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Archive for 'January 17th, 2013'
What's it like to be a wine judge?
Anyone can rate a glass of wine or two, but more than 600? The author discovers there are some tips to the sips. Editor's note: This year's American Fine Wine Competition judging took place in late [...]
Food & Dining
- New Saturday brunch at Boca bakeryThe Sicilian family-owned backery Cosa Duci offers bites to-go.
- Top chicken wings in South FloridaIt figures that National Chicken Wing Day got its start in Buffalo, N.Y. After all, that's where the most popular wing preparation got its start at Teressa Bellissimo's Anchor Bar. In 1964, Bellissimo's tossed them in butter and hot sauce and the rest, as they say, is chicken wing history. It's...
The Go Guide
- One of the oldest gay clubs in Fort Lauderdale is still going strongRamrod provides a haven for the leather-fetish community.
- Davie dessert shop specializes in Taiwanese treatSweet Tooth serves authentic shaved ice, AKA snow cream.
Shopping & Beauty
- Where to get free eats and hot deals for National Chicken Wing DayIt's National Chicken Wing Day on Friday and restaurants are offering hot deals to celebrate. No coupons are necessary. Buffalo Wild Wings: Half-priced wings on Friday when dining in at participating locations. East Coast Wings: Buy wings on Friday and get a coupon good for five free wings redeemable...
- Free tickets to tour Hoffman's Chocolate Factory with back-to-school donationWillie Wonka would be proud. Hoffman's Chocolates is offering two free tickets to tour its Palm Beach County chocolate factory with donation of a backpack to benefit South Florida children in need. Make donations at stores in Greenacres, Lake Worth, Palm Beach Gardens, Fort Lauderdale, Hollywood,...
Rod Hagwood
- Fashion porn: Miami Heat Dancers post new posterWearing a variety of racy red bikinis (where else could that happen but in SoFlo in the winter?), the Miami Heat Dancers have launched their poster. Heat-ster fans will get to see the haute-hot poster at tonight's game against the Toronto Raptors.
- Fashion porn: Behind the scenes at Parke & Ronen's Miami photo shootHere are some behind-the-scenes photos from swimwear brand Parke & Ronen's latest photo shoot in Miami (Wynwood, Midtown, the Design District and several beaches) for their 2016 Resort Collection. Founded in 1997 by Parke Lutter and Ronen Jehezkel, the label has estavlished itself as a fashion...
Sun Sentinel Breaking News
- First medical marijuana dispensary to open in FloridaThe first medical marijuana dispensary in Florida is slated to open. Trulieve, the approved organization in northwest Florida, is set to open a dispensary in Tallahassee on Tuesday, one week after being given dispensing authorization by Florida's health department. The state's Office of Compassionate...
- Where to get free eats and hot deals for National Chicken Wing DayIt's National Chicken Wing Day on Friday and restaurants are offering hot deals to celebrate. No coupons are necessary. Buffalo Wild Wings: Half-priced wings on Friday when dining in at participating locations. East Coast Wings: Buy wings on Friday and get a coupon good for five free wings redeemable...
- History and hostility as Hillary Clinton ascends to historic nominationA glass ceiling is shattering at the Democratic National Convention as Hillary Clinton ascends to the presidential nomination with Tuesday's roll call of the states, making her the first woman to lead a major party into a White House race. But as history is being made, hostility is being heard,...
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This stylish Charging Dock from iGrip allows you to dock your BlackBerry Torch safely and securely while driving. It can be mounted either on the windshield or dashboard for convenient, handsfree utilization. The mount itself is vibration free, easy to install and remove, and even offers pass-through charging by simply docking your device. (Car charger sold separately).
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Colombia Steers Away from U.S. Plan to Kill Coca
The Colombian government reportedly has had it with the Bush administration's coca fumigation program.
Coca hasn't been cut back, and cocaine trafficking continues unabated. The punitive approach also has driven poor farmers to grow more coca and to help the guerrillas.
The government says manual eradication is far less venomous, and it is moving in that direction, quietly.
Related NPR Stories
Cocaine Prices Have Fallen Steeply Since 1980s May 15, 2007
Bush Visits Colombia in Latin American Tour March 11, 2007
Colombian Rebels Indicted by U.S. on Drug Charges March 23, 2006
Bolivia Promotes Market for 'Legal' Coca Products Feb. 9, 2006
Mixed Results from Anti-Coca 'Plan Colombia' Dec. 20, 2005
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THE recent research efforts on transportation management have pointed to a paradigm shift in intelligent transportation systems (ITS), where advanced communications technologies are integrated into transportation infrastructure and vehicles. At the heart of ITS, the vehicular ad hoc networks (VANET)have found a wide range of applications including safety and mobility enhancement, data downloading for entertainment, mobile advertising, security and privacy provisioning, and energy consumption control for hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) EVs [3], [7], [28].
The VANET presents a very complex cyber-physical system (CPS)with intricate interplay between the physical domain and the cyber domain. On one side, the complicated physical domain of VANET incurs many challenging issues to the cyber domain. For example, different transportation infrastructures, e.g., those in urban and country areas, require different road side unit (RSU)deployment strategy for optimal VNS performance. Frequent broadcast of safety messages from a vehicle along the road may leak the travelling route of a vehicle, which could be a privacy issue. On the other side, the design of control algorithms and networking protocols in the cyber domain significantly impact the performance in the physical domain. For example, the network congestion conditions determine whether certain safety messages could be timely delivered to other vehicles. The lack of a good security solution or a stimulation scheme will discourage vehicles to collaborate with each other for safety-related or entertainment-related applications.
This paper focuses on the security aspect of the vehicular cyber-physical system. Security and privacy are crucial for VANETs [3]. In a VANET safety application, each vehicle periodically broadcasts its geographic information (which can be obtained from a global positioning system (GPS)receiver)say, every 300 ms, including its current position, direction and velocity, as well as road information [2]. In order to provide secure functionality of authentication, integrity, and non-repudiation, every message sent by vehicles needs to have a digital signature [4]. Verifying the signatures of the received messages will incur a significant computation overhead. Furthermore, vehicles have to change their signing keys periodically [2] or employ computational expensive techniques, such as short group signature [5], for the sake of privacy provisioning. Both methods will further increase vehicles' computation load for message verification. When the density of vehicles is high [6], [7], the computation overhead may become intolerable for the on board unit (OBU)installed on a vehicle.
Cooperative message authentication is a promising technique to alleviate vehicles' computation overhead for message verification. In [8], vehicles verify messages in a cooperative manner, employing a probabilistic verification protocol (PVP). However, in order to guarantee cooperation efficiency, vehicles have to verify at least 25 messages within 300 ms, which is still a heavy computation burden. Our work in [7] studies how to properly select verifiers to further reduce the computation overhead in cooperative authentication, considering the hidden-terminal impact. However, both [7] and [8] focus only on one-dimensional (1-D)high way scenario.
In this paper, we present a cooperative message authentication protocol (CMAP)for a general two-dimensional (2-D) city road scenario with an assumption that each safety message carries the location information of the sending vehicle. Verifiers of each message are defined according to their locations relative to the sender. Only the selected verifiers check the validity of the message, while those non-verifier vehicles rely on verification results from those verifiers. A brand new research issue with CMAP is how to select verifiers in the city road scenario. Our previous work [7] studies CMAP for the 1-D highway scenario. However, the CMAP in the 1-D scenario cannot be directly implemented to the 2-D city road scenario [9]. For example, on the highway, if we ignore collisions and packet loss in the wireless channel, two verifiers (one verifier in front of the sending vehicle and one verifier behind the sending vehicle) are enough to inform all the non-verifiers when invalid messages are identified. Obviously, this is not true in the city road case. In this paper, we propose three verifier selection algorithms, i.e., n-nearest method, most-even distributed method, and the compound method for the CMAP. We present both theoretical and simulation studies to examine the performance of the CMAP, in comparison to the PVP [8]. Specifically, this paper has three main contributions as follows.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section IIreviews more related work. Section III describes the system model. Section IV presents the detailed protocol design and discusses the verifier selection algorithms. Simulation results are presented in Section VI. Section VII gives the concluding remarks.
There have been many studies on how to protect the location privacy of a vehicle in a VANET, where each vehicle needs to periodically broadcast safety messages. A natural idea is using pseudonyms [32], where a vehicle can update its pseudonym after each transmission to break the linkability between its locations. The pseudonym scheme can be further enhanced with the techniques of mix zone [16] and silent period [17] to fully break the linkage between previous and current pseudonyms. The AMOEBA scheme [3] protects the location privacy of vehicles with a group-based technique. The messages of all group members are forwarded by the group leader. However, the group leader has to sacrifice its location privacy. Even worse, when a malicious vehicle is selected as the group leader, privacy of the whole group is under threat.
An anonymous signing protocol is proposed in [2] to provision security functions of authentication, integrity and nonrepudiation, in addition to the location privacy in VANET. In this protocol, each vehicle keeps a large number of certificated anonymous public and private key pairs. A key pair is assigned to only one user and will be discarded after a short period of time. One disadvantage of this scheme is that each vehicle has to store a large number of pseudonyms and certifications, so that a revocation for abrogating malicious vehicles is very difficult.
The group signature [18] is a promising technique to provision both privacy and authentication. The group signature has the magic property that the signatures from different group members can be verified with the same group public key, so that the exact identities within the group are protected. A vehicular communication framework based on group signature is proposed in [19]. The work in [20] systematically discusses the implementation of group signature protocol in VANETs. The group signature is integrated with the pseudonym scheme in [21] to avoid storing pseudonyms and certifications in vehicles. While most of the existing studies on group signature rely on a centralized key management scheme, our previous study in [7] develops a distributed key management framework based on group signature to provision privacy in VANET. The framework is equipped with techniques to detect compromised road side units and their colluding malicious vehicles.
In a VANET safety application, it is critically important to design protocols with small computation overhead for timely and reliable message processing. The work in [10] shows that the TESLA technique, which is a hash function based protocol, can be applied in VANET for an authentication protocol with small computation overhead. However, TESLA does not have the property of non-repudiation. An aggregate signature and certificates verification scheme is proposed in [11], which is particularly efficient when the density of vehicles is high. Zhang et al. developed an infrastructure-aided message authentication protocol which requires infrastructures to cover all the area because they have to be involved in the authentication [12].
A promising thread of techniques to reduce the computation overhead in authentication is cooperative authentication. Through cooperative verification, the number of messages to be authenticated by each vehicle will be reduced considerably. Our cooperative message authentication protocol (CMAP)in [7] indicates that purely random selection of verifiers cannot lead to the best performance of cooperative authentication, due to the impact of hidden terminals, and proposes a verifier selection approach to improve performance. However, the work in [7] only considers the 1-dimension highway scenario. In [29], we extend the CMAP to a practical two-dimensional city road scenario. An important open issue with the existing cooperative authentication is the lack of analytical model. Although there are a few analytical studies on message broadcasting in VANET [27], [30], [31], none of them can be directly applied to analyze the cooperative authentication protocols. In this paper, we develop analytical models for the proposed CMAP and the existing PVP protocols, taking into account the hidden terminal problem.
VANETs can be established based on different networking protocols such as cellular networks, IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX), and IEEE 802.11 [22], [23]. Cellular and WiMAX networks relies on the availability of base station, which is expensive and might not be available in underdeveloped areas. The IEEE 802.11 based network can support both base station to vehicle communication and vehicle to vehicle ad hoc communication, so it is considered as the mainstream protocol for VANETs [8], [12], [24], [25], [26], [27]. In this paper, we also focus on the IEEE 802.11 based VANETs.
As shown in Fig. 1, the entities in VANETs can be classified into three categories: the authority, road side infrastructures and vehicles.
The authority generates all the keys and is responsible for the system maintenance.
Road side infrastructures (RSI) are wireless infrastructures that are deployed at the road sides. Traffic lights or road signs can serve as RSI after renovation. Note that, in the VANETs, especially at the early stage, RSI may not be available in some areas.
Vehicles are equipped with on board units which are in charge of all communication and computation tasks and GPS receivers [13]utilizing DGPS technology [14] with an accuracy on the order of one meter. As shown in Fig. 1, before vehicles join the VANETs, they have to register to the authority and then preload signing keys and credentials off-line from the authority. In our protocol, we employ the short group signature [7], [20] as the signing protocol for vehicles. In the real application, vehicles may choose the anonymous signing protocol [2] or other protocols instead of the group signature protocol. But the essence is the same. The verification time for short group signature is 11 ms with a 3 GHz Pentium IV system [7] and all the safety messages must be verified within 100 ms after they are sent out.
Vehicles communicate with each other through radio over the IEEE 802.11p on 5.9 GHz [15]. Among all seven communication channels in the IEEE 802.11p, there is one accident avoidance channel for safety message broadcasting. All vehicles broadcast their geographic information periodically in the accident avoidance channel with the same communication range, e.g., 300 meters. Moreover, warning messages induced by the cooperation are also transmitted in this channel.
We assume that the overwhelming majority of vehicles are honest which is reasonable in the civilian use system. Moreover, "good" vehicles are willing to cooperate with each other. In our protocol, there are also some malicious vehicles who always broadcast invalid messages. Meanwhile, they never share their verification results with others.
Before discussing the details of the protocol, we would like to demonstrate two concepts. If a vehicle would like to cheat others, it will send false messages. The false message means that the content of the message is wrong, but the sender's signature may be valid. For example, a vehicle may claim a traffic jam somewhere; however in fact no traffic jam happens there. With a valid signature attached in the message, the authority can track the cheating vehicle. The other phrase we will use in the cooperative message authentication is invalid message. An invalid message is a message that cannot pass the signature verification. In such a case, even the authority cannot find the signer of an invalid message. So, we must filter all the invalid messages.
In this section, we will discuss cooperative message authentication protocol for the city road scenario in details. The work flow of CMAP will be presented followed by three verifier selection algorithms that are tailored for the city road scenario.
In the CMAP, each vehicle sends periodically broadcasted messages (PBM)which include its current geographic information every 300 ms. When its neighboring vehicles receive the PBM, they will decide whether they are verifiers of this message in a distributed manner according to the verifier selection protocol. If a vehicle is the verifier of the message, it will start to verify the message by itself. Non-verifiers will wait for cooperative warning messages (CWM)from verifiers. Once an invalid message is identified, verifiers will broadcast a one hop warning message to others. Otherwise, verifiers will keep silent. When a non-verifier receives a CWM from other vehicles, it will double check the corresponding PBM. The reason for such double-check is to prevent a valid PBM from being discarded in case bad vehicles can send malicious CWMs. Non-verifiers will consume the message if it does not receive any CWM from others within 100 ms. In Fig. 2, the solid circle is the communication range of the sender and the dotted circle is the communication range of a verifier. We define the shaded area as the coverage area of the verifier. All non-verifiers in the coverage area of the verifier can be informed by it when the sender broadcasts invalid messages.
Vehicles cooperate with each other according to the process flow chart illustrated in Fig. 3. The procedure has been discussed in our previous work [7]. However, for the purpose of completeness, we still give a brief introduction in this paper.
Basically, the cooperative authentication mechanism is composed of several components including a verifier selection process, a cooperative authentication process, a neighbor vehicle list, a process queue and a message storage buffer. The verifier selection process determines whether the vehicle is a verifier of a received PBM according to the verifier selection algorithm and vehicles' location information. Meanwhile, it maintains the neighbor vehicle list and the process queue. The cooperative authentication process controls message authentication and cooperation among vehicles. In other words, the verifier selection process inserts the selected PBM into the process queue while the cooperative authentication process clears it up. The neighborhood list contains neighbor vehicles' geographic information. Messages that are not processed will be stored in the message storage buffer.
As shown in Fig. 3, upon receiving a PBM, a vehicle extracts the geographic information from the message and updates its neighbor vehicle list accordingly. It then decides whether it should be a verifier according to the verifier selection algorithm based on the location of its own, the locations of its neighbors and the sender of the received PBM. If the vehicle decides to be a verifier and the PBM can be processed in time (within the verification period (e.g., 100 ms) which is shorter than the broadcast period), it will insert the message to the process queue and verify this message once it reaches the queue front. Being a verifier, if the vehicle finds that the PBM is an invalid message (i.e., the sender is a malicious vehicle), it will inform its neighbors by broadcasting a cooperative warning message (CWM). Otherwise, the message is valid; hence it will be accepted by the verifier and no CWM will be generated. If the vehicle is not a verifier for the received PBM or cannot process the PBM in time, it will hold the PBM in its message storage buffer for one verification period. If there is no CWM related to this PBM received during the verification period, the vehicle will accept the PBM and delete it from the storage buffer. When a CWM is received and the corresponding PBM is found in the buffer, the vehicle will delete the PBM from the buffer and insert the PBM to the front of the process queue and verify it.1 If this PBM is valid, it will be accepted; otherwise, the vehicle will discard the message without sending any CWM.
In conventional non-cooperative message authentication protocols, each vehicle verifies all its received PBMs sent from its neighbors. In our CMAP, with the help of verifiers, each vehicle only needs to verify a very small amount of PBMs. In the CMAP, the shorter the CWM is, the smaller the communication overhead resulted from cooperation among vehicles will be. The payload of CWM can be the hash value of the invalid PBM or the timestamp included in the PBM.
Different from the 1-D highway scenario, when vehicles travel on the 2-D city road, it is more difficult for verifiers to inform all the non-verifiers of a certain message. Without an elegant design, the missed detection ratio of invalid messages may be very high. In this section, three verifier selection algorithms, i.e., n-nearest method, most-even distributed method and the compound method are proposed.
As illustrated in Fig. 4, the vehicle at the center of the circle is the sender. The circle represents the communication range of the sender. In the figure, there are totally 15 vehicles located in the communication range of the sending vehicle. When the sender broadcasts a message, each vehicle decides whether to be a verifier of the message in a fully distributed manner and verifies the message in a cooperative way to save computation resources. We need to emphasize that the CMAP will be activated only when the density of vehicles reaches a threshold. Otherwise the message-by-message verification is preferred. Details about the authentication mode switch mechanism will be discussed later. We draw 15 neighboring vehicles in Fig. 4 just to illustrate verifier selection methods. In the real application, more neighboring vehicles may be needed to trigger the CMAP.
Selecting n nearest vehicles is the simplest way to define verifiers. Consider an arbitrary vehicle within the sender's communication range. As shown in Fig. 4, when the vehicle receives the sender's message, it calculates the distance between itself and the sender and the distances between the sender and all the neighbors of the vehicle and then compare. If the vehicle finds itself is one of the $n$ nearest vehicles to the sender, it needs to be a verifier of this message. For example, if $n=4$, vehicles 1, 2, 6 and 13 will serve as verifiers.
The N-nearest method has two advantages. First, it is easy to implement. Vehicles only need to calculate their distances from the sending vehicle. Second, the closer a verifier is to the sender, the larger coverage area it has. Therefore, with $n$ closest verifiers selected, the expected overall coverage area is large, meaning that most of the non-verifiers can receive $n$ CWM for a certain invalid message. In this method, since each vehicle only knows the locations of its neighbors, the number of verifiers may be more than expected due to the vehicles' limited scope. For instance, in Fig. 4, from the view of vehicle 14, it may consider vehicle 12, 13, 14 and 15 as four nearest vehicles to the sender. Fortunately, this phenomenon will be mitigated when the vehicle density is high. If there is a vehicle 16 between vehicle 12 and 13, vehicle 14 will not consider itself as a verifier. Although the N-nearest method always chooses vehicles with large coverage areas as verifiers, it has its own weakness. As illustrated in Fig. 4, non-verifier vehicles close to the sender could receive several CWMs. Whereas, if all verifiers are located at one side (e.g., left side) of the sender, some non-verifiers at the other side (e.g., right side) of the sending vehicle will not be informed.
In order to tackle the problem above, we propose a most-even distributed method. In this method, the selected verifiers of a message are distributed evenly in the communication range of the sender, and most the non-verifiers can be informed of any invalid PBM by the verifiers. In this method, the angles between receivers and the sender are utilized to select verifiers. Zero degree angle can be defined according to either geographic orientations (e.g., the east) or the direction of the road on which the sender travels. As shown in Fig. 4, the area indicating the communication range of the sender is evenly divided by $n$ rays. For ease of exposition, take $n=4$ for example. The most-even distributed verifier selection algorithm for each vehicle works as follows:
In Fig. 4, vehicle 4, 8, 12 and 15 will be verifiers. Similar to the N-nearest method, due to limited scope of each vehicle, more than $n$ verifiers may be selected sometime. Moreover, if a vehicle is the closest one to two rays, it is also possible that less than $n$ verifiers are selected. In an extreme case, if a vehicle is very close to the sender, possibly only this vehicle will be the verifier.
In the 2-dimension verifier selection algorithm, verifiers are expected to be evenly distributed and close to the sender. As aforementioned, even distribution has the advantage that most non-verifiers can be informed of any invalid PBM by the verifiers, while verifiers in the N-nearest method are closer to the sender and can bring a larger coverage area. Therefore, combining the merits of the above two methods together, we propose the compound method. In this method, the area will be divided into $n$ parts. The nearest vehicle to the sender in each part will be selected as a verifier. For instance, when $n=4$, the algorithm that a vehicle decides whether to verify a received PBM works as follows:
In Fig. 4, vehicle 1, 6, 10 and 13 will be selected when the compound method is employed. When $n=4$, consider a vehicle close to one of the outmost corners of the sector to which it belongs. If it has no other neighbor within this sector, with limited scope, it is possible for the existence of a blind area that may deviate its decision. However, such a situation is possible when the vehicle density is very low. Moreover, when $n\geq 6$, one can easily see that the communication range of each vehicle will cover its own sector. In this case, the distributed decisions are accurate. Therefore, compared with the above two methods, the compound method is more convenient for distributed implementation.
In the following, when we claim that there are $n$ verifiers for a certain message, we mean that, on average, $n$ vehicles will verify the message. Since the vehicles decide whether to be verifiers in a fully distributed manner where each vehicle has only limited scope, the number of verifiers for one PBM may fluctuate along time. The fluctuation could be mitigated if the vehicle density is high. In a low density scenario, message-by-message verification is always preferred for a higher level of security. The CMAP can be triggered by either RSU or vehicles themselves. When a vehicle activates the CMAP, all its neighbors should switch to the CMAP mode. However, vehicles with a small number of neighbors can still verify all the messages on the condition that they share CWM to others. For a certain vehicle, if the number of its neighbors is low enough, it will try to change back to the message-by-message verification. One bit called "self-verification" will be added in the PBM. If all the neighbors of a certain vehicle are willing to change back to the self-verification mode, the vehicle can switch back.
Fairness is an important issue for large scale networks. For a single broadcasting vehicle, the verifier selection method (e.g., the N-nearest method) may incur unfairness to its neighbors. However, if we consider that many vehicles are uniformly distributed in an area, every vehicle can be a regular broadcasting vehicle and can also be a verifier for a received message according to the CMAP. Hence, each vehicle on average fairly achieves the similar performance.
In this section, we develop analytical models for the proposed CMAP and the existing PVP. For mathematical tractability, we here focus on the one-dimensional VANET as shown in Fig. 5. We will resort to practical simulations to evaluate CMAP and PVP in Section VII. We consider IEEE 802.11 protocol, where the broadcasting of each vehicle is coordinated by a distributed coordination function (DCF). For simplicity, we make the following assumptions:
We adopt the missed detection ratio (the probability that an invalid PBM is considered valid by a receiver) as the performance metric. To evaluate this ratio, an arbitrary pair of sender and receiver vehicles are picked for analysis. In the following, we use $P^{s}$ and $P^{m}$ to indicate probabilities of successful packet delivery and missed detection ratios, respectively.
With the IEEE 802.11 protocol, each vehicle senses the channel before transmitting its broadcast message. If the channel is busy, a backoff procedure is launched. In each backoff period, the backoff counter starts from a randomly selected value between 0 and $W_{0}$. It counts down when the channel is sensed idle and freezes when the channel is sensed busy. Once the backoff counter reaches zero, a transmission of the broadcast message is attempted.
For an arbitrary vehicle on the road, its backoff process can be described by a discrete-time Markov chain. Let $\tau$ denote the channel access probability in a generic slot. Under saturated traffic conditions, $\tau={{2}\over{W_{0}+1}}$ according to [37]. For unsaturated traffic cases, TeX Source $$\tau={{2(1-P_{0})}\over{W_{0}+1}}\eqno{\hbox{(2)}}$$ where $P_{0}$ is the probability that no packet in this vehicle's buffer is ready for transmission. In order to calculate $P_{0}$, we need to know the channel busy probability $P_{b}$ and the average packet transmission time $T$.
This vehicle will sense a busy channel if at least one another vehicle in its sensing range is transmitting. Therefore, TeX Source $$\eqalignno{P_{b}=&\, 1-Pr({\rm no vehicle in the sensing range of the}\cr&\qquad\quad {\rm tagged node transmit})\cr=&\, 1-\sum_{i=0}^{\infty}(1-\tau)^{i}P(i,2R)=1-e^{-2\rho R\tau}.&{\hbox{(3)}}}$$
Upon detecting a busy channel, the backoff counter will be suspended for a time period equal to the transmission time of a packet. Let $L_{H}$ and $L_{P}$ denote the packet header size and the average payload size, respectively, $C$ denote the wireless channel capacity, $DIFS$ denote the DCF inter-frame space, and $\delta$ denote the propagation delay. Then the average transmission time of a packet can be expressed as TeX Source $$T={{L_{H}+L_{P}}\over{C}}+DIFS+\delta.\eqno{\hbox{(4)}}$$
Based on (2)–(4), $P_{0}$ and $\tau$ can be obtained using the algorithm proposed in [27].
Without loss of generality, suppose the coordinate of the sender is 0. As shown in Fig. 5, our analysis model is perfectly symmetric with respect to the sender. Therefore, we focus on the part to the right side of the sender in the following. We are interested in the packet delivery ratio from the sender to an arbitrary vehicle (say vehicle $X$) located to the right of the sender. The distance between vehicle $X$ and the sender is $x\in[0,R]$. There are two reasons that may cause collision to the packet from the sender to vehicle $X$: the concurrent transmission from any vehicles within the sensing range of the sender and the hidden terminal problem. They are analyzed as follows.
Consider that the sender broadcasts a message at the time slot when its backoff counter reaches zero. If any other vehicle within the sensing range of the sender (i.e., vehicles in $[-R, R]$) transmits at the same time slot, collision may happen. For vehicle $X$, any concurrent transmissions from vehicles within the overlapping region of its receiving range and the transmission range of the sender (i.e., $[x-R, R]$) will cause collision to the packet from the sender. In other words, if vehicle $X$ can successfully receive the packet from the sender, it is necessary that no vehicles in $[x-R, R]$ transmit at the same time slot in which the sender transmits. Therefore, the probability that the packet from sender to vehicle $X$ is free from collision caused by concurrent transmission can be calculated as: TeX Source $$\eqalignno{P^{s}_{1}=&\, Pr({\rm none of the vehicles in }[x-R,R]\cr&\quad {\rm transmits in a slot})\cr=&\,\sum_{i=0}^{\infty}(1-\tau)^{i}P(i,2R-x)\cr=&\, e^{-\rho (2R-x)\tau}.&{\hbox{(5)}}}$$
The hidden terminal terminal problem relates to the situation that two nodes are outside of each other's sensing range but share a same set of nodes that are within their transmission ranges. Consider the scenario shown in Fig. 5, the potential hidden terminals of the sender are the vehicles located in $[-2R,-R]$ and $[R, 2R]$. Since the sender and its potential hidden terminals cannot sense the transmissions of each other, collisions may happen if any potential hidden terminal transmits during the vulnerable period (with length $T_{\rm vul}$ in number of slots) of the sender. For a transmission of period $T$ (in number of slots), the vulnerable period is the interval within which any other transmission will collide with the sender. Therefore, $T_{\rm vul}=2T$.
The hidden terminals that have impact on the packet delivery ratio at vehicle $X$ are the vehicles located in $[R, R+x]$. Thus the probability that the packet is free from collision caused by hidden terminal problem can be evaluated as: TeX Source $$\eqalignno{P^{s}_{2}=&\, Pr({\rm none of the vehicles in }[R,R+x]\cr&\quad {\rm transmits in }T_{{\rm vul}})\cr=&\,\left[\sum_{i=0}^{\infty}(1-\tau)^{i}P(i,x)\right]^{T_{{\rm vul}}}\cr=&\, e^{-\rho x\tau T_{{\rm vul}}}=e^{-ax}&{\hbox{(6)}}}$$ where $a\triangleq 2T\rho\tau$.
Since the impact of concurrent transmission and the impact of hidden terminal problem are mutually independent, the packet delivery ratio from the sender to vehicle $X$ is TeX Source $$\eqalignno{P^{s}(x)=&\, P^{s}_{1}P^{s}_{2}=e^{-\rho (2R-x)\tau}e^{-ax}\cr=&\, e^{-2\rho R\tau}e^{-(a-\rho\tau)x}.&{\hbox{(7)}}}$$
A missed detection happens when an invalid PBM from the sender is considered valid by the receiver for the following two reasons:
In the following, we focus on the 2-verifier case. In the CMAP, we focus on the proposed compound verifier selection method such that the two nearest vehicles to the left and right of the sender are chosen as verifiers. Denote them as verifier $Y$ and verifier $Z$, respectively, as shown in Fig. 6.
Consider an arbitrary vehicle $X$ with coordinate $x\in [0,R]$. We are interested in the missed detection ratio for an invalid PBM from the sender at vehicle $X$'s perspective. To this end, we consider the following two cases:
1) Vehicle $X$ is a verifier. That is: vehicle $X$ is the nearest vehicle on the right side to the sender. Since the number of vehicles follows a Poisson distribution with density $\rho$, the distance between the sender and the nearest vehicle to the right of it follows an exponential distribution with parameter $\rho$. Thus the probability that vehicle $X$ itself is a verifier is: TeX Source $$\eqalignno{P_{{\rm vrf}}=&\, Pr({\rm number of vehicles within }[0,x] {\rm is 0})\cr=&\, e^{-\rho x}.&{\hbox{(8)}}}$$
In this case, vehicle $X$ will verify the PBM by itself. Then at vehicle $X$'s perspective, the probability that the invalid PBM from the sender gets detected is the probability that vehicle $X$ can receive the invalid PBM without collision. Similar to our analysis above, the impact of hidden terminal problem can be evaluated as (6).
When we consider the impact of concurrent transmission, since there are no vehicles located within $[0, x]$, the probability that the PBM is successful becomes: TeX Source $$\eqalignno{P^{s}_{1,{\rm vrf}}=&\, Pr({\rm none of the vehicles in }[x-R,0]\cup [x,R]\cr&\qquad{\rm transmits in a time slot})\cr=&\, e^{-2\rho (R-x)\tau}.&{\hbox{(9)}}}$$
Therefore, the probability that the invalid PBM from the sender gets detected is TeX Source $$\eqalignno{P^{s}_{{\rm vrf}}=&\, P^{s}_{2}P^{s}_{1,{\rm vrf}}=e^{-ax}e^{-2\rho (R-x)\tau}\cr=&\, e^{-2\rho R\tau}e^{-(a-2\rho\tau)x}.&{\hbox{(10)}}}$$
2) Vehicle $X$ is not a verifier
That is: another vehicle serves as a verifier that locates between vehicle $X$ and the sender. Such a verifier exists with probability $1-P_{\rm vrf}$. We denote this verifier as verifier $Y$, whose coordinate is $y(0<y<x)$. The probability density function (PDF) of $y$ conditioned on that there is at least one verifier in $(0,x)$ is: TeX Source $$p(y)={{\rho e^{-\rho y}}\over{1-P_{{\rm vrf}}}}={{\rho e^{-\rho y}}\over{1-e^{-\rho x}}},\qquad y\in(0,x).\eqno{\hbox{(11)}}$$
Vehicle $X$ can only receive the CWM of the invalid PBM from verifier $Y$ when verifier $Y$ receives the PBM without collision and successfully delivers a CWM to vehicle $X$. According to (10), the probability that verifier $Y$ receives the invalid PBM is TeX Source $$P^{s}_{Y}=e^{-2\rho R\tau}e^{-(a-2\rho\tau)y}.\eqno{\hbox{(12)}}$$
Then we consider the packet delivery ratio from verifier $Y$ to vehicle $X$. The distance between them is $(x-y)$. Similar to (6), the packet collision ratio caused by hidden terminal problem will be TeX Source $$P^{s}_{2,Y\to X}=e^{-a(x-y)}.\eqno{\hbox{(13)}}$$
When considering the concurrent transmission, the vehicles which can cause collision to the CWM from verifier $Y$ to vehicle $X$ is the vehicles located in $[x-R, R+y]$. Since there is no vehicles within $[0, y]$, the probability that the CWM is free from collision caused by concurrent transmission is TeX Source $$P^{s}_{1,Y\to X}=e^{-\rho\tau (2R-x)}.\eqno{\hbox{(14)}}$$
Combining (13) and (14), the probability that vehicle $X$ can receive the CWM from verifier $Y$ is TeX Source $$\eqalignno{P^{s}_{Y\to X}=&\, P^{s}_{1,Y\to X}P^{s}_{2,Y\to X}\cr=&\, e^{-\rho\tau (2R-x)}e^{-a(x-y)}.&{\hbox{(15)}}}$$
Based on (11), (12) and (15), the probability that vehicle $X$ successfully receives the CWM from the verifier to the right side of the sender is TeX Source $$P^{s}_{X,{\rm right}}=\int_{0}^{x}p(y)P^{s}_{Y}P^{s}_{Y\to X}{\rm d}y.\eqno{\hbox{(16)}}$$
There is also a verifier on the left side of the sender. Suppose the nearest vehicle to the left of the sender is verifier $Z$, with coordinate ${-}z$ where $z\in [0,R]$. The PDF of $z$ is TeX Source $$p(z)=\rho e^{-\rho z}.\eqno{\hbox{(17)}}$$
Similar to (12), the probability that vehicle $Z$ receives the invalid PBM is TeX Source $$P^{s}_{Z}=e^{-2\rho R\tau}e^{-(a-2\rho\tau)z}.\eqno{\hbox{(18)}}$$
Verifier $Z$ can only deliver its CWM to vehicle $X$ when vehicle $X$ is located within its transmission range, i.e., $0<z<x-R$. So the probability that verifier $Z$ delivers the CWM to vehicle $X$ is TeX Source $$P^{s}_{Z\to X}=\cases{e^{-a(z+x)-\rho (2R-2z-x)\tau} \quad 0<z<R-x \cr0 \hskip10em z>R-x.\cr}\eqno{\hbox{(19)}}$$
Based on (17), (18) and (19), we have the probability that vehicle $X$ receives the CWM from the verifier on the left side of the sender is: TeX Source $$P^{s}_{X,{\rm left}}=\int_{0}^{R}p(z)P^{s}_{Z}P^{s}_{Z\to X}{\rm d}z.\eqno{\hbox{(20)}}$$
The invalid PBM will miss the detection when vehicle $X$ neither receives the CWM from the verifier on the left nor from the verifier on the right, and the probability is TeX Source $$P^{c}_{X}=(1-P^{s}_{X,{\rm right}})(1-P^{s}_{X,{\rm left}}).\eqno{\hbox{(21)}}$$
Then, base on $P_{{\rm vrf}}$, $P^{s}_{{\rm vrf}}$ and $P^{s}_{X}$, we can calculate the missed detection ratio for the invalid PBM at vehicle $X$ as TeX Source $$P^{m}_{{\rm CMAP}}(x)=P_{{\rm vrf}}(1-P^{s}_{{\rm vrf}})+(1-P_{{\rm vrf}})P^{c}_{X}.\eqno{\hbox{(22)}}$$
Vehicle $X$ is randomly chosen on $[0, R]$, so we can derive the missed detection ratio for CMAP by doing the integration on $x$ over $[0, R]$: TeX Source $$P^{m}_{{\rm CMAP}}={{1}\over{R}}\int_{0}^{R}P^{m}_{{\rm CMAP}}(x){\rm d}x.\eqno{\hbox{(23)}}$$
In PVP, once a vehicle receives a broadcast message, with probability $\alpha$ it will decide to verify the message itself; with probability $(1-\alpha)$ it will wait for the verification results from other vehicles (i.e., the verifiers). Consider the sender and an arbitrary vehicle $X$ located at 0 and $x$, respectively. Suppose the sender sends out an invalid broadcast message, with probability $\alpha P^{s}(x)$ vehicle $X$ will receive the message and verify the message itself; with probability $(1-\alpha)$, vehicle $X$ will not serve as a verifier but rely on the other vehicles for verification. Assume there is a verifier $W$ whose coordinate is $w\in [-R,R]$ deciding to verify the message. The probability that verifier $W$ receives the invalid broadcast message from the sender is: TeX Source $$P^{s}_{W}=e^{-2\rho R\tau}e^{-(a-\rho\tau)\vert w\vert}.\eqno{\hbox{(24)}}$$
The probability that verifier $W$ successfully delivers its verification result to vehicle $X$ is: TeX Source $$P^{s}_{W\to X}=\cases{e^{-2\rho R\tau}e^{-(a-\rho\tau)\vert x-w\vert}\quad x-R<w<R\cr 0 \hskip9.0em-R<w<x-R.\cr}\eqno{\hbox{(25)}}$$
With (24) and (25), we can get the probability that vehicle $X$ successfully receives the verification result from one verifier is: TeX Source $${\mathtilde{P}}^{s}_{X}={{1}\over{2R}}\int_{-R}^{R}P^{s}_{W}P^{s}_{W\to X}{\rm d}w.\eqno{\hbox{(26)}}$$
Consider the range $[x-R,R]$, the probability that there are $n$ vehicles among which $i$ vehicles are verifiers follows binomial distribution. For a specific $i$, the probability that vehicle $X$ misses the detection of the invalid broadcast message is $(1-{\mathtilde{P}}^{s}_{X})^{i}$. Considering all possible $n$ and $i$, we can calculate the missed detection ratio of the invalid message as TeX Source $$\eqalignno{& P^{m}_{X}(x)=\sum^{\infty}_{n=0}P(n,2R)\sum^{n}_{i=0}\left(\matrix{n\hfill\cr\hfill i\hfill}\right)\alpha^{i}(1-\alpha)^{n-i}\cr&\hskip17.5em\times (1-{\mathtilde{P}}^{s}_{X})^{i}.\cr&&{\hbox{(27)}}}$$
In general, the missed detection ratio at vehicle $X$ is TeX Source $$P^{m}_{{\rm PVP}}(x)=\alpha (1-P^{s}(x))+(1-\alpha)P^{m}_{X}(x).\eqno{\hbox{(28)}}$$
Vehicle X is randomly chosen in $[0, R]$, so after calculating the integration on $x$ over $[0, R]$ we get the missed detection ratio for PVP as follows. TeX Source $$P^{m}_{{\rm PVP}}={{1}\over{R}}\int_{0}^{R}P^{m}_{{\rm PVP}}(x){\rm d}x.\eqno{\hbox{(29)}}$$
Note that $P^{m}_{{\rm PVP}}$ is a function of the probability $\alpha$.
In this section, we develop NS2 simulation programs to validate our analytical models in a 1-D highway road scenario, and to evaluate the performance of the proposed cooperative message authentication protocols in a more complex 2-D city road scenario. In order to properly estimate the real-world road environment and vehicular traffic, we generate vehicles' mobility through the mobility model generation tool called VanetMobiSim [33]. This tool makes use of the publicly available topologically integrated geographic encoding and referencing (TIGER) database [34] from the U.S. Census Bureau.
In both scenarios, each vehicle is equipped with an IEEE 802.11 wireless module that periodically broadcasts messages (PBM that contains the vehicle's geographic information) every 300 ms. The communication ranges are the same as 300 m. Other physical and MAC layer parameters of the IEEE 802.11 broadcast protocol used in our simulations are listed in Table I.
We consider different total number of vehicles (i.e., different density) travelling on the roads where 6% of them are malicious ones. A malicious vehicle periodically broadcasts invalid PBMs, but never sends CWM to help others for message verification. We define the missed detection ratio as the percentage of invalid PBMs that are considered as valid by receiving vehicles. The missed detection ratio is computed based on well-behaved vehicles in our simulation. For the PVP protocol, each vehicle becomes a verifier with a probability ${{8}\over{M}}$, where $M$ is the total number of receiver's neighbors.
We consider a 5 km-long highway scenario in which vehicles enter the highway according to a Poisson distribution and there speeds vary randomly within 56–80 mph. For PVP, we set the probability $p={{1}\over{\rho R}}$ so that on average the number of verifiers is the same as that of the CMAP compound method. Fig. 7 shows the analytical results as well as the simulation results of our CMAP compound method and the PVP method. The missed detection ratio of both methods increase with traffic density, while the performance of our CMAP compound method is always better than that of PVP. Moreover, the model based calculation results well match the simulation results, which demonstrates the accuracy of our analytical model.
In Fig. 7, the main reason for the increasing error of the proposed analytical model for the PVP is as follows. As in (27), $P^{m}_{X}(x)$ is a summation of an infinite series. However, for computation tractability, we consider only the summation of the first 100 elements of the series to approximate the probability. As shown in Fig. 7, with low vehicle densities, the approximated results are accurate. However, as $\rho$ increases, $P(n,2R)$, i.e., the probability that having $n$ vehicles within the communication range, increases. As a result, the impact of the ignored terms in the summation becomes larger, and hence the model error increases. Nevertheless, the curves in Fig. 7 demonstrates that the performance gap remains quite small, with the beneficial tradeoff of significantly reduced computation overhead in analysis.
As shown in Fig. 8, we consider a practical 2 km × 1 km road map near the water tower in the downtown of Chicago. Vehicles travel on the roads at speeds varying randomly in the range 22.5–33.5 mph. Fig. 9 shows the simulation results of the missed detection ratios under different number of verifiers. We have the following observations: 1) with the same number of verifiers, the missed detection ratio of PVP is much higher than that of our proposed protocols, which echo the results in the 1-D scenario. Specifically, with 4 verifiers, the missed detection ratio of the probabilistic method under high vehicle density conditions is about 10%, a value may be able to cause traffic disasters. However, our compound method can achieve a ratio less than 0.5% in this case. 2) The performance under 8 verifiers is obviously better than that under 4 ones. Any more verifiers could not introduces significant performance improvements since, with 8 verifiers, the missed detection ratio of the compound method is already less than 0.02%. Nevertheless, extra verifiers may incur unnecessary communication and computation overheads. 3) The ratio of the n-nearest method is higher than that of the most-even distributed method in most cases, while the compound method always achieves the lowest ratio. This result matches our expectations in the previous section because the compound method is supposed to have a better coverage area. Among the three proposed verifier selection methods, the compound method is obviously preferred over the other two. Therefore, we focus on the compound method in the following.
In the following, we investigate the performances the compound method and PVP from various aspects including the impacts of malicious vehicle ratio, transmission range and broadcast period. The results are shown in Figs. 10–12. The number of verifiers is fixed at 4. From Fig. 10, we can see that the missed detection ratios of both methods increase with the malicious vehicle ratio. The reason lies in that a malicious vehicle does not help verify messages and send CWM to other vehicles if being selected as a verifier.
From Fig. 11 we can see that when the transmission range of vehicles gets larger, both missed detection ratios increase. In fact, with a larger transmission range, the number of neighbors for each vehicle that contend for channel access grows, and thus the packets collision probability becomes higher. The impact of broadcast period on missed detection ratio is shown in Fig. 12. A longer broadcast period means a less crowded channel. In this case, the packet successful delivery ratio increases and hence the missed detection ratio decreases.
We conduct simulations to study the computation and communication overhead of both non-cooperative message authentication protocol and the proposed cooperative message authentication protocol (CMAP). Verifying the group signature attached to each broadcast message is the dominating component that consumes computation capacity. In our simulation, we use the average number of verified messages per vehicle per second as the metric for the computation overhead.2 In this sense, the average computation overheads of both CMAP and the PVP are the same providing that the average number of verifiers selected for each broadcast message is the same. It is worth noting that our CMAP method achieves a much lower missed detection ratio than the PVP with the same computation overhead (i.e., with the same number of verifiers), as demonstrated in Figs. 10–12.
The simulations results are shown in Figs. 13 and 14. From Fig. 13, we have the following observations:
The proposed CMAP introduces some extra communication overhead for dealing with the warning messages generated by the verifiers when an invalid broadcast message is detected. We calculate the average number of bits received by each vehicle per second (i.e., the number of bits per vehicle per second), which counts both the regular broadcast messages and warning messages. We take the percentage of the extra value of bits per vehicle per second in the CMAP case relative to the bits per vehicle per second in the non-cooperative case as the extra communication overhead of CMAP. Fig. 14 shows the simulation results where the number of vehicles is set to 200. We can see that, with 4 verifiers and 6% vehicles being malicious ones that send invalid messages, the CMAP introduces an extra communication overhead of 6.2%. In the simulations, the regular message payload size and the warning massage payload size are according to the setting in Table I.
From these results, we can see that our CMAP protocol significantly reduces the computation overhead of each vehicle at the cost of a slightly increased communication overhead.
In this paper, we have studied message verification and verifier selection methods in vehicular cyber-physical systems. We propose a cooperative message authentication protocol (CMAP) and three verifier selection methods, i.e., the n-nearest method, the most-even distributed method and the compound method. For one-dimensional roads, we have developed an analytical model for the proposed protocol and the existing probabilistic verification protocol. Simulation results in a highway scenario verify that our models are accurate. Based on a practical 2-dimensional road map, extensive NS2 simulations show that the proposed protocol outperforms the probabilistic one, and that the compound method is the best among all the verifier selection methods. Moreover, we also show that the missed detection ratio of the compound method can be reduced if we use more verifiers, reduce the transmission range or increase the broadcast periods. In addition, simulation results demonstrate that the CMAP significantly reduces the computation overhead of each vehicle at the cost of a slightly increased communication overhead.
This work was supported in part by NSF grant CNS-1117687.
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL 60616, USA
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR: Y. CHENG (firstname.lastname@example.com)
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
1The reason for such double-check is to prevent a valid PBM from being discarded in the case that malicious vehicles send fake CWMs.
2As can be seen above, our verifier selection methods are fully distributed and light-weight. The corresponding computation overhead in verifier selection is ignored.
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Second Circuit Torts - Property Cases
Other Fraud Cases, Dockets and Filings
Cases filed
Cases 1 - 10 of 2,395
Jackmuff, Jr. v. Leonard
as 2:2016cv04132
Cause Of Action: Diversity-Fraud
Finfrock v. CIOX Health, LLC
as 7:2016cv05777
Plaintiff: Edwyn Finfrock
Defendant: CIOX Health, LLC
Cause Of Action: Diversity Action
Palumbo et al v. Nationwide Life Insurance Company
as 3:2016cv01143
Plaintiff: Laura L Palumbo , William J Palumbo
Defendant: Nationwide Life Insurance Company
Cause Of Action: Diversity-Fraud
Court: Second Circuit › Connecticut › Connecticut District Court
Bikoff v. Dowling et al
as 1:2016cv05478
Plaintiff: J. Darius Bikoff
Defendant: James Dowling, Pastime
Cause Of Action: Diversity-Fraud
Hinkey v. Coach, Inc.,
as 1:2016cv05320
Defendant: Coach Inc.
Plaintiff: Cera Hinkey
Cause Of Action: pr Diversity-Petition for Removal
United States Regional Economic Authority, LLC v. Matthews et al
as 3:2016cv01093
Plaintiff: United States Regional Economic Authority, LLC
Defendant: Gerry D. Matthews, Matthews Commercial Properties LLC
Cause Of Action: Diversity-Fraud
Court: Second Circuit › Connecticut › Connecticut District Court
Fuller v. BNP Paribas SA
as 1:2016cv05167
Plaintiff: William O Fuller
Defendant: BNP Paribas SA
Cause Of Action: Fed. Question
Root v. Bachaus Developments, LLC et al
as 2:2016cv03614
Defendant: Bachaus Developments, LLC, Bachaus Golf & Development NY LLC
Plaintiff: Douglas Root
Cause Of Action: Diversity-Fraud
American MYC Inc. v. Lease Master Inc. et al
as 1:2016cv03440
Plaintiff: American MYC Inc.
Defendant: Concierge Auto Inc, John Doe 1-10, Lease Master Inc. and others
Cause Of Action: Fraud-Motor Vehicle (Odometer)
Izquierdo et al v. Mondelez International, Inc.
as 1:2016cv04697
Plaintiff: Jose Izquierdo , John Does 1-100
Defendant: Mondelez International, Inc.
Cause Of Action: fr Diversity-Fraud
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Arc's Gold Exploration Permit in Indonesia Revoked, Tempo Says
Arc Exploration Ltd. lost its license to look for gold in Indonesia's Sumbawa island after violent protests against the company, Tempo reported on its website.
The exploration license was revoked by the head of Bima Regency Ferry Zulkarnain, the newspaper said, citing the head of the local mining and energy office, Ilham Sabil.
Zulkarnain didn't answer two calls to his mobile phone and a text message. Three calls to Arc's office in Jakarta weren't answered.
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Are you a BC travel guru? Why not share your experience and write for the HelloBC blog?
Posted by
Destination British Columbia
12 Jan 2016 / 2 Comments
To learn about the history of skiing in British Columbia is to learn about the life of 81-year-old Lorne O'Connor. From the time this Canadian Ski Hall of Famer started skiing in 1947, Lorne's achievements in professional racing, teaching, and as a technical advisor during the 1988 Winter Olympics showcase a lifelong passion for winter […]
Posted by
Destination British Columbia
12 Jan 2016 / 0 Comment
BC is home to some of the most beautiful, untouched mountains in North America. In addition to many ski resorts and cat-skiing and heli-skiing operations, the province is home to roughly thirty commercial backcountry lodges. Surrounded by endless powder and some of the best skiing on the planet, these lodges are what BC winter dreams are made of. Here […]
Posted by
Katie Marti
11 Jan 2016 / 2 Comments
It's an early start and a long drive. And then there's a ferry and then another hearty drive. No matter when you leave or how fast you travel, you will be navigating narrow, winding roads in the dark. At many points, it will feel like a video game where the goal is to fuel up, […]
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Murray Lundberg
10 Jan 2016 / 0 Comment
Anyone who enjoys visiting ghost towns can keep busy exploring and researching for years in BC. Wikipedia lists 165 ghost towns in BC, although their criteria for what qualifies as a ghost town is very loose. In any list of of BC's ghosts towns, the furthest north and one of the more remote is always […]
Posted by
Destination British Columbia
09 Jan 2016 / 4 Comments
Discover BC through the eyes of its locals and visitors! Each week we #exploreBC with a different Instagrammer who share their favourite places and experiences. This week, we're featuring jdnphotography, surf and lifestyle photographer based in Nantucket, Massachusetts. He'll be sharing some of his favourite shots from his recent dream trip to Tofino on Vancouver Island's west coast. […]
Posted by
Jessica Quinn
08 Jan 2016 / 0 Comment
There's no denying that Prince George is a city that loves winter. We get excited when the snow starts to fly and run to the basement to dig out our skis, snowboards, snowshoes… the list goes on. Only recently, though, did I realize that skates are commonly among these piles of gear. In fact, it wasn't […]
Are you a BC travel guru? Why not share your experience and write for the HelloBC blog?
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Below are top resources on SparkPeople for Insulin Resistance Diabetes.
Under normal circumstances, the glucose (sugar) levels in your blood rise after you eat a meal or snack. In response, the body produces a hormone called insulin, which is necessary in order for the body to convert glucose in your bloodstream into usa... Read more
What Is Diabetes?
Diabetes is a condition that causes high blood sugar levels. It is a chronic disease that can be managed but not cured. It does not go away. Knowing as much as you can about the disease is the first step to managing it effectively... Read more
If your doctor has diagnosed you with Type 2 diabetes, then she has probably already told you about the importance of adding exercise to your treatment plan. Physical activity can help you improve your blood sugar control, lose weight, and reduce you... Read more
Lifting weights. Resistance training. Pumping iron. No matter what you call it, strength training is important for boosting the overall health and well-being of people of all ages and fitness levels. While strength training can seem a bit intimidatin... Read more
So you already know that a well-balanced diet and a regular exercise program are keys to your weight loss plan. But are you listening to that other recommendation you've heard more than once in your life? Get plenty of sleep. Recent medical stu... Read more
Diagnosed with Type 2 Diabetes last year & recently Diabetic Neuropathy. I have to change my diet, which is proving harder then I thought. My question, if you have a big family, do you cook 2 seperate meals or make it work for everyone.... Read more
Sorry, but I am new here and I had been searching the site for details on Diabetes as my hubby has been diagnosed as being pre-diabetic. Whilst doing this I accidentally joined something which is now putting details about testing my blood on the nutr... Read more
I have mini resistance bands that I would like to start using for toning/strengthening. Anyone have experience with these who could point me in the right direction? #fitness... Read more
#firstpost just joined after diabetes diagnosis looking for others for support :)... Read more
I keep having my diabetes take over so much that it is getting harder for me to control. Just getting over being sick again. Hoping maybe I can get back on track. I do keep losing weight slowly probably because of my insulin and eating low carbs.... Read more
What Causes Type 2 Diabetes?Insulin is a hormone made in the pancreas that allows glucose (sugar) to leave the bloodstream and enter the cells to be used as fuel.Type 2 diabetes occurs when the pancreas doesn't make enough insulin, or the cells of th... Read more
Healthy Living reports: Diabetes the body's inability to process sugars&starches. Less well known are the problems that people with diabetes have processing fats in their diet which raise triglycerides. Type 2 diabetes is largely a "man-made" disease... Read more
We are Managing Our Diabetes! And we will get it under control with good healthy eating and exercising, and the support of our Spark Friends!
Come Join Us in your Quest to Become Healthy!... Read more
Since the 1940's a relationship between certain metabolic disorders and cardiovascular disease has been recognized. In the 1980's this association began being known as syndrome X or metabolic syndrome.Last week, a new study revealed that &quo... Read more
A new study published in Cell Metabolism shows that up to 30 percent of people could have a higher sensitivity to melatonin, the sleepiness-inducing hormone that reduces the production of insulin. This is caused by a change to a melatonin receptor g... Read more


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Justices Behaving Badly
In practically every profession, the employer evaluates the job performance of his employees.
Contrary to popular opinion, Supreme Justices are not appointed for life.Details
In practically every profession, the employer evaluates the job performance of his employees.
Contrary to popular opinion, Supreme Justices are not appointed for life.Details
Here's the Bad News: If you're relying on the Supreme Court to protect the Constitution and liberty – you've already lost.Details
Because the federal government – including the federal courts – is a creature of the people of the states, its opinion can never be the final word on what is constitutional or not.Details
In this episode of Thoughts from Maharrey Head, I talk about the absurd, fallacious concept of absolute judicial supremacy.Details
The Supreme Court is at it again. This time, they have the opportunity to strike a major blow to Obamacare in King vs. Burwell. However, members of the court are seemingly more interested in the policy ramifications of their decision than protecting the Constitution.Details
That's what Yale Law School professor and The New York Times columnist Linda Greenhouse accused members of the Supreme Court of being after they agreed to hear the latest challenge to the Affordable Care Act. For his part, Princeton professor and fellow NYT columnist Paul Krugman called this a "cruel absurdity," and suggested the court would "pervert the law to serve political masters."Details
Last week, in a surprisingly clear opinion, the Supreme Court limited federal power and took the side of the Constitution over an agency's regulatory program.Details
With the recent decision by the Supreme Court not to even hear the case against the indefinite detention provisions of the NDAA, I have to ask a familiar question to the majority of people who still value the Constitution: are you ready to take the responsibility to defend our governmental charter?
We have the power; we need to get our local leaders to stop the wholesale selling out of our rights.Details
NDAA indefinite detention powers rermain in full effect after the Supreme Court refused to even listen to the Hedges v. Obama case challenging their constitutionality.Details
The Supreme Court has once again chipped away at the 2nd Amendment. In a recent Supreme Court ruling, the court unanimously ruled in favor of broadening federal regulation of firearms under the guise of punishing perpetrators of domestic violence.Details
The Constitution. Every issue, every time. No exceptions, no excuses.


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Glendale (Central Az) Archives
Coyotes Fan Deals at Westgate Start Tonight
Westgate Entertainment District and the Arizona Coyotes have teamed up for the second consecutive year to present fans with pre-game entertainment and activities on the Westgate Plaza prior to the Coyotes Opening Night game on Thursday, October 9 versus the Winnipeg Jets and the team's second home game against the Los Angeles Kings on Saturday,… Read More →
As You Wish opening 7th studio at Westgate
Local "paint your own" pottery studio, As You Wish, celebrates its 19th anniversary and business success with the opening of its 7th studio in Glendale, Ariz. One of the first paint-your-own pottery studios in the nation and the first in Arizona, As You Wish's planned 2,109 square-foot studio next to AMC Theatres at the Westgate… Read More →
Midwestern hosts fall eyewear show
Midwestern University invites the community to visit the state-of-the-art Midwestern University Eye Institute at 19379 North 59th Avenue in Glendale on Tuesday, October 7, for an exclusive Fall Designer Eyewear Show. Glasses and sunglasses frames designed by Jimmy Choo, Carrera, Tura, Titan Flex, and others will be discounted up to 30% off of retail prices.… Read More →
Arizona Telemedicine Program names advisory board
The award-winning Arizona Telemedicine Program (ATP) at the Arizona Health Sciences Center of the University of Arizona has announced the appointment of the National Advisory Board of the Telemedicine and Telehealth Service Provider Showcase (SPSSM), to be held Oct. 6-7 at the Hyatt Regency in downtown Phoenix. The 24 nationally recognized thought leaders and health-care… Read More →
Glendale OKs casino near Westgate
After months of diligent negotiation, the Tohono O'odham Nation and the City of Glendale have finalized an agreement ensuring that the West Valley Resort project provides significant mutual benefits to both communities for years to come. In taking this step, the City of Glendale confirms its full support of the Nation's project, which will include… Read More →
Senators Urged to Preserve Future of Indian Gaming in Arizona
Congress has the power to intervene in a growing national practice and problem of 'off-reservation gaming,' or 'reservation-shopping.' The topic was at the heart of an oversight hearing before the U.S. Senate Committee on Indian Affairs today, titled, "Indian Gaming: The Next 25 Years," and included discussion of H.R. 1410—the bi-partisan bill to solve the… Read More →
Thunderbird School signs letter of intent to join ASU
The Thunderbird School of Global Management has signed a letter of intent to join Arizona State University. The two schools released a statement Thursday that said both sides are working on a possible integration. "This merger offers significant advantages to both institutions," said ASU President Michael M. Crow. "Through the integration of Thunderbird with ASU,… Read More →
DOI decision keeps Glendale casino plan alive
The Tohono O'odham Nation says the U.S. Department of the Interior has reaffirmed its decision that the tribe's property lies within unincorporated Maricopa County. Tribal officials say that's a key requirement for taking the land into trust. They still hope to build a massive resort and casino on the edge of Glendale and have been… Read More →
Arizona Central Credit Union Launches Kids' Website
Arizona Central Credit Union is launching a new initiative to encourage financial literacy among children. Designed for children between the ages of 8 and 12, this program is intended to encourage sound financial habits and further an awareness of positive saving and spending practices. Molly and Moe are the official mascots of the Monkey Money… Read More →
Midwestern Physician Earns Patients' Choice Award
Anthony Will, D.O., Chair of Osteopathic Manipulative Medicine in the Arizona College of Osteopathic Medicine (AZCOM) at Midwestern University, and a practicing physician at the University's Multispecialty Clinic in Glendale, Arizona, has been recognized as a Patients' Choice physician. The Patients' Choice Award recognizes physicians for the positive influence of their work. The honor, tabulated… Read More →
Heart and vascular center purchases business park for $2.3M
Cassidy Turley announced the $2.3 million ($98.12/psf) sale of Talavi Business Park, a Class B office development at 5810 West Beverly Lane in the Glendale Submarket. Ironwood Glendale, LLC purchased the property for from California-based Coneen Family Trust. Executive Managing Director Eric Wichterman and Senior Vice President Mike Coover with Cassidy Turley negotiated the transaction… Read More →
Glendale office building sells for $3.5M
DAUM Commercial Real Estate Services announced that it represented the buyer in the purchase of a two-story 27KSF office building situated on 6.3 acres of land located at 18185 N. 83rd Avenue, Glendale, Ariz. The purchase price was $3,507,925 ($129.92/sq. ft.) Benjamin Johnson of DAUM's Phoenix office represented AEK Property 7, LLC in the acquisition… Read More →
Headed for a boom, the West Valley is ready to go
Clumps of curved freeway fragments balancing on massive pillars of concrete resemble a giant modern art sculpture greeting Interstate 10 travelers through the far West Valley of the Phoenix Metro. Later this year, those "art" segments will gel into a multi-level interchange linking the I-10 and the Loop 303, and launch the area's burgeoning commercial… Read More →
Arizona scores NFL's 2015 Pro Bowl
The next Pro Bowl will be played in Arizona at the site of the Super Bowl, skipping Hawaii for the first time since 2010. The game will return to Hawaii in 2016, the NFL announced Wednesday. The 2015 game will be the third time the Pro Bowl is held in the same city as the… Read More →


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1 NAME SECTION 707 Editing Review career research paper model Test 4 The dust is still the main point should tell readers what process you have learned our lessons well. Because it rained, we called the Verbundsystem, as he stomped on the sidelines.
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, Volume 38, Issue 2, pp 257-264
First online:
McTaggart and Modern Physics
- Bradley MontonAffiliated withDepartment of Philosophy, University of Colorado at Boulder Email author
Rent the article at a discountRent now
* Final gross prices may vary according to local VAT.Get Access
This paper delves into McTaggart's metaphysical account of reality without time, and compares and contrasts McTaggart's account with the account of reality given by modern physics. This comparison is of interest, because there are suggestions from contemporary physics that there is no time at the fundamental level. Physicists and philosophers of physics recognize that we do not have a good understanding of how the world could be such that time is unreal. I argue that, from the perspective of one who is trying to understand modern physics, McTaggart's metaphysical views do provide some insight into how reality can be timeless at the fundamental level, but the insight that they provide is limited.
KeywordsMcTaggart Time Physics Special relativity General relativity Quantum gravity
Reference tools
- Title
- McTaggart and Modern Physics
- Journal
Volume 38, Issue 2 , pp 257-264
- Cover Date
- 2010-06
- 10.1007/s11406-009-9212-6
- Print ISSN
- 0048-3893
- Online ISSN
- 1574-9274
- Publisher
- Springer Netherlands
- Additional Links
- Topics
- Keywords
- McTaggart
- Time
- Physics
- Special relativity
- General relativity
- Quantum gravity
- Authors
- Bradley Monton (1)
- Author Affiliations
- 1. Department of Philosophy, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA


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The Leadership Development Days (LDD) is a three-day weekend filled with practical, hands-on experiences, moving worship services, workshops, networking and more for United Methodist Women members newly elected to leadership positions of the organization and anyone who wants to participate.
Deaconess and Home Missioner Discernment
God is calling. Are you listening? Come for the opportunity to pause, listen and respond to God's call for yourself, or to gather information for others. Join as part of this discernment group to explore God's invitation to become a deaconess or home missioner, then participate in several related Leadership Development Days (LDD) workshops, worship and plenary sessions. This lay community responds to the call of God and is sent forth by The United Methodist Church to full-time ministries of love, justice and service. To obtain an application for the discernment session, please contact firstname.lastname@example.com.
Action Planning for Women and Children's Health in Your Community: This workshop will provide an overview of the maternal and infant mortality crisis in the United States. Participants will learn concrete ways to become involved in service or advocacy projects around maternal health.
Board Member Responsibilities: Since United Methodist Women leaders often serve on boards and committees in the church and community, it is important for those involved to enhance their understanding of roles, functions and responsibilities as board members in a variety of settings. The session will include understanding board functions, formal and informal responsibilities, fiduciary and legal responsibilities and clarification of roles and functions for United Methodist Women's ex-officio members. This session is recommended for any leader who is serving on a board, and in particular conference and district leaders serving as ex-officio board members of national mission institutions.
Building Allies in the Church and Beyond: The work of being an ally is crucial to the fight against injustice. This workshop will focus on assessing your power to act as an ally within United Methodist Women, your church and your community. It will help you build your skills at what it means to be an ally to communities that are facing injustice. Participants will also examine what it means for allies to establish and nurture just and right relations with impacted people for the end goal of achieving greater justice for all. Participants are asked to read the short booklet called "Why Should I Get Involved in Social Issues?" prior to attending the workshop. The booklet is free and can be ordered at United Methodist Women Mission Resources (www.umwmissionresources.org).
Caucusing for Racial Justice: United Methodist Women has a history of standing in solidarity to end racial injustice. It is critical that we continue this faithful anti-racist work. You will be assigned to a caucus group based on the race/ethnicity you provided on your registration. These workshops will provide a safe and intentional space to discuss shared definitions, explore power, privilege and oppression and what being advocates for racial justice means for us as United Methodist Women leaders.
Communicating Across Generations: Did you know that in many of the settings where we engage, there are at least four generations interacting? Yes, this includes United Methodist Women. To ensure United Methodist Women is enriched by intergenerational leadership, it is helpful to have an understanding of what each generation values and how it communicates. This interactive workshop will explore approaches for cross-generational communication and how we can tap into the creative energy of each generation.
Designing Workshops for Learning: United Methodist Women members are often asked to share organizational information and social justice and mission initiatives with district leaders and in local groups. This workshop will provide the tools to begin to design workshops that are engaging and educational.
Discerning to Lead: Come take time to examine your leadership style and explore the gifts you have to offer in ministry to and through United Methodist Women. This workshop will address the ways that we invite women into leadership and nurture their development through mentoring. It will also offer time for personal reflection on the ways God calls us to lead as laywomen in the church.
Enhancing Connections with Distance Learning Technology: Participants will explore the capacity of technology currently used by United Methodist Women for communication, learning and collaboration amongst national staff and members. Additionally, participants will investigate and discuss new initiatives for distance learning technology at United Methodist Women.
Facilitation: The session will offer how-to's and practice on facilitation, an essential skill in leading groups that value mutual and shared responsibilities in planning, problem-solving and decision-making.
Music and Worship: This workshop will explore global music and how it can enrich our worship and devotional experiences at home, in Mission u's and all United Methodist Women events.
Overworked and Undervalued: Women, Race and the Economy: Come to a participatory workshop created by United Methodist Women with United for a Fair Economy to explore how we are impacted by the economy; how different groups face different constraints; and how we got to this place. We'll explore the values of God's economy, and why United Methodist Women members, as women of faith, are embarking on a focus on economic inequality. Learn how you can bring this workshop to your units!
Racial Justice 101: Grounded by the call of United Methodist Women's Charter for Racial Justice, this workshop will give participants space to deepen their understanding of the basics of racial inequality and racism and provide tools for how to (1) discuss race in your context and (2) work toward building a racially equitable unit/district/conference/community.
Standing in our Faith: United Methodist Women has a long and powerful tradition of working for justice, particularly on what are often divisive issues. The very founding of United Methodist Women was done in an environment where women doing mission was considered a contentious challenge to the power structure of the church. This workshop will help participants engage in a critical analysis of the concerns that society, the church and United Methodist Women confront on a daily basis. It will equip participants with the tools for addressing controversial issues and ways to have conversations about United Methodist Women's work on these issues. Finally, participants will come away understanding the theological and disciplinary basis for United Methodist Women's work on important but difficult issues.
Telling Your Story: Tools for learning how to share your United Methodist Women story.
Tools for Spiritual Growth: United Methodist Women's purpose is to "know God." Come explore resources United Methodist Women has for helping women to grow in faith, engage in dialogue about ways to incorporate spiritual growth opportunities in every United Methodist Women gathering, find creative ways to involve women in prayer through prayer partners and in prayer networks, and promote Bible studies and other resources to deepen our commitment to mission.
Why Be Involved with General Conference: the Basics, the Stakes and Strategies for General Conference 2016: With a brief primer on General Conference, participants will explore key legislation, reports and plans; and work on strategies for advocacy for United Methodist Women. Through discussion and prayer, participants will prepare for being bridge-builders, reconcilers and faithful advocates within the greater church and the world.
Committee on Nominations: The basic how-to's, procedures and policies pertaining to the important work of identifying and recruiting leaders will be offered. This two-part workshop is especially designed for those serving on Committees on Nominations for the first time.
Conference Presidents: Conference Presidents have a lot to share and a lot to learn from each other. This session is organized to provide conference presidents the opportunity to share experiences, network, and engage in strategic thinking about the work in their own conferences and the organization as a whole. Explore opportunities that flexibility presents and strategies for building an effective conference leadership team.
Conference Treasurers: This two-part session is designed for new conference treasurers to learn basic procedures and responsibilities, including the online giving remittance system. Conference treasurers are expected to attend the Friday afternoon and the Saturday morning session.
District Presidents: The session will focus on the basic responsibilities of district presidents and provide an opportunity to network with other district presidents and address common concerns.
District Treasurers: The workshop will focus on navigating the online remittance system for district treasurers.
phone: 212.870.3769
Worship and Bible explorations were recorded at a 2014 event. Portions are interactive, so invite a friend to watch with you and get a taste of "LDD."


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Artists from Lady Gaga to Paul McCartney signed the letter.
Taken from the film The Hunting Ground.
Gaga is bringin' it in 2016.
Update: Gaga will also perform the national anthem at the Super Bowl this weekend.
For Best Original Song.
Why Rihanna, Kim Kardashian, and Taylor Swift are squeezing into fetish gear.
A brief rundown.
Listen to "Party Nauseous."
Just kidding.
Dissecting the Midas Touch of a musician's co-sign.
Sky Ferreira is now managed by Lady Gaga's ex-manager Troy Carter.