)[19][18][20]
|de Rougé[17]
|de Rougé[17]
|de Rougé[17]
|de Rougé[17]
|Considered to remain unidentified[22]
Primary documentary records[edit]
Whilst the Medinet Habu inscriptions from which the Sea Peoples concept was first described remain the primary source and "the basis of virtually all significant discussions of them",[28] there are three primary narratives from Egyptian records which refer to more than one of the nine peoples, found in six sources. A seventh source referring to more than one of the nine peoples is a list (Onomasticon) of 610 entities, rather than a narrative:[12]
|Peoples named
|c. 1275 BCE
|Ramesses II narrative
|Kadesh Inscriptions (various)[29]
|Karkisha, Lukka, Sherden
|c. 1150 BCE
|Merneptah narrative
|Great Karnak Inscription
|Eqwesh, Lukka, Shekelesh, Sherden, Teresh
|Athribis Stele
|Eqwesh, Shekelesh, Sherden, Teresh
|c. 1200 BCE
|Ramesses III narrative
|Medinet Habu
|Denyen, Peleset, Shekelesh, Sherden, Teresh, Tjekker, Weshesh
|Papyrus Harris I
|Denyen, Peleset, Sherden, Tjekker, Weshesh
|Rhetorical Stela
|Peleset, Teresh
|c. 1000 BCE
|List (no narrative)
|Onomasticon of Amenope
|Denyen, Lukka, Peleset, Sherden, Tjekker
Other Egyptian sources refer to one of the individual groups without reference to any of the other groups:[12] the Amarna letters (EA 151 refers to the Denyen, EA 38 to the Lukka, and EA 81, EA 122 and EA 133 to the Sherden), Padiiset's Statue refers to the Peleset, the Cairo Column[30] refers to the Shekelesh, the Story of Wenamun refers to the Tjekker, and 13 further Egyptian sources refer to the Sherden.[31]
Reign of Ramesses II[edit]
Records or possible records of sea peoples generally or in particular date to two campaigns of Ramesses II, a pharaoh of the militant 19th Dynasty: operations in or near the delta in Year 2 of his reign and the major confrontation with the Hittite Empire and allies at the Battle of Kadesh in his Year 5. The dates of this long-lived pharaoh's reign are not known for certain, but they must have comprised nearly all of the first half of the 13th century BCE.[32]
In his Second Year, an attack of the Sherden, or Shardana, on the Nile Delta was repulsed and defeated by Ramesses, who captured some of the pirates. The event is recorded on Tanis Stele II.[33] An inscription by Ramesses II on the stela from Tanis which recorded the Sherden raiders' raid and subsequent capture speaks of the continuous threat they posed to Egypt's Mediterranean coasts:
- "the unruly Sherden whom no one had ever known how to combat, they came boldly sailing in their warships from the midst of the sea, none being able to withstand them."[34]
The Sherden prisoners were subsequently incorporated into the Egyptian army for service on the Hittite frontier by Ramesses, and were involved as Egyptian soldiers in the Battle of Kadesh. Another stele usually cited in conjunction with this one is the "Aswan Stele" (there were other stelae at Aswan), which mentions the king's operations to defeat a number of peoples including those of the "Great Green (the Egyptian name for the Mediterranean)". It is plausible to assume that the Tanis and Aswan Stelae refer to the same event, in which case they reinforce each other.
The Battle of Kadesh was the outcome of a campaign against the Hittites and allies in the Levant in the pharaoh's Year 5. The imminent collision of the Egyptian and Hittite empires became obvious to both, and they both prepared campaigns against the strategic midpoint of Kadesh for the next year. Ramesses divided his Egyptian forces, which were then ambushed piecemeal by the Hittite army and nearly defeated. However, some Egyptian forces made it through to Kadesh, and the arrival of the last of the Egyptians provided enough military cover to allow the pharaoh to escape and his army to withdraw in defeat; leaving Kadesh in Hittite hands.[35]
At home, Ramesses had his scribes formulate an official description, which has been called "the Bulletin" because it was widely published by inscription. Ten copies survive today on the temples at Abydos, Karnak, Luxor and Abu Simbel, with reliefs depicting the battle. The "Poem of Pentaur", describing the battle survived also.[36]
The poem relates that the previously captured Sherden were not only working for the Pharaoh, but were also formulating a plan of battle for him; i.e. it was their idea to divide Egyptian forces into four columns. There is no evidence of any collaboration with the Hittites or malicious intent on their part, and if Ramesses considered it, he never left any record of that consideration.
The poem lists the peoples which went to Kadesh as allies of the Hittites. Amongst them are some of the sea peoples spoken of in the Egyptian inscriptions previously mentioned, and many of the peoples who would later take part in the great migrations of the 12th century BCE (see Appendix A to the Battle of Kadesh).
Reign of Merneptah[edit]
|"of the sea" in the Great Karnak Inscription,
referring to the Eqwesh, Shekelesh, and Sherden
(n3 ḫ3s.wt n<.t> p3 ym)
in hieroglyphs
The major event of the reign of the Pharaoh Merneptah (1213 BCE–1203 BCE),[37] 4th king of the 19th Dynasty, was his battle against a confederacy termed "the Nine Bows" at Perire in the western delta in the 5th and 6th years of his reign. Depredations of this confederacy had been so severe that the region was "forsaken as pasturage for cattle, it was left waste from the time of the ancestors."[38]
The pharaoh's action against them is attested in a single narratives found in three sources. The most detailed source describing the battle is the Great Karnak Inscription, and two shorter versions of the same narrative are found in the "Athribis Stele" and the "Cairo Column"[39] The "Cairo column" is a section of a granite column now in the Cairo Museum, which was first published by Maspero in 1881 with just two readable sentences - the first confirming the date of Year 5 and the second stating: "The wretched [chief] of Libya has invaded with ——, being men and women, Shekelesh (S'-k-rw-s) ——".[40] The "Athribis stela" is a granite steal found in Athribis and inscribed on both sides, which, like the Cairo column was first published by Maspero, two years later in 1883.[41] The Merneptah Stele from Thebes describes the reign of peace resulting from the victory, but does not include any reference to the Sea Peoples.[42]
The Nine Bows were acting under the leadership of the king of Libya and an associated near-concurrent revolt in Canaan involving Gaza, Ashkelon, Yenoam and the people of Israel. Exactly which peoples were consistently in the Nine Bows is not clear, but present at the battle were the Libyans, some neighboring Meshwesh, and possibly a separate revolt in the following year involving peoples from the eastern Mediterranean, including the Kheta (or Hittites), or Syrians, and (in the Israel Stele) for the first time in history, the Israelites. In addition to them, the first lines of the Karnak inscription include some sea peoples,[43] which must have arrived in the Western Delta or from Cyrene by ship:
[Beginning of the victory that his majesty achieved in the land of Libya] -i, Ekwesh, Teresh, Lukka, Sherden, Shekelesh, Northerners coming from all lands.
Later in the inscription Merneptah receives news of the attack:
... the third season, saying: 'The wretched, fallen chief of Libya, Meryey, son of Ded, has fallen upon the country of Tehenu with his bowmen – Sherden, Shekelesh, Ekwesh, Lukka, Teresh, Taking the best of every warrior and every man of war of his country. He has brought his wife and his children – leaders of the camp, and he has reached the western boundary in the fields of Perire'
"His majesty was enraged at their report, like a lion," assembled his court and gave a rousing speech. Later, he dreamed he saw Ptah handing him a sword and saying, "Take thou (it) and banish thou the fearful heart from thee." When the bowmen went forth, says the inscription, "Amun was with them as a shield." After six hours, the surviving Nine Bows threw down their weapons, abandoned their baggage and dependents, and ran for their lives. Merneptah states that he defeated the invasion, killing 6,000 soldiers and taking 9,000 prisoners. To be sure of the numbers, among other things, he took the penises of all uncircumcised enemy dead and the hands of all the circumcised, from which history learns that the Ekwesh were circumcised, a fact causing some to doubt they were Greek.
Reign of Ramesses III[edit]
Ramesses III, the second king of the Egyptian 20th Dynasty, who reigned for most of the first half of the 12th century BCE, was forced to deal with a later wave of invasions of the Sea Peoples—the best-recorded of these in his eighth year. This was recorded in two long inscriptions from his Medinet Habu mortuary temple, which are physically separate and somewhat different from one another.[47]
The fact that several civilizations collapsed around 1175 BCE, has led to the suggestion that the Sea Peoples may have been involved in the end of the Hittite, Mycenaean and Mitanni kingdoms. The American Hittitologist Gary Beckman writes, on page 23 of Akkadica 120 (2000):[48]
A terminus ante quem for the destruction of the Hittite empire has been recognised in an inscription carved at Medinet Habu in Egypt in the eighth year of Ramesses III (1175 BCE). This text narrates a contemporary great movement of peoples in the eastern Mediterranean, as a result of which "the lands were removed and scattered to the fray. No land could stand before their arms, from Hatti, Kode, Carchemish, Arzawa, Alashiya on being cut off. [ie: cut down]"
Ramesses' comments about the scale of the Sea Peoples' onslaught in the eastern Mediterranean are confirmed by the destruction of the states of Hatti, Ugarit, Ashkelon and Hazor around this time. As the Hittitologist Trevor Bryce observes:[49]
It should be stressed that the invasions were not merely military operations, but involved the movements of large populations, by land and sea, seeking new lands to settle.
This situation is confirmed by the Medinet Habu temple reliefs of Ramesses III which show that:[49]
the Peleset and Tjekker warriors who fought in the land battle [against Ramesses III] are accompanied in the reliefs by women and children loaded in ox-carts.
The inscriptions of Ramesses III at his Medinet Habu mortuary temple in Thebes record three victorious campaigns against the Sea Peoples considered bona fide, in Years 5, 8 and 12, as well as three considered spurious, against the Nubians and Libyans in Year 5 and the Libyans with Asiatics in Year 11. During Year 8 some Hittites were operating with the Sea Peoples.[50]
The inner west wall of the second court describes the invasion of Year 5. Only the Peleset and Tjeker are mentioned, but the list is lost in a lacuna. The attack was two-pronged, one by sea and one by land; that is, the Sea Peoples divided their forces. Ramsesses was waiting in the Nile mouths and trapped the enemy fleet there. The land forces were defeated separately.
The Sea Peoples did not learn any lessons from this defeat, as they repeated their mistake in Year 8 with a similar result. The campaign is recorded more extensively on the inner northwest panel of the first court. It is possible, but not generally believed, that the dates are only those of the inscriptions and both refer to the same campaign.
In Ramesses' Year 8, the Nine Bows appear again as a "conspiracy in their isles". This time, they are revealed unquestionably as Sea Peoples: the Peleset, Tjeker, Shekelesh, Denyen and Weshesh, which are classified as "foreign countries" in the inscription. They camped in Amor and sent a fleet to the Nile.
The pharaoh was once more waiting for them. He had built a fleet especially for the occasion, hid it in the Nile mouths and posted coast watchers. The enemy fleet was ambushed there, their ships overturned, and the men dragged up on shore and executed ad hoc.
The land army was also routed within Egyptian controlled territory. Additional information is given in the relief on the outer side of the east wall. This land battle occurred in the vicinity of Djahy against "the northern countries". When it was over, several chiefs were captive: of Hatti, Amor and Shasu among the "land peoples" and the Tjeker, "Sherden of the sea", "Teresh of the sea" and Peleset or Philistines (in whose name some have seen the ancient Greek name for sea people; Pelasgians).
The campaign of Year 12 is attested by the Südstele found on the south side of the temple. It mentions the Tjeker, Peleset, Denyen, Weshesh and Shekelesh.
Papyrus Harris I of the period, found behind the temple, suggests a wider campaign against the Sea Peoples but does not mention the date. In it, the persona of Ramses III says, "I slew the Denyen (D'-yn-yw-n) in their isles" and "burned" the Tjeker and Peleset, implying a maritime raid of his own. He also captured some Sherden and Weshesh "of the sea" and settled them in Egypt.[51] As he is called the "Ruler of Nine Bows" in the relief of the east side, these events probably happened in Year 8; i.e. the Pharaoh would have used the victorious fleet for some punitive expeditions elsewhere in the Mediterranean.
The Rhetorical Stela to Ramesses III, Chapel C, Deir el-Medina records a similar narrative.[52]
Onomasticon of Amenope[edit]
The Onomasticon of Amenope, or Amenemipit (amen-em-apt), gives a slight credence to the idea that the Ramesside kings settled the Sea Peoples in Canaan. Dated to about 1100 BCE, at the end of the 21st dynasty (which had numerous short-reigned pharaohs), this document simply lists names. After six place names, four of which were in Philistia, the scribe lists the Sherden (Line 268), the Tjeker (Line 269) and the Peleset (Line 270), who might be presumed to occupy those cities.[53] The Story of Wenamun on a papyrus of the same cache also places the Tjeker in Dor at that time. The fact that the Biblical maritime Tribe of Dan was initially located between the Philistines and the Tjekker, has prompted some to suggest that they may originally have been Denyen. Sherden seem to have been settled around Megiddo and in the Jordan Valley, and Weshwesh (Biblical Asher) may have been settled further north.
Other documentary records[edit]
Early Amarna age[edit]
The Lukka, as well as the Sherden, also appear in the Amarna Letters (perhaps of Amenhotep III or his son Akhenaten) around the mid-14th century BCE. The letters at one point refer to a Sherden man as an apparent renegade mercenary,[54] and at another point to three Sherden who are slain by an Egyptian overseer.[55] The Danuna are mentioned in another letter[56] but only in a passing reference to the death of their king. The Lukka are being accused[57] of attacking the Egyptians in conjunction with the Alashiyans (Cypriotes), with the latter having stated that the Lukka were seizing their villages.
A few states, such as Byblos and Sidon, survived the Sea Peoples' migrations. Despite Ramesses III's pessimism, Carchemish also survived the Sea Peoples' onslaught. King Kuzi-Teshub I, who was the son of Talmi-Teshub—a direct contemporary of the last ruling Hittite king, Suppiluliuma II—is attested in power there.[58] Kuzi-Tesup and his successors ruled a mini-empire from Carchemish which stretched from "Southeast Asia Minor, North Syria ... [to] the west bend of the Euphrates"[59] from c. 1175 BCE to 990 BCE.
Byblos obelisk[edit]
The earliest ethnic group[60] later considered among the Sea Peoples is believed to be attested in Egyptian hieroglyphics on the Byblos obelisk found in the Obelisk Temple at Byblos in modern-day Lebanon. The inscription mentions kwkwn son of rwqq- (or kukun son of luqq), transliterated as Kukunnis, son of Lukka, "the Lycian".[61] The date is given variously as 2000 or 1700 BCE.
Letters at Ugarit[edit]
Some Sea Peoples appear in four letters found at Ugarit, the last three of which seem to foreshadow the destruction of the city around 1180 BCE. The letters are therefore dated to the early 12th century. The last king of Ugarit was Ammurapi (c. 1191–1182 BCE), who, throughout this correspondence, is quite a young man.
The earliest is letter RS 34.129, found on the south side of the city, from "the Great King", presumably Suppiluliuma II of the Hittites, to the prefect of the city. He says that he ordered the king of Ugarit to send him Ibnadushu for questioning, but the king was too immature to respond. He therefore wants the prefect to send the man, whom he promises to return.
What this language implies about the relationship of the Hittite empire to Ugarit is a matter for interpretation. Ibnadushu had been kidnapped by and had resided among a people of Shikala, probably the Shekelesh, "who lived on ships." The letter is generally interpreted as an interest in military intelligence by the king.[62]
The last three letters, RS L 1, RS 20.238 and RS 20.18, are a set from the Rap'anu Archive between a slightly older Ammurapi, now handling his own affairs, and Eshuwara, the grand supervisor of Alasiya. Evidently, Ammurapi had informed Eshuwara, that an enemy fleet of 20 ships had been spotted at sea.
Eshuwara wrote back and inquired about the location of Ammurapi's own forces. Eshuwara also noted that he would like to know where the enemy fleet of 20 ships are now located.[63] Unfortunately for both Ugarit and Alasiya, neither kingdom was able to fend off the Sea People's onslaught, and both were ultimately destroyed. A letter by Amurapi (RS 18.147) to the king of Alasiya—which was in fact a response to an appeal for assistance by the latter—has been found by archaeologists. In it, Ammurapi describes the desperate plight facing Ugarit:
My father, behold, the enemy's ships came (here); my cities(?) were burned, and they did evil things in my country. Does not my father know that all my troops and chariots(?) are in the Land of Hatti, and all my ships are in the Land of Lukka? ... Thus, the country is abandoned to itself. May my father know it: the seven ships of the enemy that came here inflicted much damage upon us.[64]
Ammurapi, in turn, appealed for aid from the viceroy of Carchemish—a state which actually survived the Sea People's onslaught—but its viceroy could only offer some words of advice for Ammurapi:
As for what you [Ammurapi] have written to me: 'Ships of the enemy have been seen at sea!' Well, you must remain firm. Indeed for your part, where are your troops, your chariots stationed? Are they not stationed near you? No? Behind the enemy, who press upon you? Surround your towns with ramparts. Have your troops and chariots enter there, and await the enemy with great resolution!"[65]
Hypotheses about identity[edit]
A number of hypotheses concerning the identities and motives of the Sea Peoples described in the records have been formulated. They are not necessarily alternative or contradictory hypotheses about the sea peoples; any or all might be mainly or partly true.
Regional migration historical context[edit]
The Linear B Tablets of Pylos in the Late Bronze Age in the Aegean demonstrate increased slave raiding and the spread of mercenaries and migratory peoples and their subsequent resettlement. Despite this, the actual identity of the Sea Peoples has remained enigmatic and modern scholars have only the scattered records of ancient civilizations and archaeological analysis to inform them. Evidence shows that the identities and motives of these peoples were known to the Egyptians. In fact, many had sought employment with the Egyptians or were in a diplomatic relationship for a few centuries before the Late Bronze Age Collapse. For example, select groups, or members of groups, of the Sea People, such as the Sherden or Shardana, were used as mercenaries by Egyptian Pharaohs such as Ramesses II.
Prior to the 3rd Intermediate Period of Egypt from the (15th century BCE), names of semitic-speaking pastoral cattle nomadic peoples of the Levant appear, replacing previous Egyptian concern with the Hurrianised 'prw ('Apiru or Habiru). These were called the š3sw (Shasu), meaning "those who move on foot". e.g. the Shasu of Yhw.[66] Sandars uses the analogous name "land peoples." Contemporary Assyrian records refer to them as Ahhlamu or Wanderers.[67] They were not part of the Egyptian list of Sea Peoples, and were later referred to as Aramaeans.
Some people, such as the Lukka, were included in both categories of land and sea people.
Philistine hypothesis[edit]
The archaeological evidence from the southern coastal plain of ancient Palestine, termed Philistia in the Hebrew Bible, indicates a disruption[68] of the Canaanite culture that existed during the Late Bronze Age and its replacement (with some integration) by a culture with a possibly foreign (mainly Aegean) origin. This includes distinct pottery, which at first belongs to the Mycenaean IIIC tradition (albeit of local manufacture) and gradually transforms into a uniquely Philistine pottery. Mazar says:[69]
... in Philistia, the producers of Mycenaean IIIC pottery must be identified as the Philistines. The logical conclusion, therefore, is that the Philistines were a group of Mycenaean Greeks who immigrated to the east ... Within several decades ... a new bichrome style, known as the "Philistine", appeared in Philistia ...
Sandars, however, does not take this point of view, but says:[70]
... it would be less misleading to call this 'Philistine pottery' 'Sea Peoples' pottery or 'foreign' pottery, without commitment to any particular group.
Artifacts of the Philistine culture are found at numerous sites, in particular in the excavations of the five main cities of the Philistines: the Pentapolis of Ashkelon, Ashdod, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. Some scholars (e.g. S. Sherratt, Drews, etc.) have challenged the theory that the Philistine culture is an immigrant culture, claiming instead that they are an in situ development of the Canaanite culture, but others argue for the immigrant hypothesis; for example, T. Dothan and Barako.
Trude and Moshe Dothan,[71] suggests that the later Philistine settlements in the Levant were unoccupied for nearly 30 years between their destruction and resettlement by the Philistines, whose Helladic IIICb pottery also shows Egyptian influences.
Minoan hypothesis[edit]
Two of the peoples who settled in the Levant had traditions that may connect them to Crete: the Tjeker and the Peleset. The Tjeker may have left Crete to settle in Anatolia, and left there to settle Dor.[72] According to the Old Testament,[73] the Israelite God brought the Philistines out of Caphtor. The mainstream of Biblical and classical scholarship accepts Caphtor to refer to Crete, but there are alternative minority theories.[74] Crete at the time was populated by peoples speaking many languages, among which were Mycenaean Greek and Eteocretan, the descendant of the language of the Minoans. It is possible, but by no means certain, that these two peoples spoke Eteocretan.
Recent examinations of the eruption of the Santorini volcano suggest that it occurred very close (estimated between 1660 and 1613 BCE) to the first appearances of the Sea People in Egypt.[75] The eruption and its aftermath (fires, tsunami, weather changes and famines) would have had wide-ranging effects across the Mediterranean, the Levant and particularly Greece, and could have provided the impetus for invasions of other regions of the Mediterranean.
Greek migrational hypothesis[edit]
The identifications of Denyen with the Greek Danaans and Ekwesh with the Greek Achaeans are long-standing issues in Bronze Age scholarship, whether Greek, Hittite or Biblical, especially as they lived "in the isles". Michael Wood described the hypothetical role of the Greeks (who have already been proposed as the identity of the Philistines above):[76]
However the Achaean identification of the Ekwesh is considered problematic as this group was clearly described as circumcised by the Egyptians, and according to Manuel Robbins: "Hardly anyone thinks that the Greeks of the Bronze Age were circumcized ..."[77]
... were the sea peoples ... in part actually composed of Mycenaean Greeks – rootless migrants, warrior bands and condottieri on the move ... ? Certainly there seem to be suggestive parallels between the war gear and helmets of the Greeks ... and those of the Sea Peoples ...
Wood would also include the Sherden and Shekelesh, pointing out that "there were migrations of Greek-speaking peoples to the same place [Sardinia and Sicily] at this time." He is careful to point out that the Greeks would have been only one element among many that comprised the sea peoples. Furthermore, the proportion of Greeks must have been relatively small. His major hypothesis,[76] is that the Trojan War was fought against Troy VI and that Troy VIIa, the candidate of Carl Blegen, and that Troy was sacked by those now identified as Greek Sea Peoples.
He suggests that Odysseus' assumed identity as a wandering Cretan coming home from the Trojan War, who fights in Egypt and serves there after being captured,[78] "remembers" the campaign of Year 8 of Ramses III, described above. He points out also that places destroyed on Cyprus at the time (such as Kition) were rebuilt by a new Greek-speaking population.
Trojan hypothesis[edit]
The possibility that the Teresh were connected on the one hand with the Tyrrhenians,[79] believed to be an Etruscan-related culture, and on the other with Taruisa, a Hittite name possibly referring to Troy,[80] had been considered by the ancient Romans. The Roman poet Virgil refers to this belief when he depicts Aeneas as escaping the fall of Troy by coming to Latium to found a line descending to Romulus, first king of Rome. Considering that Anatolian connections have been identified for other Sea Peoples, such as the Tjeker and the Lukka, Eberhard Zangger puts together an Anatolian hypothesis.[81]
Mycenaean warfare hypothesis[edit]
This theory suggests that the Sea Peoples were populations from the city states of the Greek Mycenaean civilization, who destroyed each other in a disastrous series of conflicts lasting several decades. There would have been few or no external invaders and just a few excursions outside the Greek-speaking part of the Aegean civilization.
Archaeological evidence indicates that many fortified sites of the Greek domain were destroyed in the late 13th and early 12th century BCE, which was understood in the mid-20th century to have been simultaneous or nearly so and was attributed to the Dorian Invasion championed by Carl Blegen of the University of Cincinnati. He believed Mycenaean Pylos was burned during an amphibious raid by warriors from the north (Dorians).
Subsequent critical analysis focused on the fact that the destructions were not simultaneous and that all the evidence of Dorians comes from later times. John Chadwick championed a Sea Peoples hypothesis,[82] which asserted that, since the Pylians had retreated to the northeast, the attack must have come from the southwest, the Sea Peoples being, in his view, the most likely candidates. He suggests that they were based in Anatolia and, although doubting that the Mycenaeans would have called themselves "Achaeans", speculates that "... it is very tempting to bring them into connexion." He does not assign a Greek identity to all of the Sea Peoples.
Considering the turbulence between and within the great families of the Mycenaean city-states in Greek mythology, the hypothesis that the Mycenaeans destroyed themselves is long-standing[83] and finds support by the ancient Greek historian Thucydides, who theorized:
For in early times the Hellenes and the barbarians of the coast and islands ... were tempted to turn to piracy, under the conduct of their most powerful men ... [T]hey would fall upon a town unprotected by walls ... and would plunder it ... no disgrace being yet attached to such an achievement, but even some glory.[84]
Although some advocates of the Philistine or Greek migration hypotheses identify all the Mycenaeans or Sea Peoples as ethnically Greek, John Chadwick (founder, with Michael Ventris, of Linear B studies) adopts instead the multiple ethnicity view.
Italian peoples hypotheses[edit]
Theories of the possible connections between the Sherden to Sardinia, Shekelesh to Sicily, and Teresh to Tyrrhenians, even though long-standing, are based on onomastic similarities.[85]
In Sardinia archeological remains suggest the presence of Sea people. Some archeologists believe that the Sherden are identifiable with the Nuragic Sardinians.[25]
The Nuragic bronze statuettes, a great collection of nuragic sculptures, includes a great number of horned helmet warriors wearing a skirt similar to those of the Sherden and a round shield, although they had been dated for a long time to the 10th or 9th century BCE, recent discoveries suggest that their production started around the 13th century BCE. Swords identical to those of the Sherden have been found in Sardinia, dating back to 1650 BCE.
Plutarch spoke of raids by Sardinians against the island of Crete, in the same period in which the Sea People invaded Egypt,[86] and Nuragic ceramics have been found at Tiryns, Kommos,[87] Kokkinokremnos [88] and in Sicily, at Lipari [89] and the Agrigento area, along the sea route linking western to eastern Mediterranean.
The self-name of the Etruscans, Rasna, does not lend itself to the Tyrrhenian derivation, although it has been suggested that this was itself derived from an earlier form T'Rasna. The Etruscan civilization has been studied, and the language partly deciphered. It has variants and representatives in Aegean inscriptions, but these may well be from travellers or colonists of Etruscans during their seafaring period before Rome destroyed their power.[90]
Archaeology is equally enigmatic. About all that can be said for certain is that Mycenaean IIIC pottery was widespread around the Mediterranean in areas associated with Sea Peoples and its introduction at various places, including Sardinia, is often associated with cultural change, violent or gradual. These circumstances appear to be enough for archaeological theorizers. The prevalent speculation is that the Sherden and Shekelesh brought those names with them to Sardinia and Sicily, "perhaps not operating from those great islands but moving toward them."[91]
Anatolian famine hypothesis[edit]
A famous passage from Herodotus[92] portrays the wandering and migration of Lydians from Anatolia because of famine:[93]
In the days of Atys, the son of Manes, there was a great scarcity through the whole land of Lydia ... So the king determined to divide the nation in half ... the one to stay, the other to leave the land. ... the emigrants should have his son Tyrrhenus for their leader ... they went down to Smyrna, and built themselves ships ... after sailing past many countries they came to Umbria ... and called themselves ... Tyrrhenians.
Tablet RS 18.38 from Ugarit also mentions grain to the Hittites, suggesting a long period of famine, connected further, in the full theory, to drought.[94] Barry Weiss,[95] using the Palmer Drought Index for 35 Greek, Turkish, and Middle Eastern weather stations, showed that a drought of the kinds that persisted from January 1972 would have affected all of the sites associated with the Late Bronze Age collapse. Drought could have easily precipitated or hastened socio-economic problems and led to wars. More recently, Brian Fagan has shown how mid-winter storms from the Atlantic were diverted to travel north of the Pyrenees and the Alps, bringing wetter conditions to Central Europe, but drought to the Eastern Mediterranean.[96] More recent paleoclimatological research has also shown climatic disruption and increasing aridity in the Eastern Mediterranean, associated with the North Atlantic Oscillation at this time (See Bronze Age Collapse).
Invader hypothesis[edit]
The term 'invasion' is used generally in the literature concerning the period to mean the documented attacks, implying that the aggressors were external to the eastern Mediterranean, though often hypothesized to be from the wider Aegean world. An origin outside the Aegean also has been proposed, as in this example by Michael Grant: "There was a gigantic series of migratory waves, extending all the way from the Danube valley to the plains of China."[97]
Such a comprehensive movement is associated with more than one people or culture; instead, it was a "disturbance," according to Finley:[98]
A large-scale movement of people is indicated ... the original centre of disturbance was in the Carpatho-Danubian region of Europe. ... It appears ... to have been ... pushing in different directions at different times.
If different times are allowed on the Danube, they are not in the Aegean: "all this destruction must be dated to the same period about 1200."[98]
The following movements are associated and compressed by Finley into the 1200 BCE window: the hypothetical Dorian Invasion, the attacks of the Sea Peoples, the formation of Philistine kingdoms in the Levant and the fall of the Hittite Empire.
Robert Drews presents a map showing the destruction sites of 47 fortified major settlements, which he terms "Major Sites Destroyed in the Catastrophe".[99] They are concentrated in the Levant, with some in Greece and Anatolia.
See also[edit]
- ^ a b Killebrew 2013, p. 2. Quote: "First coined in 1881 by the French Egyptologist G. Maspero (1896), the somewhat misleading term "Sea Peoples" encompasses the ethnonyms Lukka, Sherden, Shekelesh, Teresh, Eqwesh, Denyen, Sikil / Tjekker, Weshesh, and Peleset (Philistines). [Footnote: The modern term "Sea Peoples" refers to peoples that appear in several New Kingdom Egyptian texts as originating from "islands" (tables 1–2; Adams and Cohen, this volume; see, e.g., Drews 1993, 57 for a summary). The use of quotation marks in association with the term "Sea Peoples" in our title is intended to draw attention to the problematic nature of this commonly used term. It is noteworthy that the designation "of the sea" appears only in relation to the Sherden, Shekelesh, and Eqwesh. Subsequently, this term was applied somewhat indiscriminately to several additional ethnonyms, including the Philistines, who are portrayed in their earliest appearance as invaders from the north during the reigns of Merenptah and Ramesses Ill (see, e.g., Sandars 1978; Redford 1992, 243, n. 14; for a recent review of the primary and secondary literature, see Woudhuizen 2006). Hencefore the term Sea Peoples will appear without quotation marks.]"
- ^ a b c Drews 1995, pp. 48–61: "The thesis that a great "migration of the Sea Peoples" occurred ca. 1200 B.C. is supposedly based on Egyptian inscriptions, one from the reign of Merneptah and another from the reign of Ramesses III. Yet in the inscriptions themselves such a migration nowhere appears. After reviewing what the Egyptian texts have to say about 'the sea peoples', one Egyptologist (Wolfgang Helck) recently remarked that although some things are unclear, "eins ist aber sicher: Nach den ägyptischen Texten haben wir es nicht mit einer 'Völkerwanderung' zu tun." Thus the migration hypothesis is based not on the inscriptions themselves but on their interpretation."
- ^ "Syria: Early history". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 8 September 2012.
- ^ "Sea People". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 8 September 2012.
- ^ Silberman 1998, p. 269.
- ^ de Rougé, Emmanuel (1855), Notice de Quelques Textes Hiéroglyphiques Récemment Publiés par M. Greene, E. Thunot, p. 14: [Original French]: "On a depuis longtemps rapproché ces Kefa, avec vraisemblance, des Caphtorim de la Bible, au quels Gesenius, avec la plupart des interprètes, assigne pour résidence les îles de Crete ou de Chypre. Les habitants de l'île de Chypre durent nécessairement prendre parti dans cette guerre; peut-être les Kefas étaient-ils alors les alliés de l'Egypte. En tout cas, notre inscription ne détaille pas les noms de ces peuples, venus des îles de la Méditerranée. Champollion a fait remarquer que les T'akkari [qu'il nomme Fekkaros; voyez l'appendice à la suite de cette notice] et les Schartana, étaient reconnaissables, dans les vaisseaux ennemis, à leurs coiffures singulières. De plus, dans les écussons des peuples vaincus, les Schartana et les Touirasch portent la désignation de peuples de la mer. Il est donc probable qu'ils appartiennent à ces nations venues des îles ou des côtes de l'Archipel. Les Rabou sont encore reconnaissables parmi les prisonniers.
[Translation]: "For a long time Kefa has been identified, with verisimilitude, with Caphthorim of the Bible, to whom Gesenius, along with most interpreters, assigns as a residence the islands of Crete or Cyprus. The people of Cyprus had certainly to take sides in this war; perhaps they were then the allies of Egypt. In any case, our entry does not detail the names of these people, from the islands of the Mediterranean. Champollion noted that T'akkari [which he names Fekkaros; see appendix at the following entry] and Schartana, were recognizable, in enemy ships, with unique hairstyles. In addition, in the crests of the conquered peoples, the Schartana and the Touirasch bear the designation of the peoples of the sea. It is therefore likely that they belong to these nations from islands or coasts of the archipelago. The Rabou are still recognizable among the prisoners."
- ^ a b Drews 1992: "In fact, this migration of the Sea Peoples is not to be found in Egyptian inscriptions, but was launched by Gaston Maspero in 1873 [footnote: In the Revue Critique d'Histoire et de Litterature 1873, pp. 85–6]. Although Maspero's proposal initially seemed unlikely, it gained credibility with the publication of the Lemnos stele. In 1895, in his popular Histoire ancienne des peuples de l'orient classique [footnote; Vol. II (Paris:1895), translated into English as The Struggle of the Nations (ed. A. H. Sayce, tr. M. L. McClure, New York: 1896)], Maspero fully elaborated his scenario of "the migration of the Sea Peoples". Adopted by Eduard Meyer for the second edition of his Geschichted es Altertums, the theory won general acceptance among Egyptologists and orientalists."
- ^ Sea Peoples, ancient.eu Joshua J. Mark: "Their origin and identity has been suggested (and debated) to be Etruscan/Trojan to Italian, Philistine, Mycenae and even Minoan but, as no accounts discovered thus far shed any more light on the question than what is presently known, any such claims must remain mere conjecture."
- ^ Who Were the Sea People?, Eberhard Zangger, pp. 20–31 of the May/June 1995 print edition of Saudi Aramco World: "very few—if any—archeologists would consider the Sea People to have been identified."
- ^ de Rougé 1855.
- ^ Maspero, Gaston (1896), Archibald Sayce, ed., Struggle of the Nations: Egypt, Syria and Assyria (English ed.), Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, pp. 461–470
- ^ a b c Killebrew 2013, pp. 2–5.
- ^ (Egyptian: n3 ḫ3s.wt n<.t> p3 ym) As noted by Gardiner V.1 p.196, other texts have
- ^ The Egyptian Pharaoh Merneptah explicitly refers to the term "the foreign-countries of the sea" in his Great Karnak Inscription, see Line 52, the inscription in Manassa p.55, plate 12.
- ^ Killebrew 2013, p. 2a.
- ^ A convenient table of Sea Peoples in hieroglyphics, transliteration and English is given in the dissertation of Woudhuizen, 2006, who developed it from works of Kitchen cited there
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Woudhuizen, 2006, p.35
- ^ a b c Kelder 2010, p. 126.
- ^ a b c d e Drews 1995, p. 54: "Already in the 1840s Egyptologists had debated the identity of the "northerners, coming from all lands," who assisted the Libyan King Meryre in his attack upon Merneptah. Some scholars believed that Meryre's auxiliaries were merely his neighbors on the Libyan coast, while others identified them as Indo-Europeans from north of the Caucasus. It was one of Maspero's most illustrious predecessors, Emmanuel de Rougé, who proposed that the names reflected the lands of the northern Mediterranean: the Lukka, Ekwesh, Tursha, Shekelesh, and Shardana were men from Lydia, Achaea, Tyrsenia (western Italy), Sicily, and Sardinia." De Rougé and others regarded Meryre's auxiliaries-these "peoples de la mer Méditerranée"- as mercenary bands, since the Sardinians, at least, were known to have served as mercenaries already in the early years of Ramesses the Great. Thus the only "migration" that the Karnak Inscription seemed to suggest was an attempted encroachment by Libyans upon neighboring territory."
- ^ a b c d e Drews 1995, p. 49.
- ^ People of the sea: the search for the Philistines, Trude Krakauer Dothan, Moshe Dothan, Macmillan, 1992, p22-23. Jean-François Champollion, in 1822, was the first to make this connection.
- ^ a b O'Connor & Cline 2003, p. 116.
- ^ Who Were the Phoenicians?, Nissim Raphael Ganor, 2009, (also [1]), page 111, Quote: "Today it is generally accepted (in accordance with the theory of Maspero) that we are dealing here with different nations which migrated from the region of Crete or Asia Minor, and tried to infiltrate into Egypt. Repulsed by the Egyptians, the Philistines (P. R. S. T.) settled in the coastal area of Canaan, while the Tyrsenes, Sardanes, and others migrated to Italy, Sardinia and other places. In 1747 Fourmont tried to prove that the name "Philistine" was an erroneous form of the Greek "Pelasgi". His theory was accepted by Chabas, Hitzig and others who enlarged upon it. Maspero stated in this context: "The name 'Plishti' by itself suggests a foreign origin or long migrations and recalls that of the Pelasgi." The equation Plishti–Pelasgi is based solely on a supposedly phonetic similarity."
- ^ O'Connor & Cline 2003, p. 112-113.
- ^ a b S. Bar; D. Kahn; J.J. Shirley (9 June 2011). Egypt, Canaan and Israel: History, Imperialism, Ideology and Literature: Proceedings of a Conference at the University of Haifa, 3-7 May 2009. BRILL. pp. 350–. ISBN 90-04-19493-2.
- ^ O'Connor & Cline 2003, p. 113.
- ^ O'Connor & Cline 2003, p. 114.
- ^ Oren 2000, p. 85: "Thus far, rather meager documentation is available. What I shall do for the remainder of this essay is to focus on what is in fact our primary source on the Sea Peoples, the basis of virtually all significant discussions of them, including many efforts to identify the Sea Peoples with archaeologically known cultures or groups in the Mediterranean and beyond. This source is the corpus of scenes and texts relevant to the Sea Peoples displayed on the walls of the mortuary temple of Ramesses III at western Thebes. Although it has been much discussed, this corpus has often led scholars to different and contradictory conclusions, and will always probably be subject to debate because of certain ambiguities inherent in the material."
- ^ "GARDINER, Alan – The Kadesh Inscriptions of Ramesses II". Scribd.
- ^ "Ancient Records of Egypt: The nineteenth dynasty". google.co.uk.
- ^ Per Killebrew 2013, pp 2–5, these are: Stele of Padjesef, Tanis Stele, Papyrus Anastasi I, Papyrus Anastasi II, Stele of Setemhebu, Papyrus Amiens, Papyrus Wilbour, Adoption Papyrus, Papyrus Moscow 169, Papyrus BM 10326, Papyrus Turin 2026, Papyrus BM 10375, Donation Stele
- ^ Uncertainty of the dates is not a case of no evidence but of selecting among several possible dates. The articles in Wikipedia on related topics use one set of dates by convention but these and all dates based on them are not the only possible. A summary of the date question is given in Hasel, Ch. 2, p. 151, which is available as a summary on Google Books.
- ^ Find this and other documents quoted in the Shardana article by Megaera Lorenz at the Penn State site. This is an earlier version of her article, which gives a quote from Kitchen not found in the External Links site below. Breasted Volume III, Article 491, p.210, which can be found on Google books, gives quite a different translation of the passage. Unfortunately, large parts of the text are missing and must be restored, but both versions agree on the Sherden and the warships.
- ^ Kenneth Kitchen, Pharaoh Triumphant: The Life and Times of Ramesses II, King of Egypt, Aris & Phillips, 1982. pp.40–41
- ^ Grimal, pp.250–253
- ^ The poem appears in inscriptional form but the scribe, pntAwr.t, was not the author, who remains unknown. The scribe copied the poem onto Papyrus in the time of Merneptah and copies of that found their way into Papyrus Sallier III currently located in the British Museum. The details are stated in Tha Battle of Kadesh on the site of the American Research Center in Egypt of Northern California. Both the inscription and the poem are published in "Egyptian Accounts of the Battle of Kadesh" on the Pharaonic Egypt site.
- ^ J. von Beckerath, p.190. Like those of Ramses II, these dates are not certain. Von Beckerath's dates, adopted by Wikipedia, are relatively late; for example, Sanders, Ch. 5, p. 105, sets the Battle of Perire at April 15, 1220.
- ^ The Great Karnak Inscription.
- ^ All three inscriptions are stated in Breasted, V. 3, "Reign of Meneptah", pp. 238 ff., Articles 569 ff., downloadable from Google Books.
- ^ Breasted, volume 3, §595, page 252
- ^ Breasted, volume 3, page 253.
- ^ Breasted, volume 3, page 256-264.
- ^ J.H. Breasted, p. 243, citing Lines 13–15 of the inscription
- ^ Translation by Egerton and Wilson, 1936, plates 37-39, lines 8-23. Also found in Breasted, 1906, volume 4, p.44, §75
- ^ Breasted, 1906, volume 4, p.48, §81
- ^ Translation by John A. Wilson in Pritchard, J.B. (ed.) Ancient Near Eastern Texts relating to the Old Testament, 3rd edition, Princeton 1969., p.262. Also found in Breasted, 1906, volume 4, p.37, §64
- ^ Oren 2000, p. 86: "One consists of a string of large scale scenes, complemented with relatively brief texts, extending in a narrative sequence along part of the north facade of the temple, which it shares with part of a similar narrative treatment of Ramesses IlI's Year 5 campaign against the Libyans. This latter sequence originates however on the west, or rear wall of the temple. The other, physically quite separate composition relating to the Sea Peoples is displayed across the external (eastern) face of the great pylon which separates the first court of the temple from the second. On the pylon's southern wing is a large-scale scene - occupying most of the facade - showing Ramesses Ill leading three lines of captive Sea Peoples to Amun-Re, lord of Thebes (and of the empire), and his consort Mut. Displayed on the equivalent space of the north wing is a long text, without pictorial embellishment, which is a verbal statement by Ramesses III describing at length his victory over the Sea Peoples, and the extraordinary beneficence of Amun-Re thus displayed, to "the entire land gathered together". In fact, this apparent simplicity - two separate and somewhat different compositions relevant to the Sea Peoples-belies the actual complexity of the compositional relationship between the two Sea Peoples compositions on the one hand, and their joint relationship to the entire compositional scheme or "program" of the entire temple on the other. Any effort to understand the historical significance of the Sea Peoples' records at Medinet Habu must take this compositional dimension into account, as well as the conceptual dimensional, the relationship of the general composition scheme or program to the functions and meanings of the temple, as understood by the Egyptians."
- ^ Beckman cites the first few lines of the inscription located on the NW panel of the 1st court of the temple. This extensive inscription is stated in full in English in the Woudhuizen thesis, pages 43-56, which also contains a diagram of the locations of the many inscriptions pertaining to the reign of Ramses III on the walls of temple at Medinet Habu.
- ^ a b Bryce, p.371
- ^ The Woudhuizen dissertation, pages 43-56, quotes the inscriptions in English.
- ^ This passage in the papyrus is often cited as evidence that the Egyptians settled the Philistines in Philistia. The passage however only mentions the Sherden and Weshesh; i.e. does not mention the Peleset and Tjeker, and nowhere implies that the scribe meant Egyptian possessions in the Levant.
- ^ Bernard Bruyère, Mert Seger à Deir el Médineh, 1929, pages 32–37
- ^ Redford, P. 292. A number of copies or partial copies exist, the best being the Golenischeff Papyrus, or Papyrus Moscow 169, located in the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow (refer to Onomasticon of Amenemipet at the Archaeowiki site). In it the author is stated to be Amenemope, son of Amenemope.
- ^ Letter EA 81
- ^ Letters EA 122, 123, which are duplicates. See the paper on this topic published by Megaera Lorenz, The Amarna Letters at the Penn State site.
- ^ Kitchen, pp. 99 & 140
- ^ Kitchen, pp.99–100
- ^ See also the Woudhuizen dissertation of 2006, particularly his Concluding Remarks on pages 117-121, for a fuller consideration of the meaning of ethnicity.
- ^ Bryce, T. R. (1974). "The Lukka Problem – And a Possible Solution". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 33 (4): 395–404. doi:10.1086/372378. JSTOR 544776. The inscription is mentioned as well in the Woudhuizen dissertation, page 31.
- ^ The texts of the letters are transliterated and translated in the Woudhuizen dissertation, pages 43-56, and also are mentioned and hypotheses are given about them in Sandars, p. 142 following.
- ^ The sequence, only recently completed, appears in the Woudhuizen dissertation, pages 43-56, along with the news that the famous oven, still reported at many sites and in many books, in which the second letter was hypothetically being baked at the destruction of the city, was not an oven, the city was not destroyed at that time, and a third letter existed.
- ^ Jean Nougaryol et al. (1968) Ugaritica V: 87–90 no.24
- ^ RSL I = Nougayril et al., (1968) 86–86, no.23
- ^ Rainey, Anson (November 2008). "Shasu or Habiru. Who Were the Early Israelites?". Biblical Archeology Review. Biblical Archaeology Society. 34 (06 (Nov/Dec)).
- ^ Page 53
- ^ Reford p. 292
- ^ Ch. 8, subsection entitled "The Initial Settlement of the Sea Peoples."
- ^ Ch. 7
- ^ Dothan, Trude and Dothan, Moshe (1993), "People of the Sea: The Search for the Philistines" (Scribner)
- ^ See under Tjeker.
- ^ Amos 9,7; argument reviewed by Sandars in Ch. 7.
- ^ One is cited under Caphtor.
- ^ "New Evidence Suggests The Need To Rewrite Bronze Age History". Sciencedaily.com. 2006-04-29. Retrieved 2012-11-07.
- ^ a b Ch. 7, "The Peoples of the Sea."
- ^ Robbins, Manuel (2001). Collapse of the Bronze Age : the story of Greece, Troy, Israel, Egypt, and the peoples of the sea. San Jose Calif: Authors Choice Press. p. 158. ISBN 0-595-13664-8.
- ^ Odyssey XIV 191–298.
- ^ Sandars Ch. 5.
- ^ Wood Ch. 6.
- ^ Eberhard Zangger in the Aramco article available on-line and referenced under External links below.
- ^ Chadwick, p. 178.
- ^ See "Mycenaean Society and Its Collapse", a module of Exploring the European Past by Jack Martin Balcer and John Matthew Stockhausen at custom.thomsonlearning.com. They quote passages from the books of several experts to give a spectrum of views.
- ^ The History of the Peloponnesian War, Chapter I, Section 5.
- ^ Vagnetti, 2000, p.319: "Furthermore, if we examine the main (or only) connection of the Sherden (Srdn), Shekelesh (Sirs), and Tursha (Trs) with the Central Mediterranean, namely the similarity of those names with Sardinia, Sicily and Tyrrhenian area, we find further difficulties. First, that Greek sources are agreed that the original name of the island was Ichnussa (RE, IA.2: 2482-84 [1920] s.v. Sardinia; Nicosia 1981:423-26). From other sources we learn that the "Sikeloi" were not the original inhabitants of Sicily, but migrated there from peninsular Italy (RE, IIA.2:2482-91 [1920] s.v. Sikelia), while the Etruscans called themselves "Rasenna" (RE, IA.1:253-54 [1914], s.v. Rasennas). Thus the combination of the archaeological evidence with the traditions of the place-name makes it difficult to conclude that Sherden, Shekelesh and Tursha, were of western origin."
- ^ Paola Ruggeri - Talos, l'automa bronzeo contro i Sardi: le relazioni più antiche tra Creta e la Sardegna
- ^ Ceramiche. Storia, linguaggio e prospettive in Sardegna - pg.34
- ^ Gale, N.H. 2011. 'Source of the Lead Metal used to make a Repair Clamp on a Nuragic Vase recently excavated at Pyla-Kokkinokremos on Cyprus'. In V. Karageorghis and O. Kouka (eds.), On Cooking Pots, Drinking Cups, Loomweights and Ethnicity in Bronze Age Cyprus and Neighbouring Regions, Nicosia.
- ^ Santoni, Vincenzo; Sabatini, Donatella (2010) Gonnesa, Nuraghe Serucci. IX Campagna di scavo 2007/2008. Relazione e analisi preliminare.
- ^ Drews, 1995, p.59
- ^ Vermeule p. 271.
- ^ 1.94
- ^ Drews 1992.
- ^ Wood p. 221 summarizes that a general climatological crisis in the Black Sea and Danubian regions as known through pollen analysis and dendrochronology existed about 1200 BCE and could have caused migration from the north.
- ^ Weiss, Barry (1982). "The decline of Late Bronze Age civilization as a possible response to climatic change". Climatic Change. 4 (2): 173–198. doi:10.1007/bf00140587. ISSN 0165-0009.
- ^ Fagan, Brian M. (2003), "The Long Summer: How Climate Changed Civilization (Basic Books)
- ^ Grant, The Ancient Mediterranean, page 79.
- ^ a b Finley, page 58.
- ^ Drews 1995, p. 8-9.
Early publications[edit]
- De Rougé, E. (1867). EXTRAITS D'UN MÉMOIRE SUR LES ATTAQUES DIRIGÉES CONTRE L'ÉGYPTE PAR LES PEUPLES DE LA MÉDITERRANÉE VERS LE QUATORZIÈME SIÈCLE AVANT NOTRE ÈRE. Revue Archéologique, 16
- Chabas, François Joseph (1872). Études sur l'antiquité historique. Maisonneuve. pp. 299–.
Secondary sources[edit]
- Beckerath, Jürgen von (1997). Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten. Mainz. Mainz.
- Beckman, Gary, "Hittite Chronology", Akkadica, 119/120 (2000).
- Breasted, J.H. (1906). Ancient Records of Egypt: historical documents from the earliest times to the Persian conquest. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Volume II on the 19th Dynasty is available for download from Google Books.
- Bryce, Trevor (1998). The Kingdom of the Hittites. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-924010-4.
- Chadwick, John (1976). The Mycenaean World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-21077-1.
- D'Amato R., Salimbeti A. (2015). The Sea Peoples of the Mediterranean Bronze Age 1450–1100 BC. London: Osprey.
- Dothan, Trude & Moshe (1992). People of the Sea: The search for the Philistines. New York: Scribner.
- Dothan, Trude K. (1982). The Philistines and Their Material Culture. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.
- Drews, Robert (1995). The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe of ca. 1200 B.C. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-04811-8.
- Drews, Robert (1992), "Herodotus 1.94, the Drought ca. 1200 B.C., and the Origin of the Etruscans", Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Franz Steiner Verlag, 41: 14–39
- Finley, M.I. (1981). Early Greece:The Bronze and Archaic Ages:New and Revised Edition. New York, London: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-01569-6.
- Gardiner, Alan H. (1947). Ancient Egyptian Onomastica. London: Oxford University Press. 3 vols.
- Grant, Michael (1969). The Ancient Mediterranean. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
- Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell.
- Hasel, Michael G. (1998). Domination and Resistance: Egyptian Military Activity in the Southern Levant, ca. 1300–1185 B.C. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-10041-5.
- Killebrew, Ann E. (2013), "The Philistines and Other "Sea Peoples" in Text and Archaeology", Society of Biblical Literature Archaeology and biblical studies, Society of Biblical Lit, 15, ISBN 978-1-58983-721-8
- Kelder, Jorrit M. (2010). "The Egyptian Interest in Mycenaean Greece". Jaarbericht "Ex Oriente Lux" (JEOL). pp. 125–140.
- Kitchen, K.A. (2003). On the Reliability of the Old Testament. William B. Eerdsman Publishing Co.
- Manassa, Colleen (2003). The Great Karnak Inscription of Merneptah: Grand Strategy in the Thirteenth Century BC. New Haven: Yale Egyptological Seminar, Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, Yale University. ISBN 0-9740025-0-X.
- Mazar, Amihai (1992). Archaeology of the Land of the Bible: 10,000–586 B.C.E. Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-42590-2.
- O'Connor, David B.; Cline, Eric H. (2003). "The Mystery of the 'Sea Peoples'". In David B. O'Connor and Stephen Quirke. Mysterious Lands. Routledge. pp. 107–138. ISBN 978-1-84472-004-0.
- Oren, Eliezer D. (2000). The Sea Peoples and Their World: A Reassessment. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 1-934536-43-1.
- Chapter 16: Vagnetti, Lucia (2000), Western Mediterranean overview: Peninsular Italy, Sicily and Sardinia at the time of the Sea peoples
- Redford, Donald B. (1992). Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-03606-3.
- Sandars, N.K. (1987). The Sea Peoples: Warriors of the ancient Mediterranean, Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27387-1.
- Sherratt, Susan (1998), Seymour Gitin, Amichai Mazar, and Ephraim Stern, eds., ""Sea Peoples" and the economic structure of the late second millennium in the eastern Mediterranean", Mediterranean Peoples in Transition: Essays in Honor of Trude Dothan, Israel Exploration Society, pp. 292–313
- Silberman, Neil A. (1998), Seymour Gitin, Amichai Mazar, and Ephraim Stern, eds., "The Sea Peoples, the Victorians, and Us", Mediterranean Peoples in Transition: Essays in Honor of Trude Dothan, Israel Exploration Society, pp. 268–275
- Vermeule, Emily (1964). Greece in the Bronze Age. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.
- Wood, Michael (1987). In Search of the Trojan War. New American Library. ISBN 0-452-25960-6.
- Woudhuizen, Frederik Christiaan (1992). The Language of the Sea Peoples. Amsterdam: Najade Press. ISBN 90-73835-02-X.
- Woudhuizen, Frederik Christiaan. April 2006. The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples. Doctoral dissertation; Rotterdam: Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam, Faculteit der Wijsbegeerte.
- Zangger, Eberhard (2001). The Future of the Past: Archaeology in the 21st Century. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-64389-4.
External links[edit]
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sea Peoples.
- Philistine Kin Found in Early Israel, Adam Zertal, BAR 28:03, May/Jun 2002.
- The Sea Peoples and the Philistines: a course at Penn State
- Egyptians, Canaanites, and Philistines in the Period of the Emergence of Early Israel, paper by Itamar Singer at the UCLA Near Eastern Languages & Culture site
- "Who Were the Sea People?", article by Eberhard Zangger in Saudi Aramco World, Volume 46, Number 3, May/June 1995
- PlosOne dating the Sea People destruction of the Levant to 1192–90 BCE
- The Origins of the Sea Peoples, undergraduate paper by Joseph Morris published by Florida State University Classic Department
- The Sea Peoples and Annales: A Contextual Study of the Late Bronze Age, Master's Thesis of Daniel Jacobus Krüger, published at the University of South Africa site
- "The Battle of the Nile – Circa 1190 B.C.", article by I Cornelius in Military History Journal, Vol. 7., No. 4 of the South African Military History Society
- "The Greek Age of Bronze", Archaeological web site related to Greek Bronze Age and Sea Peoples weaponry and warfare


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The Rubberbandits' Blindboy Boat Club hooks up with Lecs Luther for a Lex's alter-ego Alfie Chapstick freestyle rap called 'Sally Skag':
Lecs features in State's Faces of 2012 while the Rubberbandits actually made five fake songs for me last month.
Check out the Nialler9 gig guide for Dublin - updated every Tuesday

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Fans, staff try to stay cool at Indianapolis Motor Speedway
The speedway is allowing fans to bring their own coolers this year.
The speedway is allowing fans to bring their own coolers this year.
The SUV driver lost control and collided head-on with a pickup truck westbound on County Road 300 North.
He was hallucinating by seeing persons who were not there and thinking that the persons were out to harm him.
Emergency workers could only reach the remote area in the Pisgah National Forest by foot.
Emergency crews searched for more than six hours after the girl was reported missing.
The presentation was made Saturday morning at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway.
A bounce house and face painting were also on hand at Saturday's event.
For many families, your cell phone costs is one of the most expensive bills.
The tree was previously damaged by winds in 2011, but stood defiantly strong for five more years.
Elianna was hospitalized in 2013 and 2014 for the same medical issue.


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Sunshine Week, this week's national observance of efforts to assert the public's right to know what its government is doing, brought a sunny news release from Gov. Scott Walker's office. It announced that Wisconsin's chief executive was issuing an executive order "to promote open and transparent government through the implementation of best practices and performance dashboards."
Translated from trendy business jargon to plain English, it seems the order essentially directs state agencies to respond to public records requests from citizens and the press in a timely and efficient manner.
That is what the law requires.
Wisconsin has laws mandating that government records be available to the public and government meetings be open to the public. Even so, the movement to keep government open to scrutiny is a work in progress, as the governor himself made clear last summer when he and Republican leaders of the Legislature attempted—in secret, of course—to severely weaken the open records law.
The attempt was abandoned in the face of a furious public response. Other moves to withhold records, including officials' emails, colored the Walker administration as hostile to transparent government.
The "Sunshine Week initiatives" referred to in the news release may be a PR initiative to change that image. If they are also a sincere effort to improve access to government records, the governor will deserve any public approval that comes from it.
One thing is certain about the so-called sunshine laws based on the public's right to know: Without them government officials would be less accountable to the people.
The appeal of managing public affairs without the aggravation of the public watching is difficult to resist, judging from the frequency with which it is attempted at all levels of government. Examples abound in the Obama administration, Congress, and state and local governments.
Public scrutiny, of course, makes government officials' jobs harder. The frustrating complaints, competing demands and tedious intrusions by citizens, not to mention pesky journalists, all interfere with the smooth execution of the business of government. And that is as it should be. Because government is not a business; it is not a well-oiled machine. Democratic government is a messy operation.
In the councils, boards and commissions of Ozaukee County, when conflicts with Wisconsin's open government laws occur they often take the form of misuse of exceptions to the open meetings law. The law allows closed meetings in narrowly defined instances involving government personnel and negotiating purchases or contracts. Whether through the intent of officials or faulty advice from ill-informed legal counsel, the exemptions are sometimes wrongly applied and matters that affect the public in important ways are settled behind closed doors.
Even when exceptions apply and closed meetings would be legal, officials who are weighing whether to close the doors should keep in mind that shutting out the public contributes to taxpayer cynicism and distrust of government.
In the City of Port Washington, no fewer than four issues are currently being dealt with by the Common Council in meetings from which the public is excluded. Three of them involve land owned by the public.
Citizens expect to hear and see their representatives debate issues vigorously, not to cast unanimous votes ratifying agreements made in private sessions. Disagreement among officials and divided votes in public forums are signs of a healthy democracy.
That's what the public wants to see on the government's "performance dashboard."
The words have become a mantra for the presidential primary season, repeated after each round of coarse utterances by Donald Trump.
Commit war crimes, hate immigrants, keep Muslims out of our country, Trump says. And aghast listeners say, "That's not who we Americans are."
True, millions of Americans have voted for Trump knowing what he has said and what he represents. Well, that's not who we are either.
Observers in other countries, according to foreign press reports, hear Trump's words and fear that America is morphing into his image—racially, ethnically and religiously intolerant, reckless and crude, devoid of empathy and mercy. No, that's not who we are.
There is evidence of who we really are right here in the heart of Ozaukee County. You can find it in a project in which hundreds of people from our communities are giving their hard work and their hard-earned dollars to help children of various races, ethnicities and religions, including the religion of Islam. The children they are helping have in common that they are hungry, many in danger of starving.
The project is to buy and pack food for 100,000 meals for children in countries where, for reasons that include famine, poverty and war, they do not have enough to eat. Under the aegis of Feed My Starving Children (FMSC), a Minnesota-based charity that devotes more than 90% of the money it raises to the cause of feeding children, the local effort is being led by volunteers from the three Port Washington-Saukville Catholic parishes.
The fundraising goal is $22,000, which is enough to buy food for the 100,000 meals. Doing the math is eye-opening. A meal for only 22 cents? That's possible because food scientists working with FMSC have devised a formula for a low-cost, dehydrated mix of rice, soy protein, vegetables and added vitamins and minerals that is at least as nutritious as a fast-food order of chicken nuggets an American child might consume.
Buying the food is step one. Step two—packing the meals six-to-a-bag—is where the hard work comes in. It will be done Friday and Saturday, April 8 and 9, at the Portal in Grafton. Scores of volunteers will work two-hour shifts.
The packed food will be shipped by the FMSC network of charitable agencies to countries as close as Mexico and Haiti and as distant as the likes of Liberia, Afghanistan and North Korea. FMSC meals have gone to more than 80 countries, where the nutrition-packed food has helped save the lives of countless children at risk of starvation.
The Ozaukee Feed My Starving Children effort needs more financial contributions and more people to sign up for packing the meals. To help, contact:
Pitching in for this cause does more than feed children. It says who we are.
They came, they saw and they fled. Or something like that.
A Michigan-based organization called the Geek Group discovered in its reconnaissance of federal documents that the Port Washington lighthouse was vulnerable and laid plans to capture it for unspecified research purposes.
Forces under the command of Port Washington Mayor Tom Mlada mounted a defense so formidable that the would-be lighthouse snatchers left the battlefield without launching so much as a paper missile.
That is one scenario to explain the surprising and welcome fact that the City of Port Washington has become the only applicant to take ownership of the lighthouse the National Park Service is in the process of divesting.
Whatever the explanation, the way has been cleared for the lighthouse to be transferred to its rightful owner, and on Sunday the mayor received word that the transfer has been tentatively approved.
In retrospect, the city's massive lighthouse campaign, involving reams of supporting letters, backing from numerous organizations and work by a task force of dozens of residents and community leaders organized by the mayor, may look like overkill, but it served its purpose in more ways than one. It not only showed that Port was willing to fight for its lighthouse, but marshaled enthusiasm in the community for the coming challenge of maintaining the structure.
Meeting that challenge will require private fundraising. There is every reason to believe that will be successful. The community has made it clear it values, perhaps more than anything else about the city, its place on the edge of Lake Michigan and everything that contributes to lake access.
The soon-to-start breakwater project, which will make the pier safer and more inviting for people to walk the half mile from shore to the lighthouse, and last summer's handsome and effective improvements in the walkway to the north beach, are of a piece with the lighthouse initiative—all successful city government efforts to enhance access to the water the public loves.
In that context, the implacable mindset of the mayor, aldermen and other city officials in their determination to sell public lakefront land for commercial development stands out like a burdock in a bouquet of spring flowers.
Large numbers of the citizens of Port Washington, including many of the same people who applaud the city's lakefront improvements, have made it clear in various ways that they oppose the plan to build the Blues Factory on what is now a public parking lot at the north marina slip, yet city officials persist in their divisive quest.
No amount of repetitive rhetoric in praise of economic development in the talking points disseminated from city hall changes the truth that filling the open space overlooking the marina with a monolithic construct of brick and mortar intended to look like a factory would be a setback for public lake access.
The refusal of officials to be moved by serious, well reasoned and well intentioned objections to the development plan has engendered a level of skepticism and, in some cases, outright hostility toward city leadership that has been rare in the community.
Beyond that, it has compromised long overdue comprehensive planning for the marina district. The recently released parking and traffic plan for the lakefront cannot be considered seriously before the fate of the north slip parking lot is known. Official assurances to the contrary, it does not effectively take into account the loss of the north slip parking places and the addition of new parking needs for hundreds of vehicles if the Blues Factory is built.
It is time for an elected official to break with the party line and lead the city out of this profoundly disagreeable situation. That could start by honoring the esteem with which the people of Port Washington hold their beautiful lakefront.


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Chromosome 20 trisomy
Other Names for this Disease
- Trisomy chromosome 20
- Trisomy 20
- Trisomy 20 mosaicism
- Mosaic trisomy 20
See Disclaimer regarding information on this site. Some links on this page may take you to organizations outside of the National Institutes of Health.
chromosome 20 in some or all of of his/her cells. An extra full copy of chromosome 20 in all of a person's cells is rare, and almost all fetuses with this do not survive past the first trimester of pregnancy.[1] The presence of an extra copy of only part of chromosome 20 is called partial trisomy 20; and an extra copy of chromosome 20 in only some of a person's cells is called mosaic trisomy 20. Mosaic trisomy 20 is the most common type of chromosome 20 trisomy and is one of the more common chromosomal abnormalities found during prenatal diagnostic testing. Studies have shown that the child is normal in the vast majority of prenatally diagnosed individuals. However, features that have been reported include spinal abnormalities (including spinal stenosis, vertebral fusion, and kyphosis), hypotonia (decreased muscle tone), lifelong constipation, sloped shoulders, and significant learning disabilities despite normal intelligence.[2] Trisomy 20 usually results from an error that occurs when an egg or sperm cell develops (before fertilization); mosaic trisomy 20 usually results from errors in cell division soon after fertilization.[3]Chromosome 20 trisomy, (also called trisomy 20) is a condition in which a fetus or individual has an extra full or partial copy of
Last updated: 11/27/2015
- Mavromatidis G, Dinas K, Delkos D, Vosnakis C, Mamopoulos A, Rousso D. Case of prenatally diagnosed non-mosaic trisomy 20 with minor abnormalities. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Reearch. August 2010; 36(4):866-868. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20666959. Accessed 11/27/2015.
- Willis MJ, Bird LM, Dell'Aquilla M, Jones MC. Expanding the phenotype of mosaic trisomy 20. American Journal of Medical Genetics. February 1, 2008; 146(3):330-336. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18203170. Accessed 11/27/2015.
- Chromosome abnormalities. March of Dimes. February 2013; http://www.marchofdimes.com/Baby/birthdefects_chromosomal.html. Accessed 11/27/2015.
GARD Video TutorialsLearn how to find information on treatment, research, specialists, and more.
Your Questions AnsweredView questions about this condition answered by GARD Information Specialists. You can also submit a new question.
On this page
Basic Information
- Genetics Home Reference (GHR) contains information on Chromosome 20 trisomy. This website is maintained by the National Library of Medicine.
In Depth Information
- The Monarch Initiative brings together data about this condition from humans and other species to help physicians and biomedical researchers. Monarch's tools are designed to make it easier to compare the signs and symptoms (phenotypes) of different diseases and discover common features. This initiative is a collaboration between several academic institutions across the world and is funded by the National Institutes of Health. Visit the website to explore the biology of this condition.
- PubMed is a searchable database of medical literature and lists journal articles that discuss Chromosome 20 trisomy. Click on the link to view a sample search on this topic.
Other Names for this Disease
- Trisomy chromosome 20
- Trisomy 20
- Trisomy 20 mosaicism
- Mosaic trisomy 20
See Disclaimer regarding information on this site. Some links on this page may take you to organizations outside of the National Institutes of Health.


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William Peace University Continues Lunch and Learn Series With Local Nonprofit The Green Chair Project on Feb. 12By William Peace University on February 7, 2014 3:12 pm
William Peace University Continues Lunch and Learn Series
With Local Nonprofit The Green Chair Project on Feb. 12
Co-Founder of Raleigh-Based Nonprofit Organization
To Speak At Local Four-Year Baccalaureate
RALEIGH, N.C., Feb. 7, 2014 – William Peace University (http://www.peace.edu), a private four-year university located in downtown Raleigh, has announced that the next installment of its 2013-2014 Lunch and Learn Series will feature The Green Chair Project. Founded in 2010 by Jackie Craig and Beth Smoot, the local nonprofit assists Wake County individuals and families that are transitioning from homelessness, disaster or crisis create well-equipped, sustainable homes by using donated furnishings from the community. The event will be held on Wednesday, Feb. 12, 2014 from noon to 1:30 p.m. in the Main Parlor building on campus. Craig, who is also Executive Director of the organization, will share its mission of "reusing furnishings, renewing lives."
Throughout the academic year, the William Peace University Lunch and Learn Series features presentations from both resident and visiting faculty, as well as guest researchers, lecturers, and experts from across multiple majors, topics, and industries. Students, faculty, staff, alumni and the greater Raleigh community are welcome to attend. Tickets cost $10 for adults and $5 for students. For more details on the event and to purchase tickets, click here.
"We are honored to have The Green Chair Project for February's session of the Lunch and Learn series," said Debra M. Townsley, Ph.D., president of William Peace University. "Jackie and Beth have created an organization that is truly impactful in helping our community and the people within it. Our students, faculty, staff, and the public have a great opportunity to learn about their cause."
For more information on The Green Chair Project, click here.


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#27 - ihatecarltonbanks
Reply +4(09/01/2013) [-]
really? did NO ONE see the cheeta at the end chasing all of them?!
#29 to #27 - cocainecowboy
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holy **** thank you for pointing that out.


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Published on
National Storytelling Network. (1997). What is Storytelling? Eldrbarry. Retrieved from http://www.eldrbarry.net/roos/st_defn.htm
Rothenberg, R., and Hughes, M. (2011). You Have All the Tools You Need to Build Better Brand Stories. AdAge Blogs. Retrieved from http://adage.com/article/guest-columnists/storytelling-apple-google-chevy-led-success/229814/
Herskovitz, S., & Malcolm, C. (2010). The essential brand persona: Storytelling and branding. The Journal of Business Strategy, 31(3), 21-28. doi:10.1108/02756661011036673
Herskovitz, S., & Malcolm, C. (2010). The essential brand persona: Storytelling and branding. The Journal of Business Strategy, 31(3), 21-28. doi:10.1108/02756661011036673
C., Bonnie. (2012). Using Elements of Creative Storytelling in Marketing. Swipely. Retrieved from http://blog.swipelyworks.com/small-business-marketing-solutions/using-elements-of-creative-storytelling-in-marketing
Brown, S., Kozinets, R. V., and Sherry, J. F. (2003). Teaching Old Brands New Tricks:
Retro Branding and the Revival of Brand Meaning. Journal of Marketing, 67, 19-33.
Simply Zesty. (2011). Social media has evolved into the art of storytelling, and we must all become masters of it. Simply Zesty. Retrieved from http://www.simplyzesty.com/social-media/social-media-has-evolved-into-the-art-of-storytelling-and-we-must-all-become-masters-of-it/
Blonde, A. (2011). Storytelling Drives Social Media Marketing: The Formula. All Things WOM. Retrieved from http://allthings.womma.org/tag/storytelling/
Wasserman, T (2011). How Old Spice Revived a Campaign that No One Wanted to Touch. Mashable Social Media. Retrieved from http://mashable.com/2011/11/01/old-spice-campaign/
Cheddar, C (2012). #McFail? McDonald's Twitter campaign gets hijacked. USA Today. Retrieved from http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/food/story/2012-01-28/cnbc-mcdonalds-twitter-backfire/52824472/1


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NYPD do: Officers stage traffic stop for marriage proposal
New York City police officers staged a phony traffic stop for a man who wanted an unusual setting for his marriage proposal
Trump Is Starting To Agree With Calls To 'Lock Up' Clinton Over Emails
At a Colorado rally, Donald Trump said he was tired of playing "Mr. Nice Guy."
Top 10 Dwayne Johnson Performances
He went from the ring to the silver screen. Join http://www.WatchMojo.com as we count down our picks for the Top 10 Dwayne Johnson Performances.
Man Pulled Over with 2,000 Pounds of Rice in Minivan
A man in the UK was pulled over when his van looked like it was overweight. It was, it was full with close to a ton of rice. Patrick Jones (@Patrick_E_Jones) explains.
JoJo Will Release Her First Album Since You Were In Middle School
The singer released a new single titled "F*** Apologies," featuring Wiz Khalifa, to tease her album "Mad Love," which drops Oct. 14.
Candace Cameron Talks About Backlash She Receives For Being A Conservative
Candice Cameron Burre opens up about being on 'The View' during an election year, and the backlash the conservative TV host often receives. Candace says she takes everything one day at a time.
Stein On Clinton's 'Stunning Ignorance' About Wall Street
Author slams the Democratic nominee's 'amazing hypocrisy' over corporations.
Co-founder of Autism Speaks, Suzanne Wright, dies at 69
A co-founder of the advocacy group Autism Speaks has died after helping build it into one of the leading voices for people with the developmental disorder
Wade excited to join hometown Bulls
Dwyane Wade says it's a dream come true to be able to join his hometown Chicago Bulls, and he is looking forward to playing with Rajon Rondo and Jimmy Butler
The Angels try out their best Big Papi impersonations
Red Sox star David Ortiz is in the midst of his farewell tour, and the Angles found an interesting way to honor him.
Governor: 4 Zika cases likely came from Florida mosquitoes
Florida's governor says the state likely has the first cases of Zika transmitted by mosquitoes on the U.S. mainland
US-banned genetically modified wheat is found in Washington
Federal authorities say genetically modified wheat that's banned for sale or production in the United States has been found growing in a field in Washington state
What's troubling athletes arriving in Rio? No 'Pokemon Go'
As though Zika threats and polluted waters aren't giving Olympic athletes and visitors enough to worry about, they are arriving in Rio to discover ... they can't play "Pokemon Go." The game has spread like wildfire, but it isn't available in Brazil yet
No criminal violations found during 38 Studios investigation
An investigation into former Red Sox pitcher Curt Schilling's failed video game company, 38 Studios, has resulted in no criminal violations
The Latest: Chicago officer sues after firing recommendation
A Chicago police officer is suing the agency that investigates police misconduct after it recommended his firing over excessive force complaints


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Matt Damon and Jimmy Kimmel Go to Couples Therapy Again. Does It Work This Time?
- 03:22 PM, Jul 26
So You Think You Can Dance Celebrates Its 200th Episode
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transmission oil in the coolant
coolant oil leak on 1990 BMW 750iL
Get Your Car Fixed at a RepairPal Certified Shop.
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The 750 has a transmission oil cooler mounted in the radiator. Engine coolant is used to take heat away from the transmission oil. It is the most likely place foe transmission fluid and coolant to mix. Continuing to drive the car will destroy the transmission and damage the cooling system hoses.


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Fenis Vacation Packages
Fenis is within easy reach of a diverse collection of Valle d'Aosta's more popular attractions. Two attractions that should be on every visitor's list is the fascinating Chantorne Ski Lift and the iconic Col Fenetre Ski Lift. Also worth checking out are the Collet Ski Lift and the Torgnon Ski Resort.
If you enjoy souvenir and fashion shopping, amble through the many stores at the Les Corbeilles Shopping Centre in Pollein.
Head to the mountains around Valle d'Aosta and enjoy the various wintersports at the Lago di Lod Ski Lift in Chamois and the Buisson Chamois Cable Car in Antey-Saint-Andre.
To make sure you get the most out of this fascinating part of the world, think about booking a room close by in one of the area's many accommodation options. Take your pick from the Best Western Plus Hotel Alla Posta, Saint-Vincent, the Express Hotel Aosta East, Pollein, or the Parc Hotel Billia, Saint-Vincent.


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Uruguay is known as a small country with a big heart! Uruguay is full of culture and has an active atmosphere. If you love nightlife, music and dancing, this place has great attractions. You'll find a wealth of attractions such as casinos, discos and shows, and there's no last call to worry about. Uruguay is a land of adventure: surfers love the Atlantic waves, and there are many hiking trails for the nature lover, and festivals for culture vultures to throw themselves into. The capital city of Montevideo is a great base and day trips can take you anywhere from here. Many visitors enjoy places like Lobo Island for the sea life and the beautiful Casa Pueblo museum.
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text: hudson Carrie Haddad Gallery In Hudson, NY Celebrates 25 Years By Joe Donahue • May 26, 2016 Listen Listening... / 12:19 Carrie Haddad was the first art gallery to open back in 1991 on Warren St. in Hudson NY. She has been a pivotal resource for assisting other galleries to follow suit, helping to the economy of the city to bring more people to town as well as giving exposure to local artists who would otherwise have no venue. Twenty-five years later, approximately 100 represented artists work in mediums including painting, sculpture, photography and mixed media and are featured in 7 annual exhibits. 2016 Hudson Children's Book Festival By Joe Donahue • May 4, 2016 Listen Listening... / 11:54 The Hudson Children's Book Festival, established in 2009, strives to create, sustain, and nurture a culture of literacy in partnership with our community and schools. The event is free and open to the public and this year's festival – the 8th annual – is this Saturday from 10 a.m. to 3 p.m. at the Jr./Sr. High on Harry Howard Ave. in Hudson, New York. Here to tell us more are Jennifer Clark, Co-Director, Hudson Children's Book Festival and children's book authors, Mark Teague and James Preller. Madalyn Parnas Performs Twice In Our Region This Weekend By Alan Chartock • Mar 31, 2016 Listen Listening... / 10:48 Violin Virtuoso Madalyn Parnas will be in our region this weekend for two performances. She'll appear at the Hudson Opera House this Saturday April 2nd at 7pm and, as a Berkshire Music School alum, she'll be giving the headline performance at the Colonial Theater in Pittsfield this Sunday, April 3rd at 4pm for the Berkshire Music School's 75th Anniversary Gala. 'Turning 15 On The Road To Freedom' Performance In Hudson By Joe Donahue • Feb 11, 2016 Listen Listening... / 44:47 Ally Sheedy, a highly accomplished actress perhaps best known for her roles in The Breakfast Club, War Games and Short Circuit, is directing an amazing one-woman performance based on the 2015 award winning memoir, Turning 15 on the Road to Freedom: My Story of the 1965 Selma Voting Rights March by Lynda Blackmon Lowery. The performance will take place at 3:00 p.m. on Saturday, February 13th at M.C. Smith Intermediate School in Hudson, NY. It will feature the Hudson High School Choir, who will open the event by performing songs from the Civil Rights era. The story recounts the experiences of a young Lowery growing up in Selma, Alabama during the height of the Civil Rights Movement. Lowery was jailed nine times before her 15th birthday as a result of her participation in marches for voting rights. The show stars actress Damaras Obi. Damaras and Ally Sheedy join us in studio this morning and Lynda Blackmon Lowery joins us via phone from NYC. Assemblywoman Didi Barrett To Seek Re-election By Hank Gross • Jan 16, 2016 Courtesy of Didi Barrett Listen Listening... / 0:37 Assemblywoman Didi Barrett (D-Hudson), who had toyed with running for the 19th District congressional seat in the fall election, announced Friday she will instead seek another term in the state legislature. Helsinki On Broadway Presents Heather MacRae's "Songs For My Father" By Joe Donahue • Oct 2, 2015 Listen Listening... / 9:15 Star of the original company of Hair, Falsettos, Merrily We Roll Along and A Catered Affair, Broadway veteran Heather MacRae brings her award winning tribute to her iconic film star father, Gordon MacRae in Songs for My Father at Helsinki on Broadway @ Helsinki Hudson on October 11th. Basilica SoundScape 2015 By Joe Donahue • Sep 4, 2015 Listen Listening... / 16:02 For the fourth straight year, Basilica Hudson' s Founders and Creative Directors Melissa Auf der Maur and Tony Stone are working in collaboration with Pitchfork Managing Editor Brandon Stosuy and Brian DeRan of Leg Up Management to program Basilica SoundScape. Basilica SoundScape is a carefully curated weekend that's been called "the antifestival" for offering of a thoughtful mix of music, visual art, and literature. SoundScape runs from September 11th through 13th at Basilica Hudson. Melissa Auf der Maur and Brandon Stosuy join us this morning to tell us more. In addition to his work on Basilica SoundScape - is Managing Editor at Pitchfork, a Music Curator for MoMA/PS1. Basilica SoundScape 2014 By Joe Donahue • Sep 10, 2014 Matt Charland Listen Listening... / 18:38 Basilica SoundScape is a three-day festival of sound, sight and taste in Hudson, NY this weekend. It is a curated program featuring a wide range of music, visual art, and literature that aims for specific connections and overlaps. The musical menu includes Michael Chapman, Julia Holter, Endless Boogie, Deafheaven, White Lung, Majical Cloudz, solo sets from Richard Reed Parry of Arcade Fire playing material from his upcoming solo album, and the Swans doing a planned two-hour set. Hudson Holiday: 17th Annual Winter Walk By Dave Lucas • Dec 6, 2013 On Saturday, the Hudson Opera House plays host to the 17th annual Winter Walk, a signature event of the holiday season in the Catskills. It's a night known for its quirky take on the holidays and for the diversity of entertainment provided. Gillian Jagger - And Then, And Now: New Work From The Cave At The John Davis Gallery By Joe Donahue • Oct 10, 2013 Listen Listening... / 22:21 Artist Gillian Jagger has shown work continuously since 1956 in New York City at major galleries. Jagger is Professor Emeritus at the Graduate School, Pratt Institute, New York and had received many grants and awards include a Guggenheim Memorial Fellowship, Nancy Graves Foundation Grant, International Art Critics Foundation, and Louis Comfort Tiffany Foundation Grant. In summer 2012, she was selected for an award from the Henry Moore Foundation in London. Her new work, And Then, And Now: New Work from the Cave will be on display at The John Davis Gallery in Hudson, NY October 12th through November 3rd. Lydia Davis By Joe Donahue • Oct 4, 2013 Listen Listening... / 32:07 Lydia Davis, winner of the 2013 Man Booker International Prize, has been called "one of the quiet giants . . . of American fiction" by the Los Angeles Times Book Review, "an American virtuoso of the short story form" by Salon, and "one of the best writers in America" by O Magazine. She is renowned in literary circles for perfecting the craft of the "extremely short short story," and is beginning to enjoy a much wider readership. Novelist Dave Eggers has said that Davis's work, "blows the roof off of so many of our assumptions about what constitutes short fiction." Her most recent book is The Collected Stories, a compilation of pieces from four previously published volumes. The ArtsWalk Literary Arts Festival takes place at the Hudson Opera House in Hudson this weekend. Lydia Davis will be reading with writer James Lasdun from 3:30 to 5 PM tomorrow. Food Truck 411 By Joe Donahue • Jun 28, 2013 Listen Listening... / Food Truck 411: The Essential Information To Run A Successful Food Truck, is a new book written by Brian Branigan, owner and operator of Tortillaville, a popular Mexican fare food truck, located in Hudson, NY. Food Truck 411 is a week-in-the-life, a photo book, a cook book, and a food truck operators vantage point of life-inside the box. It is written with the intent to assist the budding food truck entrepreneur, although, anyone intrigued with the modern-day food truck trend, is certain to take interest as well. 2013 Solid Sound Festival - Jason Middlebrook and Susan Cross By Joe Donahue & Alan Chartock • Jun 21, 2013 Karen Pearson/Mass MoCA Listen Listening... / 12:54 One of the MASS MoCA's current exhibitions is Jason Middlebrook: My Landscape. The pieces contained include new works from Jason's series of painted hardwood planks begun in 2008 and will debut an awe-inspiring, hanging mobile that functions like a fountain within the gallery. Basilica Hudson: Season #3 Opening By Dave Lucas • May 3, 2013 Basilica Hudson The Basilica Hudson, part of a citywide renaissance that has taken hold in recent years, is kicking off its third season . Artist-owned and operated since 2010, Basilica Hudson is a reclaimed 19th century factory converted into an art, performance, production and event space located next to the Amtrak station on the town of Hudson's waterfront. Creative Director Melissa Auf der Maur, known best for her days in the alternative rock bands Hole and the Smashing Pumpkins, says Basilica is gearing up for a new and busier season than ever. Ferry Service Resumes On Hudson By Dave Lucas • May 25, 2012 Hudson Cruises It's been decades since people could travel between two Hudson Valley communities without a car. Hudson Valley Bureau Chief Dave Lucas reports that ferry service between Greene and Columbia counties resumes this summer… Hudson Cruises owner Captain Guy Falkenheimer says the Hudson-Athens ferry is back on the river and full operations are expected to begin in June. The first ferry service between Hudson and Athens launched in 1778 - The last "official" ferry to sail the 11-mile one-way trip was in 1947. Crews Start Dredging PCBs from Upper Hudson By Dave Lucas • May 10, 2012 A third year of dredging for PCBs has begun on the upper Hudson River. The Environmental Protection Agency says dredging started for the season Wednesday. WAMC's Dave Lucas has more… General Electric Co. plans to start with a single dredge about 40 miles north of Albany and ramp up work over the next few weeks. Three to four dredges will eventually be operating all day, six days a week along a two-mile stretch of river south of Fort Edward.