text:
|Publication number
|Publication type
|Application number
|Publication date
|Feb 29, 2000
|Filing date
|Sep 3, 1997
|Priority date
|Sep 3, 1997
|Fee status
|Publication number
|Vladimir Chechersky, Peter George Gross
|Original Assignee
|Pgvc Lp
|Export Citation
|BiBTeX, EndNote, RefMan
|Patent Citations (8), Referenced by (45), Classifications (15), Legal Events (10)
|External Links: USPTO, USPTO Assignment, Espacenet
This invention relates to the examination of the eye and, in particular, tonometers and tonometric procedures to measure intraocular pressure (IOP).
Clinical instruments for IOP measurements are referred to as ophthalmic tonometers or just tonometers. Tonometric procedures are based on creating a deformation of the cornea with a known external force and then relating the extent of the deformation to the IOP with appropriate previously obtained calibrations using enucleated eyes or model eyes. Deformations have been historically grouped into indentations and applanations; the latter are deformations of lesser extent in the volume of ocular fluid being displaced and therefore cause a smaller amount of stretching in the ocular coats (sclera and cornea), which stretching causes inaccuracies in the IOP determinations and is referred to as ocular rigidity. A brief history of tonometers actually in use at some point in time, can be found in textbooks or review articles (e.g., Craven, E. R., Shields, R. L.: "Tonometry in Clinical Practice", in the Glaucoma Series, ed.: Starita, R. J., Clinical Signs in Ophthalmology, vol XII, no.1, Mosby-Year Book, Inc., 1990).
The contact tonometer most widely used at the present time is the applanation tonometry devised by H. Goldmann (U.S. Pat. No. 3,070,997) in which the cornea is flattened by a device having a plane contact surface; in it the force necessary to achieve a standardized applanation 3.06 mm in diameter is calibrated to provide the IOP. For a typical cornea having a radius of curvature of 8 mm this corresponds to a central flattening of dX=0.15 mm; the corresponding volume of the displaced intraocular fluid is about 0.2 μl or approximately 3�10-5 of the entire intraocular fluid volume and is achieved typically with a force of only 1 to 2 g.
The Goldmann applanation and other contact-type tonometers suffer from a number of shortcomings. Their use requires the cornea to be prepared by applying a topical anesthetic to minimize patient's discomfort. This, however, increases the risk of eye damage because the patient's sensitivity to normal pain is depressed. Further, any contact with the corneal tissue carries the risk of infection and corneal abrasion. The results of measurements depend on the analysis of deformation produced by mechanical contact with the cornea which necessitates that the morphology of the cornea be close to an ideal condition; however, this is not the case in many corneas altered by pathologic conditions, thereby precluding the use of Goldmann tonometry. Finally, the accuracy is adversely affected by size variations of eyes and by stiffness variations of the cornea and sclera, uncontrolled movement of the patient's head and eyelids, and the cardiac and pulmonary cycles registered through the corneal surface. Accordingly, these instruments require great skill in order to provide safe and accurate measurements and must be used either by a physician or a well-trained clinical technician.
The most widely used non-contact tonometer at the present time is the air puff instrument originally introduced by Grolman in the 1960's (U.S. Pat. No. 3,538,754). In this type of tonometer, a pulse of compressed air is directed at the cornea which will be deformed from convex to flat and then to concave following the increasing pressure of air; an optical system identifies, in time, the applanation event and, being synchronized with the air puff source, can indicate the IOP. Several improvements of the Grolman air puff tonometer have also been patented. While the air puff type tonometers have eliminated both the need for the topical anesthesia and contact with the eye, they are expensive, bulky, show a gradual decrease in accuracy with increasing pressure to be measured, difficulties with alignment while the audible sound and strong surge of air hitting the surface of the cornea cause patient apprehension and discomfort.
Several designs of contemporary tonometers disclosed in numerous U.S. patents issued in the 1980's and 1990's utilize different techniques based on combinations of sound, ultrasound, optics, and electronics.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,396,888 issued in 1995 to N. Massie and B. Maxfield discloses a combination of multiple ultrasonic sources with optical devices in an attempt to create an improved tonometer. That tonometer is based on an analysis of the deformation of the cornea caused by a known external force. The use of ultrasound by the '888 patent to generate the force applied to the eye has definite advantages over air-puff tonometry where compressed air is used. To increase the accuracy of the IOP measurements, this patent discloses ultrasound power generation, measuring and ranging transducers, a visualization system to provide an image of the eye for the clinician, applanation and indentation sensors, and a transverse alignment indication and detection system. In addition, to reduce the sensitivity of the instrument to various sources of electromagnetic interference and to the patient's head and/or eye movements, complex phase sensitive modulation-demodulation techniques were incorporated. These highly complex and expensive additions restrict the potential use of such an instrument to clinics, hospitals and research laboratories.
The complexity and numerous shortcomings of non-contact tonometers proposed so far are part of the reasons why they have not found a real commercial use and even routine eye pressure checkups still involve expensive contact equipment, requiring topical anesthesia and specially skilled persons (usually a physician) to be used safely and accurately.
Since the most important application of ophthalmic tonometry is its use for preventive or early detection of glaucoma and for conducting the ongoing treatment of diagnosed glaucoma by establishing that the IOP stays inside safe limits through regular tonometric monitoring, there is a need for a reliable, accurate, simple-to-use, safe and inexpensive tonometer affordable for daily self-use by any individual at risk for glaucoma.
The tonometer of the present invention allows an accurate, noninvasive, non-contact quantitative determination of the pressure inside closed deformable systems such as, but not limited to, the IOP inside the human eyeball, utilizing a single ultrasonic beam of appropriate frequency and power, capable of a tone burst (amplitude surge) which simultaneously accomplishes both an ocular deformation and its measurement, comprising of an ultrasonic transducer assembly, utilizing either a traditional head rest or a goggle-type adapter for precisely reproducible positioning of the transducer assembly relative to the eye allowing for distance and alignment adjustments, and an electronic section for signal processing, quality of precision monitoring and for the direct display of the IOP reading.
The method of measuring the internal pressure inside a closed deformable system comprises the steps of continually tracking a reference phase shift between the incident and reflected beams while the instrument is in a continuous-wave low-power mode, of powering up the incident beam to produce a short tone burst (amplitude surge) carrying an acoustic pressure to deform the eye (or other target) and of measuring the change in the phase shift of the reflected beam caused by the deformation which change is thus related to the internal pressure of the target or IOP.
FIG. 1 is a schematic representation of the method showing the two trajectories of the ultrasonic beam, one before and one after the corneal deformation.
FIG. 2 is a plot of the normalized efficiency of an instrument as a function of the operating frequency and the distance to the eye.
FIG. 3A is an experimental plot showing the sharpness of the alignment for the ultrasonic beam for displacements parallel to the transmitter-receiver axis (see FIG. 1).
FIG. 3B is an experimental plot showing the sharpness of the alignment for the ultrasonic beam for displacements perpendicular to the plane of the incident and reflected ultrasonic beams (see FIG. 1).
FIG. 4 is a block diagram of a tonometer and displays the logical connections between the electronic component blocks the tonometer comprises.
FIG. 5 is a timing diagram for the tonometer of FIG. 4 illustrating shape and phase relations of the signals at key points of the electronic circuitry.
FIG. 6A is an illustrative representation of the positioning of the instrument on the patient's head.
FIG. 6B is a schematic representation of the transducer assembly in preferred embodiment.
FIG. 6C is a schematic representation of an alternative coaxial design of the transducer assembly.
The present invention includes the recognition that a single ultrasonic beam of appropriate frequency for transmission through air can be used to track a reference phase shift in the reflected beam, can cause a corneal deformation after appropriate amplitude modulation and that the same beam can precisely detect a change in the reference phase shift in the reflected beam as a result of the deformation, which change in phase shift is thus related to the IOP. Accordingly, the tonometer of the present invention utilizes a single ultrasonic beam to carry both the mechanical energy necessary to deform the cornea and the information about the extent of that deformation which is a measure of the IOP.
A typical embodiment of the present invention is schematically represented by FIG. 1 (see also FIGS. 6A & 6B). A holder 40 provides coaxial positioning for both a housing 48 of a transmitter 54 and a housing 36 of a receiver 52 relative to the opposing sides of reflecting rectangular surfaces 22 which are a part of holder 40. The power transducer 54 transmits a focused high frequency ultrasonic beam 20 toward the proximal reflecting surface 22. The distance between an active surface 50 of transmitter 54 and reflector 22 must be adjusted only once during assembly to obtain maximum reflected signal 24 and depends on the position of the focal plane of the focused source beam. The angle between the two reflecting planes 22 ultimately dictates the distance to the eye 16 in the direction perpendicular to the common axis of the transducers and in the plane of the normals to the two reflecting planes 22; this angle between the reflecting planes 22 is optimal in the range 95-100�. The acoustic pressure component normal to the corneal surface 18 which causes the displacement dX is only slightly reduced (0.5-1.5% for 95-100� angles) and can be corrected for in the measurements. The beam reflected from the cornea 18 can reach an active surface 34 of receiver 52 by two different paths: in the absence of the eye deformation (initial conditions) it will follow along the solid-arrow lines 26, 28; if a deformation dX is produced, it will follow the path shown by the dashed-arrow lines 30, 32. The total path difference between these extreme cases is thus 2dX. This spatial difference causes a phase shift (difference) between incident beam 20 and reflected beam 32. Therefore, one important measurement is the difference between the value of the phase shift φo at the moment preceding the deformation (i.e., phase shift between beam 20 and 28 when they are too weak to cause any deformation dX) and that after beam 20 is suddenly powered up for a short period of time sufficient for indentation dX to occur (i.e., phase shift φmax between beam 20 and 32). Thus the value φ=|φo -φmax | is directly related to the deformation caused by the applied acoustic pressure, and consequently, to the IOP. It is important to understand that this type of phase shift measurement is significantly independent of the static initial conditions (for instance, distance to the eye) or dynamic conditions (for example, miniature eye movements), since the power-up time is too short to be affected by miniature eye movements, and the distance is continuously monitored in the weak-beam state before the power-up occurs. Thus each measurement is instantaneously self calibrated.
There are several special issues important for the proposed new method of the IOP measurement, namely, the preferred frequency range, the power requirements, and the time scale, which are considered as follows.
The frequency of operation affects relative sensitivity So of this method which depends on the relation between the round-trip doubling of dX and the half wave length λ/2 of the ultrasonic beam, i.e., So =4dX/λ. So =1 corresponds to the 180� phase shift and therefore to the maximum output signal. Ideal dX values should not exceed 50-60 μm (about 1/10th of the corneal thickness). The wave lengths λ of ultrasonic radiation in 100 KHz-1 MHz frequency range in air are λ=3300-330 μm. Two important conclusions follow from the above: first, regardless of the chosen frequency, the phase shift will not exceed 180� and therefore can be detected unambiguously by simple electronics; and second, the higher the frequency the better the sensitivity. Further, one has to take into account an attenuation of the ultrasound in air which is strongly frequency dependent and therefore puts certain limits on the practically useful frequency range. A measure of attenuation in air due to absorption is the extinction distance ED, or distance over which the amplitude of a signal is reduced to 1/e of its original value. ED distance in meters can be approximated above 100 kHz by the relation (for 1 ATM air pressure): ED=5�1010 /f2, where f is the frequency in Hz (R. Hickling, S. P. Marin, "The use of ultrasonics for gauging and proximity sensing in air", J. Acoust. Soc. Am. v.79, No. 4, 1988, pp. 1151-1160). 1f2 dependence rapidly reduces the ED from about 5 m at 100 kHz to only 3 mm at 4 MHz. The competition between the frequency dependence of the sensitivity and the attenuation suggests that there is an optimal region of frequencies providing maximum efficiency of the instrument.
Calculation of acoustical absorption in air is based on the equation
p=po exp(-αz),
where po is the RMS pressure amplitude of an acoustical plane wave at a given initial location (for instance, transducer surface), p is the pressure amplitude of the wave after it has progressed a distance z in meters, and a is the absorption coefficient in inverse meters (see above reference to Hickling & Marin). For the sake of simplicity, only the frequency dependence of α will be accounted for. Humidity, and temperature effects become unimportant above about 100 kHz.
From the above equation follows that ED=1/e when z=1/α. The frequency dependence of the absorption coefficient is calculated on the basis of the above given high-frequency approximation for the ED so that α(f)=f2 �2�10-11 m-1. The frequency-dependent relative sensitivity of the instrument can be written as So (f)=4dX/λ, or So (f)=4dX�f/V. Finally, an efficiency factor EF of the instrument should be a product of the frequency-and-distance-dependent RMS pressure and the frequency-dependent sensitivity:
EF=p(f,z)�So (f).
Adopting the normalization po =1,
The frequency dependence of the normalized efficiency factor EF for three different z (distance) values is shown in FIG. 2. According to FIG. 2, there is a relatively sharp maximum which moves to the high-frequency side with decrease in the distance. An acceptable efficiency is available in a wide enough range of 0.2-1 MHz depending on the distance allowed by a particular instrument design. FIG. 2 also shows that the preferred frequency range is 200 kHz to 1 MHz. The speed of electronics (in particular, the propagation delay time of a phase detector) will also limit the high frequency end for optimal accuracy.
An estimate of the electric power sufficient for functioning of the tonometer of the present invention is based on the following considerations. In the healthy eye, the intraocular pressure typically ranges from 10 to 20 mmHg [(1.3-2.6)�103 N/m2 ]. In the glaucomatous eye, the IOP is higher and sometimes can jump above 40-50 mmHg [(5.2-6.5)�103 N/m2 ]. In order to produce a corneal deformation, the radiation pressure must have a similar order of magnitude as the IOP to be measured.
The power density W necessary for such an ultrasonic wave can be written as a product of the temporal-average (or RMS) pressure p and the sound velocity V: W=p�V (R. Aston, Principles of Biomedical Instrumentation and Measurement, Merrill Pub. Co., 1990, p.504). In the present case of complete reflection due to impedance mismatch, W=0.5p�V because of the momentum conservation law. For the extreme case of pmax =50 mmHg, taking V=330 m/s in air, we obtain Wmax =1.07�106 Watt/m2. Thus the acoustic power required to create 50 mmHg pressure on the surface of the cornea using a focused beam with 2 mm diameter in a focal zone (a flat profile is implied) equals to 3.14 Watt. Most recent developments in through-air transducer technology including piezoelectric ceramic-epoxy composite materials and effective matching layers (G. Hayward and A. Gachagan, "An evaluation of 1-3 connectivity composite transducers for air-coupled ultrasonic applications", J. Acoust. Soc. Am., v. 99, No. 4, 1996, pp. 2148-2157, and references therein) can achieve an effectiveness of the narrow-band air-coupled transmitter of about 10-15%, i.e., at most 30-45 Watt RMS of electric power is necessary to drive such an instrument. The real power consumption depends on the time required for measurement and will decrease drastically in the tone burst mode of operation.
The tonometer of the present invention can operate in a small deformation mode thereby keeping the influence of corneal and scleral rigidity negligible, because of the very small volume involved in the deformation. As mentioned before, the central value of the depth of the standard deformation created by the Goldmann applanation tonometer is typically dX=0.15 mm. In fact, a much smaller standard deformation can be adopted in the tonometer of the present invention in order to optimize overall accuracy and patient comfort, to minimize power requirements and, perhaps most importantly, to minimize the effects of ocular rigidity on the accuracy of IOP measurements. To provide accuracy and reproducibility of the tone burst method of measurement the ultrasonic beam impinging on the cornea must satisfy certain temporal requirements in order to achieve and maintain an equilibrium deformation dX while acting on a corneal surface area S. The following are three alternative approaches allowing estimate the time scale (duration of a tone burst) of the tonometer of the present invention.
The energy EN necessary to create a small deformation is the product of the IOP times the volume of the small deformation which works out to be EN [Joules]=1.3�10-7 �IOP [mmHg]�dX [mm]�S [mm2 ] for a cylindrical approximation. To carry an ultrasonic acoustic pressure Pa one needs an ultrasonic beam with acoustic power Wa [Watt]=(3.14/50)�Pa [mmHg]. Thus the time necessary to deliver the acoustic energy equal to the deformation energy is Te [sec]=EN [Joules]/Wa [Watt]=(IOP/Pa)�(S [mm2 ]/3.14)�dX [mm]�10-6. For the typical Goldmann deformation above the necessary time Te to deliver the equivalent ultrasonic energy is near 10-7 sec.
Vibrations of the deformation should dampen to stability in a time Tv that is comparable to the sound travel time through the fluid inside the eyeball; typically, this time is obtained from dividing an average eyeball diameter by the speed of sound in water, or Tv=25�10-3 [m]/(1461 m/sec)=1.7�10-5 sec.
Given that an external force F suddenly exerts a certain pressure over some corneal area small with respect to the surface area of the eyeball, we want to know the time it takes for F to come into equilibrium with the counteracting force Fcf due to the IOP, so that the small deformation of the eyeball created by the constant force F is itself constant as long as the external force persists. Consider a beam delivering acoustic radiation pressure Pa to a corneal surface area S which causes a final deformation dX. The external force acting against the moving element of the cornea is F=Pa�S; the effective mass being moved is a fraction of the displaced mass of aqueous humor (based on well known principles of hydrodynamics which can be applied here but only as an approximation) which can be written as M=S�dX�R�fr, where R is the density of the humor and fr is a fraction less than one in general and here taken to be 1/4. Assuming a spring-like IOP-related force in the form Fcf =-KX, where K is a spring constant, and X is a displacement varying from 0 to dX, and taking into account that at equilibrium, -Fcf =F and X=dX, we obtain K=F/dX. The effective force Feff acting on the element of corneal deformation changes with deformation as Feff =F-Fcf =F-F�X/dX=F�(1-X/dX); if the acceleration is denoted by A then Newton's law gives us a differential equation for the motion in the form: A=Feff /M=F�(1-X/dX)/M, where the effective mass M is treated as a constant for purposes of this approximation; since A is the second time derivative of X, the time-dependent solution of this differential equation with appropriate boundary conditions is just X=dX (1-cos (ωt)), where ω=[F/(MdX)]1/2. In this approximation we can see that the deformation goes from X=0 at time t=0 to X=dX at time t=(3.14/2)/ω. For instance, taking the beam diameter to be 2 mm and a Goldmann size deformation dX=0.15 mm=150 μm (1.5�10.sup.-4 m) gives S=3.14�10-6 m2 and M=10-6 kg, since R=103 kg/m3. A constant ultrasonic force corresponding to a pressure Pa=10 mmHg acting across a surface S is just F=P�S=4�10-3 N which results in t=(3.14/2)(1/ω)=3�10-4 seconds; this is just shorter than the duration of the air puff (8�10-3 seconds) in air puff tonometry, suggesting that our approximate analysis leads us indeed into the appropriate time scale for the deformation equilibrium to be established. This puts the expected upper limit for a typical measurement time under 1 millisecond. This is short enough to avoid pain and damage from being inflicted upon the living eye. Further, it is not limited by the minimum time required to deliver the acoustic energy or to dampen the vibrations.
The tonometer of the present invention can be ideal for small deformations and can be operated in either a fixed-phase-shift-change (analogous to the fixed deformation in Goldmann tonometry) mode or in a fixed-force mode. The fixed-force mode is usable in rapid succession with preprogrammed forces to study the dependence of the deformation on the force, which dependence will be determined by the IOP. The latter mode is still expected to complete a full cycle of measurement in a very short time, since the time required for different degres of small deformations varies as the square root of the extent of the deformation as shown by the expression we obtained for ω earlier. This preprogrammed force mode is expected to provide important information also about the corneo-scleral rigidity. This can make the present tonometer unique in allowing it to correct for the variation of corneo-scleral rigidity, which varies not only from eye to eye but also from place to place in a given eye.
The short time of measurement allows the required power to stay below about 50 mWatt per measurement; furthermore, only about 10-3 of the incident power penetrates into the cornea because of near-perfect reflection of ultrasound at the air-cornea interface induced impedance discontinuity.
Advantages of the present invention include the following: A single-beam design requires a minimum of components making an instrument more reliable, small, and simple to use; a tone burst (amplitude surge) mode of operation drastically reduces power consumption making possible battery-powering and enhancing safety considerations; less than 10-3 sec per measurement guarantees a painless procedure which will not produce any discomfort to the patient, as well as independence of the results of measurement from uncontrollable lower (ordinary) disturbances of any kind, e.g., heartbeat, breathing, eye movements, etc.; a very short time of measurement offers a unique opportunity to study instantaneous IOP changes induced by the different physiological processes in the human body.
The general principles of operation of the tonometer of this invention can be described as follows. Referring to FIG. 4, the process of measurement is initiated by pushing a "START" button of the "Power Supply Management Block". This provides all electronic circuitry with the necessary voltages. Simultaneously, energy storage capacitors C1 and C2 start to charge as shown in the upper part of FIG. 5. The time to required for the charge of C1 and C2 to reach the predetermined Vref value is chosen to be a few seconds to allow the system to come to equilibrium and the patient to fix the eye. During this time period, "Transmitting Block" of FIG. 4 provides transmitter 54, through coaxial connector 62 (CC2), cable 60 and connector 46, with low-voltage continuous exciting sinusoidal signal Vo which cannot cause any corneal deformation but, being reflected off of the corneal surface, can be reliably detected by the receiving sensor 52 and further processed by the rest of the electronic circuitry. The coaxial connector 38 of sensor 52 is attached to the "Receiving and Signal Conditioning Block" by the cable 58 through a connector 56 (CC1). There is an arbitrary, and therefore unknown, initial phase shift φo between an incident beam 20, 24 and reflected beam 26, 28. These two signals and corresponding phase shift are shown in FIG. 5-(B,t0) and 5-(D,t0) (where our notation has divided FIG. 5 into arrays identified by rows A-H and columns corresponding to time segments t0, t1, t2 so that the relevant panel of FIG. 5 is identified by the specific index pair as just demonstrated). In the receiving and signal conditioning block, the sinusoidal signal is converted into a perfect 50% duty cycle standard rectangular logic signal which carries information exclusively about the phase of the input signal as indicated in FIG. 5-(E,to). The corresponding stable reference signal initiated from the transmitting block is shown in FIG. 5-(C,to). These two standardized phase signals are fed into the "Phase Detector & Low Pass Filter Block" of FIG. 4 where they are processed by a phase detector (two input Exclusive OR Gate). Its truth table is such that the output is high (Vhi) only when inputs are at different logic levels (0&1 or 1&0), so that this relationship implements phase detection by creating an output signal which is essentially a subtraction of the signals in FIG. 5-(C,t0) and FIG. 5-(E,to) resulting in the signal of FIG. 5-(F,to) whose frequency is twice that of the input, with a duty cycle depending on the time period when the input signals have an opposite level. From the Exclusive OR Gate type phase detector, there is a linear relationship between the phase angle difference φ of its inputs and the output signal: V=Vhi �φ/180� (See, for example, J. M. Jacob, Applications and Design with Analog Integrated Circuits, Regents/Prentice-Hall, 1993, pp. 325-329). The low pass filter extracts the average value of the digital output of the signal from the phase detector so that the voltage level at the filter output corresponds to the initial phase shift φo between the ultrasonic beams incident upon and reflected by the cornea. A high pass filter C3-R1 (FIG. 4) eliminates an influence of the initial conditions on the final result. Accordingly, at the moment preceding the measurement cycle, the output signal SO of the "Signal Processing Block" in FIG. 4 is equal to zero as shown also in FIG. 5-(G,to) and 5-(H,to).
The process of measurement starts at the moment t=to, when both capacitors C1 and C2 are charged to the Vref value. At that moment, "Logic-1" block 1 in FIG. 4 sends a logic signal L1 to the transmitting block forcing it to increase the driving voltage (V1 in FIG. 4) applied to transmitter 54 as shown in FIG. 5-(B,t1), thus surging in amplitude while keeping the phase of the ultrasonic incident beam unchanged. The duration t1 of this tone burst is determined by the corneal response time already discussed herein and can be adjusted as needed in the logic-1 block. A tone burst causes gradual increase dX of the corneal deformation which reaches its final, equilibrium value in a short time and before the brief tone burst is discontinued. The new phase shift between incident beam 20, 24 and reflected beam 30, 32 follows the deformation caused by the tone burst as depicted in FIG. 5-(B,t1) and FIG. 5-(D,t1). During the tone burst, a time-dependent phase shift between the standard reference signal of FIG. 5-(C,t1) and the standard output signal of the receiving and signal conditioning block of FIG. 5-(E,t1), being processed by phase detector, produces time-dependent duty cycle at its output as shown in 5-(F,t1), while the corresponding output of the high pass filter C3-R1 of FIG. 4 is depicted in FIG. 5-(G,t1). The latter curve reaches its maximum value corresponding to the maximum phase shift φ=φmax when the corneal deformation reaches its maximum or final equilibrium value. The peak value Vmax of this signal is the measure of the intraocular pressure. Actually, the phase changes depicted in FIG. 5 are idealized for clarity of illustration and further analysis makes it obvious that, depending on the initial conditions, in a general case the shape of the output signal of the high pass filter C3-R1 can be similar to that shown in FIG. 4 (A1 or A2). The design of the signal processing block in FIG. 4 is so as to give an output voltage that is always proportional to the degree of deformation (i.e., peak to peak) regardless of the shape of the input signal.
In a time t=t1 the instrument returns to the initial state. To avoid excessive corneal deformation, the power of the first tone burst is minimized for adequate accuracy. An output signal S1 shown in FIG. 4, smaller than the predetermined reference level in the logic-1 block produces the logic signal L2 which forces the transmitter block to increase the power and the cycle of measurements will be repeated (signals V2, A2, and S2 in FIG. 4) at the moment t2 as soon as the charge on C1 and C2 reaches Vref again (t2 <<t0). If the first shot was adequate to obtain a reliable measurement, the logic signal L3 shown in FIG. 4, shuts down the power for all circuits through the power supply manager block. An LCD will directly display the measured pressure since an LCD driver is used in the "reverse reading" mode. In this mode of operation, the displayed reading is inversely proportional to the input voltage. Since the eye pressure-related input signal is also inversely proportional to the pressure, the "reverse mode" of operation of the LCD driver leads to a direct reading of the IOP.
The tonometer of this invention utilizes the same ultrasonic beam which is used for the pressure measurement to accomplish all adjustments required for accurate IOP measurement as described below.
The accurate maintenance and knowledge of the distance between the instrument and the eye is a necessary prerequisite for an accurate IOP measurement. Depending on the particular instrument design, the distance adjustment can be obtained before each measurement or only intermittently to make sure that the adjustment made at the very beginning is maintained within specified limits.
In this invention, the distance control is based on the principle of a "time of flight" measurement and is carried out in a low power mode of operation. The electronic circuitry for this is straight forward state of the electronic art comprising of a crystal clock oscillator, frequency dividers, gating logic, and a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) (designated in FIG. 4 as "Distance Measurement Block"). The digital output can be seen on LCD display; it is also converted into an analog form by a DAC, and finally into three messages: "Too Far", "Too Close", and "OK". Corresponding differently colored LEDs ("Distance Indicators" of FIG. 4) situated in the appropriate place relative to the target eye (see description of FIG. 6B below) give a simple and convenient way for the subject to self-adjust the distance without outside assistance.
The accuracy of distance control depends on the accuracy of the time-of-flight measurement, the accuracy of the speed of sound used to convert time of flight to the distance, and the relation between the radius of curvature of the reflecting surface and the spot size of the beam (see the preceding reference to Hickling and Marin). In the present invention, experience shows that the error of time measurement introduced with a 4-MHz oscillator is about �0.5 μsec, or �0.16 mm; inclusion of a negative temperature coefficient thermistor into an appropriate place of an analog part of the electronic circuitry leads to the elimination of error in the speed of sound due to temperature variations; the distance error for a beam radius of 1 mm and a corneal radius of 8 mm is less than �0.1 mm or about 0.1% of the total distance.
The focused ultrasonic transducer with a -6 dB focal zone on the order of several tens of millimeters generates a collimated beam having several millimeters depth-of-focus; this allows the accuracy of the eye-to-instrument distance to be relaxed to about �1 mm without loss of accuracy of the measured IOP.
To align the instrument in the plane normal to the visual axis of the eye, a continuous wave (CW) mode of operation in low power regime of unchanged transmitter-receiver arrangement of FIG. 1 is used. One simple alignment procedure uses the specular reflection of ultrasound. Thus, the presence of the cornea, i.e., a sphere of a relatively small radius, in the path of a plane longitudinal wave gives rise to reflection over a range of angles even at the normal incidence. The displacement of the ultrasonic spot in any direction from the apex position at the corneal surface causes strong scattering of the reflected energy which quickly increases with misalignment. The corresponding decrease in the intensity of the reflected beam detected at the receiver is easily analyzed in the electronic circuitry which can control the brightness of a LED accordingly ("Alignment Indicator" in FIG. 4). Since the human eye is very sensitive to the brightness change, especially if the maximum brightness has a moderate value, the accuracy of the alignment can be easily and unambiguously indicated by the brightness of the LED, which can have an adjustable maximum brightness for personal comfort. An experimental plot in FIGS. 3A and 3B illustrates the sharpness of the alignment achievable with this method in the two perpendicular directions within the plane perpendicular to the visual axis. Parallel misalignment corresponds to the displacement along the axis connecting the two transducers in FIG. 1, and perpendicular misalignment means the displacement in the direction normal to this axis. It is possible to get an accuracy of better than �0.6 mm for the worst case (keeping in mind that the power, i.e. brightness, is proportional to the voltage squared). The accuracy will be significantly enhanced by use of any meter as an indicator of a signal maximum. A LED 42 in FIG. 1 serves as an alignment indicator and navigator relative to the visual axis. Its strongly collimated narrow beam (see FIG. 6B) is also used for an adjustment of the axis 44 of the transducer block 68 (FIG. 6B) coaxially with the visual axis of the eye. LED 42 also provides the patient with a fixating light.
Advanced applications can also be easily achieved with this invention without changing the basic configuration discussed above and shown in FIG. 1. Advanced features include a self-calibration, synchronization of the IOP-measuring event with some physiological event, and a programmable stepwise change of the acoustic pressure allowing corrections of confounding factors affecting the accuracy of the IOP determination such as the stiffness of the cornea and sclera or effects of varying diameters of the eye ball.
Self-calibration helps correct several external factors affecting the sound velocity and the absorption coefficient and, consequently, the generated acoustic pressure and finally, the IOP reading. These factors are the temperature, the humidity, and the atmospheric pressure. On the basis of recently published results (H.E. Bass et al., "Atmospheric absorption of sound: Further developments", J. Acoust. Soc. Am., v. 97, No. 1, 1995, pp. 680-683) one can find, for instance, that the attenuation of 250 kHz sound wave will change in the range 1-1.5% as a result of fluctuations in temperature by �15� C., atmospheric pressure by �10%, or humidity of 20-90%. For example, a �10� C. temperature variation brings about 3.5% change in the sound velocity.
The most effective way to nullify all these potential sources of error is to actually measure the acoustic pressure applied to the eye during each measuring cycle and to normalize the IOP reading accordingly. The present invention utilizes relatively recently introduced ferroelectric polymer polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) or its copolymers (see, for example, "The applications of ferroelectric polymers", ed. by T. T. Wang, J. M. Herbert, and A. M. Glass, Blackie Ltd., 1988) as a pressure sensor. The thin piezoelectric films of these materials show excellent linearity over a wide range of pressures and a long term stability; they can be easily shaped as necessary and require minimum space. In the design schematically shown in FIG. 1 and in more detail in FIG. 6B the pressure measuring PVDF disc-shaped film should be glued on the surface 22 (from the transmitter side) coaxially with the beam 20 (not shown in FIG. 1), i.e., it must become a part of the reflecting surface. The center of the pressure sensor is located at the focal plane of the transducer, while the distance-transmitter sensor is unchanged. The several corresponding necessary changes in the electronic circuitry are straight forward, the main change being an addition of a multifunction converter microchip (LH0094 from National Semiconductor) used as a precise divider for the normalization of the IOP reading; the signal corresponding to the measured IOP value is fed on the Vz input of the converter while the signal proportional to the acoustic pressure is fed to its Vx input. The converter output is proportional to (Vz /Vx) which, with a cosine correction taking into account an angle of incidence of the ultrasonic beam onto the PVDF sensor surface, is the normalized IOP value cleansed of any external effects (atmospheric and power supply).
External synchronization allows more specific characterization and therefore greater precision of the measurement by taking into account an effect of some physiological event on the measured IOP. Thus, the cardiac pulse produces a pressure pulse in the circulation and a consequent IOP pulse in the eye. With external synchronization included in the electronic circuitry, the IOP measurements can be gated to any phase of the cardiac cycle; this then allows differentiation between the systolic IOP and diastolic IOP which commonly differ by 10% and by much more in certain conditions of cardiac valve insufficiencies. Since the tone burst time scale of operation of the tonometer of this invention is at least two orders of magnitude shorter than the cardiac cycle, external synchronization can provide an accurate IOP cycle which will have significant and new clinical implications. To accomplish such external synchronization the electronic circuitry has to be modified by tapping into either the electrocardiogram or the circulatory pressure pulse or both (see, for example, R. Aston, "Principles of Biomedical Instrumentation andMeasurement", Merrill Pub. Comp., Columbus, 1990. pp. 113-134). Preference can be given to the simpler contemporary designs utilizing PVDF films in a compact housing (see, for instance, F. Steenkeste et al., "An Application of PVF2 to Fetal Phonocardiographic Transducers", Ferroelectrics, v. 60, 1984, pp. 193-198) suitable to be inserted either into a regular ophthalmologic forehead rest or into a goggle-type instrument configuration shown in FIG. 6A to measure the pulse beats through branches of the external carotid arteries. An addition to the electronics of FIG. 4 includes just one more logic input (not shown) to "Logic-1" block generated by some of the above sensors which, combined with programmable delay, will ultimately dictate the moment of powering up of the incident beam. It is most important to appreciate the fact that the present medical art, which depends on Goldmann tonometry, is unable to differentiate well between values of the IOP cycle and, therefore, the use of the present invention in cardiac-gated mode will define a new and higher medical standard in IOP determination with inestimable potential benefits.
Stepwise change of the acoustic pressure allows one to study the deformation of the cornea as a function of the applied external pressure; such a relationship will be strongly affected by the ocular rigidity as mentioned. This is self evident if one thinks of how much easier it is to deform a basketball than an automobile tire, even when both have equal internal pressures. Extending the electronic circuitry of FIG. 4, which already uses the two or three-step change of the acoustic power for IOP measurement as described above, to include an automatic study of ocular rigidity by applying programmable and externally synchronized stepwise changes in the ultrasonic pressure used will lead to further inestimable advances in the accuracy of IOP determination. Other problems relating to variations of the tensile strength of the cornea and the radius of curvature (ROC) from eye to eye can also be corrected for in this way. Consider, for instance, the possibilities for reducing the effect of variation of the ROC on the IOP reading, without preliminary measurement of the ROC value; it requires the instrument be calibrated only once using an appropriate model eye with known ROC (R0), variable controllable pressure (Pin) and known (or negligible low) rigidity of the surface. To accomplish this the "self-calibration" and "external synchronization" features described above must be disabled. Then the first shot with the acoustic pressure value of Prp1 will produce some deformation corresponding to the IOP reading Pin1. The second, more powerful shot Prp2 will give a reading Pin2. Since the deformation is proportional to the acoustic pressure in a wide range of the Prp values, the dimensionless coefficient K0 =(Pin2 -Pin1)/(Prp2 -Prp1) can be treated as a corrective instrument-constant for the standard ROC=R0 value. Exactly the same procedure has to be used for the instrument calibration intended for individual use. If now the similar set of measurements is done on the real eye having R≠R0, than the coefficient K will be smaller (if R>R0) or larger (if R<R0) than K0 and the ROC-correction of the measured IOP can be written as IOPcorr =IOPread (K0 /K). The acoustic pressure values Prp1 and Prp2 during the measurement on the real eye should be chosen reasonably low to eliminate a non-linear response of the corneal tissue to the degree of deformation, i.e., to keep it in the linear region. It is important that although the deformation is inversely proportional to the ROC and therefore is a non-linear function of ROC, it can be approximated by a linear function with a negative slope without loss of accuracy in the relatively narrow range of the ROC variation of about 10%.
The tonometer of the present invention can have several different configurations depending on specific needs such as individual, clinical or advanced usage.
A tonometer for individual use is disclosed in FIG. 6A. Here the tonometer comprises an electronic block (not shown), transducer assembly 68 (shown in more detail in FIG. 6B), and the goggle-type adapter 66 which allows a steady, reproducible and convenient fitting on the patient's head 64, reducing to a minimum (or eliminating completely) the need for correction of the adjustments before each measurement if the very first adjustment has been done properly. It also eliminates any specific requirements regarding the patient's head orientation as well as fixation during the measurement. The goggle-type adapter can be made on the basis of the one of any commercially available safety goggles with an enforced frame 84. As shown in FIG. 6A, it has two identical holders 74 of the transducer assembly 68, and, if all preliminary adjustments are made for both sides, it allows the measurement of the IOP on both eyes. The patient is required only to move the transducer assembly from one holder to the other. The design of the adapter 66 allows all necessary degrees of freedom of the holders 74 to accomplish an individualized fitting of the instrument in accordance with the size and shape of the patient's head and face and the distance between the eyes. A rectangular lug 70 in the middle of the upper part of the frame 84 holds the horizontally inserted cylindrical shaft relative to which the bushings 78 can slide and rotate. Bushings 78 are connected to the holders 74 allowing adjustment of the distance between them corresponding to the patient's interpupilary distance as well as the parallelism of the joining pins 76 to the visual axis when the eye is fixated on a fixation light (this should be done with the transducer assembly 68 in place). These adjustments need to be made only once for each individual. The frame 40 of transducer assembly 68 has two symmetrically positioned rectangular joining grooves 88 (FIG. 6B) which allow the assembly to slide along the pins 76 for an adjustment of the proper eye-instrument distance. The proper distance for each side can be fixed by corresponding stops (not shown) placed on one of the two joining pins 76 and likely will not require readjustments before subsequent measurements. Inside the frame of the holders 74 there are two plates (not shown) which can move in the two perpendicular directions. The joining pins 76 are connected to the outer plates, and the transducer assembly 68, when inserted in place, can be properly aligned using thumb-nuts 72 and 82 and following the simple procedure described previously. The frames of holders 74, as well as both plates moving inside them, have rectangular openings sufficient to allow an ultrasonic beam to freely reach the eye as well as the receiver 52 after reflection. These openings also allow all indicator lights (42 in FIG. 1 and 80 in FIG. 6B) to be easily observable by the patient for fixation and alignment purposes. This goggle-type embodiment of the tonometer of the present invention is expected to be particularly easy to use by untrained people upon their own eyes.
The transducer assembly 68 is shown in FIG. 6B. The frame 40 with the joining grooves 88 provides a coaxial positioning of the transmitter 54 and the receiver 52 from the opposite sides of the reflecting surfaces 22. The receiver is shielded from any possible sound-type interference by a chamber 94 which completely suppresses cross-talk. It can also be provided with a collimator 90 to enhance the accuracy of the alignment (refer to FIGS. 3A and 3B). The path of the ultrasonic beam from the transmitter to the cornea 18 of the eye 16 (schematically represented by a hemisphere) and then to the receiver is designated by the phantom arrowhead lines 20, 24, 26, and 28. The two cables from the electronic block (not shown) are attached to the coaxial connectors 38 and 46. A cylindrical hole 44 (see also FIG. 1) provides a path for the light from the LED 42 (FIG. 1) which is used as an alignment indicator and as a fixating light. LED's 80 are the three indicators used for the distance adjustment. The light-type adjustment indicators can be replaced by sound-type ones which will simplify the transducer assembly by reducing the number of cables between it and the electronic block.
An alternative coaxial embodiment of the transducer assembly is shown in FIG. 6C. It has the same transmitter 54 inserted into a housing 100 with a concave surface at the end directed to the eye with the PVDF-type annular receiver 106 and 4-segment alignment sensor 102 glued on it. A central hole allows an incident beam 20 to reach eye 16. Any misalignment of the assembly relative to the apex of the cornea will produce displacement of the reflected beam 104 from the center, clearly indicated by four LEDs 80 related to the four sensors 102. A rigid cone 108 eliminates cross-talk. All necessary electronics for PVDF sensors can be placed into a compartment 98 with a connector 96. The transducer assembly of FIG. 6C is sufficiently compact allowing easy adjustments and can also be well suited for individual use.
For clinical use of the tonometer for patients, including for screening purposes, a conventional arrangement having a regular patient's head support and chin rest will be the most suitable. The transducer assembly can be moved to provide necessary adjustments in the x, y, and z directions using a mechanical joystick-type control mechanism. The same alignment and the distance control indicators should be placed on the operator's side as well to provide verification of alignment.
For further advanced use of the tonometer of this invention two additional sensors can be used, one for the acoustic pressure control and another one for an external synchronization with some physiological event, for instance, with the pulse beats. A disc-shaped ultrasonic pressure sensor 92, having diameter slightly larger than the beam diameter, made from PVDF film is shown in FIG. 6B. It is glued to the reflecting surface 22 and actually becomes a part of it. The high electrical impedance of the PVDF material requires a matching preamplifier in the close proximity to sensor 92 which can be placed inside frame 40 and connected to the electronic block by a cable. Both instrument configurations discussed above can be used depending on the particular application. In a goggle-type instrument configuration, the pulse beat sensor 86, if used as a part of the instrument, should be placed in the goggle area adjacent to the temporal artery as shown in FIG. 6A. In a case of the PVDF-type pulse beat sensor mentioned, a preamplifier needs to be placed nearby.
The goggle-type configuration allows simultaneous measurement of the IOP on both eyes if two transducer assemblies 68 and two-channel electronics are provided. This configuration in conjunction with the proposed method also allows sophisticated IOP measurements which were not possible before, including stress-type tests to study the IOP behavior on the moving or otherwise loaded patient.
This instrument can be provided either with a microprocessor for data collection and processing (in any of several modes of operation) or with an I/O interface allowing two-way communication with a computer equipped with appropriate software capable of handling the methods described herein.
|Cited Patent
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|See Care Corporation
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|Feb 8, 1999
|Feb 27, 2001
|Robert E. Jeffries
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|Sensotech Ltd.
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|Badehi Avner Pierre
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|Jul 3, 2003
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|Anderson Daryl E.
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|Method and system for determining a three dimensional representation of a tubular organ
|Nov 30, 2005
|May 31, 2007
|Duke University
|Ophthalmic instruments, systems and methods especially adapted for conducting simultaneous tonometry and pachymetry measurements
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|Dec 13, 2007
|Mediguide Ltd.
|Medical imaging and navigation system
|May 25, 2007
|Apr 10, 2008
|The Cleveland Clinic Foundation
|Method for measuring biomechanical properties in an eye
|Dec 22, 2008
|Sep 3, 2009
|Lawrence Dale Butts
|Low-cost connector apparatus and methods for use in high-speed data applications
|Oct 13, 2006
|Oct 29, 2009
|Stacey Jarvin
|Pressure sensors and measurement methods
|Nov 5, 2009
|Nidek Co., Ltd.
|Non-contact ultrasonic tonometer
|Jun 17, 2010
|Dec 23, 2010
|Nidek Co., Ltd.
|Non-contact ultrasonic tonometer
|Jul 22, 2010
|Dec 30, 2010
|Gera Strommer
|System and method for delivering a stent to a selected position within a lumen
|Mar 3, 2011
|Amit Cohen
|Method and system for superimposing virtual anatomical landmarks on an image
|Oct 18, 2012
|Crystalvue Medical Corporation
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|Aug 16, 2000
|Mar 21, 2002
|Highyag Lasertechnologie Gmbh
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|Nov 4, 2008
|May 6, 2010
|Carl Zeiss Meditec Ag
|Ophthalmologic measurement system i.e. optical biometer, for obtaining biometric data of eyes of patient, has test unit i.e. test eye, with test eye receiving device for varying position of test unit with respect to evaluating unit
|Apr 30, 2009
|Nov 4, 2009
|Nidek Co., Ltd.
|Non-contact ultrasonic tonometer
|May 24, 2007
|Oct 30, 2013
|The Cleveland Clinic Foundation
|System for measuring biomechanical properties in an eye
|Nov 9, 2001
|Jul 11, 2002
|Bausch & Lomb Incorporated
|Lens-eye model and method for predicting in-vivo lens performance
|Nov 9, 2001
|Jan 16, 2003
|Bausch & Lomb
|Lens-eye model and method for predicting in-vivo lens performance
|Oct 4, 2002
|Apr 17, 2003
|Itonix, Inc.
|Noninvasive methods and apparatuses for measuring the intraocular pressure of a mammal eye
|Oct 4, 2002
|Oct 23, 2003
|Itonix Inc
|Noninvasive methods and apparatuses for measuring the intraocular pressure of a mammal eye
|Nov 16, 2006
|May 24, 2007
|Schachar Ronald A
|Apparatus and method for measuring scleral curvature and velocity of tissues of the eye
|May 24, 2007
|Dec 6, 2007
|The Cleveland Clinic Foundation
|Method for measuring biomechanical properties in an eye
|Mar 30, 2012
|Oct 4, 2012
|Agency For Science, Technology And Research
|A non-contact ultrasonic device, a non-contact ultrasonic system for determining an intraocular pressure of an eye and a method of determining an intraocular pressure of an eye
|Mar 3, 2015
|Sep 11, 2015
|Photono Oy
|Method and arrangement for eye pressure measurements
|U.S. Classification
|600/399, 351/208, 600/405, 600/561
|International Classification
|Cooperative Classification
|European Classification
|Nov 12, 1999
Owner name: PGVC LP, PENNSYLVANIA
Free format text: ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNORS INTEREST;ASSIGNORS:CHECHERSKY, VLADIMIR;GROSS, PETER G.;REEL/FRAME:010383/0019
Effective date: 19991108
|Sep 17, 2003
|Maintenance fee reminder mailed
|Oct 31, 2003
|Fee payment
Year of fee payment: 4
|Oct 31, 2003
|Surcharge for late payment
|Sep 10, 2007
|Maintenance fee reminder mailed
|Oct 6, 2007
|Fee payment
Year of fee payment: 8
|Oct 9, 2007
|Surcharge for late payment
Year of fee payment: 7
|Oct 10, 2011
|Maintenance fee reminder mailed
|Feb 29, 2012
|Lapse for failure to pay maintenance fees
|Apr 17, 2012
|Expired due to failure to pay maintenance fee
Effective date: 20120229


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Water Science and Governance combines pure and applied research methods from the social and environmental sciences. Gain an advanced understanding of the many contemporary, and often controversial, perspectives on water resource allocation and management. Examples from the UK and Europe, diverse water environments and differently evolved political economies worldwide.
Gain advanced interdisciplinary understanding of the contemporary challenges of diverse water environments around the world based on lectures and seminars informed by cutting-edge research and policy
Explore the socio-economic, political and environmental aspects of water allocation and management through engagement with leading international scientists and professionals from the water sector
Take advantage of the London location for excellent opportunities for professional networking and to seek potential internships and jobs
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The deadline for applications is 02 September for 2016 entry. Note that funding deadlines may be earlier. Applications will be considered subject to availability of places, so we encourage you to submit your application as soon as possible. International applications must be received by 29 July to allow sufficient time for visa processing.
The MSc Water: Science and Governance programme is an interdisciplinary programme. It provides experience in combining pure and applied research methods from the social and environmental sciences for an advanced understanding of the contemporary challenges of diverse water environments around the world. The aim of this programme is to develop cutting-edge knowledge, analytical skills and practical experience to prepare participants for a leading career in the field of water science, policy and governance. It promotes initiative and the exercise of independent critical judgement in identifying, analysing and solving problems at an advanced level. Participants will acquire a wide range of relevant theory within a sustainability framework. They will discover how the diverse needs of society, the economy and the environmental/ecosystem services provided by water are addressed and mediated by both political and technical processes. In lectures and seminars participants will meet water scientists and professionals from the public and the private sectors and from civil movements/NGO groups. A key aspect of the programme is providing students opportunities to engage with environmental scientists, policy makers and professionals working in a variety of practical contexts in the water sector. This engagement allows participants to critically analyse current water issues and to gain insights into the different assumptions of stakeholders using, managing and regulating the global water environment and its services.
You must take a minimum of 180 credits and a maximum of 200 credits as outlined below. Details of all modules can be found at http://www.kcl.ac.uk/sspp/departments/geography/study/masters/timetablesmodules.aspx. Note that not all optional modules are offered every year.
Part-time students: As part of your two-year schedule, plan to take the compulsory research methods module 7SSG5002 or 7SSG5110 in your first year and 7SSG5163 (Dissertation) in your second year.
The aim of the programme is to develop an ability to evaluate critically current and advanced scholarship as well as the practical experience of those working in the fields of water science and governance. It promotes initiative and the exercise of independent critical judgement in identifying, analysing and solving problems at an advanced level. Participants will acquire a wide range of relevant theory within a sustainability framework. They will discover how the diverse needs - of society, of the economy and of the environmental/ecosystem services provided by water - are addressed and mediated by political processes.
Specialist taught modules assessed by essay, presentation, lab work and occasionally by examination. The three-month dissertation is compulsory and can be taken overseas or in the UK.
7SSG5163Dissertation in Water: Science and Governance (60 credits) (must Take and Pass)
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7SSG5104 Water Resources and Water Policy (20 credits, T2)
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Students must take 20 credits of optional modules from any Level 7 (Masters) modules offered in the Geography Department. Students who wish to take greater than 180 credits overall (for a maximum total of 200 credits) will require approval from the Programme Director using the Module Amendment Form available from https://internal.kcl.ac.uk/sspp/stu/geog/student-forms.aspx. However, it is not necessary to take these additional credits and it is strongly advised that students generally restrict themselves to the minimum number of credits required.
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Up to 20 credits of Level 7 modules from any KCL Departments or Institutes outside of Geography.†
† Students may take up to 20 credits of their programme's optional modules, in departments or institutes outside of the Geography Department (i.e., non-7SSG modules). Approval will be subject to justification to and written approval of their Programme Director using the Permission to take modules in other KCL Departments/Institutes form (see https://internal.kcl.ac.uk/sspp/stu/geog/student-forms.aspx) and subject to availability and signed permission from the appropriate department/institute administrator (in the exterior department/institute) to allow them on the module.
Students enter employment within the water sector, including working for government departments, water undertakings, environmental consultancies and NGOs, or alternatively develop a research career, using this programme as a foundation for PhD training.
I can safely say that the programme has far exceeded my expectations: I continue to be exposed to the very latest thinking in this field, which I am taught to approach with an open, critical and pragmatic mind.
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It was 1993 when Butler created this dystopian sci-fi vision of Los Angeles circa 2025, whose closeness to the evils of present-day social and environmental ills is hauntingly... Read morePublished 4 days ago by Claudia Gorbman
A fast paced read set in the very near future. Eerily familiar to the headline of today. The matter of fact treatment of race and gender raises this book beyond genre fiction.Published 5 days ago by Anne T. Edwards
What a page-turner! I could not put this book down.
Lauren Olamina is not your normal teenager, even compared to the other teens in the gated community she lives in... Read more
Wish Amazon offered more Black authors in this genre. This book kept making me turn the page. I could hardly put it down but I had work and had to other things that required me to... Read morePublished 7 days ago by cinny2586
woW ! i don't have a vocabulary with enough Superlatives to do Octavia Butler justice. i read Parable of the Sower and the Parable of the Talents, after reading the other well... Read morePublished 10 days ago by jdog


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Gentlemen, Merge Your Manufacturers; Consolidation Hits on Virtually All Cylinders
By KEITH BRADSHER
Published: March 23, 2000
DETROIT, March 22— The consolidation of the global auto industry has reached a full-throttle roar as automakers around the world respond to the changing economics of the business.
The list of companies partly or entirely acquired by other manufacturers in the last two years was impressive even before the frenzy of the last two weeks: Chrysler, Volvo Cars, Nissan, Saab, Fuji Heavy Industries, Suzuki, Daihatsu, Lamborghini, Bugatti, Bentley and Rolls-Royce. Since the beginning of last week, General Motors has agreed to buy a fifth of Fiat; Ford Motor has agreed to buy Land Rover from BMW; and DaimlerChrysler has moved close to taking a one-third stake in Mitsubishi Motors. Daewoo and Samsung are both up for sale in Korea, with deals likely later this year.
The consolidation, which is forcing consumers to choose from an ever-dwindling number of automotive groups, is driven by three broad trends: strong brands are increasingly important; manufacturers need to enter difficult markets; the cost of technology keeps rising.
Though the strategies of the leading manufacturers sometimes overlap, Ford and Volkswagen have mainly tried to acquire internationally known brands; DaimlerChrysler and Renault, of France, have mainly sought to enter new markets like Japan and Korea; and G.M. has mainly pursued ways to acquire new technology and parts more cheaply.
Some independent automakers are being driven into the arms of rivals by financial distress, as in the case of Nissan and Mitsubishi, but more are compelled to act by the steeply rising cost of technology, particularly for developing new, low-pollution engines and alternative propulsion sources like fuel cells. Automakers that cannot afford to develop vehicles with cleaner engines, better performance on the road and improved safety features risk being shut out of the European, United States and Japanese markets, either by regulation or by competition from cars designed by more financially solid rivals.
Though big automakers have long wanted to acquire their smaller rivals, only recently have many smaller companies been interested in deals as they face rising technology costs, said Alan G. Perriton, the president of G.M. Korea and G.M.'s executive in charge of new business alliances in the Asia-Pacific region. Until recently, among smaller companies ''there was a greater sense of, 'I could do this myself and in my own fiefdom,' '' Mr. Perriton said. ''That has come home to a sense of reality, that you can't do that.''
Higher gasoline prices have also made smaller manufacturers slightly more attractive because they tend to be strong in small, fuel-efficient cars.
Nine years of economic stagnation and recession have turned most of Japan's once proud automakers into takeover targets, rather than acquirers. Two exceptions, Honda and Toyota, have stayed financially sound through their robust performances in the United States but have for the most part shied away from international deals for fear of cultural clashes.
Vibrant economies. meanwhile, have given manufacturers with most of their sales in Europe and the United States the financial means to lead the consolidation. Executives at these manufacturers deny, however, that the simple pursuit of ever greater size is what motivates their deals.
''We think the consolidation is inevitable,'' said Jacques A. Nasser, chief executive at Ford. ''It isn't about getting bigger -- that is not why we do it -- because it is about being better and quicker and making sure that what we're doing fits into an overall strategy that makes sense.''
Consumer advocates have been watching the consolidation with varying degrees of wariness, while expressing concern that the biggest remaining companies not merge with each other.
Jack Gillis, the auto expert at the Consumer Federation of America, said that with so much competition among divisions at each automaker, as well as competition among different automakers, there was little opportunity for raising prices beyond what the costs justified. Ford's acquisitions of Jaguar and Volvo, for instance, have benefited consumers over all, he said, by allowing Ford to improve Jaguar's quality and to adopt Volvo's safety technologies across a much wider range of vehicles.
''The consolidation we've seen in the auto industry in the last year and a half is positive for the consumer,'' Mr. Gillis said. ''If it continues, however, we may need to be concerned about the creation of some mini-monopolies.''
But AAA, formerly the American Automobile Association, has worried that car buyers might end up paying for today's mergers with higher sticker prices for blandly similar cars. ''It really dilutes creativity and presents a temptation to raise prices,'' said David Van Sickle, director of automotive and consumer information for AAA, which has 42 million members.
Ford and Volkswagen, which used to share reputations for inexpensive, even utilitarian cars, have pursued independent but strikingly similar strategies. Both have sought to escape the narrow profit margins and overcapacity of the mass market by moving upmarket.


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text: Leonard Chatagnier wrote: > Ahh Ray Parrish, you are the one that better calm down. I've followed you > thread from start to finish but it's so long that I and I expect most everyone else can't remember all the things suggested and tried. Your attitude is not one that inspires the list to help you. And your response to the one offering a suggestion below is uncalled for even if you've tried it. You need to either grow up or turn the heat on sooner when cold weather comes so it doesn't freeze your brain. There was no call for your response to the person trying to help you out. Frankly, I don' t give a damn if you ever solve your screen saver issue as it's not a critical problem anyway. > > fwiw. > > Leonard Chatagnier > lenc5570 at sbcglobal.net > > > --- On Fri, 1/9/09, Ray Parrish <crp at cmc.net> wrote: > > >> From: Ray Parrish <crp at cmc.net> >> Subject: Re: Screen Saver >> To: "Ubuntu user technical support, not for general discussions" <ubuntu-users at lists.ubuntu.com> >> Date: Friday, January 9, 2009, 10:18 PM >> steve wrote: >> >>> Ray Parrish wrote: >>> >>> >>> >>>>>>> >>>>>>> >>>>>>> >>>>>> It didn't, the damn thing still works, >>>>>> >> even 'though I removed >> >>>>>> gnome-screensaver with Synaptic. So... >>>>>> >> just how the hell do you get rid >> >>>>>> of the screen saver in Ubuntu? >>>>>> >>>>>> The thing that really irks me is that I >>>>>> >> never turned it on in the first >> >>>>>> place, all I did was review the available >>>>>> >> screen savers, and now it will >> >>>>>> NOT shut off. >>>>>> >>>>>> Later, Ray >>>>>> >>>>>> >>>>>> >>>>>> >>>>> im going to assume you tried this already, but >>>>> >> here it is anyway.... >> >>>>> system> preferences> uncheck >>>>> >> "activate screensaver when idle" >> >>>>> i hate screensavers too, and its always worked >>>>> >> for me. good luck. >> >>>>> >>>>> >>>>> >>>>> >>>>> >>>>> >>>> If you want to help, at least read the thread >>>> >> first... >> >>>> >>>> >>> well im going to suggest you walk away from the >>> >> computer for a while, >> >>> its obvious by your tone you have had more than enough >>> >> for one day. >> >>> were all here to help, it was only a suggestion. >>> >>> >>> >>> >>> >>> >> Actually, I'm pretty calm, it just burns me when people >> like you jump in >> and make really stupid suggestions before reading the whole >> thread first >> to see what has already been tried. >> >> I've been using computers for over 20 years, and >> I'm smart enough to try >> telling the program not to start first, yet you assumed I >> was just some >> idiot that didn't know how to run a computer, and gave >> your idiotic >> suggestion that I uncheck the box that starts the >> screensaver. duuuhhhh..... >> >> Later, Ray Parrish >> >> -- >> http://www.rayslinks.com/ Web index of human reviewed >> links. >> <http://www.rayslinks.com/Troubleshooting%20and%20fixing%20Windows.html> >> Trouble shooting and Fixing Windows >> http://www.writingsoftheschizophrenic.com My poetry in web >> pages >> >> >> -- >> ubuntu-users mailing list >> ubuntu-users at lists.ubuntu.com >> Modify settings or unsubscribe at: >> https://lists.ubuntu.com/mailman/listinfo/ubuntu-users >> > > MY attitude??? Really long thread??? I just started this thread yesterday, and not that many suggestions have been given or tried. I have seen people on this group jumped on for posting solutions to problems they had without asking a question, and being accused of blogging for it. Frankly I think posts of that type are useful as they provide solutions to problems that someone else might have sometime. Yet, I can't jump on someone for not paying attention, and giving a totally non-technical suggestion that only a very stupid first time computer user would have missed in the first place. Your personal insults are not appreciated, and I frankly think you are the one that needs to grow up. By the way, whatever happened to bottom posting? I've had my ass chewed several times for top posting, and have learned the "Ubuntu way" of bottom posting so I don't offend anyone on here, yet you top post your insults. Evidently the rules don't apply to you. I didn't even jump on the guy that hard to begin with. All I did in my first reply to him is suggest that he read the thread first before offering suggestions. It's when he replied back and suggested that I needed to "calm down and walk away from the computer for a while" that I actually got a little mad. I'm polite when other people are polite to me. Always... It's obvious you've never hung out in the Microsoft newsgroups where flame wars are rampant, and it's hard to follow any threads because of the trolls who only criticize other people without contributing any solutions. I'm actually looking for a solution here, but it seems none are forthcoming. That's too bad. I've tried all of the suggestions given here, and for some mad reason the screen saver insists on running even with no screen saver software installed on my computer now. How the hell is it doing that? I'm sorry you don't like my attitude, but then I don't like yours either, and don't give a damn if you ever answer any of my questions. I'm sure there are plenty of other people who like to actually help instead of criticizing people who will help. As to "it's not a critical problem anyway" I say that that is a pretty sad attitude YOU have there. Computers are supposed to do what you tell them to, not what the hell they please. It's a pretty critical problem when they start doing things they aren't supposed to do, and this needs to be solved somehow if Ubuntu is ever going to be considered a usable platform that can be used by the masses. Sure I'm willing to give up some of my comfort to live a greener life, by leaving the heat off and wearing a coat in the house... but there was no reason whatsoever for you to turn it into an insult. Do you give up any of your comforts to help the world be a greener place? I bet not. I'm beginning to understand what the guy on the Linux Haters blog was on about. Some of you people on this group are really arrogant, and treat people who just started using Linux like they are stupid because they have been using Windows up until now. Most of your answers to questions contain instructions to run some command in Terminal, instead of using the existing gui tools in Ubuntu. Sure, Linux is powerful that way, and it's nice to have the ability to dig into the workings of the system in a way you just can't on Windows, but give the new users a break and let them in on the easy way first before you give them cryptic commands to run that they can't even tell are safe. I used Synaptic Package Manager to do the removals of the screen saver, as I don't think apt would inform me of the additional dependent packages that would be removed. Maybe I'm wrong, but Synaptic is a very well designed Package Manager that keeps track of things for you very well. It shows you where it installs things, and even keeps track of when and what you have installed in it's History. Start using it, and teaching others to use it, it's a great package. That's all for now. Later, Ray Parrish -- http://www.rayslinks.com/ Web index of human reviewed links. <http://www.rayslinks.com/Troubleshooting%20and%20fixing%20Windows.html> Trouble shooting and Fixing Windows http://www.writingsoftheschizophrenic.com My poetry in web pages


text:
Autism Treatment Guideby Elizabeth K. Gerlach
View All Available Formats & Editions
Product Details
- 9781885477644
- Publisher:
- Future Horizons, Inc.
- Publication date:
- 01/28/2000
- Pages:
- 157
- Product dimensions:
- 4.22(w) x 7.04(h) x 0.46(d)
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Autism Treatment Guide based on 0 ratings. 1 reviews.
My son has Aspergers Syndrome and I have found this book full of very useful information including address, websites, contact numbers, treatments, vitamin supplements etc¿ I highly recommend this book for anyone dealing with Autism Spectrum Disorders.


text:
On hot days, you may spend time with your kids outside. But, the sunscreen you're putting on them may not be doing the job.
The labels can be confusing and misleading. The Food and Drug Administration is expected to issue new sunscreen guidelines soon. But in the meantime, dermatologists recommend using a sunscreen with both UVA and UVB protection.
Waterproof. Ultra sweat proof. Protects for hours. How do you choose the most effective sunscreen?
"The goal is to make the guidelines and labeling as clear as possible so that families with kids can go out and know what's safe and what's effective," said Dr. Brian Sperber.
Michelle Root has two kids swimming at the pool.
"If it says it's good for kids then I usually just buy it," she said.
But Dr. Sperber says Michelle should be looking for other things in a sunscreen.
"I recommend all of my patients find a sunscreen that offers both UVA and UVB protection," said Sperber.
And using enough is just as important. Dermatologists recommend you use about a shot glass of sunscreen for your body. And a teaspoon for your face to get the best protection.
Put it on 30 minutes before going outside and reapply every 2 hours.
"Wow! I usually use like a pea size amount for my kids face and i know not a shot glass for their bodies. I haven't been using enough," said Root.
Michelle plans to use more sunscreen next time, and buy a more effective bottle to protect herself and her family at the pool.
Even with sunscreen, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention says the best way to prevent skin cancer is to wear sun protective clothing. And minimize sun exposure in the middle of the day when UV rays are at their peak.


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Chain hotels are reaping the benefits of sustainable operating practices. A study published in the International Journal of Hospitality Management found that chains are more likely than independent hotels to use energy-efficient light bulbs, water-saving fixtures, and green cleaning products.
"Chains have the resources necessary to undertake well-informed environmental protection activities and to execute them efficiently," the study posits. "For example, hotel chains can transfer successful practices established in individual units to other units, leveraging an information advantage not available to self-reliant independent hotels."
Under the wing of a corporate structure, chain hotels are often accountable for meeting environmental policies and implementing company-wide directives. An individual hotelier won't face the same promptings to improve efficiency because "the extent to which a property is sensitive to environmental concerns depends on the operator's knowledge, attitude, and willingness to act."
By being slow to adopt sustainable practices or failing to advertise their efforts, the study concluded that some independent hotels may be losing their competitive advantage in drawing customers.
For more information on greening hotels, read Energize Your Hotel's Efficiency.
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