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Brief Summary
Comprehensive Description
| Common names: shark (English), tiburón (Espanol)
Carcharhinus leucas (Muller & Henle, 1839)
Bull shark
Heavy-bodied; head thick; snout broadly rounded and very short (length before mouth 4.6-6.7% of TL); eye small; nasal flaps broadly triangular; lip folds very short; top teeth broadly triangular, straight, heavily serrated, lower teeth high, straight, narrow; no ridge on back between dorsal fins; origin of first dorsal fin usually over or just posterior to pectoral axil; first dorsal fin broadly triangular and moderately high (height 7.0-11.3% of TL), its apex fairly pointed, its origin a little before insertion point of pectoral; 2nd dorsal fin relatively large, its origin slightly in front of anal origin, its free rear tip short; pectoral large, wide, pointed; inconspicuous keels on tail base.
Grey, becoming white ventrally, often with faint pale grey horizontal band extending into the white of the upper abdomen; fins of small individuals with dusky tips or edges, adults plain.
May reach 350 cm.
Habitat: continental coasts, estuarine, muddy areas, lagoons, often travels far up rivers.
Depth: 0-150 m.
All tropical and subtropical seas; southern California to the Gulf and to Peru, Malpelo and the Revillagigedos.
Global Endemism: All species, TEP non-endemic, Circumtropical ( Indian + Pacific + Atlantic Oceans), "Transpacific" (East + Central &/or West Pacific), All Pacific (West + Central + East), East Pacific + Atlantic (East +/or West), Transisthmian (East Pacific + Atlantic of Central America), East Pacific + all Atlantic (East+West)
Regional Endemism: All species, Eastern Pacific non-endemic, Tropical Eastern Pacific (TEP) non-endemic, Continent + Island (s), Continent, Island (s)
Residency: Resident
Climate Zone: North Temperate (Californian Province &/or Northern Gulf of California), Northern Subtropical (Cortez Province + Sinaloan Gap), Northern Tropical (Mexican Province to Nicaragua + Revillagigedos), Equatorial (Costa Rica to Ecuador + Galapagos, Clipperton, Cocos, Malpelo), South Temperate (Peruvian Province )
The Bull Shark inhabits coastal waters in tropical and subtropical seas worldwide. (Enchanted Learning 2000)
Biogeographic Regions: australian (Native ); oceanic islands (Native ); indian ocean (Native ); atlantic ocean (Native ); pacific ocean (Native )
Range Description
Primarily the Bull Shark is an inhabitant of continental shelf waters to a depth of about 150 m (but mostly less than 30 m), but it commonly moves into estuarine and fresh waters. It has been documented as travelling large distances up rivers (Thorson 1972), including the Amazon, Gambia, Ganges, Mississippi, San Juan (and Lake Nicaragua), Tigris and Zambezi. It also has been observed to tolerate hypersaline conditions up to 53 parts per thousand (ppt) (sea water is approximately 35 ppt). Although mostly a continental species, there are insular records from the Philippines and the South Pacific islands of New Caledonia, Fiji and Rangiroa (Compagno et al. 1989).
occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations
National Distribution
United States
Origin: Native
Regularity: Regularly occurring
Currently: Present
Confidence: Confident
Type of Residency: Year-round
Global Range: Circumtropical. Gulf of Mexico, coast of eastern U.S. usually from Chesapeake Bay south. Migratory in Gulf of Mexico.
Physical Description
The Bull Shark can be recognized by its unique body shape, which is much wider in comparison to its length than other sharks, and its snout, which is wider than it is long. These features give the Bull Shark an almost stout appearance. The shark is gray on the top half of its body and off white underneath. Several individuals have been found with pale stripes on the sides of their bodies. The Bull Shark also has two dorsal fins, the second of which is much smaller than the first. Males of the species are approximately 7 feet long and weich 90 kg while females grow to 11.4 feet on average and weigh 230 kg. The young sharks can be distinguished by the dark edges on their fins. (Australian Museum 1999, Enchanted Learning 2000)
Range mass: 90 to 230 kg.
Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: female larger
Max. size
Length: 305 cm
Diagnostic Description
Type Information
Catalog Number: USNM 16887
Collection: Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Department of Vertebrate Zoology, Division of Fishes
Preparation: Unknown
Collector(s): D. Bransford
Locality: Lake Nicaragua, Nicaragua, North America
- Type: Gill, T. N. 1877. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. 29: 190.
Inshore/Offshore: Inshore, Inshore Only
Water Column Position: Surface, Near Surface, Mid Water, Near Bottom, Bottom + water column
Habitat: Reef (rock &/or coral), Rocks, Corals, Reef and soft bottom, Reef associated (reef + edges-water column & soft bottom), Soft bottom (mud, sand,gravel, beach, estuary & mangrove), Mud, Sand & gravel, Beach, Estuary, Mangrove, Freshwater, Water column
FishBase Habitat: Demersal
Although Bull Sharks have been caught in considerably deeper water, they most often reside in water between 30 meters and waist deep. The sharks also seem to favor murky water for hunting. It is one of the only sharks that is able to survive in freshwater for extended periods of time. (Australian Museum 1999, Smith 1999)
Aquatic Biomes: reef ; lakes and ponds; rivers and streams; coastal
Habitat and Ecology
Bull Sharks grow up to about 340 cm in total length. The young are born at between 56-81 cm. Males mature at 157-226 cm and females at 180-230 cm (Compagno 1984b).
The diet of this species is relatively diverse, including turtles, birds, dolphins, terrestrial mammals, crustaceans, echinoderms, teleost fishes and elasmobranchs (Last and Stevens 1994). However, the most diverse diet is restricted to larger individuals that are capable of consuming larger prey. The most commonly eaten prey items are teleost fishes and elasmobranchs. In the coastal lagoons of Florida, Snelson and Williams (1981) recorded a wide array of species in the diet including jacks, snook, tarpon, mullets, catfish, croaker, stingrays and sandbar sharks, but noted that saltwater catfish and stingrays (Dasyatis spp.) were most commonly eaten.
Reproduction is by placental viviparity. Litter sizes range from 1-13 (Compagno 1984b), with most between 6-8 (Pattillo et al. 1997). The gestation period is 10-11 months, with birth normally occurring in late spring and summer (Clark and von Schmidt 1965, Bass et al. 1973, Branstetter 1981). In warmer areas (e.g., Nicaragua) breeding (and hence parturition) may occur year-round (Castro 1983). The length of the reproductive cycle has not been published, but is probably biennial (Compagno in prep. b).
Thorson and Lacy (1982) and Branstetter and Stiles (1987) have provided age and growth data for this species. Thorson and Lacy (1982) used tag recapture information to estimate the growth rates of Bull Sharks in Lake Nicaragua. They estimated that the growth rates in the first two years of life were 18 and 16 cm per year, respectively. Growth subsequently slowed to 11-12 cm per year and finally to 9-10 cm per year. They estimated that females would live up to 16 years and males to 12 years.
Branstetter and Stiles (1987) used vertebral ageing techniques to estimate growth parameters for animals from the northern Gulf of Mexico. They estimated the von Bertalanffy parameters to be L∞=285 cm, k=0.076 year-1 and t = -3.0 years. The oldest estimated male was 21.3 years and the oldest female 24.2 years. Their estimates of growth for early years were similar to those of Thorson and Lacy (1982), but growth in later years was thought to be much slower (4-5 cm per year), accounting for the larger maximum ages. Ages at maturity based on Branstetter and Stiles (1987) data are 14-15 years for males and 18+ years for females.
A number of migratory habits have been documented for this shark. Pregnant females migrate to estuarine areas to give birth. The juveniles remain in these areas until temperatures drop below optimum levels and then migrate to warmer offshore waters. A general migration along the United States east coast is also observed, with movement northwards during the summer as water temperatures rise and southwards again as temperatures cool in the north (Castro 1983).
Smith et al. (1998) have reported the results of demographic analysis for C. leucas. The technique that these authors used estimated the rebound potential (r2M, similar to the intrinsic rate of increase) from litter size, age at maturity, maximum age and natural mortality. They estimated natural mortality to be 0.166 year-1 based on a maximum age of 27 years. The estimated the rebound potential was 0.027-0.039 year-1.
- Freshwater
- Marine
Habitat Type: Marine
Comments: Often in shallow coastal waters, low salinity situations; sometimes ascends rivers (only North American shark to do so).
Water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 13 samples.
Environmental ranges
Depth range (m): 1 - 1860
Temperature range (°C): 4.216 - 26.358
Nitrate (umol/L): 0.520 - 29.561
Salinity (PPS): 34.899 - 36.025
Oxygen (ml/l): 2.883 - 5.086
Phosphate (umol/l): 0.131 - 1.950
Silicate (umol/l): 0.567 - 28.497
Graphical representation
Depth range (m): 1 - 1860
Temperature range (°C): 4.216 - 26.358
Nitrate (umol/L): 0.520 - 29.561
Salinity (PPS): 34.899 - 36.025
Oxygen (ml/l): 2.883 - 5.086
Phosphate (umol/l): 0.131 - 1.950
Silicate (umol/l): 0.567 - 28.497
Note: this information has not been validated. Check this *note*. Your feedback is most welcome.
From 1 to 152 meters.
Habitat: demersal. Zambezi / Bull Shark. (Müller & Henle 1839) Attains 3 Metres. Prominantly grey with a pale underside, a rounded blunt snout and sharp serrated triangular teeth. It feeds in muddy water and preys on bony fish such as mullet and spotted grunter which form 50% of the diet. Small sharks, dolphins, skates and turtles are also part of the diet. The remains of birds, land mammals, miscellaneous debris and crabs are also found in their stomachs. This shark is remarkable for its ability to live in fresh water for indefinite periods. It has been recorded hundreds of kilometres upstream in large rivers such as the Zambezi and lake Nicaragua in Central America. Litter contains 10 -12 pups born at 60 -70 cms. The juveniles are often seen spinning out of the water, apparently in an attempt to rid themselves of external parasites. Adults occur in shallow inshore coastal waters in estuaries and rivers. The Zambezi shark has been responsible for several, sometimes fatal attacks on bathers along the East Coast of southern Africa. Worldwide distribution in warmer seas.
Non-Migrant: No. All populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations.
Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).
Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.
Gulf of Mexico population migratory.
Trophic Strategy
Diet: mobile benthic crustacea (shrimps/crabs), mobile benthic gastropods/bivalves, octopus/squid/cuttlefish, bony fishes, sharks/rays, sea snakes/mammals/turtles/birds
The Bull Shark is an omnivorous animal. It routinely preys upon fish, sharks (especially young sandbar sharks), rays, turtles, echinoderms, birds, mollusks, dolphins, and almost anything else it can find. Remains of everything from humans to hippopotami have been found in Bull Sharks' stomachs. (Australian Museum 1999, Bilson and Bilson 1999)
Comments: Feeds opportunistically on fishes, porpoises, sea turtles, mollusks, crustaceans, and refuse.
Known prey organisms
Zalophus californianus
Based on studies in:
USA: Florida, Everglades (Estuarine)
This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.
- Myers, P., R. Espinosa, C. S. Parr, T. Jones, G. S. Hammond, and T. A. Dewey. 2006. The Animal Diversity Web (online). Accessed February 16, 2011 at http://animaldiversity.org. http://www.animaldiversity.org
- W. E. Odum and E. J. Heald, The detritus-based food web of an estuarine mangrove community, In Estuarine Research, Vol. 1, Chemistry, Biology and the Estuarine System, Academic Press, New York, pp. 265-286, from p. 281 (1975).
Life History and Behavior
Life Cycle
Life Expectancy
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 13.7 years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 28.0 years.
Lifespan, longevity, and ageing
Bull Sharks are viviparous, meaning they give birth to live young that are nourished inside the mother shark. Sexual maturity is reached between the ages of 8 - 10. Bull Sharks breed in the summer months and the young sharks are born approximately one year later. The pups are born in litters of up to 13 and are around 28 inches at birth. A common breeding place for the Bull Shark is the brackish water where freshwater rivers meet the saltwater oceans. (Microsoft Encarta 1997, Enchanted Learning 2000)
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male: 6296 days.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female: 6570 days.
Gives birth to litter of 5-10 young, April-June along central Gulf coast of Florida.
Molecular Biology and Genetics
Molecular Biology
Barcode data: Carcharhinus leucas
The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species.
There are 26 barcode sequences available from BOLD and GenBank.
Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species.
See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.
-- end --
Download FASTA File
Statistics of barcoding coverage: Carcharhinus leucas
Public Records: 29
Specimens with Barcodes: 64
Species With Barcodes: 1
Conservation Status
CITES: Not listed
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: near threatened
IUCN Red List Assessment
Red List Category
Red List Criteria
Year Assessed
The Bull Shark (Carcharhinus leucas) is a common tropical and subtropical species that occurs in marine, estuarine and freshwater. It is the only species of shark that can exist for long periods in freshwater and penetrates long distances up large rivers. It is caught in fisheries throughout its range, but it is rarely a target species. Its occurrence in estuarine and freshwater areas makes it more vulnerable to human impacts and habitat modification.
National NatureServe Conservation Status
United States
Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure
NatureServe Conservation Status
Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure
Bull Sharks are commonly caught in both commercial and recreational fisheries. Thorson (1982a) reported that a commercial fishery existed for C. leucas in Lake Nicaragua and the Rio San Juan river system in Central America. However, in most situations, Bull Sharks are not normally a fishery target species but are caught as bycatch or as part of a multi-species fishery. For example, in the US Atlantic region they are an important component of inshore ecosystems, but only comprise 1-6% of the large coastal shark catch for this area (Branstetter and Burgess 1997).
While the Bull Shark has been exploited commercially for its skin, liver oil and flesh, currently its fins are the major product driving demand for this and many other species. There are limited data on recreational catches of this species. The best data come from the Gulf of Mexico where Casey and Hoey (1985) reported that in 1978 C. leucas made up about 11% (by weight) of the recreational shark catch of around three million pounds (Casey and Hoey 1985). Recreational catches of large sharks in the Gulf of Mexico have decreased substantially since the 1970s, but Casey and Hoey's results illustrate that recreational fishing may have a substantial impact on Bull Shark populations.
Beach protection programmes in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa and Queensland, Australia also regularly catch Bull Sharks. Cliff and Dudley (1992) reported that between 1978 and 1990 the South African programme caught 59 Bull Sharks, 21% of which were released alive. Species identification problems occurred in the Queensland programme until the early 1990s, thus the importance of C. leucas can only be based on data from latter years. Gribble et al. (1998) reported that after identification was improved 16% of the sharks caught state-wide were Bull Sharks, with the majority caught in the central part of the state. The lack of historical data for the Queensland programme and the low abundance in the South African programme make it impossible to assess the impact of beach meshing on Bull Shark populations.
The location of nursery areas in estuarine and freshwater systems makes the species vulnerable to pollution and habitat modification, but there has been only limited study of these impacts on Bull Sharks. Canal developments have been prolific in some estuarine areas where the species is commonly found. It is not known whether these developments have negative impacts. In Florida, USA and the Gold Coast of Queensland, Australia, these developments have substantially altered the environment. Bull Sharks occur frequently in Gold Coast canals and the species has been responsible for a number of attacks on humans (Simpfendorfer unpubl.). The warm water effluent from power stations may also impact this shark. In Florida, USA, juveniles have been reported to be trapped in the warm water outfalls during winter when they would normally have migrated to warmer water areas (Snelson et al. 1984, C. Manire, Center for Shark Research, Mote Marine Laboratory pers. Comm.). The potential impacts of pollution and habitat modification need to be further investigated for this species.
This shark is also exploited by large aquariums. The species is good for public display, adapting well to life in a tank and providing a good example of a larger, aggressive shark. With the number of public aquaria rising worldwide there is an increasing demand for this and other species of sharks for display. While populations are healthy the needs of aquaria can probably be met without affecting the wild population. However, if a wild subpopulation is depleted this may not be the case and aquaria need to have responsible collection policies that will not result in further pressure being placed on a species. At present there is no evidence that collecting for aquariums has any impact on the wild population of Bull Shark.
Conservation Actions
Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems
Bull Sharks have an appetite for young Sandbar Sharks. Because many Sandbar Sharks do not reach maturity, this has a negative impact on the large commercial businesses that fish for them. (Smith 1999)
The Bull Shark is one of the most commonly caught sharks in the world. It is frequently used as food in coastal areas and its skin is used to make leather. (Smith 1999)
Bull shark
The bull shark (Carcharhinus leucas), also known as the Zambezi shark or, unofficially, as Zambi in Africa and Nicaragua shark in Nicaragua, is a requiem shark commonly found worldwide in warm, shallow waters along coasts and in rivers. The bull shark is known for its aggressive nature, predilection for warm shallow water, and presence in brackish and freshwater systems including estuaries and rivers.
Bull sharks can thrive in both saltwater and freshwater and can travel far up rivers. They have even been known to travel as far up the Mississippi River as Illinois,[2] although there have been few recorded freshwater attacks. They are probably responsible for the majority of near-shore shark attacks, including many attacks attributed to other species.[3]
Unlike the river sharks of the genus Glyphis, bull sharks are not true freshwater sharks, despite their ability to survive in freshwater habitats.
The name "bull shark" comes from the shark's stocky shape, broad, flat snout, and aggressive, unpredictable behavior.[4] In India, the bull shark may be confused with the Sundarbans or Ganges shark. In Africa, it is also commonly called the Zambezi River shark or just Zambi. Its wide range and diverse habitats result in many other local names, including Ganges River shark, Fitzroy Creek whaler, van Rooyen's shark, Lake Nicaragua shark,[5] river shark, freshwater whaler, estuary whaler, Swan River whaler,[6] cub shark, and shovelnose shark.[7]
Evolutionary disconnect[edit]
|This section may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards, as the style of writing is interrogatory rather than informative, and therefore unsuitable as an encyclopedia reference material. (February 2015)
The bull shark is a special case in evolutionary history. Some of its closest living relatives do not have the capabilities of osmoregulation. The bull shark's genus, Carcharhinus, is shared by the sand bar shark that is not capable of osmoregulation.[8] Although, bull sharks share the same family, Carcharhinidae, with the little known river sharks as well as the same subclass, Elasmobranchii. This allows for some evolutionary predictions of where the bull shark first originated. Is it a river shark turned to the sea? Or a sea shark turned towards the river? The bull shark just has very much in common with river sharks, glyphis, and its own genus of Carcharhinus, but the evolutionary question still stands, where exactly did this shark come from and when?[9] Much more evolutionary evidence is needed to draw a sound conclusion of the bull sharks phylogeny.
Anatomy and appearance[edit]
Bull sharks are large and stout, with females being larger than males. The bull shark can be up to 81 cm (2.66 ft) in length at birth.[10] Adult female bull sharks average 2.4 m (7.9 ft) long and typically weigh 130 kg (290 lb), whereas the slightly smaller adult male averages 2.25 m (7.4 ft) and 95 kg (209 lb). While a maximum size of 3.5 m (11 ft) is commonly reported, there is a questionable record of a female specimen of exactly 4 m (13 ft). The maximum recorded weight of a bull shark was 315 kg (694 lb) but may be larger.[3][11][12] Bull sharks are wider and heavier than other requiem sharks of comparable length, and are grey on top and white below. The second dorsal fin is smaller than the first. The bull shark's caudal fin is longer and lower than that of the larger sharks, and it has a small snout, and lacks an interdorsal ridge.[10]
Bull sharks have a bite force of up to 600 kilograms-force (1,300 lbf), weight for weight the highest among all investigated cartilaginous fishes.[13]
Distribution and habitat[edit]
The bull shark is commonly found worldwide in coastal areas of warm oceans, in rivers and lakes, and occasionally salt and freshwater streams if they are deep enough. It is found to a depth of 150 metres (490 ft), but does not usually swim deeper than 30 metres (98 ft).[14] In the Atlantic, it is found from Massachusetts to southern Brazil, and from Morocco to Angola. In the Indian Ocean, it is found from South Africa to Kenya, India, and Vietnam to Australia.
Populations of bull sharks are also found in several major rivers, with more than 500 bull sharks thought to be living in the Brisbane River. One was reportedly seen swimming the flooded streets of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, during the Queensland floods of late 2010/early 2011.[15] Several were sighted in one of the main streets of Goodna, Queensland, shortly after the peak of the January 2011, floods.[16] A large bull shark was caught in the canals of Scarborough, just north of Brisbane within Moreton Bay. There are greater numbers still in the canals of the Gold Coast, also in Queensland.[17] In the Pacific Ocean, it can be found from Baja California to Ecuador. The shark has traveled 4,000 kilometres (2,500 mi) up the Amazon River to Iquitos in Peru[18] and north Bolivia.[1] It also lives in fresh water Lake Nicaragua, in the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers of West Bengal and Assam in eastern India and adjoining Bangladesh. It can live in water with a high salt content as in St. Lucia Estuary in South Africa. The bull shark is generally prolific in the warm coastal waters and estuarine systems of the Mozambique Channel and southward, including Kwa-Zulu Natal and Mozambique. The species has a distinct preference for warm currents.
After Hurricane Katrina, many bull sharks were sighted in Lake Pontchartrain.[19] Bull sharks have occasionally gone up the Mississippi River as far upstream as Alton, Illinois.[20] They have also been found in the Potomac River in Maryland.[21][22] A golf course lake in Queensland, Australia is the home to several bull sharks. They are believed to have become trapped following a flood in the 1990s. The golf course has capitalized on the novelty and now hosts a monthly tournament called the "Shark Lake Challenge."[23]
Freshwater tolerance[edit]
The bull shark is the best known of 43 species of elasmobranch in ten genera and four families to have been reported in fresh water.[24] Other species that enter rivers include the stingrays (Dasyatidae, Potamotrygonidae and others) and sawfish (Pristidae). Some skates (Rajidae), smooth dogfishes (Triakidae), and sandbar sharks (Carcharhinus plumbeus) regularly enter estuaries. The bull shark is a fish that is diadromous, meaning they can swim between saltwater and freshwater with ease.[25] These fish also fall under the category of euryhaline fish. Euryhaline refers to an organism that is able to adapt to a wide range of salinities. The bull shark is one of the only cartilaginous fishes that have been reported in freshwater systems. Many of the euryhaline species are bony fish such as salmon and tilapia and do not qualify as fish that are closely related to bull sharks due to their physiological makeup. Evolutionary assumptions can be made to help explain this sort of evolutionary disconnect; one being that the bull shark encountered a population bottleneck that occurred during the last ice age.[26] This bottleneck may have separated the bull shark from the rest of the elasmobranchii subclass and favored the genes for an osmoregulatory system. Elasmobranchs' ability to enter fresh water is limited because their blood is normally at least as salty (in terms of osmotic strength) as seawater through the accumulation of urea and trimethylamine oxide, but bull sharks living in fresh water show a significantly reduced concentration of urea within their blood.[27] Despite this, the solute composition (i.e. osmolarity) of a bull shark in freshwater is still much higher than that of the external environment. This results in a large influx of water across the gills due to osmosis and loss of sodium and chloride from the shark's body. However, bull sharks in freshwater possess several organs with which to maintain appropriate salt and water balance; these are the rectal gland, kidneys, liver and gills. All elasmobranchs have a rectal gland which functions in the excretion of excess salts accumulated as a consequence of living in seawater. Bull sharks in freshwater environments decrease the salt-excretory activity of the rectal gland, thereby conserving sodium and chloride.[28] The kidneys produce large amounts of dilute urine, but also play an important role in the active reabsorption of solutes into the blood.[28] The gills of bull sharks are likely to be involved in the uptake of sodium and chloride from the surrounding freshwater,[29] whereas urea is produced in the liver as required with changes in environmental salinity.[30] Recent work also shows that the differences in density of freshwater to that of marine waters result in significantly greater negative buoyancies in sharks occupying freshwater, resulting in increasing costs of living in freshwater. Bull Sharks caught in freshwater have subsequently been shown to have lower liver densities than sharks living in marine waters. This may reduce the added cost of greater negative buoyancy [31]
Initially, scientists thought the sharks in Lake Nicaragua belonged to an endemic species, the Lake Nicaragua shark (Carcharhinus nicaraguensis). In 1961, following specimens comparisons, taxonomists synonymized them.[32] They can jump along the rapids of the San Juan River (which connects Lake Nicaragua and the Caribbean Sea), almost like salmon.[14] Bull sharks tagged inside the lake have later been caught in the open ocean (and vice versa), with some taking as little as seven to eleven days to complete the journey.[32]
Bull sharks are able to regulate themselves to live in either fresh water or salt water. It is possible for the bull shark to live in fresh water for its entire life, but it has been observed that this does not happen for certain reasons, mostly due to reproduction. Young bull sharks will leave the brackish water in which they are born and move out into the sea in order to breed with bull sharks of the other sex. While theoretically, it may be possible for bull sharks to live in purely freshwater, it was observed that the bull sharks that were being experimented on had died within four years. The stomach was opened and all that was found were 2 small fishes that were unidentifiable. The cause of death could have been starvation since the primary food source for bull sharks resides in salt water.[33]
The bull shark is known to be able to live in both saltwater and freshwater. It was found in a research experiment that, the majority of the time, the bull sharks were found to be at the mouth of an estuary.[25] The water salinity was tested every month to determine if the difference in salinity is what drove bull sharks into the river. It was found that the bull shark stayed at the mouth of the river independent of the salinity of the water.[25] The driving factor for a bull shark to be in freshwater or saltwater is its age; as the bull shark ages the tolerance for very low or high salinity increases.[25] It was found that the majority of the newborn or very young bull sharks were found in the freshwater area, whereas the much older bull sharks were found to be in the saltwater, as they had developed a much better tolerance for the salinity.[25] This is one of the reasons why adult bull sharks will travel into the river (in order to reproduce). This is thought to be a physiological strategy to help with juvenile survival rates and a way to increase overall fitness of bull sharks.[25] The newborns are not born with a high tolerance for high salinity, so they are born in freshwater and stay there until they are able to travel out.
The bull shark's diet consists mainly of bony fish and small sharks, including other bull sharks,[3] but can also include turtles, birds, dolphins, terrestrial mammals, crustaceans, echinoderms, and stingrays. They hunt in murky waters because it is harder for the prey to see the shark coming.[1][34][35] Bull sharks have been known to use the bump-and-bite technique to attack their prey. After the first initial contact the bull shark continues to bite and tackle its prey until they are unable to flee.[36]
The bull shark is known to be a solitary hunter, although there are brief moments in which the bull sharks will team up with another bull shark in order to make it easier to hunt and to trick prey.[37][38]
Sharks are known to be opportunistic feeders,[36] and the bull shark is no exception to this, as it is part of the Carcharhinus family of sharks. Normally, sharks eat in short bursts, and when food is scarce, sharks digest for a much longer period of time in order to avoid starvation.[36] As part of their survival mechanism, bull sharks will regurgitate the food in their stomachs in order to escape from a predator. This is a distraction tactic, if the predator moves to eat the regurgitated food the bull shark can use the opportunity to escape.[39]
Bull sharks mate during late summer and early autumn,[8] often in the brackish water of river mouths. After gestating for 12 months, a bull shark may give birth to four to ten live young.[8] They are viviparous; they are born live and free-swimming. The young are about 70 cm (27.6 in) at birth and take 10 years to reach maturity. Coastal lagoons, river mouths, and other low-salinity estuaries are common nursery habitats.[3]
175 cm to 235 cm seems to be the size of a fully matured female bull shark that produce viable eggs for fertilization. The courting routine between bull sharks has not been observed in detail as of yet. It is speculated that the male bites the females on the tail until they turn upside down and they male can copulate at that point. At some points, the harassment of the male can become violent. It is not uncommon to see scratches and other marks on a mature female from the mating ritual.[40]
Bull sharks have an unusual migratory pattern in comparison to other sharks. They are found in rivers all over the world. They have the ability to go from seawater and freshwater. They give birth in the freshwater of rivers. The young bull sharks are free from predators while they grow up in the river before they go out to the sea in order to find mates.[41]
The ability to be able to survive in both freshwater and saltwater also gives another benefit that has been driven by evolution. Because the majority of sharks are only able to survive in saltwater, the bull shark has evolved to have their offspring in the freshwater where other sharks cannot enter.[42] The freshwater acts as a protective area where the young are able to grow and mature without the threat of larger sharks preying on the younger bull sharks.[42] This is an explanation for the behavior that is observed from the bull sharks as to why there would be any reason for the adult bull shark to ever travel into a freshwater area despite being able to tolerate the high salinity of marine water.
Bull sharks are born alive in freshwater. The size range of a litter for a female bull shark is around 1 to 13 pups.[43] The average time span for a female bull shark to be pregnant is around 10 to 11 months.[44] The male bull shark is able to begin reproducing around the age of 15 years while the female cannot begin reproducing until the age of 18 years.[44] Unlike most sharks though, the bull shark does not rear its young like other sharks, the young bull sharks are born into flat, protected areas.[44] Freshwater presents a natural defense against most larger predators, and the flat land is an added defense as most large predators will not swim in shallow areas. This increases their chance of survival since the parents do not rear the young in the traditional manner. This is also the reason why there is a high mortality rate in young bull sharks. Since the parents do not rear and protect the young, any predator that is able to attack a young bull shark is easily able to kill and eat the young bull shark without much resistance.[45]
Interactions with humans[edit]
Since bull sharks often dwell in very shallow waters, they may be more dangerous to humans than any other species of shark,[14] and along with the tiger shark and great white shark, are among the three shark species most likely to attack humans.[4]
One or several bull sharks may have been responsible for the Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916, which were the inspiration for Peter Benchley's novel Jaws.[46] The speculation of bull sharks possibly being responsible is based on some attacks occurring in brackish and freshwater.
The bull shark is responsible for attacks around the Sydney Harbour inlets.[47] Most of these attacks were previously attributed to great white sharks. In India, bull sharks swim up the Ganges River and have attacked people. Many of these attacks have been attributed to the Ganges shark, Glyphis gangeticus, a critically endangered river shark species that is probably the only other shark in India able to survive in fresh water, although the sand tiger shark was also blamed during the 1960s and 1970s.
The bull shark prefers coastal water which is less than 100 feet in depth. This is mostly due to their feeding patterns since they prefer murky waters. This is also a problem since this gives the most interaction with humans. It is known that bull sharks inhabit areas off the coast of Florida, and there have been reports of bull sharks getting close enough to the coast to attack humans since the bull shark is an aggressively territorial animal.[48]
Visual cues[edit]
Behavioral studies have confirmed that sharks can take visual cues in order to discriminate between different objects.[49] The bull shark is able to discriminate between colors of mesh netting that is present underwater.[49] It was found that bull sharks tended to avoid mesh netting of bright colors rather than colors that blended in with the water. Bright yellow mesh netting was found to be easily avoided when it was placed in the path of the bull shark. This was found to be the reason that sharks are attracted to bright yellow survival gear rather than ones that were painted black.[49] This is very important because it gives an insight into how bull sharks are able to pick up certain visual keys underwater that might give them an advantage when seeking out certain prey.
Energy conservation[edit]
In 2008, researchers tagged and recorded the movements of young bull sharks in the Caloosahatchee River estuary. Specifically, they were testing to find out what determined the movement of the young bull sharks.[50] It was found that the young bull sharks synchronously moved downriver when the environmental conditions changed.[50] This large movement of young bull sharks were found to be moving as a response rather than other external factors such as predators. An interesting find was that the movement was directly related to the bull shark conserving energy for itself. One way the bull shark is able to conserve energy is that when the tidal flow changes, the bull shark uses the tidal flow in order to conserve energy as it moves downriver.[50] Another way for the bull shark to conserve energy is to decrease the amount of energy needed to osmoregulate the surrounding environment.[50]
Bull sharks are apex predators and seldom have to fear being attacked by other animals. Humans are their biggest threat. Larger sharks, such as the tiger shark and great white shark, may attack them.[3] There have been stories documented in the media of saltwater crocodiles preying on young bull sharks in the rivers and estuaries of Northern Australia.[51]
See also[edit]
- Outline of sharks
- List of sharks
- List of fatal, unprovoked shark attacks in the United States by decade
Notes and references[edit]
- ^ a b c Simpfendorfer, C. & Burgess, G.H. (2005). "Carcharhinus leucas". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.1. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 18 August 2011.
- ^ Sharks In Illinois. In-Fisherman (16 July 2012). Retrieved on 30 November 2013.
- ^ a b c d e "Bull shark". Florida Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 8 September 2006.
- ^ a b "Bull shark". National Geographic. Retrieved 3 April 2011.
- ^ "Biology of Sharks and Rays". ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research. Retrieved 19 August 2010.
- ^ McGrouther, Mark (12 May 2010). "Bull Shark, Carcharhinus leucas Valenciennes, 1839 – Australian Museum". Australian Museum. Retrieved 19 August 2010.
- ^ Allen, Thomas B. (1999). The Shark Almanac. New York: The Lyons Press. ISBN 1-55821-582-4.
- ^ a b c McAuley, R. B.; Simpfendorfer, C. A.; Hyndes, G. A. and Lenanton, R. C. J. (2007). "Distribution and reproductive biology of the sandbar shark, Carcharhinus plumbeus (Nardo), in Western Australian waters". Mar. Freshwater Res. 58 (1): 116–126. doi:10.1071/MF05234.
The proportion of mature males with running spermatozoa increased from 7.1% in October to 79 and 80% in January and March, respectively, suggesting that mating activity peaks during late summer and early autumn.
- ^ Fowler, S., Reed, T., Dipper, F. (1997). Elasmobranch biodiversity, conservation, and management: Proceedings of the international seminar and workshop. Gland Switzerland: IUCN.
- ^ a b "Shark Species; Bull Sharks". Shark Diver Magazine 17: 34. 2003.
- ^ "The Rosenstiel School of Marine & Atmospheric Science".
- ^ "9 Biggest Sharks Ever Caught". Total Pro Sports.com.
- ^ Habegger, M. L.; Motta, P. J.; Huber, D. R.; Dean, M. N. (2012). "Feeding biomechanics and theoretical calculations of bite force in bull sharks (Carcharhinus leucas) during ontogeny". Zoology. doi:10.1016/j.zool.2012.04.007. ; for a popular summary, see Walker, Matt (12 October 2012). "Bull sharks have strongest bite of all shark species". BBC News. Retrieved 12 October 2012.
- ^ a b c Crist, Rick. "Carcharhinus leucas". University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 8 September 2006.
- ^ "Queensland rebuilding 'huge task'". BBC News. 12 January 2011.
- ^ Bull sharks seen in flooded streets | Offbeat | Weird News, Odd and Freaky Stories in Northern Rivers | Clarence Valley Daily Examiner. Dailyexaminer.com.au (14 January 2011). Retrieved on 4 May 2012.
- ^ Berrett, Nick (14 November 2008). "Canal shark shock". Redcliffe & Bayside Herald. Quest Community Newspapers. Retrieved 26 March 2009.
- ^ Shark Gallery. Bull shark (Carcharhinus leucas). sharks-med.netfirms.com
- ^ High number of sharks reported in Lake Pontchartrain. wwltv.com. 16 September 2006
- ^ "Sharks in Illinois". In-Fisherman. Retrieved 26 July 2010.
- ^ 8-Foot Shark Caught In Potomac River. Nbcwashington.com. Retrieved on 4 May 2012.
- ^ Zauzmer, Julie (22 August 2013). "Man catches 2 bull sharks in Potomac". Washington Post.
- ^ "Shark-Infested Australian Golf Course Believed to Be World's First". Fox News. October 11, 2011.
- ^ Compagno, Leonard I.V. and Cook, Sid F. (March 1995). "Freshwater elasmobranchs; a questionable future". Florida Museum of Natural History Ichthyology Department. Retrieved 27 April 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f Heupel, Michelle R.; Colin A. Simpfendorfer (2008). "Movement and distribution of young bull sharks Carcharhinus leucas in a variable estuarine environment". Aqutic Biology 1: 277–289. doi:10.3354/ab00030.
- ^ Tillett B., Meekan, M., Field, I., Thornburn, D., Ovenden, J. (2012). "Evidence for reproductive philopatry in the bull shark Carcharhinus leucas". Journal of Fish Biology 80: 2140–2158. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2012.03228.x.
- ^ Pillans, R.D.; Franklin, C.E. (2004). "Plasma osmolyte concentrations and rectal gland mass of bull sharks Carcharhinus leucas, captured along a salinity gradient.". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A: Molecular and Integrative Physiology 138 (3): 363–371. doi:10.1016/j.cbpb.2004.05.006. PMID 15313492.
- ^ a b Pillans, R.D.; Good, J.P., Anderson, W.G., Hazon, N and Franklin, C.E. (2005). "Freshwater to seawater acclimation of juvenile bull sharks (Carcharhinus leucas): plasma osmolytes and Na+/K+-ATPase activity in gill, rectal gland, kidney and intestine". Journal of Comparative Physiology B: Biochemical, Systemic, and Environmental Physiology 175 (1): 37–44. doi:10.1007/s00360-004-0460-2. PMID 15565307.
- ^ Reilly, B.D.; Cramp, R.L., Wilson, J.M., Campbell, H.A and Franklin, C.E. (2011). "Branchial osmoregulation in the euryhaline bull shark, Carcharhinus leucas: a molecular analysis of ion transporters". The Journal of Experimental Biology 214 (17): 2883–2895. doi:10.1242/jeb.058156. PMID 21832131.
- ^ Anderson, W.G.; Good, J.P., Pillans, R.D., Hazon, N and Franklin, C.E. (2005). "Hepatic urea biosynthesis in the euryhaline elasmobranch Carcharhinus leucas". Journal of Experimental Zoology Part A: Comparative Experimental Biology 303A (10): 917–921. doi:10.1002/jez.a.199. PMID 16161010.
- ^ http://jeb.biologists.org/content/early/2015/01/07/jeb.114868.abstract
- ^ a b Fresh Waters: Unexpected Haunts. elasmo-research.org. Accessed 6 April 2008.
- ^ Montoya, Rafael Vasquez; Thorson, Thomas B. (1982). "The bull shark and largetooth sawfish in Lake Bayano, a tropical man-made impoundment in Panama". Env. Biol. Fish 7 (4): 341–347. doi:10.1007/BF00005568.
- ^ Kindersley, Dorling (2001) in Animal, David Burnie and Don E. Wilson (eds.) London & New York: Smithsonian Institution, ISBN 0789477645.
- ^ Snelson, Franklin F; Mulligan, Timothy J; Williams, Sherry E. (1 January 1984). "Food Habits, Occurrence, and Population Structure of the Bull Shark, Carcharhinus Leucas, in Florida Coastal Lagoons". Bulletin of Marine Science 1: 71–80.
- ^ a b c Motta, Philip J; Wilga, Cheryl D. (2001). "Advances in the study of feeding behaviors, mechanisms, and mechanics or sharks". Environmental Biology of Fishes 60 (60): 131–156. doi:10.1023/A:1007649900712.
- ^ Bull Sharks, Carcharhinus leucas. Marinebio.org (14 January 2013). Retrieved on 30 November 2013.
- ^ Life of Bull Shark | Life of Sea. Life-sea.blogspot.com (15 November 2011).
- ^ Tuma, Robert E (1976). Investigations of the ichthyofauna of Nicaraguan lakes. American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists.
- ^ Jenson, Norman H (1976). "Investigation of the Icthyofauna of Nicaraguan Lakes". American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists.
- ^ Bres, M (1993). "The Behaviour of Sharks". Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 3 (2): 133–159. doi:10.1007/BF00045229.
- ^ a b Heupel, Michelle R.; Carlson, John K. and Simpfendorfer, Colin A. (14 May 2007). "Shark nursery areas: concepts, definitoin characterization and assumptions". Marine: Ecology Progress Series 337: 289–297. doi:10.3354/meps337287.
- ^ Pacific Shark Research Center » Featured Elasmobranch – Bull Shark. Psrc.mlml.calstate.edu (16 February 2009). Retrieved on 30 November 2013.
- ^ a b c Fact Sheet: Bull Sharks. Sharkinfo.ch (15 October 1999). Retrieved on 30 November 2013.
- ^ Bull Shark – Animal Facts and Information. Bioexpedition.com. Retrieved on 30 November 2013.
- ^ Handwerk, Brian. "Great Whites May Be Taking the Rap for Bull Shark Attacks". National Geographic News. Retrieved 1 February 2007.
- ^ Quinn, Ben (15 March 2009). "Shark attacks bring panic to Sydney's shore". The Guardian (London). Retrieved November 2009.
- ^ Frantz, Vickie (18 July 2011). "Bull Sharks Attacks Comonly in Warm, Shallow Waters". accuweather.
- ^ a b c Bres, M. (1993). "The behaviour of sharks". Reviews in Fish Bviology and Fisheries 3 (2): 133–159. doi:10.1007/BF00045229.
- ^ a b c d Ortega, Lori A.; Heupel, Michelle R.; van Beynen, Philip and Motta, Philip J. (2009). "Movement patterns and water quality preferences of juvenile bull sharks (Carcharhinus lecuas) in a Florida estuary". Evionrmen Biol Fish 84 (4): 361–373. doi:10.1007/s10641-009-9442-2.
- ^ "No Bull: Saltwater Crocodile Eats Shark". UnderwaterTimes.com. 13 August 2007. Retrieved 15 June 2008.
General references[edit]
- "Carcharhinus leucas". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 23 January 2006.
- Froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. (2005). "Carcharhinus leucas" in FishBase. 09 2005 version.
- Bull shark, Carcharhinus leucas MarineBio"
- Sunday Herald Sun, Sunday, 23 April 2005
Names and Taxonomy
Comments: Revision of LEUCUS-GANGETICUS group soon to be (or already) published by Garrick. C. AZUREUS is a synonym (Lee et al. 1980).


text:
Im hopeing to come up with a solution and here is the issue.
I have a item in woocommerce that is a variable product.
Customers can choose to order
300 ect
Issue Im having is USPS Plug in only works to 70 lbs.
If my customer orders 200 of that item it is 89 Lbs and the usps system returns a ugly " no shipping option available"
So I tried to set up a weight based shipping for the heavier items in my AWD Weight/Country shipping module.
**** This worked and error went away..
*** The Issue is when a user adds 1 item to their cart and go's to check out, The weight based price I set up for heavy orders is showing.. And does not go away.
Even if I use the calculate shipping *USPS* the AWD Weight/Country SHIPPING price is still included in list..
I need to hide AWD Weight/Country untill USPS runs out of options and then have it dispay the shipping cost as I set up.
If some one knows another solution Im all ears.
Please dont say its a theme or wc out of date, as I tested this on updated core files and still doing same thing..
Is there a hook I need to add? Or am I missing something

subset: commoncrawl


text:
By Jessica Jacobs, USAG Schweinfurt Public AffairsSeptember 11, 2013
SCHWEINFURT, Germany (Sept. 11, 2013) -- Hi, I'm Jessica, an Army wife of six years and a mother of two. My family and I have lived in Schweinfurt for almost three years and are approaching our time to permanently change station back to the States. With the closure of the garrison happening as we speak, coupled with the movement and downsizing of the Army, this PCS process has become more challenging than I ever expected.
One thing that I forget sometimes as a spouse is that the mission is always first. Although families are also a top priority for the Army, you have to be your own family's advocate. Here are some tips on how I have been able to do what's best for our family, while keeping the Army's mission first.
Know your stuff.
I have always wanted to know how things work in the Army. How does paperwork get done? Where do orders come from? What needs to happen for a successful PCS? Knowing how and why things work the way that they do has allowed me to be successful in receiving help when I needed it. When there was a conflict with dates for our PCS, I was able to go directly to the office that gave me step-by-step instructions about how to fix it. Bldg. 40 at Conn Barracks is a great place to start on your journey for answers.
Be direct.
As you are trying to find answers to questions and get things done, I have found that sometimes the answers don't tell me what to do next. Try not to ask "yes/no" questions, but ask "What exactly do we need to do?" instead. This way of asking questions allows for more solution answers than feeling like you have been passed off to someone else. When you need something or are looking for something you can't find, my favorite question to ask a customer service rep or manager is, "What would it take?" Here's an example: "What would it take for me to get X-Y-Z at the PX?" This type of question opens the door toward compromise … and can save you the frustration after hearing the wrong answer to a "yes/no" question you might otherwise pose.
Use your manners.
When has throwing a fit and complaining "woe is me" worked for anyone? Unfortunately, you are probably not the only family that needs paperwork completed, an appointment scheduled or questions answered. Whenever speaking with someone that has the ability to help you, remember the old adage, "you get more bees with honey then with vinegar."
Be on the same page.
Remember that because you aren't the one wearing the uniform, sometimes changes can only be done by your Soldier doing the work. Be on the same page with your Soldier! For my family, constantly communicating with my spouse about what needs to be changed and what steps have to be accomplished to get a result have been key to our success. Don't forget our Soldiers get the bulk of their news and information while in formation. Communicate with him or her. Know what questions to ask and ensure your Soldier asks them for you. This is your way to inject your voice into the chain of command. When both people understand what is going on, it makes the process a little less stressful.
Be flexible.
Things take time. Paperwork usually has to touch many desks before it is complete. That being said, I always stay persistent. Checking on a status and asking for a date that an answer can be expected are all way to keep things moving. The last thing you want to do is wait for an answer for two months and find out that it has been sitting on someone's desk. A polite yet direct way to get the info you need is to phrase the question, "What's the status of such and such?" This open-ended question moves the conversation toward reaching your goal and plants a bug in the person's ear.
Don't be scared.
Remember that if your family needs help your family readiness group leader and/or chain of command are there for you. Recently, I was having a hard time figuring out how and when our upcoming PCS was going to happen. With months of trying to get answers without success I spoke with my husband's commander to ask for a direction. While I don't recommend this tactic, nor should this be your first step when seeking help, commanders are for families too and usually eager to help if they can. Ask questions at town halls or unit forums. Take advantage of things like unit Facebook pages or blogs. And if leadership gives you the "Don't hesitate to contact me" line or states he or she has an open-door policy, then take them up on it. Hold them accountable.
Be prepared.
In a perfect world everything in the Army life would happen at the best time for everyone with no hiccups or problems, but unfortunately that doesn't happen all of the time. Having a Plan B, C and D is the best way to avoid being disappointed. When your family is prepared to handle the best and worst case scenarios, you are setting yourselves up for a successful transition. Here's another little tip. I've found that the government workforce is more receptive, more able and more willing to help you when you demonstrate that you've made a good effort to help yourself.
Work backwards from goals.
If you think like a Soldier, you can get things done like a Soldier. Here's another little tip. Army leaders are all trained to "back plan." That is, they first decide what the goal or objective of a mission is, something they call the "desired end state." Once they determine the goal, they figure out the method to achieve it. I have found that this process gets results. Hey, we're not the best Army in the world for no reason. So, when dealing with a service rep or an Army official, first describe your desired end state. Then ask, "How can we get there?" or "What will it take for us to achieve our desired end state?"


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Rachel Toberman, train wreck St. Paul lawyer, is awaiting discipline, can still practice law
Would you want this woman representing you in court?
Rachel Toberman, licensed to practice law in Minnesota in 2008, presumably had her shit together at one point. She does not have her shit together now.
On May 8, the state board that monitors lawyers' ethics recommended that Toberman have her license suspended by the Minnesota Supreme Court. The recommendation comes a year after Toberman landed herself in trouble with the law thanks to an outrageous incident at Sweeney's Saloon in St. Paul where she allegedly punched and kicked police officers while swearing and laughing at them.
At the time of that incident, Toberman's legal career was already going down the toilet thanks to her propensity to lie to clients while taking their money and not doing any legal work in return.
According to the Pioneer Press, in November 2009, Toberman agreed to represent both parties during their divorce for a $1,000 flat fee. Only lawyers who are certified as "qualified neutrals" are supposed to represent both parties in divorce cases, and Toberman was not one of them. But that didn't stop her -- she simply lied to the couple and told them she was qualified.
That was far from the last time Toberman would lie to the divorcing couple. In March 2010, she sent an e-mail to the couple informing them she had submitted their divorce petition to the court. In correspondence with the couple, she reaffirmed she had submitted the petition five times over the next seven weeks. In fact, the petition had never been submitted.
Understandably fed up, the husband fired Toberman in May 2010. He requested Toberman return all documents related to the case and won a small-claims court judgment for $575, but the husband has yet to receive either the reimbursement or the divorce documents.
Toberman allegedly created quite the scene at Sweeney's.
While Toberman's legal career was careening off the rails in 2010, her personal life went off the tracks in 2011. On January 16 of that year, she allegedly created quite the scene at Sweeney's Saloon. A patron with a window seat observed Toberman's car run into his vehicle in the parking lot, then watched as she got out of her car and entered the bar. Once she was inside, the man confronted Toberman, but she told him, "I'm a lawyer. You can't prove I was driving," according to the man's recollection of the incident as reported at the time.
The man called police, but when officers arrived Toberman refused to step outside and talk about the incident. She tried to push an officer away, at which time the officer tried to place Toberman under arrest. She responded by punching and kicking the officer. Backup arrived to try and help calm her down, and Toberman punched one of the arriving officers in the lip while laughing.
She was then hauled to jail, where she continued to physically and verbally berate officers. Toberman was ultimately charged with obstructing the legal process and refusing to take a blood alcohol test. The case remains pending.
The ethics board has been investigating Toberman for almost two years, but in recent months she hasn't responded to investigators' attempts to contact her. During her last reported contact with the board in May 2011, she said she had been sober since February of that year. Investigators, however, determined Toberman was lying after they obtained medical records from a hospital where she was treated following an April 30, 2011 accident. Toberman, injured while riding as passenger, had a 0.22 blood-alcohol level at the hospital -- almost three times over the legal limit.
In the petition filed Tuesday, the ethics board accuses Toberman of failing to work on a client's matter and not disclosing a conflict of interest. Despite those well-documented offenses, her legal troubles, and her history of lying, she can continue to practice law until the Minnesota Supreme Court acts on the petition.
The state Supreme Court handles ethics violation cases for lawyers.
Martin Cole, director of the Minnesota Office of Lawyers Professional Responsibility, told City Pages that the process of reviewing an ethics petition can take up to a year, but could be expedited if Toberman and the ethics board can agree on a joint discipline recommendation.
He said the ethics board typically follows precedent when recommending punishment, which suggests in Toberman's case that she could be looking at a six-month to two-year suspension, but probably not disbarment.
"A lot of it has to do with the historical context of all the other discipline cases, and while they aren't binding precedents, you have to look at the alleged misconduct and compare it to other cases," Cole said. "The fact of the matter is failing to take action on a case, lying to a client, failing to cooperate has basically not been the stuff of disbarment unless there is already a substantial disciplinary history, which is not there" for Toberman.
"You can argue whether that's the right answer philosophically," Cole acknowledged. Of course, since the criminal charges against Toberman are pending, those won't be factored into the disciplinary proceedings, and Cole said she remains "free to practice law" until the process runs its course.
So with that in mind, a word of advice for those of you who might need legal help in Toberman's specialty areas of divorce and custody cases, drug offenses, DUI, and other criminal matters -- for the love of God, don't hire her.
For another train wreck lawyer tale, see:
-- Shana Buchanan, extremely lazy Twin Cities lawyer, could be disbarred
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Video Industry News Video Company News Technology Industry News Technology Company News Novelty Industry News Novelty Company News Gay Industry News Gay Company News Legal Industry News All Company News
Released: Jul 01st, 2005
Running Time: 159
Director: Manuel Ferrara
Company: Manuel Ferrara Productions
Distribution Companies: Red Light District
Cast: Katsuni, Erik Everhard, Manuel Ferrara, Tyla Winn, Courtney Cummz, Tiffany Mynx, Zoe Angel, Michael Stefano, Steve Holmes (I), Genesis Skye
Critical Rating: AAAA
Genre: Specialty
Manuel\'s got a section in your store, right? Or your pops section.
So, this has a really unfortunate name get over it! Fans of anal and cream pies will be in nirvana with this one. The fact is this that this has one of the best anal scenes that this reviewer has seen so far this year with Male Performer of the Year Manuel Ferrara and Foreign Female Performer of the Year Katsumi fucking like they mean it and like they dig each other endlessly. Murmuring to each other in French, the anal is non-theatrical and hot with the two just smoldering inside, and, for a spell, outside in the rain. It doesn't get much better, ever.
Pre-nom Katsumi and Manuel for Best Anal.


text:
Why friends and family may not be thrilled with your weight loss -- and what to do about it
You've given up most of those high-calorie foods you used to love. Exercised every day, even when you didn't feel like it. And finally, it's all paying off: You're edging toward your weight loss goal -- and looking pretty terrific!
At the same time, you've encountered what seems like a surprising lack of enthusiasm from some of your family and friends -- maybe even your partner -- about your new look.
As unusual as this may seem, experts say it's actually quite common to receive some unexpected reactions when you dramatically change your appearance.
"Human beings are hard-wired to resist change, so it's not uncommon to encounter some resistance whenever change occurs," says John McGrail, a Los Angeles clinical hypnotherapist and behavior expert.
Complicating matters further: When we accomplish a goal -- particularly something as difficult as losing weight -- it may serve to remind friends and family of their own failed attempts. That, too, can spark a negative reaction.
"In some ways, your weight loss becomes a symbol of their inability to accomplish their goals, so they may begin to act resentful -- or even mean -- oftentimes without even realizing they are doing so," says Christian Holle, PhD, an assistant professor of psychology at William Patterson University in Wayne, N.J.
If their goals happened to also involve weight loss, the resentment (especially from friends) can be doubly strong.
"You may find that they are suddenly excluding you from activities, saying mean things, taunting you about your new body or even your new clothes -- all born of resentment about not being able to achieve their own weight loss goals," says Warren Huberman, PhD, a psychologist who often counsels patients in conjunction with the New York University Program for Surgical Weight Loss.
What's more, Huberman says, when you experience that resentment, it's not uncommon to have a "knee-jerk reaction" yourself and to pull away in anger and hurt. But this is the last thing you want to do.
"You have to think about how you would feel in a similar situation, or maybe how you felt when others lost weight and you couldn't," Huberman says. "Try to put yourself in the place of the person who didn't win the lottery, so to speak, and you'll see that the resentment is all about them and not about you."


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Molly Moon's Incredible Book of Hypnotism (Hardcover)
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"Molly Moon is an ordinary girl living a plain and boring life in an orphanage until she discovers a hypnotism book in the library and becomes a powerful hypnotist! With faithful pug Petula by her side, Molly goes on all sorts of exciting adventures and gets in all kinds of trouble. Every book is well-written, funny, and thrilling. Molly Moon will soon have you under her hypnotic spell!"— Kate
Welcome to the Wonderful World of Hypnotism!
Molly Moon has spent her entire life in a miserable orphanage run by the hairy, snaggletoothed Miss Adderson. But when she finds a mysterious book, Molly discovers an extraordinary talent -- she can hypnotize anyone! Accompanied by Petula the pug, Molly hypnotizes her way to New York and Broadway stardom. But hot on her trail is the sinister professor, who is determined to use Molly to stage the crime of a century . . .
About the Author
Georgia Byng grew up by the river Itchen in Hampshire, England, in a large family. She started writing as a child, interviewing people who lived in the local village.
As an adult, Georgia wrote comic strips and eventually turned to writing books without pictures. She lives with the artist Marc Quinn and her children Tiger, Lucas, and Sky. Georgia has the following message for readers of this latest Molly Moon adventure: "Music is incredibly powerful. Some of it is even hypnotic. Listen and see!"
Praise For…
"Another challenger for the crowns of JK Rowling and Philip Pullman."
-Daily Telegraph (London)
"Spellbinding reading."
-The Sunday Times (London)
Bouncy-good for group read-alouds.
-Kirkus Reviews


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BIM objects for powers fasteners
ARCAT has developed their site data-rich AutoDesk Revit BIM objects for Powers Fasteners.
ARCAT has developed and posted on their site data-rich AutoDesk Revit BIM objects for Powers Fasteners, which anyone can use at no charge. In addition to creating accurate graphics, ARCAT and Powers Fasteners have added appropriate product data to each object, which saves architects and engineers time by eliminating the need for data entry and product research. All of Powers Fasteners' objects, graphics, and content are uniform and modifiable for ease of use. In addition to product information, ARCAT has embedded links in the objects to Powers Fasteners' CSI 3-Part specs.
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Angelina Jolie Thinks Brad Doesn't Do His Fair ShareLulu and Moxleys Mom
Well it's nice to know the Jolie-Pitts have the same squabbles as we mere mortals! Apparently Angelina thinks Brad doesn't pull his weight in relation to caring for the children, and I guess his looks don't make up for it…
According to US magazine, Angelina is overwhelmed, exhausted and believes she shoulders most of the parental responsibility for their six children. And, insult of all insults? She yells at him when he makes runny eggs. Trouble in paradise indeed.
Article Posted 6 years Ago


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Facebook's Instagram Adds Private Messaging for Users
Facebook Inc.'s Instagram mobile photo-sharing application will let users send photos and videos directly to their friends, as it steps up competition against upstart messaging services such as Snapchat Inc.
The new feature, called Instagram Direct, will pop up in an icon on a user's home feed. The tool will let people send photos and videos directly to as many as 15 friends, who can then discuss them using familiar features such as comments and the like button, the company said at an event in New York. The new services will be available to users today.
"It's like gathering people around a photo, a moment, and being able to have a conversation about them," Kevin Systrom, chief executive officer of Instagram, said at the event.
Instagram is adding tools to fend off increasing competition from Twitter Inc. and newer messaging startups, including WhatsApp Inc., Kik Interactive Inc. and Snapchat, all of which have garnered large user bases. Facebook last month offered to buy Snapchat, which lets users send photos that disappear once they're viewed, for about $3 billion and was turned down, a person with knowledge of the situation has said.
"This new Instagram feature is kind of like Snapchat without the snap, or like Twitter direct messages, but with a group," said Brian Blau, an analyst at Gartner Inc. "It's like everybody is getting together and thinking, 'How can we offer the same thing?' The features themselves are cool but companies are having a hard time offering anything innovative or different."
Photo Advertising
Facebook, whose social network has more than 1 billion members, purchased Instagram for about $700 million last year, and it's using the app to help it reach users on smartphones and tablets. The company has been updating the service, including adding the ability to take videos in June. In October, Instagram started letting advertisers deliver pictures to its 150 million users. Today, Systrom said it's too early to talk about using direct messaging for advertising.
While Instagram may keep developing new capabilities, such as the ability to draw on photos, it's unlikely to make messages disappear like Snapchat does, Systrom said. Instagram's service is more suited to being an archive, he said.
"Snapchat has their own market and they are going after it in a really unique way," Systrom said. "The way we've done it is just very different."
Twitter, whose microblogging service lets people post 140-character status updates, photos and videos to followers and friends, earlier this week started letting users add pictures to their direct messages.
Teen Usage
Facebook's dominance in social media has shown some vulnerabilities with teens in recent months. While usage among U.S. teenagers was relatively stable during the third quarter on Facebook, there was a decline among younger teens who log on daily, Chief Financial Officer David Ebersman said on a conference call in October.
The Menlo Park, California-based company has occasionally been unsuccessful in developing internal products to quash competition. Facebook last year unveiled Poke, which lets people send messages, videos or photos that are only available for as long as 10 seconds to friends -- meant to be used like Snapchat. While the Facebook, Instagram and Snapchat apps are among the top 20 free programs in Apple Inc.'s App Store, Poke doesn't make the list.
Earlier this month, Facebook said Emily White, an Instagram executive, was leaving to become Snapchat's chief operating officer. At Instagram, she was in charge of rolling out the first ad products.


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Is there a good way to chain methods conditionally in Ruby?
What I want to do functionally is
if a && b && c
elsif a && b && !c
elsif a && !b && c
So depending on a number of conditions I want to work out what methods to call in the method chain.
So far my best attempt to do this in a "good way" is to conditionally build the string of methods, and use
eval, but surely there is a better, more ruby, way?


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7 Reviews
These bars were a hit at a BBQ! I used half chocolate chips and half buttersctoch chips, just for fun. They were delicious! I will definitely make these again.
I made these for DD who had some friends over and I was trying to use up some coconut I had. My coconut was finely shredded and I only put 2 cups in as my family doesn't have a lot of experience with coconut and 2 cups looked like more than they could handle. I used about 1 1/2 cups chocolate chips. It was late when I took them out of the oven so they were still pretty warm when we dug into them. Wow! Melted chocolate on coconut! DD, DH, DS (the pickest!) and I loved them. They were just as good the next day. I will be making these again. Any one who likes Mounds Bars will like these. Thanks for a new dessert.
Fab recipe - have been making a v similar recipe for years called "Magic Cookie Bars "- kids & adults all adore them !
Wow! Delicious bars!! Loved them! Had a bit of trouble spreading the coconut mixture but the taste was great!! Thanks Kit!
What a great sweet treat!! Simple to make and had all the ingredients on hand. These would be nice to serve at a shower or a staff party. Yep....this one has just been saved in my Favorite Squares/Bars cookbook. Thanks Kittencal.
This recipe is great. It is simple to make and was a big hit at a work Christmas party. I have to make another batch because my husband loved them so much.
very good tasting bar and easy to make.


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U.S. Army War College >> Strategic Studies Institute >> Publications >> Details
Two Historians in Technology and War
Authored by Dr. John F. Guilmartin Jr., Sir Michael Howard.
- Added July 01, 1994
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Brief Synopsis
In April 1994, the Army War College's Strategic Studies Institute held its annual Strategy Conference. The theme for this year's conference was "The Revolution in Military Affairs: Defining an Army for the 21st Century." Sir Michael and Professor Guilmartin are historians who have experienced warfare; indeed, have distinguished themselves in combat. Sir Michael Howard served in the Coldstream Guards in Italy in the Second World War. Dr. Guilmartin served two tours as a U.S. Air Force rescue helicopter pilot in Vietnam. Their personal experience with warfare is expressed eloquently in the following pages as they make the point that war is, as Carl von Clausewitz defined it nearly 200 years ago, a distinctly human endeavor. Because the Revolution in Military Affairs makes warfare all the more complex and changeable, one would be well advised to heed another of Clausewitz's admonitions, "The use of force is in no way incompatible with the simultaneous use of the intellect."
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Some day, perhaps, we may fully understand the mechanism underlying the determination of sex, but at the present time we must acknowledge the existence of certain deficiencies in this respect. Many hypotheses have been proposed, but no one satisfies all of the conditions, although each may contain some element of truth, and be based on the observation of some actual factor. Even apart from this circumstance, however, it seems probable that the process is not a simple one, but is dependent on a complexity of influences, at least someofwhich have been individually pointed out. On the basis of general knowledge, it seems probable that each parent contributes something in the determination of the sex of the offspring, and it appears likely that the final determining factor must be referred to some peculiarity in nutrition, affecting the spermatozoid, the ovum or the embryo, alone or severally. From this point of view,
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Proview Scrap Piles Rise While Waiting on Cash From Apple
As workers stream from factories in Shatou Jiao Free Trade Zone, none emerge from Proview Technology (Shenzhen) Co.'s green-glass and white-tile plant.
A walk round back tells the reason. The mothballed south China factory of what was once the world's fourth-biggest maker of computer monitors is being dismantled for scrap.
Almost a year and a half since Proview Shenzhen shut after missing payments to suppliers and banks, the company teeters on bankruptcy. Founder Rowell Yang and creditors led by Bank of China Ltd. are now wringing out Proview's last possession of value: rights to the iPad trademark in China that Apple Inc. wants and may have to dip into its $98 billion cash pile to get.
"The creditors hope that Proview Shenzhen can be renewed and restart production," Roger Xie, an attorney for the company, said in a March 2 interview at his office in downtown Shenzhen. "Proview Shenzhen has two hopes. One is to transfer or license the trademark. The other is for Apple to compensate them and purchase the trademark to give Proview Shenzhen the ability to clear its debts."
Apple last week appealed a Shenzhen court ruling that its 2009 purchase of the iPad trademark in China from a Taiwan sister company of Proview was invalid. Consumers in China associate the iPad name with Apple's tablet, and it would be unfair to give Proview the value of that trademark which Apple created, the Cupertino, California-based company told the Higher People's Court of Guangdong.
Apple may unveil a new iPad tablet in the U.S. today.
Proview, which began selling its own product called the iPAD in 2000, shuttered its Shenzhen factory in November 2010. In contrast with the building's facade, shattered windows scar the back, and rubbish is strewn on the yard.
Scrap Piles
During a March 2 visit, workers wearing blue dust-masks appeared from time to time to augment two towering piles of scrap in what used to be a loading bay. Metal sheets, pipes and tubes protruded from the heaps.
"It's true," said Yang, when asked whether the factory was being gutted, in a March 5 telephone interview. "The Banks have taken over the assets, and can sell them."
Proview peaked at 10 percent of the global monitor market in 2006, when they ranked No. 4, said Alberto Moel, a Hong Kong-based analyst at Sanford C. Bernstein & Co.
"They could have at that point sustained themselves but they missed the window," Moel said. "Competitors ramped production and took share. They blew up, but for a while, they actually were somebody."
Community Pillar
Proview's plant is a half-hour car ride due east of Xie's office, along an expressway that tunnels through rolling green hills. Exiting the highway, a winding road curves down the hillside, around a hairpin turn before emerging into the heart of Yantian district, across the border from Hong Kong.
Yantian was formally established in 1998, and is home to more than 200,000 people and a deep-water port, as well as the Shatou Jiao Free Trade Zone, according to the local government's website.
Within four blocks of entering the district, visitors pass the Yantian People's Court, where dozens of creditors sued Proview. Xie declines to give the exact number, saying only it was "20, 30, 50" or more. Those cases ultimately led to the Yantian court-monitored arbitration that put an eight-bank group in control of Proview Shenzhen's assets from March 2009.
At the courthouse, two guards at the door ask numerous times "Are you with Apple?" And again, even after a government-issued press card is produced.
Court Documents
After finally gaining entry, an official who refused to identify himself during two hours of negotiations for access to court documents, said that records of suits involving Proview and its creditors are not available to the public.
Xie also declined to provide the documents.
Proview is well regarded in the community as one of its best-known exporters, according to Yang. The willingness of creditors to allow the company to reorganize its debt rather than push it into bankruptcy was because of intervention by the Shenzhen municipal government, which asked the banks to help in February 2009, he said.
Proview's special place can be seen on every street. While there are many businesses in the trade zone, including Ritech Technology, Spectrum Quality Toys and Europtronic, Proview is the only one identified on tourist information maps posted by the district government along its tree-lined streets.
Proview first set up a factory there in 1992, moving into its current premises in 1998, a year after the company's Hong Kong initial public offering, share sale documents show. Relative newcomer Apple opened its first store in China in 2008. Liu Zixian, a former director of the Shatou Jiao zone, was appointed to the board of Proview in 2004, filings show.
Plans to Restart
The Shenzhen plant was one of four factories of Hong Kong-listed Proview International Holdings Ltd. A lighting and audio products unit in Wuhan is the only one now operating, Yang said.
"We are trying to restructure and get an injection of capital," Yang said. "We are working with an investor on different plans, including both with a settlement payment, and with no settlement payment. It's very complicated, but we still hope to restart production."
The Higher People's Court of Guangdong is to give its judgment on Apple's appeal within three months.
"If somehow for whatever reason the iPad case settles in their favor and they have some money to invest, the last thing I'd invest it in is the business they were in," said Bernstein's Moel. "The industry has moved on without them. It's more concentrated, less profitable and more competitive."
— With assistance by Edmond Lococo


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The Positive Radio Network
Rating: 0 stars 0 0 review 55
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The thought of having the The Positive Radio Network began in 1989, and on July 5, 1993, WMSJ signed on as a full-time Christian music radio station located in Freeport, ME. Through our on-air signal and Internet audio broadcast, we reach more than 30,000 weekly listeners with a message of hope and encouragement, found in a relationship with Jesus Christ. We seek to live out the Gospel by meeting the needs in our local communities by events benefitting the homeless, sick and disadvantaged.
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candidate experience
Candidate experience is the reaction a job seeker has about an organization's job application process.
When companies are seeking to recruit people with sought-after skills, candidate experience becomes a high priority for HR managers. Time-consuming, complicated and confusing submission processes will often make candidates frustrated. A well-designed recruitment site that reduces the time it takes for a candidate to apply for a position results in a more pleasant candidate experience. An applicant-tracking system (ATS) can also help improve the candidate experience by automating responses that go out at various stages of the application process.
Designed for You: Recruiting Goes Social
Learn 6 tips for harnessing the power of social media recruiting, the benefits and potential pitfalls of deploying social performance management software, and talent management system features that HR buyers everywhere are looking for.
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Separate names with a comma.
Up for sale is the following Maximum Motorsports gear:
MMKM-2 - MM K-member for Mustang, 1996-2004
MMKB2-5 - K-Brace for 1996-2004 with 4.6 &...
Video was put together for Nitto and Discount Tire.
The 2003 Mustang Cobra brought to you by Nitto and Discount Tire


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Effective July 1, 2016, the University Library is cancelling its subscription to RefWorks. More information about this decision and options for moving your RefWorks content to another citation management tool are outlined in this RefWorks Transition Guide: http://guides.library.illinois.edu/refworkstransitionUIUC . Please contact the Library's Citation Management Working Group at email@example.com with any questions or requests for assistance.
To import BibTeX-formatted citations, you will need to create a text file listing all the BibTeX records, but with the quotation marks removed.
To do this, copy and paste the BibTeX records from some source database. Usually you will have to do this one by one, for each citation. In the example below, the records came from searching theSPIRES-HEP database for articles pertaining to QED3 . After you have a text file with all the desired BibTeX records, remove the quotation marks from the file, and save it as a txt file. This is the file you will import into RefWorks.
author = "Hoshino, Yuichi",
title = "Determination of the propagator in QED(3) by spectral
year = "2006",
eprint = "hep-th/0610016",
SLACcitation = "%%CITATION = HEP-TH 0610016;%%"
author = "Thomas, Iorwerth Owain and Hands, Simon",
title = "Chiral symmetry restoration in anisotropic QED(3)",
year = "2006",
eprint = "hep-lat/0609062",
SLACcitation = "%%CITATION = HEP-LAT 0609062;%%"
author = "Dalmazi, D. and Mendonca, Elias L.",
title = "Static potential in scalar QED(3) with non-minimal
journal = "J. Phys.",
volume = "A39",
year = "2006",
pages = "11091-11099",
eprint = "hep-th/0608212",
SLACcitation = "%%CITATION = HEP-TH 0608212;%%"
author = Hoshino, Yuichi,
title = Determination of the propagator in QED(3) by spectral
year = 2006,
eprint = hep-th/0610016,
SLACcitation = %%CITATION = HEP-TH 0610016;%%
author = Thomas, Iorwerth Owain and Hands, Simon,
title = Chiral symmetry restoration in anisotropic QED(3),
year = 2006,
eprint = hep-lat/0609062,
SLACcitation = %%CITATION = HEP-LAT 0609062;%%
author = Dalmazi, D. and Mendonca, Elias L.,
title = Static potential in scalar QED(3) with non-minimal
journal = J. Phys.,
volume = A39,
year = 2006,
pages = 11091-11099,
eprint = hep-th/0608212,
SLACcitation = %%CITATION = HEP-TH 0608212;%%


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December 04,2012RUDOLPH, Ohio Volunteers in the northwest Ohio village of Rudolph have come together to save the most famous postmark of all. Thousands of letters flood the village post office every December so they can be stamped with a Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer postmark. But the tradition was in danger of ending when the post office staff was cut down to one and the work became too much to handle. Thats when volunteers in the community decided to take over the job. When word spread, pleadings from local politicians and townsfolk persuaded the U.S. Postal Service to allow volunteers to stamp the special Reindeer Station postmark on the 80,000 letters and cards that come in from across the country. Close to 75 people, including a few retired postal workers, have signed up to work daily shifts.
The Associated PressMORE IN Wire NewsBIG SUR, Calif. Full StoryPHILADELPHIA Breaking a historic barrier, Democrats triumphantly chose Hillary Clinton as their... Full StoryWASHINGTON Memory loss may not always be the first warning sign that dementia is brewing ... Full Story
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With a population of 1.7 million residents, Budapest is one of Central Europe's largest and most diverse cities. While traditional Hungarian cuisine still appeals to many locals and visitors alike, those looking to enjoy the tastes of Asia can find a rich selection of restaurants to choose from in Hungary's capital. Budapest and the surrounding suburbs boast a handful of Indian restaurants, often serving as popular dining options among Hungarian vegans and vegetarians.
Indigo Restaurant
Budapest's Indigo Restaurant (indigo-restaurant.hu) offers guests a contemporary Indian dining experience in a chic, two-floor dining hall. The restaurant focuses on tandoori dishes, including both tandoori and tikka chicken, and offers a wide array of vegetarian meal options, as both appetizers and entrees. Indigo is fully air-conditioned on both floors, and this can be especially important during the summer months, when temperatures in Budapest soar. The restaurant is also conveniently located in downtown Budapest, at the corner of the Terez Korut ring road and Jokai utca, and is easily accessible by metro. The Nyugati Palyaudvar metro station, located along the M3 (blue) line, is just four blocks away from Indigo, while the Oktogon station on the M1 (yellow) line is four blocks south. The restaurant can also be an ideal stop after a day of sightseeing, as it is within walking distance of Budapest's top attractions, including the House of Terror Museum.
Govinda Vegetarian Restaurant and Salad Bar
With a location in Budapest's exclusive fifth district and a second restaurant in the Buda hills, Govinda (govinda.hu) built its business around the need for a vegetarian restaurant in a country where meat forms a major part of the national cuisine. Established in 1996, Govinda is one of Budapest's original Indian restaurants, and it continues to dominate a niche market by ensuring that all meals are prepared according to Vedic Sanskrit traditions. This results in food that strives for a balance between sweet, savory and hot flavors and generally avoids very peppery or spicy meals. The restaurant also includes a salad bar buffet, encompassing both pickled and fresh vegetables, and a lifestyle center, which provides information on healthy eating and living. Govinda's fifth district location is situated just one block from the River Danube, near the Szechenyi-Freedom Bridge. The restaurant may be especially ideal for guests staying at the Gresham Palace Four Seasons Hotel, located directly across the street.
Shalimar Restaurant
Budapest's Shalimar Restaurant (shalimar.hu) specializes in Mughal cuisine, which emphasizes the use of clay overs and focuses on tandoori dishes, including freshly baked breads. Shalimar's lunch specialty is a tasting dish offering small portions of a wide array of meals, including salads, curry dips, basmati rice and naan bread. The restaurant begins serving vegetarian thali before noon five days a week and only begins offering meat thalis after noon. Shalimar is located in the seventh district, a short distance from the most visited areas of downtown Budapest. The easiest way to access the restaurant is by taking the 4/6 tram line, along the Erzsebet Korut ring road and alighting at either the Kiraly utca or Wesselenyi utca tram stop.
Maharaja Restaurant
The Maharaja Restaurant is one of Budapest's largest Indian restaurants and has tried to distinguish itself from its competitors by offering a special Himalayan menu, including dishes from Nepal. Maharaja's chicken and vegetarian momos, small dumplings filled with either meat or vegetables, are unique among Indian restaurants in Budapest. The Himalayan menu, however, is only served at Maharaja's Csengery Street location, in the Hungarian capital's seventh district. The restaurant is easily accessible by taking the 4/6 tram until the Kiraly utca stop, or by riding the M1 metro until the Vorosmarty utca station. Maharaja has a second location in the third district, along Becsi ut, and this can be accessed by taking Budapest's suburban train line, called the HEV, until the Szepvolgyi ut station.
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