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Table of Contents
BackgroundHugo Grotius (b. 10 April 1583 – d. 28 August 1645) is often credited with laying the foundations for international law based on a theory of natural law. However, while he is frequently regarded as the founder of international law, this "both ignores the contributions of his predecessors and reads back into his work ideas that belong to a later period" (Brown et al., p.325). Grotius first achieved fame as a poet and later for writing The Law of War and Peace (1625) in which he presents, in embryo, a powerful theory of international justice.
|Hugo Grotius
Summary of readingOnline text: The Laws of War and Peace, Lonang Library edition.
Grotius' intention is to discuss the body of law concerned with the mutual relations among states or rulers of states.
Grotius argues against those who say that there is no natural law. Carneades, who Grotius uses as a pleader against justice, argues that "for reasons of expediency, men imposed upon themselves laws, which vary according to customs, and among the same peoples often undergo changes as times change; moreover that there is no law of nature, because all creatures, men as well as animals, are impelled by nature toward ends advantageous to themselves; that consequently, there is no justice, or, if such there be, it is supreme folly, since one does violence to his own interests if he consults the advantages of others" (The Law of War and Peace, in Brown et al., p. 326).
Grotius argues against this, saying that human beings are a different kind of animal from other animals, that humans desire a peaceful and organised social life, and that, therefore, it can't be a universal truth that human beings are impelled by nature to only pursue their self-interests.
Just as some animals put the good of their offspring before themselves, and children have a natural disposition to help others, so too do mature men act this way, in the knowledge that they have a special gift of speech and knowledge. (This is not exactly what Grotius says in The law of War and Peace (see Brown et al., p. 326.)
Maintenance of social order is the source of (natural) law.
Because man has a strong bent towards social life and the power to decide what is good, this means that the nature of man follows to a well-tempered judgment, i.e. human beings act rationally, not wanting to be lead astray by rash impulses etc. Anything that is at variance with human rationality is also contrary to the law of nature (i.e., to the nature of man).
This leads to our exercise of judgment; i.e the propensity to give preference to helping kinsmen over strangers, the poor over the rich. Long ago this kind of judgment was thought to be part of the law, now law is understood to be more based on leaving to another that which belongs to him or fulfilling obligations to him. (NB: Grotius's focus here in regard to the social inclination of human beings is not on benevolence and working together, but on autonomous individuals not harming each other)
Grotius argues that these facts would be true without God, but that God is the all powerful creator and we owe all to Him.
Another source of law is freewill of God. Law of nature, relating to the social life of man also stems from God.
God has made our fundamentally good traits more clear.
Rule of nature to abide by pacts, from this municipal law and its bodies stems.
Nature of man (leading us into mutual relations in society.)
Law of nature
Obligation which arises from mutual consent
Municipal law
Law not founded on expediency alone. No state so powerful that it won't at some point need alliances with other states.
If no association of men can be maintained without law (Aristotle) then surely association which binds together the human race, i.e. states, needs laws.
War ought not to be undertaken except for the enforcement of rights, and once undertaken
it should be carried only within the bounds of law and good faith.
Judgments are effective against those who feel they are too weak to resist, and wars are undertaken for those who are equally strong or think they are.
For wars to be justified, they must be carried out with no less scrupulousness than judicial proceedings are to be.
The law which is valid amongst nations is valid for war and in war. In the Christian world, many men have acted in a frenzied and barbarous way in war, but a middle ground must be struck between nothing justifying war, and everything justifying war.
Part of Grotius proof for the law of nature comes from the testimonies of philosophers, historians, poets and orators. But his basis (word choice? - xmarquez Sep 10, 2007) is not just on testimonies, but on 'characters of the matter' i.e. anything which can't be deduced by a sure process of reasoning, but is clearly everywhere, must have originated from the free will of man (this part unclear - xmarquez Sep 10, 2007)
Grotius argues that the Old Testament does not set forth the law of nature, but it can be a source of the law of nature as long as a distinction is made between the law of men (in relation to one another) and the law of God.
Book 1 Chapter 2 Whether is is lawful to wage war
That war is not in conflict with the law of nature is proved by several considerations.
Grotius sets out two principles of nature to test the legality of war:
- The principle of individual self-preservation i.e. idea that everyone desires their body to be in good order.
- The conformity of things with reason, which is superior to the body. Conformity with moral goodness becomes the principal object. 'Right reason ought to be more dear to us that these things through which instruments we have been brought to it.'
So in investigating the law of nature, it is necessary to see what is consistent with the fundamental principles of nature.
Theres is nothing in the first principle, of self-preservation, which opposes war since preservation and gain which are the ultimate motivators of war are in accordance with this first principle. The use of force is not inconsistent, since nature gives to each animal the strength sufficient for self-defence and self-assistance.
The second principle, concerning right reason and the nature of society, doesn't prohibit the use of force, only that which is in conflict with society and that which attempts to take away the rights of another.
Therefore it is not contrary to the nature of society to look out for one's own interests, provided the rights of others are not infringed on, and therefore the use of force which does not violate these rights of others is not unjust.
Study Questions(Add, answer, and discuss study questions for this author and reading)
- What is the source of natural law for Grotius?
- Is law possible in the absence of sanctions?
- What is the basis of the law of nature? How do we know the law of nature?
Grotius says that Stoics and other philosophical schools of antiquity agree on the primacy of self-preservation. Even Skeptics acknowledge the need to preserve oneself, so this is the "indisputable foundation for morality".
Why is this moral? Because if the desire for survival is inherent in human nature, no one can be judged for acting on it. From this stem two principles of natural law; it is permissible to defend one's own life, and it is permissible to acquire things useful for this life.
However Grotius' individualistic premises are not extreme. He believes in a natural kinship between humans, making it reasonable to demand that we refrain from hurting each other. This means that we may not; physically harm each other unnecessarily, nor seize each others' possessions. These implications are still minimal - humans have no obligations to assist one another, no duties of beneficence, they merely must practice a mutual non-interference.
Two legacies on modern political thought from Grotius' thinking on natural law are:
- that civil society is an artificial construction, which is made by individuals who have natural rights which are non civil.
- People have rights, and civil law exists to protect these rights. Governments who contravene these natural rights are illegitimate.
- How does Grotius differ from Hobbes on the status of natural law?
- How does Grotius differ from the Stoics on law?
As Brown et al. (p. 28) write, "Stoics were convinced that the universe was an ordered whole, amenable to rational explanation and proceeded so to explain it. The central human faculty, which allowed us to reason, think, and speak – the logos – is embodied in the universe. Humans and nature are thus one in the logos. If humans recognize this, they will act in ways wholly congruent with human rationality at its best. Of course, in order to do this humans must know how the universe is constructed and how you can reason. Hence the importance of natural philosophy and logic for Stoicism."
Stoics believe that "there is a divine and natural law governing everything in the universe, including human conduct" (Brown et al., p. 312). "In the Christian version of this view, the law is divine in being promulgated by God and natural in being knowable by reason without the aid of revelation" (ibid). "Because human beings are free, rational beings, they can choose to disobey this law" [i.e., divine and natural law] (ibid.). Natural law is "understood as a morality binding on all human beings … [and] must be distinguished from the laws observed in particular communities" (ibid.). The conception of morality as natural law "goes back through Aquinas to the Stoic view that all human beings are citizens not only of a particular polis with its own local laws but of an ideal universal community: a 'cosmopolis' whose law is this rationally knowable natural law. There are, in other words, objective, universal, and eternal standards of right and wrong by which human laws as well as human conduct are to be judged" (ibid.).
Grotius believes that only "natural law – which consists of moral principles correctly derived from universally valid principles – possesses the required generality" (Brown et al., p. 313). That is, for Grotius, civil law and Holy Scripture were not adequate as a source of universal moral principles. Grotius embraces the Stoic notion of a universal law of nature because he considers that what Stoicism and the other ancient philosophical standpoints concur on must be true. And, in this regard, all the ancient philosophical traditions agree (including the Skeptics) that self-preservation is pre-eminent, which, for Grotius, implies "the indisputable foundation for morality" (ibid., pp. 313-314). Moreover, "the very nature of man, which even if we had no lack of anything would lead us into the mutual relations of society, is the mother of the law of nature" (from The Law of War and Peace, in Brown et al., p. 328).
- How is Grotius similar or different from medieval thinkers on the justification of war?
- What are the differences between the law of nature, the law of nations, and municipal law?
Municipal law comes from the law of nature, as because the law of nature makes humans social and gives them the want to abide by pacts, it is natural that municipal law arises. Municipal law is the obligation which comes from mutual consent; "and since this obligation derives itf force from the law of nature, nature may be considered, so to say, the great-grandmother of municipal law". In other words, municipal law is the idea that people are loyal to people they have a connection with.
Just as each state has state laws that are advantageous to the state, it makes sense that such laws have arisen between all states or a large group of states, and this is the law of nations. The law of nations is the idea that just as state laws benefit the state, the law of nations can benefit all or many states. Grotius believes that all states should abide by the law of nations, because "the state which trangresses the laws of nature and of nations cuts away also the bulwarks which safeguard its own future peace", that is to say states which do not abide are doing themselves future harm, as "no state is so powerful that it may not some time need the help of others outside itself".
- How is the law of nations possible?
- What is Grotius' critique of Erasmus? What is Grotius trying to accomplish?
- Does Grotius' description of justified causes of war and justified conduct in war impose any meaningful restraints on states?
External Resources(Add links to useful external resources)
Select bibliography
- Steven Forde. 1998. "Hugo Grotius on Ethics and War." The American Political Science Review, Vol. 92, No. 3, pp. 639-648. Link.
- Knud Haakonssen. 1985. "Hugo Grotius and the History of Political Thought." Political Theory, Vol. 13, No. 2., pp. 239-265.


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Twista teases his long-awaited Dark Horse LP with a quick verse that shares its namesake. The album will see the light of day August 12th.
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Metal Gear Rising: Revengeance Dated, Trailered, Screened
Written Wednesday, August 15, 2012 By Lee BradleyView author's profile
Konami has a new trailer and screens for Metal Gear Rising: Revengeance, alongside a solid release date for the game.
The Platinum Games developed title will hit both North America and Europe simultaneously on February 21st, 2013.
A demo for the game will be included in the Zone of the Enders HD Collection when it launches in October.
Have a look at the slicing, dicing new screens and trailer below. There's more in the gallery.


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Hotel Fita
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- Continental Breakfast
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TravelPod Member ReviewsHotel Fita Amsterdam
It was great food wat good service and everything was good.
This review is the subjective opinion of a TravelPod member and not of TravelPod.com.
Historical Traveler Reviews Hotel Fita Amsterdam
As good as it gets
From my initial contact with Hotel Fita via Internet to my final moment walking out their door 4 days later, I could not have been more pleased. An exquisite little hotel located ideally for travelers seeking the cultural attractions of A'dam. Just a few minutes walk to the Van Gogh and Rijksmuseums and a few streets from the Concertgebouw and Vondelpark. Just yards away from A'dam's finest shopping stracht. The owners and staff were gracious and helpful to my smallest request; and the breakfasts were a surprise. You won't go wrong at the Fita!!
For a great stay in A'dam
I've been to this family-run hotel 3-4 times so far. Its excellent quality has never changed.
Most recently (July 2004), me and my wife, our 11 year old and 1.5 year old daughters enjoyed the warmth of Hans and Loes's great service once again. We'll remember with pleasure the dream week we've spent in this wonderful hotel.
Visiting Amsterdam is already a great experience. Enhance your visit by just staying at Hotel Fita. You'll love it!
Excellent Value and Location -- A Cozy Place
A great value hotel that serves wonderful breakfasts in the morning (included in the price), when you can also chat with the other guests. Extremely clean. My room had a large bathroom. Free phone calls to the U.S. is also a real bonus.
You won't find other hotel amenities here (like a pool, bar, etc.), but there's so much to do in Amsterdam you don't need those amenities.
This is steps from the Van Gogh and Rijksmuseum, as well as restaurants and the nearby Vondelpark.
Convenient tram stops can get you into the center of Amsterdam in just 2 or 3 stops. So buy yourself a tram ticket right away to get the most out of the city and location. They sell a long strip that gives you multiple rides so you don't have to buy a ticket each time you ride.
I liked this hotel because the locale is more quiet than in the center of the city, where it can get quite noisy. Hotel Fita is on a beautiful tree-lined street.
Very recommended and I can't wait to go back.
Wondetfull and a very clean hotel in a very good location
Our staying at the "Hotel Fita" was wonderful. The rooms are very clean and the hotel is clean and tidy. No one is smoking in this hotel.
The hotel is located in wonderful area (near the famous museums) and near a tram station, supermarket and you can reach a lot of places in Amsterdam by 5-10 minutes walking.
The hospitality is very good too, the hotel is a little one and that's why it's so wonderful and familial.
We are from Israel and we felt very good there.
That's why we recommend to you to go there and enjoy this hotel.
Excellent little hotel
Very good location - close to everything and quiet.
Owners and personnel are exceptionally friendly. Breakfast is just unforgettable. Free calls to US are a nice feature too. You get a feeling of being sincerely welcome. When we travel to Amsterdam again I would not even consider any other hotel.
Best Hotel Value in Amsterdam
Hotel Fita is a charming very clean hotel in a quiet residential neighborhood near the best museums in Amsterdam. You will get a wonderful night's rest in this hotel. There is a safe in the room to use at no extra charge. This comfortable hotel makes you feel like you are in your own home. The hotel is convenient to all attractions and the trolley for easy transportation. The rooms are spacious with a large tile bathroom. There is an elevator. The full American breakfast is included in the price and was wonderful. The hotel is a family run business with very helpful owners. The hotel also offers free telephone calls back to the U.S. I highly recommend this hotel and would stay there again.
A wonderful experience in this family run, immaculate,caring small and intimate hotel with a great breakfast.
It is a home away from home.This hotel is a great place to stay. It is like a home away from home. It is family run, very clean and smoke free. The proprieters are caring and helpfull at all times and very gracious. It is in an excellent area with all sorts of public transportation within a short walk. Don't miss the opportunity to stay here. April 29,2004
Superb Friendly Hotel
Stayed in this lovely friendly hotel in November 2003. It's located with easy access to the museums and city centre. A very clean and well maintained hotel with a family feel. Breakfast was very good. Excellent value. Nice people.
Great Place
Wonderful hotel, great location, very friendly and helpful young staff and very involved owners. Would definitely stay there again. Our room was quite large by European standards and very clean. The hotel includes a fantastic breakfast in their room rates.
Good Rooms, Great Location
I have stayed at the Fita several times. It is a small, family run hotel on a pleasant residential street about two blocks from the Van Gough Museum. Rooms are spare and clean, and most have great bathrooms (big tubs, hairdryers, etc.).Breakfast is good and plentiful, and served in a basement room. My experiences at the hotel have always been positive.
TripAdvisor Reviews Hotel Fita Amsterdam
Travel Blogs from Amsterdam
... I was pleased to find out that they all spoke English.
The feeling changed when we got to our hotel. Everything that weekend had been booked or insanely expensive so this was the cheapest thing Erin could find. The guy at the reception was rude and unfriendly and when we walked in our room we died laughing because there was only one bed. Not only was there only one bed but it was such a small room that it literally felt like a box. When we ...
King's Day Celebration in Amsterdam
... national colour - and people walking along the streets as the roads and public transport along the central area including the canals are closed. Beer seems to be free flowing as everyone is drinking it along the streets and even on the canals as they party on boats and barges. Lots of food stalls are opened along the streets selling local delicacies and also people holding their own mini-garage sales ...


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The new home of
Although Herefordshire is now a place of beautiful tranquility it has not always been like that. Its history is one of border conflicts and war and as such has a fascinating past with castles and ancient monuments that bear testament to more turbulent times.
This rural county has miles of rolling green landscapes and a fantastic agricultural heritage, bustling market towns and pretty villages, country pubs and quirky shops; a welcoming place for visitors who come to recharge their batteries.
The Normans build a number of castles here which were home to their wealthy landlords and earls, of particular note is Goodrich Castle near Ross-on-Wye which is extremely well preserved and the romantic Wigmore Castle, family home to the Mortimers whose heir Edward IV took the thrown of England in the aftermath of the War of the Roses.
Herefordshire has a host of ancient churches not least of which is Hereford Cathedral which contains the Mappa Mundi a medieval map of the world as envisaged in about 1289.
The old market town of Ross-on-Wye is strategically positioned above the River Wye, offers magnificent views and is perfectly placed for lovely walks along the Wye Valley (Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty). The town itself is packed with historical interest which can be fully revealed at the Ross Heritage Centre at the 17th century Market House. Also of interest is Leominster situated in the Herefordshire 'Marches'; a quintessential English town dating from medieval times with antique shops and typical 'black and white' houses.
Herefordshire is famed for its produce, so it's perhaps no surprise to find out that some of its best attractions proudly celebrate this agricultural heritage, not least it's tradition for cider making. Many cider making farms offer tours and sampling for visitors which provides the perfect excuse to try some genuine Herefordshire cider!
Whether you're travelling the country roads by car, cycling or walking you'll find this charming corner of England just waiting to be discovered.
Take a look at our selection of holiday cottages in Herefordshire.
16 reviews
If you like glorious sunsets and beautiful sweeping rural views, abundant wildlife and walks from the doorstep, consider this completely secluded 19th-century lodge overlooking the Monnow Valley, set on a quiet lane in sheep country. Refurbished to a high standard, it nestles on a hillside in 300 acres of farmland, with its own terraced, south-facing garden. The Black Mountains are not only visible but are also accessible for walking or pony-trekking. Monmouth 7 miles. Abergavenny, Ross-on-Wye and Hereford, all within 12 miles. Ideally positioned for the Welsh borders. Fishing locally. Shop 2 miles.
Sitting-room with wood-burning stove. Dining room. Fitted kitchen with tiled floor. Bathroom with over-bath shower, heated towel rail and toilet. Separate toilet. First floor: Double bedroom. Twin bedroom. Single bedroom (for +1).
Wood-burning stove – logs included. Electricity and full NSH by meter reading. Converctor heater. Bed linen included. Satellite TV. DVD. CD. Microwave. Washer/dryer. Dishwasher. Fridge/freezer. Wi-fi.Telephone-local calls only (honesty box). Garden with terrace and furniture. Farmland walks of 300 acres. Parking.
14 reviews
In an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, these fine 18th-century converted farm properties are reached via a private lane. They enjoy a peaceful secluded setting in the countryside set in the 3-acre grounds of the owner's home, which includes a landscaped garden, woodland area and paddock, along with micro pigs and pygmy goats. The holiday cottages each have their own garden and enjoy shared use of a six-seater hot tub. Ideally situated for exploring Hereford and the black-and-white villages to the north. Ross-on-Wye, the Forest of dean and the Wye Valley to the east, and Hay-on-Wye, the Brecon Beacons, Black Mountains and Offas Dyke to the west. Village pubs serving good food locally. Shops and pubs 2½ miles.
Living room leading to modern kitchen/dining room. Sun room with doors to patio. Twin bedroom. Bathroom with over-bath shower, bidet and toilet. First floor (with fitted stairgate): Double bedroom with en-suite toilet. Single bedroom.
3 reviews
About 300 yards from centre of Kington, quietly located in grounds of owner's home, restored and converted to a good standard, much character, on first floor over the original 18th-century coach house, and with large attractive gardens. Excellent holiday base for walks, including Offa's Dyke, Hergest Ridge, well placed for exploring Herefordshire, Wye Valley, Welsh borders and south Shropshire. Hay-on-Wye and Leominster are both about 15 miles. Shops and pubs 300 yards, regular bus service 50 yards (excluding Sundays).
All on first floor: Living/dining room/kitchen with beams. 3 bedrooms: 1 double, 1 twin, 1 single. Bathroom with shower over bath and toilet.
Economy 7 central heating, electricity and bed linen included. Cot. High chair. DVD. Stereo/CD. Electric cooker. Microwave. Washing machine available. Tumble dryer. Large partly walled garden and furniture. Garage (1 car). Parking (2 cars). NB: Deep, unfenced garden pond.
23 reviews
Set on the edge of a pretty hamlet, this timber barn conversion enjoys a peaceful location in the Herefordshire countryside. Attached to the owners' home, it has been comfortably furnished throughout, retaining many of the original oak beams. An ideal holiday base for exploring Hereford city with its cathedral, Mappa Mundi, racecourse and cider museum with Bromyard Downs for walking close by. Forest of Dean, Hay-on-Wye and the Black Mountains also easily accessible. P.O. and pub 2 miles, restaurants 4 miles.
Ground floor: Living room with beams/dining room/kitchen. 1 double bedroom with en-suite shower room and toilet. First floor: 2 bedrooms: 1 galleried twin, 1 single. Bathroom with shower attachment and toilet.
Economy 7 central heating, electricity, bed linen and towels included. Travel cot. High chair. DVD and small library. Electric cooker. Microwave. Washer/dryer. Dishwasher. Fridge/freezer. Wi-fi. Shared small enclosed garden. Patio and furniture. Parking (3 cars). No smoking. NB: Two steps in garden.
12 reviews
Beams and exposed oak timbers
This black and white character cottage has been completely renovated to provide an attractive holiday home in this beautiful part of the Welsh Marches. It is ideally situated for local walks and visiting Croft Castle (3 miles), National Trust Berrington Hall. The cottage is suitably located for touring the Malverns, the Wye Valley, the Welsh Borders and the Cotswolds. All local amenities are within walking distance including shop and post office, public house and church. The historic town of Ludlow is 10 miles, Leominister 5 miles and Hereford 20 miles. Shop 750 yards, pub and restaurant 500 yards.
Ground floor: Living room. Dining room/kitchen. First floor: 3 bedrooms: 1 double, 1 twin, 1 single. Bathroom with shower attachment and toilet. Beams throughout.
Woodburner in living room (initial fuel included). Oil central heating, electricity and bed linen included. Travel cot. High chair. Video. DVD. Stereo. Electric cooker. Microwave. Washing machine. Freezer. Payphone. Enclosed, lawned garden with patio and furniture. Portable barbecue. Parking (2 cars).
8 reviews
In a peaceful location only 1½ miles from Kington, with lovely views over Welsh border, these detached properties have an enclosed garden and access to 30 acres of land with 5 ponds with fish and waterfowl, where you can enjoy walking and picnics. Excellent walking on lanes and footpaths with direct access to Offa's Dyke at Hergest Ridge. Much of Herefordshire and the border areas easily reached whilst coast at Aberystwyth is about 60 miles. Hay-on-Wye, Leominster 15 miles, Ludlow, Bromyard and Hereford, about 20 miles. Shops, pubs and restaurants 11/2 miles.
All on ground floor: Living room. Dining room. Kitchen. 3 bedrooms: 1 double, 1 twin, 1 single. Bathroom with shower over bath and toilet.
Woodburner in living room included. Oil central heating, electricity, bed linen and towels included. Cot. High chair. Electric cooker. Washing machine. Microwave. Enclosed garden and furniture. 30-acres of shared land. Parking (3 cars). No smoking. NB: 5 ponds in 30-acres shared land.
18 reviews
Set adjacent to the owners home on a small holding, accessed by a track, this cosy, comfortable converted cowshed is ideal for a relaxing and out of the way holiday. Just a couple of steps from the front door provides stunning views and scenery over the valley towards Hereford as well as the Black Mountains and Brecon Beacons. Ideally located for the book town of Hay on Wye. The cathedral cities of Hereford, Worcester and Gloucester are all a short drive away as are the Welsh market towns of Monmouth and Abergavenny. Shops and pub 4 miles.
Ground floor: Living room with French doors and beams. Dining room/kitchen with beams. 1 single bedroom. Utility/shower room with toilet. First floor: 2 bedrooms: 1 double, 1 twin. Bathroom with shower over bath and toilet.
Oil central heating, electricity, bed linen and towels included. Cot. High chair on request. DVD and small library. CD. Electric cooker. Microwave. Washer/dryer. Dishwasher. Fridge/freezer. Small courtyard with patio and furniture. Barbecue. Parking (3 cars). No smoking.
5 reviews
Overlooking rural Herefordshire with a backdrop of the Malvern Hills, this detached holiday cottage, adjacent to the owner's home, offers comfortable accommodation. This black and white cottage sits in an ideal base from which to explore the many delights of the surrounding areas. The woodland and pasture of Homend Park, combined with the many local footpaths, makes for a walkers haven, with beautiful scenery and wildlife in the unspoilt countryside. There are many places of historic interest, such as Hereford Cathedral and Mappa Mundi Centre, museums, castles and National Trust houses including Berrington Hall and Croft Castle. The market towns of Ledbury, Bromyard, Ludlow and Leominster are within easy driving distance and are all popular for their different festivals and independent shops, restaurants, bistros and bars. The Falconry Centre at Newent is a popular attraction and further afield is Offa's Dyke Footpath and the Welsh Marches set in wonderful mountainous scenery. Shop 1 mile, pub and restaurant 3 miles.
Ground floor: Living room with French doors. Dining room. Kitchen. Utility room. 1 single bedroom. Separate toilet. Most rooms with beams. First floor: 2 bedrooms: 1 double, 1 twin with beams. Bathroom with bath, shower cubicle and toilet.
Woodburner in living room (initial fuel included). Oil central heating, electricity, bed linen and towels included. Freeview TV. DVD. CD. Electric cooker. Washing machine. Tumble dryer. Fridge/freezer. Large enclosed lawned garden with furniture. Barbecue. Parking (3 cars). Cycle store. Welcome pack. No smoking.
10 reviews
This characterful and charming, Grade II listed, black-and-white holiday cottage nestles in the heart of the pretty medieval village of Eardisley. Offa's Dyke and Mortimer's Trail nearby, and the area is also popular for cycling, birdwatching, fishing and canoeing along the River Wye. The small town of Kington is just 5 miles, with Eastnor Castle and Hergest Croft Gardens. Hay-on-Wye is 7 miles, renowned for its literary festivals, and has an array of book shops, galleries, antique shops and many bars, restaurants and bistros. Eardisley itself has two great pubs, a village shop and post office and boasts a 12th-century Norman church. The cathedral city of Hereford is within easy driving, about 14 miles. Shop and pub 500 yards, restaurant 5 miles.
Nine steps to rear entrance (alternative lawned slope to front entrance). Spacious living room with wood-burning stove. Kitchen/dining room with electric range (for cooking) and tiled floor. Separate toilet. First floor: Two double bedrooms, each with 5ft bed. Single bedroom. Bathroom with separate shower cubicle and toilet. Shower room with toilet. Most rooms beamed.
7 reviews
This detached, part stone holiday cottage is set in an elevated position, in an AONB, with uninterrupted views across the Wye Valley. An ideal location for walking, fishing, canoeing, mountain biking, horse riding. Shop 400 yards, pubs 600 yards.
Ground floor: Living room with French doors and wooden floor. Dining room with French doors/kitchen with slate floor. Study. Utility room. Separate toilet. First floor: 3 bedrooms: 1 double with en-suite shower room and toilet, 1 twin, 1 single. Bathroom with shower over bath and toilet.
Woodburner in living room (initial fuel included). Oil central heating included (£30per week October-April). electricity, bed linen and towels included. Freeview TV. DVD and small library. Stereo/CD. Electric cooker. Aga (October-May). Microwave. Washing machine. Dishwasher. Freezer. Enclosed, lawned, terraced garden with sitting-out area and furniture. Patio. Balcony. Barbecue. Parking (3 cars). NB: 12 steps and small fish pond in garden.
9 reviews
A 250-year-old, renovated, detached holiday cottage in a peaceful setting with a half acre garden area, amidst beautiful countryside. Close to one of the most spectacular stretches of the Wye Valley which is dominated by the lofty splendour of Symonds Yat. Fishing and walking country midway between Ross on Wye and Monmouth. There are many nearby places of interest including the ruins of Goodrich Castle, Raglan Castle, Tintern Abbey and the Royal Forest of Dean. Shop and pub 2 miles.
Ground floor: Living room. Dining room/kitchen. Conservatory. Utility room. Cloakroom. First floor: 3 bedrooms: 1 double, 1 bunk, 1 single. Bathroom with shower over bath and toilet.
Woodburner in living room included. NSH, electricity, bed linen and towels included. Electric cooker. Microwave. Washing machine. Tumble dryer. Freezer. Wi-fi. Payphone. Garden with terrace and furniture. Parking.
6 reviews
Amid the hop yards and orchards of the rolling Herefordshire countryside, upon the owners' farm, this detached stone family cottage is ideal for a truly rural holiday break. Set well away from all roads, this is a haven for wildlife; the silent observer might be lucky enough to spot badgers, foxes, bats, buzzards and all manner of woodland birds. Rewarding walks can be enjoyed amid the Malvern Hills, while the less energetic can stroll within Bringsty Common, Bromyard Downs and along local footpaths. A local vineyard and the renowned Hop Pocket Craft Centre are less than a mile away, while further afield are the historic centres of Ledbury, 8 miles, and Hereford and Worcester, each 14 miles. Shop and pub ¾ mile.
Spacious beamed living/dining room with electric woodburner and modern fitted kitchen, with ceramic-tiled floor throughout. Open-tread stairs to first floor: Three beamed bedrooms; one double, one twin and one single. Bathroom with over-bath shower and toilet.
Electric woodburner included. Electricity, full LPG central heating, bed linen, towels included. TV. CD. Microwave. Washing machine. Use of owners' freezer. Garden area, furniture within shared farmland grounds. Parking. Outdoor swimming pool by arrangement (10m-5m, max depth 6ft), available May–September, heated at cost by arrangement. Pets free of charge.
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Hume's paintings are characterised by the use of simple blocks of vivid colour and elegant lines reminiscent of the late prints of French artist Henri Matisse. This work is from his Portraits series and depicts an anonymous whistler. Here, the artist explores the boundaries between abstract and figurative image making. The dark green elements at the top of this image resemble an indeterminate plant or tree and have the appearance of poured or dripped paint. The use of flat colour and lack of defining outlines lends the hand-like forms (at the bottom of the composition) a similarly ambiguous quality.
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Police chief criticized after Brooklyn neighborhood disturbance
By TOM HAYS
Associated Press Writer
NEW YORK- A city politician on Wednesday demanded an apology from the police department's top uniformed officer who, he said, flew into a rage and cursed out the crowd during a street disturbance in a Brooklyn Orthodox Jewish neighborhood.
Esposito "lost it last night," said Hikind, a Democrat. "He thought he was in the Wild West."
Mayor Michael Bloomberg, a Republican, said that while officials would review the entire episode, "from what I can see the police department acted appropriately."
The unrest erupted after hundreds of residents took to the streets following what some witnesses said excessive force by officers during the arrest of a 75-year-old man who was pulled over in a routine traffic stop.
Witnesses said police shoved the man against a car.
Police officials have denied the claims, and authorities said the man, who was stopped for talking on his cell phone while driving, had resisted the officers. Two other people who meddled in the incident were also arrested, police said.
As word of the arrests spread, angry protesters _ many of them teenagers wearing traditional black suits and hats _ flooded the streets and set small fires. Some surrounded the police station and chanted, "No Justice, no peace," before officers in riot gear were dispatched to disperse the crowd.
Hikind blamed the police.
"The behavior of the young people in the street was unfortunate, but it escalated because of the police," he said.
Of Esposito, the assemblyman said: "We don't want his head. We want an apology."
Police Commissioner Raymond Kelly insisted he had "total confidence" in the chief.
"Sometimes in a chaotic situation things may be said that people might regret in the future," Kelly said. "But he's an outstanding commander, and I think overall the situation was handled well."
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This easy-to-prepare recipe combines canned pumpkin and layers of crispy phyllo dough in a delicious dessert treat that also contains no… Read More
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I want to show a confirmation dialog when a specific value is selected in an asp:DropDownList. If the confirmation dialog returns false (cancel) then I want to prevent the AutoPostBack.
<asp:DropDownList id="theDropDownID" onchange="foo()"></asp:DropDownList>
However, it ignores the returned value from foo() and actually does the postback.
The generated code of the onchange event is:
foo(); setTimeout("__doPostBack('theDropDownID','')", 0);
so basically controlling the setTimeout that the .net adds, will do the job.
Any idea how?


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To Calibrate Or Not
Posted by Tony Distasio in Musings, Technical Stuff on August 13, 2015
This may be obvious to some of you doing optical tooling but just in case you pondered this, here are my thoughts.
Some autocollimators are calibrated so that the operator can measure the actual angle through which their reflecting mirror is tilted. Some instruments do not have any calibrated reticles; they just have a central dot or point where two crossed hairs overlap. When your retro image is centered on this point, your reflecting mirror is supposed to be aligned normal to your instrument's line of sight. Same goes for auto-reflection. Some auto-reflection reticles are calibrated but some are not, especially if you had to make your own reticle.
Do you need to worry about calibration or not, in this instance? In many cases you do not. If all you are trying to achieve is aligning your reference reflecting mirror (or more likely, the device to which it is attached) so it is normal to the instrument's line of sight, then you will not need to measure the actual angle through which it is tilted at any point in the process. You just keep working at it until you see that the retro image is centered, and call the job finished. This was the simpler case.
If you are given a task where the reflecting mirror has to be aligned normal just to within a specified tolerance, and when you have gotten it within that tolerance you are finished, then a calibrated method of measuring the tilt is much more helpful. Or if you are involved in some experiment where a normal to line of sight is not the goal, but knowing the actual tilt angle right now is your goal, obviously a calibrated method is the right choice. It matters because the application at hand will determine what kind of instrument you need to use. If you do not have the right kind of instrument in your lab cabinet, you might be forced to rent one or buy one to get the job done right. That can be expensive. Brand new calibrated autocollimators are really expensive, at least in my opinion.
In a pinch, you can make your own auto-reflection reticles which could be calibrated to any chosen degree of accuracy, then use auto-reflection observations to measure the tilt of the mirror. This is not as accurate as the results you could get with a good calibrated autocollimator, but it may be good enough for your application. How you would do this is the subject of another tip to be published in the future. I hope this little discussion will be helpful to someone finding themselves stuck with a new optical tooling task.
Autoreflection and Autocollimation Compared
Posted by Tony Distasio in Technical Stuff on June 28, 2014
Reader: Hi there. Can you explain the differences between Autoreflection and Autocollimation? Also, why would I choose to use one of these methods over the other?
TD Reply: Yes, let me answer your first question. Fundamentally, all this stuff has to do with the operation of alignment telescopes and autocollimating-type alignment scopes, in the pursuit of doing optical metrology. Assuming that is clear, I'll go ahead. When you are using Autocollimation mode, the light beam from your scope is projected out toward the "target" mirror as a completely collimated beam; all the rays are parallel to each other, and to your line of sight. Then the target mirror reflects that beam back (again collimated) toward your scope. (We omit the rest of the details for now.) When you are using Autoreflection mode, this is not true. What you do in this case is, using that target mirror out in space somewhere, you focus your alignment telescope on a physical target which is usually located on the very front of the telescope, typically in the form of a precision reticle formed on glass. Many commercially available alignment telescopes come equipped with an Autoreflection reticle on the cover glass plate in front of their objective, at the very front of their cylindrical barrel. The difference is that the optical beam is focused at a finite distance, not at infinity, as in the case of a collimated beam. That finite distance will be just twice the distance from the front of your alignment telescope to your target mirror. So this will hopefully answer your first question.
Now for your second question: Why use one or the other method? This answer will take more space. Suppose the only instrument you have at hand for optical metrology is an alignment telescope which does not incorporate Autocollimation operation. In that case, while you cannot do Autocollimation with this instrument, you still can use Autoreflection to your advantage. Maybe your scope has its own Autoreflection reticle installed on the front. Then, you are good. Otherwise, you can make your own reticle for this. You can purchase a precision reticle on glass from several vendors, or if time or money prohibit that purchase, make a custom crossed-line reticle using thin monofilament line, stretched and centered over a metal frame. Make that frame so that it will attach accurately to the front of your instrument's barrel so it coincides with the line of sight of that alignment telescope. That is really important!
Then, focus that scope on the reticle, by reflecting the beam from the target mirror you have installed in your equipment under test. The reticle (as well as the front of the scope's barrel) will look smaller because they appear to be at a distance equal to 2X the distance from the scope to your mirror. At first, the reticle will probably be way off axis from the desired line of sight. Adjust the target mirror by tilting it in both vertical and horizontal directions as needed, until the Autoreflection target is exactly centered relative to the reference reticle inside your telescope. Now, that target mirror is "fairly-well" normal to your desired line of sight, established by the alignment telescope. How accurately "normal" will it be? That will depend on many factors. These include, how well you fabricated your home-made reticle, how accurately it is installed on that scope, how co-linear it is with the line of sight of that scope, and how far away your scope is from the mirror. But with careful workmanship and techniques, you can often get the mirror normal to a line of sight to within less than one minute of arc, perhaps to half a minute of arc, under the best of conditions.
Even if you have at hand an instrument which does incorporate Autocollimation mode of operation, as well as alignment and full-focusing adjustment, you can still utilize Autoreflection mode to your advantage. Often it is really difficult to find the autocollimated return beam target in your scope, because the target mirror might be tilted so much that the return beam target is completely out of the field of view. In this case, you can use Autoreflection mode first, to get the mirror close to the normal-to-line-of-sight condition. This works because with Autoreflection, the visible field has less sensitivity to the tilt of the mirror. Thus, you may be able to locate the image of that Autoreflection target and front of the scope barrel, and tweak it until it is close to alignment with the line of sight. Then switch over to Autocollimation mode of operation, with collimated light. Now you will be able to see the return beam target in your scope well enough to complete the adjustment of the target mirror until you have achieved the desired accuracy of alignment of your mirror relative to your line of sight! This can be done very accurately, with the right techniques.
Just one last aside comment: That Autoreflection target does not have to be installed directly on the alignment scope barrel, it is just normally done that way for convenience. It can be located a bit in front of your scope, if necessary. But in that case, you must be sure that the intersection point of the crossed lines is exactly coincident with the desired line of sight, otherwise you may not get the desired results!
Photon Counting Task
Posted by Tony Distasio in Technical Stuff on July 25, 2013
Reader: Hello. My company assigned me to a project which involves doing photon counting. We're just getting started on this. During our first staff meeting, some people suggested using an expensive professional-grade CCD camera as our prime detector. But one engineer suggested a photomultiplier tube was the best detector to use, since we don't need to acquire any spatial-resolved data for this task. Some staff at the meeting said this was an old-fashioned solution. What's your take on this?
Tony's Reply: Since I don't know any of the details about your project, except that you stated that you "Don't need to acquire any spatial-resolved data . . ." my reply to your question is pretty easy.
A CCD camera, regardless of its quality or cost, is not mandated, because you have no need to record photon arrival along with spatially-resolved information, i.e. imagery data. If you basically need to do photon-counting of some weak light flux, then a photomultiplier tube, suitably chosen for this task based on its specs, and calibrated by the tube manufacturer is an ideal way to go. Here's why:
The classical photomultiplier tube (a glass vacuum tube with a photocathode and electron-multiplier dynodes) is inherently the closest thing to a perfect photon detector. This detector may be considered "old fashioned" by some younger engineers, but the fact is, the photomultiplier tube (or PMT) is still the ideal photon detector. For this short blog I won't go into all the reasons why it is unbeatable.
As for doing photon-counting, there's a list of questions you will need to answer before you buy components and set up your photon-counting system. PMTs come with many different photocathodes (hence different spectral responsivities); you need to decide which is best for your application. PMTs come in different physical package sizes and shapes. You need to decide, etc. For most serious photon-counting jobs the PMT will need to be cooled to a low temperature (we're not talking liquid nitrogen here) so it probably ought to be installed inside a special cooling chamber with a suitable window, which will transmit the spectral band you are interested in. This affects what kind of form-factor PMT is appropriate to use. Other specs for the PMT need to be considered, based on the photon-counting task at hand. Finally there is the topic of the electronics hardware you need to support the PMT, in order to get reliable results for the actual photon-arrival-rates which you want to record. But lots of researchers have done this with great success, most notably astronomers and nuclear instrumentation engineers!
So, my quick answer was: PMT – Yep, that's the way to go. But the real answer for your task will be longer, because there are a lot of engineering decisions you need to make, based on your application. Best thing to do is contact some PMT manufacturers and talk with one of their Application Engineers about this. They are going to be really knowledgeable on PMTs.
Optical Alignment – Question #2
Posted by Tony Distasio in Technical Stuff on January 25, 2013
Reader: Thanks for the previous reply. I have more detailed information for you this time, and another question. My supervisor tells me that our lenses which I have to test will each be mounted in its own metal cell. Our test needs to align them to a common optical axis and test them working as a system to produce an image of a test target. The target will be back-lit and use white light. The goal of this test is: determine the correct spacing between each lens which will result in the very sharpest image of that target. This has been calculated already using software, but we need to convince ourselves that the designer was correct! Finally, one of our other divisions has an alignment telescope which we can borrow from them to help with this testing. It is a Davidson Optronics D-275 Model Telescope and it's in good calibration. How can I use this instrument to align those lenses and help make this test work? Thank you!
Tony: Yes, you can use that alignment scope for this test. First, you need to ask your lens designer if it is safe to assume that these lenses when mounted in their respective cells do not suffer from any "wedge" problem. If they do not have any significant "wedge" issues, then the optical axis of each lens will be co-linear with their mechanical axis. (Note that it is not a given that this will always be the case. I have seen purchased lenses which met all the procurement specs, but had bad wedge issues, because this had not been specified during procurement; a bad mistake. As a result, their optical axes were skewed with respect to their mechanical centerline axes.)
Next, make a cross-hair reticle to mount on each of the lens cells. This can be as fancy a reticle as you can afford to make. Or simple. You can have these made and mounted in your machine shop, if you have the time, and you need them to be perfect. Otherwise, make your own reticles with mono-filament nylon fishing line from a sporting goods store. Use a line which is around 10 mils thick. Mount two pieces of this mono-filament nylon line on each lens cell so that they cross at the mechanical center of each lens. These lines do not have to be at exactly 90 degrees to each other. The important thing is that their intersection (crossed-hairs) is as close to the exact center of the lens as possible. Mount them under some tension, so they do not flop or flex. This concept assumes that the lens does not exhibit any wedge! When they all have cross-hair reticles mounted, continue on.
Before you begin to mount these lenses on your test bench, first set up the D-275 Telescope behind the place where you expect the image plane to be, so that it's looking directly at the center of your test target, and so that its line of sight is passing directly through the center of your image circle in the image plane. Mind you, this is not easy to do, it will take some effort and time, but it is critical. So do this part well! What this will accomplish is the line of sight of that D-275 Telescope will represent (take the place of) the actual optical centerline of the lens system you will be testing. (Remember, you can focus the Davidson D-275 scope anywhere in space from infinity down to 16 inches away from the front of the lens barrel; so take this into consideration when setting up the scope.) Note, from this point on, do not move the D-275 Alignment Telescope in any way! It is now your reference line of sight. When you are sure you have this condition set up, then continue on.
As you insert each lens and cell into your test bench, refocus the alignment scope as needed until you see the reticle on that lens cell in sharp focus. Move or remount each lens cell until that cross-hair intersection is located exactly on the center of the thin black internal reticle of your alignment scope. You may have to use a bright light source to illuminate the lens reticles to see them well. Repeat this step with each lens & cell until they are all mounted on your test bench.
When you have all the lenses aligned to the line of sight of the D-275 scope, you can be fairly certain that their optical axes and mechanical axes are co-linear and aligned to your test target and image circle. Note that when you have to remove the Alignment Telescope, (I assume you will have to remove it to proceed with your image quality evaluation), it would be ideal if you had it mounted in such a way that it could be replaced back on that test bench and returned to the exact position in space where it was before. That's in case you need to repeat the alignment. Otherwise, you will have to realign your line of sight again! This may be tricky to do, but it's well worth the effort to get it right the first time! (Experience speaking here!)
Of course, if your lenses need to be in very close proximity, so that the reticles interfere with lens surfaces, then you will have to cut them off prior to final adjustments of the lenses. This is where you would appreciate a "cleverly made" reticle which can be removed and reinstalled any time. We do not always have that luxury. You may need to remove them anyway, to prevent them from optically perturbing your image evaluation. It depends on the details.
Then, just move those lenses back and forth, but only in their axial direction, until you find their optimal spatial positions for the best image results. I am assuming that you have a mechanical means for precisely adjusting the axial position of each lens. You are going to need that! I have omitted some details in this overview. Since your company has done other optical testing, it's fair to assume that you will have the ability to work through some of the detailed engineering steps, which you are likely to encounter in this work.
Good luck with your testing. I hope this information will help you. T.D.
Speaking About Telescopes; I Have a Question
Posted by Tony Distasio in Technical Stuff on January 22, 2013
Reader: Speaking about telescopes, I have a question you might be able to answer. I recently looked at some Internet photos of the Hobby-Eberly Telescope at McDonald Observatory, which is in Texas. The photos of the primary mirror which is a segmented mirror in the shape of a hexagon do not show any opening in the center. It appears to be pretty solid, except for the segmented pieces. Question: How do they get light to the Cassegrain focus, which should be behind the primary mirror? Is there some trick they use which is not obvious? Is this telescope not a Cassegrain scope? Your "About Me" page says you worked at astronomical observatories. Thanks for any light you can shed on this (no pun intended).
Tony: You asked the right person this question, I suppose! As it turns out, I worked at the Hobby-Eberly Telescope (we referred to it as the HET) at McDonald Observatory. While there, I was their on-site optical engineer for that scope. So, I definitely know the correct answer to your question.
The HET is not a Cassegrain telescope. It is a Prime Focus type of telescope. Therefore, there is no secondary mirror at all. There are mirrors up near the Prime Focus, but their purpose is to reimage the pupil of the scope on a corrector surface (also a mirror.) More on this shortly. The primary is segmented as you said, incorporating 91 individual mirror segments, each of which is a hexagon shape, one meter across the flats. So, the resulting primary is enormous, as you might imagine. That's what makes the HET a wonderfully useful telescope for doing spectroscopy of faint objects, which is its main reason for existence!
The figure of each of the mirror segments is spherical, and they all have the same radius of curvature, so when they are adjusted correctly, they all fit into the same global sphere. Of course, the resulting large spherical mirror will suffer from spherical aberration. This aberration is corrected very nicely by a "corrector mirror" which has an aspherical surface. Its figure is "just right" to cancel the spherical aberration. This is located up close to Prime Focus. The image at Prime Focus is analyzed by a spectrograph, which is how data is acquired by the astronomers, for whatever research they happen to be doing. When I worked at HET, there was a low-resolution spectrograph located in the Tracker Assembly right at Prime Focus, and two other systems, a medium-resolution and a high-resolution spectrograph located in the basement below the scope. Light was fed to these spectrographs by means of fiber optics originating at Prime Focus and terminating at the appropriate spectrograph optics below. I don't know if that configuration has been changed, now. I believe the HET is being used for a new research project.
Hope this helps you get a better understanding of the Hobby-Eberly Telescope. Thanks for your question.
A Question About Telescope Collimation
Posted by Tony Distasio in Technical Stuff on January 21, 2013
Reader: Hello. I am an optical engineer by trade and a newbie amateur astronomer. I bought a new Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope (SCT) recently. It is a "…." (brand and model deleted by T.D.) I collimated this scope twice, using a bright star, per the manufacturer's instructions. I have 2 questions for you: First, why does everybody in this hobby refer to this process as "collimating a telescope?" My training in optics engineering tells me that this has very little to do with a "collimated" lens! And second, although I followed their instructions exactly and it appeared that I accomplished the goal of this adjustment, I am not happy with the images I get. They seem a bit "soft" to me; if you know what I mean. I expected this big SCT to deliver nearly perfect (diffraction-limited) images! Am I doing something wrong? Help!
Tony: Nice to hear you're getting into astronomy as a hobby; it's a good hobby. I can answer both of your questions. First, your question about the use of the term "collimating" is a good one and you are correct. For those readers who may not be familiar with this technique, the process known as "collimating a Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope" is a misnomer, in the field of optics, because it's actually a procedure for "aligning" the secondary mirror of the SCT to the primary mirror. It is truly an alignment task. It's only necessary to do because, in the case of many mass-produced amateur SCT scopes, their secondary mirrors (usually spherical figures by the way) are heavy, but poorly supported in the center of the scope's corrector plate. Because of their inadequate mechanical support, they tend to get misaligned to the primary mirror (also a sphere) when the scope is jostled in transportation, or by rough handling.
But, you are correct; the term is a misnomer, in the sense that we "optics" guys use it. A telescope used for astronomy is normally "collimated" anyway, by virtue of the fact that it makes images of objects that are located at infinite conjugate. So it's the reversed version of a "Collimator" which you might use in a lab. When you adjust that secondary mirror by tilting it, you're just aligning it to the optical axis of the primary mirror which normally does not tilt.
Your second question requires a more delicate answer! In my career, I have examined a lot of telescopes used by amateurs (as well as some big-boy, professional observatory scopes!) Mass-produced amateur scopes (especially SCTs) often do not provide the exquisite, diffraction-limited imagery you might expect as an engineer working in the optics field! They are still good, in the sense that they don't suffer from chromatic aberration, and they offer fairly large apertures for modest cost.
But, for one thing, they have an obvious central obscuration (the secondary) in their pupil. That means they suffer from apodization, by definition. This means their MTF (Modulation Transfer Function) is altered such that energy is stolen from the higher frequencies and added into the middle-range frequencies. (You can look this up in a good optics text.) The resulting apodized image is a peculiar animal. It just does not look like a classical-diffraction-limited image does. But even the big boy Cassegrain scopes used by professionals at observatories have the same issue. They usually have a secondary mirror component which is their central obscuration.
The other fact is, because they are mass-produced in a factory, and their manufacturers need to make a serious profit, their optical elements may not always be perfect. They can have some zonal defects, even if they are nearly perfect spheres! The images which result will vary a lot from one specimen to the next, even from the same lot of products made the same week! I observed this to be a fact, in my personal experience, in a previous occupation.
So, you may be adjusting your new SCT in the correct manner, and not doing anything wrong. If you continue to be uninspired by the imagery you are getting, contact the manufacturer of the scope and discuss this performance matter. Also, you might look through similar scopes which other amateurs are using, and do some comparative observations to see where your scope falls in the area of imagery performance. You might find you are doing as well as the rest are. Hope this information helps you!
Optical Alignment Confusion
Posted by Tony Distasio in Technical Stuff on December 23, 2012
Reader: My supervisor asked me to "align" some lenses on the bench for a test we need to do. He has a green laser pointer (the kind used to point to stuff during meetings and presentations.) He suggested that I just use that laser pointer to "accurately align" these lenses, and that it should be a "piece of cake" job, which should take me less than 1 hour. I have never aligned optics before, but I have a strange feeling about this. Seems too easy. What do you think about this?
Tony: Well my friend, this is a tricky question to answer, because the answer depends on so many variables. Actually your question will prompt me to write several future posts about "Optical Alignments." This is a large subject, by the way! It deserves a proper and technically-detailed discussion.
I'll attempt to give you a quick answer, although I would prefer to get much more details from you regarding the nature of the optics and your testing requirements. I personally never used a laser pointer to produce an optical alignment. Most "laser pointer" devices are NOT good optical beam-quality sources, since they are intended simply to be used to point at something! (Partly this is due to the kind of laser used in pointers.) They are not even close to what engineers and scientists think of when they require a "laser" for testing work! Your suspicion that your supervisor's suggestion seems too easy is well-founded. Unless they tell you in detail what they want you to do, and that the test is only a "quick and dirty" test, whose results are only preliminary and not critical to any design, project, or product, you should be wary of this approach!
You say you need to accurately align some lenses on the bench. That's actually a limited description of your task. Did your supervisor mention to what angular accuracy those lenses needed to be aligned? Does the term "align" mean they are all to be arranged in space so their respective optical axes are all co-linear? Does their common optical axis need to be co-linear with any other devices such as a light source or a detector? Do they need to be arranged in space so as to simulate their position inside some future housing or system? Are you concerned with lens tilts? Is the goal to provide an optimal image of some test object? In each case, we still need to answer the angular accuracy question! If this test is really a "quick and dirty" one where a "rough alignment" will suffice, maybe the laser pointer could be useful, but I still have some concerns about this. Did that supervisor tell you what to do with the laser beam and how to determine that those lenses were actually aligned to something by means of a crude laser beam? People talk about using lasers to "align optics" a lot. Often, they have never done a critical optical alignment with special optical telescopes designed for that purpose. Talk is "cheap," compared with actually performing a test in the lab. Also remember that the laser (especially a green wavelength laser) may be dangerous to your eyesight, at full power, especially after passing through an unspecified series of lenses. Never ever look directly into the oncoming beam from a laser, but especially after its beam passes through some lenses! The beam could be focused, increasing its power density on your retina!
If your task is to align lenses to only about one degree of angular accuracy, you might possibly be able to do that with that suggested method. But that is a rough alignment for sure! If you must perform an optical alignment of several lenses to a straight line axis in space to a few minutes of arc or worse, to a few seconds of arc, you are going to need to use some sophisticated alignment telescope equipment and other ancillary equipment to get that job done correctly. With the right alignment telescope and/or an autocollimator, you can accomplish alignments to one second of arc or better. I'm not suggesting it is easy, but I've done it hundreds of times. However, you do need that specialized equipment, and they are expensive!
I have not really explained how to do any specific "Optical Alignments." In the mean time, ask your supervisor for more details about that test. More on this subject will follow in subsequent posts!


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Basecamp Productions
Basecamp Productions was originally founded in 2004 by Joshua James[1] and Brett Eliason (Eliason apparently sold his share of the company sometime in 2007 and is no longer involved) with the idea of releasing "Official Bootlegs" online. Beginning with Pearl Jam's groundbreaking "Official Bootlegs" series,[2][3] artists who have appeared on recordings distributed exclusively by Basecamp include: Pearl Jam, Linkin Park,[4] Jay-Z, U2, Disturbed[5]Chris Cornell, Tori Amos,[6] Ben Harper, The Black Crowes, The Cult, Busta Rhymes, Sleater-Kinney, Kings of Leon, Mudhoney, My Morning Jacket, Sonic Youth, Dispatch, Third Day[7] and Wolfmother.
Basecamp works with artists who sell their shows through their own web sites. Shows are typically available anywhere from 30 minutes to a few days following the performance. Basecamp handles the whole process from recording the show, mixing it and then releases it through their own software package which is installed on the artists site. Basecamp also has partnerships with both Ticketmaster and Live Nation to sell the live recordings at the point of ticket purchase.
1. ^http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/musicnightlife/2003638511_official28.html
2. ^http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/61671/pearl-jam-goes-digital-for-live-bootleg-series
3. ^http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9073077/
4. ^http://downloads.linkinpark.com
5. ^http://www.cnbc.com/id/29753403/
6. ^http://toribootlegs.com
7. ^http://downloads.thirdday.com
- ^ http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/musicnightlife/2003638511_official28.html
- ^ http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/61671/pearl-jam-goes-digital-for-live-bootleg-series
- ^ http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9073077/
- ^ http://downloads.linkinpark.com/
- ^ http://bootlegs.disturbed1.com/
- ^ http://toribootlegs.com/
- ^ http://downloads.thirdday.com


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Don't give up on gun-shy dog
Long, slow training can work wonders
Eagle - Out in front, my golden retriever, Cody, was working a tree line that bordered a field of tall grass on public hunting land in the Kettle Moraine State Forest, when he got a sniff of something that made him pick up the pace.
When Cody is tracking, his tail starts wagging and he switches direction in sharp angles. When that happens, I've learned that you have to stay with him because something is about to happen.
This time, Cody's excited chase took him around a point of trees and brush that jutted out into the field. I tried to keep up, but, before I could clear the trees, I heard the cackle and rapid wing beats of a flushing rooster pheasant.
When I caught up with Cody, all I got was a quick glimpse of that rooster soaring behind the trees.
There was no time for a shot. But Cody did his job, so I patted him on the head and told him he was a good boy.
An hour or so earlier, we had started our hunt with Jim Laganowski and his Brittany, Lady, but things weren't going very well. Cody seemed more interested in playing with Lady than hunting, and Lady seemed a little intimidated by Cody, who is nearly twice her size.
At that point, Lady was at a crucial time in her training, so we decided to split up and meet back at the truck later.
Laganowski, of Franklin, got Lady after his 10-year-old Brittany, Buddy, died, a little over a year ago.
From the outset, Lady had problems, not the least of which was that she was gun-shy.
I'm no expert on such matters, but I know that some professional dog trainers consider gun-shyness all but insurmountable.
But Laganowski didn't give up. Instead, he started a long, slow training program.
"I went to a fireworks store and bought some poppers, little balls that make a popping sound when you throw them on the concrete," he told me.
He took Lady for walks three times a day and, when she was at the far end of her long leash, he'd throw a popper.
"At first she got scared," he said. "She pulled on the leash and tried to get away."
But after eight weeks of patience, reassurance and repetition, the poppers didn't bother her any more.
Laganowski moved on to a cap gun. After a month or so of firing the cap gun on their walks, Laganowski also started shooting it inside before meals and treats.
When the caps no longer scared Lady, Laganowski got a .22-caliber crimp pistol, and started taking Lady on off-leash walks in fields where there was bird, rabbit or squirrel scent.
"She'd be excited, running around having a good time," he said. "I'd fire the gun at the ground at first, then later into the air. She was a little leery, but she didn't run away."
About six weeks later, Laganowski started throwing a retrieving dummy taped with pheasant feathers, and moved up to a .22-caliber starter's pistol. He would throw the dummy, shoot the pistol and watch Lady chase it. It's a training game that they still play almost every day.
By mid-October, Laganowski started feeling confident enough to bring Lady along on his dove and squirrel hunts.
"I shot the 20-gauge and she could handle it," he said. "She didn't run away."
But until this recent hunt, Lady had never pointed or flushed a pheasant.
Just minutes after Cody flushed the rooster that got away, I heard the sound of Laganowski's 12-gauge sounding in the distance.
Then I heard his voice saying: "Good dog, Lady. Good dog."
When we met up later, Laganowski was all smiles.
"She pointed the bird and she flushed it," he said, displaying Lady's first pheasant. "When I shot it, she went over and mouthed it. It wasn't a classic retrieve, but, to me, it was a milestone. After almost a year, she's hunting. "
Laganowski acknowledged that he still has a long way to go.
"But I'll keep working at it," he said
He added: "If you get a dog that's gun-shy, don't give up."
On the Trail Blog
Journal Sentinel outdoors editor Paul A. Smith offers news, notes and perspective on the great outdoors.
- Watchdog Report: State program's open hunting land tough to find
- Interactive Graphic: Find 1.1 million acres of wooded land open to the public through a forestry tax-break program
- Video: Our search for hidden hunting lands


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Conservatively Speaking
State Senator Mary Lazich (R-New Berlin) represents parts of four counties: Milwaukee, Waukesha, Racine, and Walworth. Her Senate District 28 includes New Berlin, Franklin, Greendale, Hales Corners, Muskego, Waterford, Big Bend, the town of Vernon and parts of Greenfield, East Troy, and Mukwonago. Senator Lazich has been in the Legislature for more than a decade. She considers herself a tireless crusader for lower taxes, reduced spending and smaller government.
Have you voted yet?
Polls are open until 8:00 tonight.
You can look up your voting registration and polling location along with voter registration information, voting history, current office holders, and a sample ballot at the State of Wisconsin Voter Public Access website.
Help send movies to our soldiers
I am very proud that OPERATION: Take a Soldier to the Movies has its national office in Senate District 28 in New Berlin. The charity builds troop morale by sending packages that provide a true Saturday night at the movies experience for our fine military men and women. This national grassroots program needs your help and has issued the following news release:
New Berlin, WI (October 30, 2008) – OPERATION: Take a Soldier to the Movies, a not-for profit charity, whose national office is located in New Berlin, WI provides a "Saturday Night at the Movies" experience to our troops serving in the war zones.
Right now we have more than 100 units with over 2,000 soldiers on our waiting list who have requested a movie package and we are short of candy to complete the movie packages and funds for postage to ship these requests.
If you have any left over trick-or-treat candy, or if your children or grandchildren collected more than they can really eat, we would appreciate if you would consider donating the excess to OPERATION: Take a Soldier to the Movies.
Each "Saturday Night at the Movies" package includes a new or used DVD, candy, pre-sweetened powdered drink mix packets, microwave popcorn and a letter from home.
We accept donations of all of the items that make up the movie package. At present we are in desperate need of Candy and Funds to complete and ship the packages.
OPERATION: Take a Soldier to the Movies is a 501 (c) (3) charitable organization and a member of the Defense Department's America Supports You program. 100% of the funds donated are used directly for this project.
With the Thanksgiving and Christmas holidays fast approaching, we are trying to fill and ship movie packages to all those who have requested them.
Donations can be mailed to or dropped off at:
OPERATION: Take a Soldier to the Movies
14775 W National Avenue
New Berlin, WI 53151
(262) 754-4300
College Goal Sunday helps students get financial aid
The 4th annual College Goal Sunday takes place all over Wisconsin on February 21st and 22nd, 2009. College Goal Sunday offers help to high school seniors and their families seeking financial aid for college.
Over 1,400 students and parents attended the 2008 event. The 2009 College Goal Sunday will be held at 20 different sites with financial aid experts on hand to assist with Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) forms that determine the amount of aid a student is eligible to receive. Students that complete the FAFSA may receive state or federal grants, scholarships, campus jobs in the work study program, low interest loans or other forms of financial assistance.
I encourage constituents to attend these events to receive valuable information that can make the complex procedure of financial aid application much easier.
More information is available at the College Goal Sunday website. Here are the locations for College Goal Sunday. You may call a toll-free number, 1-866-578-GOAL (4625) for more information.
This would have been a good list for Wisconsin
Forbes.com has listed its top ten cities that are the most affordable to retire.
No Wisconsin city made the list.
I am not surprised.


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When I try to watch a live Flash stream, my CPU usage goes up to 75% and my Internet speed goes down. If I run a test before the video-stream, my speed is ~40/10Mbps and during the stream it drops to 0.1-0.5Mbps. The stream is laggy and I can only watch one to two seconds at a time, start/stop/start/stop.
I have cleared my history, cache, cookies, temp files, and so on. I have searched for malware and took care of that. I have updated my drivers, reinstalled Flash and everything else I can think of, but it remains slow. I had this problem before and it just started working normally from one day to another. Could it be a hardware problem?


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There is nothing unusual in the idea of life on Earth interacting with the air, sea and rocks, but it took a view from outside to glimpse the possibility that this combination might consist of a single giant living system and one with the capacity to keep the Earth always at a state most favorable for the life upon it.
An entity comprising a whole planet and with a powerful capacity to regulate the climate needs a name to match. It was the novelist William Golding who proposed the name Gaia. Gladly we accepted his suggestion and Gaia is also the name of the hypothesis of science which postulates that the climate and the composition of the Earth always are close to an optimum for whatever life inhabits it.
James Lovelock
Source: What is Gaia?
Contributed by: Meenakshi
May I remind you why I call the Earth Gaia? It came about in the 1960s when the author William Golding, who subsequently won the Nobel and many other prizes, was near neighbor and friend. We both lived in the village of Bowerchalke, twelve miles southwest of Salisbury in southern England. We would often talk on scientific topics on walks around the village or in the village pub, the Bell Inn. In 1968 or 1969, during a walk, I tried out my hypothesis on him; he was receptive because, unlike most literary figures, he had taken physics while at Oxford as an undergraduate and fully understood the science of my argument. He grew enthusiastic and said, "If you are intending to come out with a large idea like that, I suggest that you give it a proper name: I propose 'Gaia.'" I was pleased with his suggestion - it was a word, not an acronym, and even then I saw the Earth as in certain ways alive, at least to the extent that it appeared to regulate its own climate and chemistry. Few scientists are familiar with the classics, and are unaware that Gaia is sometimes given the alternate name 'Ge.' Ge, of course, is the prefix of the sciences of geology, geophysics and geochemistry. To Golding, Gaia, the goddess who brought order out of chaos, was the appropriate title for a hypothesis about an Earth system that regulate its climate and chemistry so as to sustain habitability.
Source: The Vanishing Face of Gaia - A Final Warning
We cannot assume the sacredness nor spiritual livingness of the earth or accept it as a new ideology or as a sentimentally pleasing idea. We must experience that life and sacredness, if it is there, in relationship to our own and to that ultimate mystery we call God. We must experience it in our lives, in our practice, in the flesh of our cultural creativity. We must allow it to shape us, as great spiritual ideas have always shaped those who entertain them, and not expect that we can simply use the image of Gaia to meet emotional, religious, political, or even commercial needs without allowing it to transform us in unexpected and radical ways. The spirituality of the earth is more than a slogan. It is an invitation to initiation, to the death of what we have been and the birth of something new.
David Spangler
Source: Earth & Spirit (IC#24) Late Winter 1990, Page 44
Gaia is an important idea, both as a scientific hypothesis and as a spiritual image. However, I see it as a transitional idea. It is not so much a revelation in itself as a precursor to revelation or to new insights that can come when that idea is examined and lived with and given a chance to settle into our bones. Its meaning now lies in what it can inspire us to discover about ourselves and the nature of life, in rallying our energies to meet the needs of our environment, and through these processes of discovery and healing, to become a truly planetary species, blessed in ways we can now only imagine.
Source: Earth & Spirit (IC#24) Late Winter 1990, Page 44 http://www.context.org/ICLIB/IC24/Spangler.htm
Human history is a Gaian dream.
Terence McKenna
We are the intelligent elite among animal life on earth and whatever our mistakes, [Earth] needs us. This may seem an odd statement after all that I have said about the way 20th century humans became almost a planetary disease organism. But it has taken [Earth] 2.5 billion years to evolve an animal that can think and communicate its thoughts. If we become extinct she has little chance of evolving another.
Source: James Lovelock (The Vanishing Face of Gaia: A Final Warning
Stranded on a sandbarStarfish in my hairSurfers singing "Mary Had A Little Lamb"And catching serious airOn their surfboards, they swimIn the waves, they areAll that motion sicknessMakes me feel as if I'm in a carHow do I sayThat I need some underwearIn French, Or SpanishOr even.. in.. AmerIcan.I can.I can do anything that I wish to do.I just need inspiration from viewers like you.Thank you.THANK YOU.ROCK ON BOSTON.THIS IS AN INSPIRATIONAL POEM.Amen, Bhatta-lovers. Amen.
Contributed by: peaceful-rock-loving-nature-man-wit
We come here because we too feel a responsibility for the human community. To preserve and develop a human quality of life is the common responsibility of us all. It is not fitting that those concerned with the various aspects of the human be alienated from each other. Both you and ourselves represent forces too profound and aim at objectives too significant for either of us to succeed completely without the assistance of the other. The urgency of our work impels us to get on with our common task lest a new period of disaster erupt over the Earth.
Thomas Berry
Source: Evening Thoughts: Reflecting on Earth as Sacred Community
Contributed by: Siona
Our difficulty is that we have become autistic. We no longer listen to what the Earth, its landscape, its atmospheric phenomena and all its living forms, its mountains and valleys, the rain, the wind, and all the flora and fauna of the planet are telling us.
The Great Work, now as we move into a new millennium, is to carry out the transition from a period of human devastation of the Earth to a period when humans would be present to the planet in a mutually beneficial manner.The deepest cause of the present devastation is found in a mode of consciousness that has established a radical discontinuity between the human and other modes of being and the bestowal of all rights on the humans.All human activities, professions, programs, and institutions must henceforth be judged primarily by the extent to which they inhibit, ignore, or foster a mutually enhancing human/Earth relationship.
Copyright © 2016 Gaiam, Inc.


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After a shootout in Watertown, Mass., late Thursday night, a day-long manhunt and a tense evening standoff, one Boston Marathon bombing suspect is dead. The second is seriously injured and in police custody.
(Cliff Grassmick / Staff Photographer)
Lacrosse: Local players gain exposure at prep showcase camp
College coaches working with kids, not just watching
LAFAYETTE — Boulder rising senior Ethan Kruteck and Dawson School junior to-be Hunter Watts are just a couple of fish in a pretty large sea of Colorado lacrosse athletes who are looking to take the next step in their game. Full Story
(Matt York / Associated Press)
College footballCU football: Buffs reeling from first blowout loss
Turnovers, sacks allowed pile up in defeats
After many of Colorado's Pac-12 losses over the years, there was a helpless feeling coming from the Buffaloes.Full Story
Second Story Garage: Bandits
Boulder is pretty good at producing rock bands, and by "rock," we mean the in-your-face, guitar-heavy, leather-clad variety — you know, the good kind. For a prime example, look no farther than BANDITS. Full Story
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