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The Stock Market's Frightful Slide
Last fall's fear-driven equity meltdown was scary. The latest drop in stock prices could be even scarier
The stock market on Feb. 23 replayed its November meltdown, dropping below last year's lows to a level not seen since April 1997.
But though stocks are now back at levels not seen since 1997, February's orderly slide feels very different from the sharp declines seen last fall. And that's what's worrying investors: November's crisis sometimes felt like irrational panic, driven by fears of a financial meltdown. February's sell-off, by contrast, seems driven by reality.
On Feb. 23, the broad Standard & Poor's 500-stock index closed at 742.33. That's almost exactly half the value of the stock market at the beginning of 2008. It's not just a recent bubble that has burst. If you bought into the overall stock market—represented by the S&P 500—at any point in the last 11 years, your shares are now worth less than you paid for them.
On Nov. 20, the S&P 500 closed at 752.44. But that return to 1997 levels came after the collapse of Lehman Brothers and amid genuine fears the entire world's financial system was near collapse. When investors calmed down and some rational optimism returned, investors jumped back in the market, bidding the S&P 500 up 24% by Jan. 6.
The Technicians Were Wrong
But since then, a series of developments has punctured many illusions that had driven the stock market's rally.
First, there was the technical analysts' argument that the November lows represented a floor below which the stock market would not fall. Technicians, who predict the market by studying market movements closely, repeatedly saw the market dip close to November lows but then recover. February's drop proves that the supports under that technical floor were very rickety.
Second, conditions in the economy and in the stock market are worse than ever than before. Many investors were betting on a recovery for the economy in the second half of 2009. However, so far there is nothing in the economic data to justify those hopes. "We've had three months of worsening data," says independent stock analyst Doug Peta. "Where we are now [in terms of the economy] is worse than the market was anticipating in November."
Disappointed in D.C.
Moreover, the expectations for earnings by companies are now far worse. Analysts are cutting earnings estimates on a daily basis, undermining a key measure that investors use to determine the value of stocks. Even with the market down 49% in the last 14 months, "I don't think stocks are necessarily cheap," Peta says.
But the biggest disappointment for investors has come from Washington and the banking system. While the Bush Administration's main focus was on stopping the market panic, investors hoped the new Obama Administration would find ways to end the credit crisis.
So far, investors haven't heard a coherent plan from Washington, says Quincy Krosby, chief investment strategist at the Hartford (HIG). "At this point, investors are just left waiting," she says. "The more you wait, the more you see deterioration of the overall economy."
Credit Markets Quandary
If any other sector of the stock market faced these problems, the rest of the market might be able to tread water. But the financial sector's troubles could turn into a deeper and more serious economic downturn. "As the financial sector goes, so goes the economy," Krosby says.
As chief economist at Ibbotson Associates, a subsidiary of Morningstar (MORN), Michele Gambera tracks a wide variety of economic data. But, he says, the key data point these days is the state of the bond market. He likens the credit market to the economic motor's transmission. "If the transmission is jammed, there is nothing that can move," he says.
Both investors and the Obama Administration are caught in a Catch-22. If policymakers like Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner hurry and implement a plan quickly, it might not work. "The risk is that the current conditions force Geithner's hand to put together a hurried and less than comprehensive approach," warns Daniel Clifton of Strategas, a Washington consulting firm.
Waiting for Bold Moves
But as investors wait for a comprehensive solution, the economy and market conditions get worse. "There is no silver bullet," Peta says. "There isn't a nondisruptive way to fix everything."
Many investors fear a drastic step like the nationalization of banks, which would wipe out some shareholders. But others, like Peta, worry the Administration hasn't been bold enough.
For now, investors are stuck in an uncertain environment, where everything they scrutinize to make decisions — from earnings to economic measures to technical indicators — is deteriorating before their eyes. Stocks at these price levels could represent long-term bargains. But at a time like this, few investors are bold enough to challenge the bear.


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FLINT, MI – State Rep. Jim Ananich said he wished Gov. Rick Snyder had more urgency about Michigan's economy during his State of the State address Wednesday, Jan. 16.
Snyder touted that Michigan has added more than 175,000 private payroll jobs since 2009, home sales are nearly 10 percent above 2011 levels and the state had its first population increase since 2004.
Ananich, D-Flint, was mentioned by the Republican governor
in remarks about working on abandoned properties, scrap metals and creating a
next generation 911 system.
"We're never going to get people back to work if people don't feel safe," Ananich told MLive - Flint Journal following Snyder's speech. "Sixty-six murders in Flint is unacceptable. There's a lot of good talk and hopefully we'll get some action."
Ananich said he's been working on scrap metal legislation and understands that he won't always agree with Snyder.
absolutely need to be doing more to keep our communities safe and prevent scrap
metal theft," Ananich said in a statement. "I've been working hard on this with anyone willing to pursue real
solutions, but the time has come for less talk and more action."
Ananich also would've like to see more details about jobs.
"I'm disappointed we didn't hear more of a sense of urgency
about how we can get people back to work and let them keep more of their
hard-earned money," his statement said.
Flint also was referenced in regard to Snyder's "Pathways to Potential" initiative, which is a Department of Human Services model that puts state social workers inside schools.
In Genesee County, there is a "success coach" in Byrant Elementary School of Fine Arts, Durant Tuuri Mott Elementary and Washington Elementary, according to the DHS website.
A call seeking comment from Flint Public Schools was not immediately returned Wednesday night.
Dominic Adams is a reporter for MLive - Flint Journal. Contact him at email@example.com or 810-241-8803. Follow him on Twitter, Facebook or Google+.

subset: commoncrawl


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Lynch agreed to the request, proclaiming in language too colorful for a family newspaper that he and his team were about to unveil the brain's memory-making machinery.
Nearly four years later, McDermott wrapped up "101 Theory Drive: A Neuroscientist's Quest for Memory" -- and Lynch, though closer to identifying the physical mechanisms that allow us to remember (and forget), still was spending the majority of his waking hours at 101 Theory Drive (the book's title is the lab's address) certain that the outcome of the very next experiment finally would be It -- the definitive key to memory's code.
While four years in Journalist Time is long enough to write not only an award-winning series on Lynch for the Los Angeles Times but also a book, in Neuroscience Time it's a hypothesis or two. A psychologist-turned-self-taught-neurobiologist, Lynch has spent three decades trying to figure out what memory looks like in the brain and, most recently, in conjunction with chemists, attempting to formulate drugs to enhance it.
(Lynch isn't alone. Memory -- or more accurately its loss -- is a pressing concern and potentially big business as the population ages. An estimated 5.3 million Americans live with Alzheimer's disease, for example, and researchers project that the number could nearly quadruple in the next 50 years, at which point about one in 45 Americans would be afflicted.)
Not only is the research time consuming, however, but it's often tedious. Experiments that take less than a day to run may take weeks to set up. Even if the experiment itself doesn't go haywire, results often are less than definitive, especially when the team of researchers isn't entirely sure what they're looking for on a molecular level -- or even where to look: The human brain has approximately 100 billion neurons (by comparison, a pond slug has about 10,000). The scope is a bit overwhelming.
Then, when a result seems to indicate, say, that the formation of a memory causes a physical change in the neuron's dendrite, the experiment must be repeated, ad nauseam, until the results are unequivocal. And then it must be published. And then competing scientists will spend years trying to prove otherwise.
Given all that, Lynch's story might have been as exciting as a minivan in a suburban driveway. Instead, "101 Theory Drive" is mostly a joy ride.
In part, the book is fueled by Lynch himself. Blunt, temperamental, raucous, divisive, hard-partying, Corvette-driving -- Lynch is to neuroscience what Anthony Bourdain is to the kitchen. His passion for discovering the physical and biochemical mechanisms of memory formation is obsessive to the point of off-putting. But his enthusiasm for the brain and its mysteries is so transparent that it's hard not to root for him and his revolving cast of oddball graduate students, postdocs and like-minded researchers at the lab.
Even with a personality as prolix and profane as Lynch's, however, the story itself is still about science, which, despite what you see on "CSI," can move mighty slowly.
Thankfully, McDermott knows how to drive a tale.
Clearly, McDermott found Lynch mesmerizing, but he doesn't let sympathy ooze into sycophancy. In clear prose that isn't afraid of figurative language, McDermott deftly guides the reader through the web of science. Like Bill Nye the Science Guy, McDermott understands that information needs reinforcement, and he often swoops in to save readers the hassle of thumbing backward. (He also provides a compact but useful glossary, just in case.)
The first half of the book focuses on background: Lynch's early years, the history of brain research, even the history of the brain itself. The second half of the book follows the ups and downs of Lynch's lab from 2005 through 2007, riding a roller coaster of biological and pharmacological discoveries, disappointments and meaningful digressions.
If there's a quibble with the book, it's in the second half. The pace slows, and the landscape flattens, like Nebraska, into predictability. Ultimately McDermott must randomly decide where to end the book, as he realizes the science itself isn't going to provide an endpoint.
But that's a niggling point.
Overall, "101 Theory Drive" is compelling ride. Look for it. Remember it.
--B.T. Shaw
Terry McDermott
Pantheon Books
$25.95, 288 pages
Reading: In an event co-sponsored by Oregon Health & Science University's Brain Institute, McDermott will be at Powell's City of Books, 1005 W. Burnside St., at 7:30 p.m. Friday, April 23.


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Editorial assistant Desiree Feigel-Dart recently interviewed Garin Byrne, owner of Laundry Moms.
Name: Garin R. Byrne
Age: 34
Where do you live? Fayetteville
Where are you originally from? Fayetteville
Education: I have a bachelor's degree from Potsdam State University College.
In a few words, describe your business: We're a wash, dry, fold, pick up and delivery laundry service.
Number of employees: Just myself and my mother is here, too.
How long have you owned it? July 1 was our official start date.
What did you do before becoming a business owner? I had been a recruiter. I had my own search firm for 10 years and then with the economy and time for a change.
What led you to open the business? An acquaintance of my mom and I had just said, you know, with the way you two do laundry you should open up a laundry service and so that's what brought it on.
How did your business get its name? My mother, Jeri, came up with that name because not only was it cute, we wanted people to know that we do laundry like your mother did/does.
Describe a typical day: A typical day begins with pick ups in the morning and then just laundry throughout the day with drop-offs in the evening. We also do ironing and line drying.
What's the hardest part of running the business? I don't really know if there is a hardest part of running the business. I mean, I enjoy doing laundry so it's not really that difficult. I would have to say ironing is — standing over a hot iron.
What's the nicest thing a customer has said to you? That they like the way we fold our clothes and they enjoy our service and we're kind.
Do you have a busiest time of the day, week, month or year? Mondays and Tuesdays because we're coming off the weekend and it slows down toward the end of the week.
Is there someone who has helped you out? I had a friend help me do the website and help me with a little bit of the creative end of things but other than that, no, it was just my mother and I.
What advice would you give someone starting out in a business like yours? I mean it's nerve-racking when you start your own business and you're always afraid of failure so just remain positive and keep your head up and be confident that it will work.
What is the best piece of advice someone has given you? What my advice would be to them, just to remain positive, it's a good idea, it will work.
Where do you see your business going in the future? Well, I would like it to get bigger. I have a dream I think it would be really cool to kind of franchise it but I don't know about that, that's down the road. I just would like to see us get bigger and be busier.
Our office is located at 208 Long Branch Road, construction begins on our facility next month, in the meantime what we've been doing is using laundromats because we're still in the beginning so it's okay. We're not that big because we're new so we can handle it with laundromats but construction begins on our facility next month.
Just the facts ...
Business: Laundry Moms
Address: 208 Long Branch Road, Geddes
Owner: Garin R. Byrne
Hours: 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. Monday through Friday
Telephone: 701-4429
Website: laundrymoms.com


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Handmade leather handbags and one size fits all fashion dresses, Purses, totes, clutches and wallets, and unique women's clothing, black, maxi dress, t shirt dresses, sweatshirts dress, shirt dress and blouses.
Thank you for stopping by to visit our handmade leather bag and clothing store - Stella and Lori
Visit our website: www.stellaandlori.com
View our shop policies: http://www.etsy.com/shop/stellaandlori/policy
Back to our Etsy shop: http://www.stellaandlori.etsy.com"
Handmade leather handbags and one size fits all fashion dresses, Purses, totes, clutches and wallets, and unique women's clothing, black, maxi dress, t shirt dresses, sweatshirts dress, shirt dress and blouses.
Thank you for stopping by to visit our handmade leather bag and clothing store - Stella and Lori
Visit our website: www.stellaandlori.com
View our shop policies: http://www.etsy.com/shop/stellaandlori/policy
Back to our Etsy shop: http://www.stellaandlori.etsy.com"
Elkie Alexander Hershberg on Sep 30, 2016
just stunning. much nicer then in the photo. i love it! a great winter dress.
bernadettemaguire on Aug 7, 2016
I was on holiday recently staying in Jaffa, I am from Liverpool. I attended a fashion show, a very nice young lady wore a beautiful black dress, I commented how fabulous it was and "how could I buy one" She kindly shared her knowledge Stella & Lori. "Hey Presto" I ordered the same in black as soon as I returned home to UK. Postage and packaging wonderful, excellent customer service . Many thanks Bernadette x
長谷川 佳世 on Jul 19, 2016
Thank you!I like it!
"Stella and Lori" – products, that are not perfect or part of one collection, but the kind that show your special style with a unique story behind.
We create handmade women's accessories such as leather hobo bags, tote bags, messenger bags, oversized purses, wallets and clutches in many sizes and colors.
Our creation – hand made leather products and unique clothing, reflects our deep passion for quality, style, and aesthetics. We are two Israeli sisters from Tel Aviv, who decided to take a mutual journey into the world of creativity and design.
Our name, "Stella and Lori", represents the names of our grandmothers. They both, grew up in Europe, moved to Israel, and lived in Tel Aviv, bringing with them the European touch of style and chic.
Our grandmothers taught us to embrace the diversity of people and to appreciate the uniqueness and individuality of each person. This idea is well expressed in our products. The same as people are different so are the products, each product is one of a kind!
The leather we use, in the products, is not manufactured or perfect. We preserve its individuality, as a result - each product is unique and exceptional.
Our leather goods are made from high-quality raw material, superior stitching and professional craftsmanship.
The design language of our clothes derives from the same values we produce our bags. Our clothes are multi seasonal and our not connected to a specific season or passing trend. Our love for big and dramatic bags is similar to our clothes, big clothes that are not clingy to the body, exaggerated and dominant. This type of clothes creates a dialog and reflections about the woman's and human size.
Each item has its character exactly like people and is tailored made to fit your needs and style. Our high quality products enable you to express who you are through the color and design you choose.
Read our Feature Seller interview and take a tour of our workshop:
Back to our shop: http://www.stellaandlori.etsy.com
Shop members
Zohar Blank Kama
Owner, Creator, Designer
Hi,we are Zohar and Vered, two Israeli sisters from Tel Aviv, who decided to take a mutual journey into the world of creativity and design.
Vered Blank Grizim
Owner, Creator, Designer
H.G- for industrial and manufacturing of leather products
Jerusalem, Israel
A family oriented workshop. The father has hands of gold and leather is his second skin. The son followed his father's footsteps and he also manages the customer relations. we work with them from the model stage to the cutting and sewing of the bags.
Eran's cutting
Tel Aviv, Israel
Eran has a cutter located in Tel-Aviv and a sewing workshop that is managed by his mother. In addition to the quality of his sewing and cutting, it is very pleasant to work with him. also, he has a new adorable baby that was born not long ago :-)
Shop policies
Stella and Lori is a brand of fine hand made luxury leather goods.
Each item is One Of A Kind.
Accepted payment methods
If you need help making a payment please look at:
Our shipping method is International Registered Airmail service with tracking number . It should normally take between 7 to 14 business days to arrive, but please note that occasionally delivery may take a few more days.
Plese, make sure your Etsy address and PayPal address match so there won't be any confusion.
US clients, please check your zip code additional 4 digits and update your paypal address - to get your shipment much faster, you can check it here : http://zip4.usps.com/zip4/welcome.jsp it should look like this ; XXXXX-XXXX
*Please check the customs regulations in your country. In case there are any customs extra charges the Stella and Lori" shop will not be responsible.
Refunds and Exchanges
All requests for refunds or exchanges must be made within 3 days of receiving the item. The item must be returned in the condition it was received, and return must take up to 21 days.
Step 1: Email us and let us know who you are and the item you wish to return, within 3 days of receipt of your item.
Step 2: Mail your return to us in a prepaid package. We cannot be responsible for lost packages so we suggest tracking and/or insuring your return, and Please let us know the mailing date and tracking number.
The goods are your responsibility until they reach to us, so make sure it's packed up properly and can't get damaged on the way.
Step 3: Returns can take up to 21 working days to get back to us, we will issue a full refund to your credit/debit card through PayPal
Additional policies and FAQs
Your positive 'feedback' entered here on ETSY is our way of knowing that your package was delivered safely.
We appreciate your feedback, and will respond with our own positive feedback for you after that.
If you have any negative comments, please let us know :-)


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Senior Lecturer, Music History & Literature and founder of Rock and Roll Certificate Program
With deep sadness, the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Peck School of the Arts announces the sudden death of Dr. Martin Jack Rosenblum, Senior Lecturer, Music History & Literature and founder/creator of the Rock and Roll Certificate Program, the only one of its kind in the United States. He also served for 12 years as an Admissions Specialist/Academic advisor in the UWM Academic Opportunity Center. In his UWM career, Rosenblum taught poetry, creative writing, and music courses to thousands of students over the years. He was an outstanding and influential teacher, leader, mentor and friend to our students, alums, and faculty. With more than a dozen CDs of original songs and more than 20 books of poetry, Rosenblum is an established, internationally recognized singer/songwriter, poet and musician who touched the lives of so many and will be greatly missed.
"Martin Jack has been a great friend and colleague for many years. We enjoyed many hours together dreaming, laughing, and planning. Martin Jack always challenged and stimulated my thoughts about culture, spirituality, language, poetry, and vernacular music. He deeply enriched my life and touched the hearts of a huge number of students throughout the UWM community. I will miss the value he placed on formal communication, his sense of style, and his humble and gracious manner. My thanks to Marty for all he has given to me and our community," says Scott Emmons, Peck School of the Arts Dean and Professor of Music Education.
A memorial will be held on Thursday, January 16 at 3pm at Helen Bader Concert Hall, 2419 E. Kenwood Blvd. Paid underground parking is available at the UWM Student Union at 2200 E. Kenwood Blvd.
Rosenblum is survived by his wife of 44 years, Maureen, and their daughters, Sarah Terez Rosenblum and Molly Dvora Rosenblum.
Rosenblum, an Appleton, Wis. native, earned a BS in English from UW-Madison, and an MA in Creative Writing and a Ph.D. in literature from UWM. With a shared passion for writing and music, Rosenblum served at UWM for over thirty years in faculty and administrative roles. Fondly known as "Dr. Rock and Roll" and "The Holy Ranger," Rosenblum was a recording artist on the Rounder Records label, a Gibson performing artist, the historian emeritus for the Harley-Davidson Motor Company and the historian for Les Paul's House of Sound at Discovery World.
Among his enormous accomplishments, Rosenblum was the creator, founder and champion of the Peck School's Rock and Roll Certificate Program. Developed in response to strong interest from students and faculty, this unique program prepares students to use the tools of ethnomusicology, musicology, literature studies and cultural studies to examine American vernacular music in a way previously reserved for what is called "classical music." Launched in Fall 2010, certificate students gain a solid understanding of this musical genre while deepening their knowledge of the style from an array of courses across the arts and humanities. Dr. Rosenblum taught more than 300 students each semester in a variety of music history and literature courses, including "American Popular Music" and "Literary Aspects of Rock and Roll." He also served as a project advisor for students in UWM's Masters in Liberal Studies Program.
In the summer of 2012, Rosenblum donated to UWM Libraries correspondence between himself and poets and writers who were friends and colleagues between 1965-2002. With a focus on modern American poetry, including its ties to early rock and roll songwriting, the donated materials include his 1980 doctoral dissertation, "Carl Rakosi's Americana Poems: Objectivist Word Machines from an American Assembly Line," his final manuscript of an unpublished critical biography of Objectivist poet Carl Rakosi, and rare photographs of Rakosi at his home during the summer of 1974. More information can be found here .
Rosenblum was the recipient of two Wisconsin Area Music Industry awards for Alternative Artist and Rock Journalist, identifying him as both artist and scholar. He also won the Shepherd Express Reader's Choice for Best Poet of the Year and was featured in Peter Jennings' ABC series "The Century," discussing Rock and Roll history. In 2003, the 12th anniversary edition of his cult album (originally issued on Flying Fish Records) The Holy Ranger's Free Hand (done with members of the Violent Femmes) was released, as well as a retrospective CD box set anthology. He was also the author of Searching For Rock And Roll, editor of American Popular Music a vastly published music critic and contributor to the 2012 Grove Guide To Music.
Gifts in memory of Dr. Martin Jack Rosenblum
Red Guitar Fund
The Red Guitar Fund supports the Rock and Roll Certificate Program offered at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee founded by Dr. Martin Jack Rosenblum. Milwaukee's significant role in Rock and Roll's development makes this an especially important program for the university.
The Red Guitar Fund provides scholarships for students as well as funding for program support, including guest artists. Contributions will help students with tuition and other educational expenses. Contributions will also make it possible for the program to gain increased visibility and impact with the ability to introduce students and broader audiences to Rock and Roll's formative and leading artists.
Rosenblum created the idea of the Red Guitar Fund with his friend, the late Dan Sokolovic, as a legacy to one of Milwaukee's early alternative rock musicians, the late Terry Tanger. Martin Jack, Dan, Terry, and many others, were important to Milwaukee's Rock and Roll legacy and were dedicated to shaping its future. We honor Martin Jack, his work, and the many friends who shared his passion with this Fund.
How to make a gift
Donations may be made to the UWM Foundation, 1440 East North Avenue, Milwaukee, WI 53202, payable to UWM Foundation-Red Guitar Fund, or online. For more information, please contact Diane Grace, Director of Development, at 414-229-3902 or at firstname.lastname@example.com.
Select clips about Dr. Rosenblum
Peck School faculty profile article and video
Student perspective article, written by Trapper Schoepp
Milwaukee Journal Sentinel Obituary by Piet Levy
Shepherd Express Tribute by Dave Luhrssen
Martin Jack Rosenblum web site
Martin Jack Rosenblum Fan Facebook page
For media inquiries, please contact Ellen Friebert Schupper, Director of Marketing and Community Relations at the Peck School of the Arts at firstname.lastname@example.com or 414-229-6771.


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Transforming Public Life
A Decade of Citizen Engagement in Bridgeport, Connecticut
On the face of it, the story of Bridgeport, Connecticut, is a familiar one. After losing much of its manufacturing and industrial base following the Second World War, the city confronted the problems of many old industrial cities' high unemployment, a shrinking tax base, the growth of violent crime and drugs. As a result of roughly a decade of hard work by organizations, "ordinary" citizens and various local leaders, public engagement has become embedded in the life of the community.
Like our resources? Consider donating $20 to help us provide them for free to the public. Every dollar counts!
Download this PDF now.


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About Me
im chad king i been skaten for 9 years now and still going im pretty good than most people im a street skater i do alot of flat ground tricks and i skate about everyday with my bestfriends and teach each other how to do tricks that we cant do so im 16 i live in lincoln alabama so just message me or hit me up we can skate
HomiesView All »
RantsLogin to leave a rant!
yeah i skate.
and thanks for the props on my enjoi ads.
funky chicken
Chad, you are gay. Yeah, it was funny when I said Brittany's boob lol.. ( . Y . )
rated eg for everone thats gay
nigga xD
My EMB Chops
Chillin' since 12-16-08
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Neighbourhood characteristics and trajectories of health functioning: a multilevel prospective analysis
Background: Prospective data from over 10 years of follow-up were used to examine neighbourhood deprivation, social fragmentation and trajectories of health. Methods: From the third phase (1991–93) of the Whitehall II study of British civil servants, SF-36 health functioning was measured on up to five occasions for 7834 participants living in 2046 census wards. Multilevel linear regression models assessed the Townsend deprivation index and social fragmentation index as predictors of initial health and health trajectories. Results: Independent of individual socioeconomic factors, deprivation was inversely associated with initial SF-36 physical component summary (PCS) score. Social fragmentation was not associated with PCS scores. Deprivation and social fragmentation were inversely associated with initial mental component summary (MCS) score. Neighbourhood characteristics were not associated with trajectories of PCS score or MCS score for the whole set. However, restricted analysis on longer term residents revealed that residents in deprived or socially fragmented neighbourhoods had lowest initial and smallest improvements in MCS score. Conclusions: This longitudinal study provides evidence that residence in a deprived or fragmented neighbourhood is associated with poorer mental health and that longer exposure to such neighbourhood environments has incremental effects. Associations between physical health functioning and neighbourhood characteristics were less clear. Mindful of the importance of individual socioeconomic factors, the findings warrant more detailed examination of materially and socially deprived neighbourhoods and their consequences for health.
- area inequalities
- hierarchical analysis
- longitudinal
- neighbourhood
A large literature now documents associations of neighbourhood deprivation with mortality, morbidity and perceived health.1–8 These associations are seen in many developed countries, using many different indicators of deprivation and controlling for a wide range of individual-level explanatory factors. The research evidence linking neighbourhood characteristics, including deprivation, to health is overwhelmingly based on cross-sectional analysis. Such studies cannot discount the possibility that the illness or condition developed in a different neighbourhood to the one in which the illness was counted. The selective migration into deprived neighbourhoods of those with illness potentially confounds the relationship between deprivation and illness.9,10 Over the long term, selective migration may have a substantial effect on area-level differences in mortality and morbidity. Although too numerous to list them all here, relatively few studies have used longitudinal data to assess whether residence in certain kinds of neighbourhoods is associated with disease incidence or a relative worsening of health over time and the overwhelming majority of these are based on data from just two time points.4,6,11–14 With two time points it is possible to identify incident disease and to assess the temporality of any association between neighbourhood deprivation and disease. It is possible to conclude from such studies that selective migration is not the driver of the association between deprivation and disease. We would expect that greater exposure to deprived neighbourhood would be incrementally associated with poorer health. The association between deprivation and health should be greater for people who have lived in deprived neighbourhoods for longer (assuming that length of residence is a suitable proxy for exposure). Longitudinal studies may provide information on length of exposure which may help refine estimates of the association between neighbourhood deprivation and health. Additionally, with more than two time points it is possible to model linear and non-linear change in health and to assess whether differences between types of neighbourhood widen over time. A widening would indicate that residence in a deprived neighbourhood has on-going implications for health, such that residents in deprived neighbourhoods at baseline would likely experience greater declines in health than those in less deprived neighbourhoods at baseline. A plausible explanation for such a finding might be that the physical, economic or social characteristics of deprived neighbourhoods accelerate the ageing process, over and above individual ageing-related factors.15 This could be as a result of physical exposures affecting biological processes or lack of amenities and opportunity structures preventing health-promoting behaviours which protect against ageing, for example. Here we use prospective data from over 10 years of follow-up at up to five measurement occasions to examine neighbourhood effects on trajectories of health functioning.
Deprivation indices may not fully capture the characteristics of neighbourhoods that are important for all aspects of health. Indices such as the Townsend deprivation index were designed to capture material disadvantage and are based on indicators such as unemployment rates and overcrowding.16 In recent years there has been renewed interest in the role of socio-relational characteristics, such as social capital, social cohesion and social fragmentation in explaining health differences across areas.17–21 Although highly correlated with socioeconomic deprivation, social fragmentation is conceptually distinct. Social fragmentation refers to a lack of social integration into society. Socially fragmented communities provide less stable social institutions and social bonds, including the family and religion. These institutions and bonds are thought to contribute to the creation of stable identities, permanency in social connections, access to resources that promote healthy behaviours and good physical and mental health.19–29
We hypothesized that both neighbourhood deprivation and social fragmentation are associated with poorer physical and mental health functioning. We further hypothesized that these associations would be greater in magnitude for those with greater exposure to deprived or fragmented neighbourhoods. Using a hierarchical growth curve model, we explored the shape of trajectories of functioning in different types of neighbourhood.
The Whitehall II study
Prospective health data come from the Whitehall II study of British civil servants. In 1985, all those aged 35–55 years working in London were invited to participate. Of those invited, 10 308 (73%) participated in the first phase. Data from the third (1991–93), fourth (1995–96), fifth (1997–99), sixth (2001) and seventh (2002–04) phases of the study were analysed. The health functioning measures were not introduced before phase 3. Average follow-up was 10.7 years (95% range 3.0–12.7 years). The University College London Medical School Committee on the Ethics of Human Research approved the protocol.
Neighbourhood deprivation and social fragmentation
Data from the 1991 UK census accessed through Manchester Information and Associated Services (MIMAS) were used to measure deprivation in neighbourhoods defined by census ward boundaries (average population ∼5000). Whilst administrative boundaries may not correspond directly to a person's perception and experience of their neighbourhood, census wards are used for public service organization and delivery and are convenient for analytical purposes. Two indices were derived from the census data. The Townsend index of deprivation is based on proportions of unemployed, lacking access to a car, overcrowding and renting.16 The social fragmentation index is based on proportions of single person households (aged <65 years), persons not married or cohabiting, private renting and residential mobility in the previous year.17 It is intended to capture lack of stable social bonds and the four proxy variables used here indicate lack of couple relationships and lack of permanency in local social relations. The variables were transformed to a standard normal distribution and summed with equal weighting to create a social fragmentation score. For analysis, the Townsend and social fragmentation indices were transformed to a standard normal distribution to allow estimation of the effect of a 1 SD increase in deprivation or social fragmentation. These scores were categorized into four equal groups (quartiles) of deprivation and social fragmentation for presentation in the descriptive table but were included in regression models as continuous variables as there was no evidence of non-linearity in their association with health.
Individual health functioning and covariates
The UK standard version of the Short Form 36 (SF-36) questionnaire was administered at each of the five phases under study. This validated tool measures health functioning on eight scales (physical function, role limitations due to physical problems, pain, general health perceptions, general mental health, role limitations due to emotional problems, vitality and social functioning) which can be combined into two higher order summary scales capturing physical and mental health components.30–32 The physical component summary (PCS) and mental component summary (MCS) scores ranged from 0 to 100, with 100 indicating maximal functioning.
Participants' sex, age, socioeconomic position captured by 12 levels of civil service employment grade and collapsed into three groups (high, i.e. senior administrators and managers; intermediate, i.e. professional, technical and executive staff; and low, i.e. clerical officers and office support staff), and long-term illness were ascertained by questionnaire. At each phase, time in the study was calculated as current age minus age at phase 3. Individual-level data were linked to neighbourhood data via participant's postcode at phase 3 using a postcode-census ward look-up table from MIMAS.
Statistical analysis
Multilevel linear regression was used to model the relationship between SF-36 PCS and MCS scores and neighbourhood deprivation and social fragmentation. Three-level linear regression models (study phase nested within participant nested within neighbourhood) models were built sequentially. The base model included intercept and time in the study (centred at the mid-point of 5.6 years) as fixed and random effects and partitioned the variation in the intercept and slope of health-related functioning into that which was between neighbourhoods ( respectively), between individuals in the same neighbourhood (), and within individuals (). The base model can be written as: where β00 = overall mean PCS score, β10 = increase in PCS per 1-year increase in follow-up time (the overall slope), v0k = difference from overall mean PCS in neighbourhood k, u0jk = difference from neighbourhood mean PCS for jth person in neighbourhood k, v1k = difference from overall slope in neighbourhood k, u1jk0 = difference from neighbourhood slope for jth person in neighbourhood k. The term e0ijk represents the within-person error and the term e1ijk allows for the within-person variation to change over time. According to this model, an intercept and slope is estimated for each participant and for each neighbourhood. The first two terms in the equation above are fixed parameters and the remaining terms are random parameters. The random parameters form a distribution; e.g. the neighbourhood level intercepts, v0k, are assumed to be normally distributed with mean 0 and variance σv02. Higher values of σv02 indicate greater variation between neighbourhoods in average PCS. Similarly, v1k ∼ N(0, σv12) and higher values of σv12 indicate greater variation between neighbourhoods in the PCS-time slope.
The model was then extended by adding fixed parameters for individual level variables (sex, age and socioeconomic position) which were each allowed to vary over time. Finally, neighbourhood level variables (deprivation and social fragmentation) were added in separate models to avoid collinearity problems. These fixed parameters provided estimates of (i) an association between initial SF-36 scores and neighbourhood characteristics; and (ii) widening differences in SF-36 scores over time by neighbourhood characteristics (by including interaction terms for time by deprivation and time by social fragmentation).
The main analyses are based on 32 724 observations on 7834 participants living in 2046 neighbourhoods. All participants with SF-36 scores at baseline were included and provided from zero to four subsequent measures. The models were then re-run excluding (i) excluding the 3672 participants who moved before the end of follow-up; and (ii) excluding those with long-term illness at baseline. The latter analysis aimed to isolate the effect of neighbourhood on those who were illness-free at baseline to remove the possibility that illness preceded exposure to deprived or fragmented neighbourhood. All models were essentially unchanged when men and women were analysed separately so results are presented for the combined model. Modelling was performed using MLwiN 2.02.
A total of 7834 participants had complete data at baseline, reducing to 6785 (Phase 4), 6262 (Phase 5), 5917 (Phase 6) and 5926 (76% of original at Phase 7). In univariate analyses (table 1), PCS and MCS scores were lower for those living in more deprived or more socially fragmented neighbourhoods. PCS scores were higher and MCS scores were lower for younger participants.
|Participants at baseline
|SF-36 PCS score
|SF-36 MCS score
|53.0 (0.09)
|49.8 (0.12)
|51.4 (0.11)
|52.5 (0.13)
|49.9 (0.18)
|46.2 (0.25)
|50.2 (0.19)
|51.4 (0.23)
|Age at Phase 3
|35–45 years
|53.4 (0.13)
|50.5 (0.18)
|49.5 (0.18)
|50.0 (0.21)
|45–55 years
|51.9 (0.13)
|48.8 (0.17)
|50.9 (0.15)
|53.0 (0.17)
|55–65 years
|50.4 (0.19)
|45.8 (0.27)
|53.4 (0.18)
|53.9 (0.23)
|Socioeconomic position at phase 3
|53.2 (0.11)
|50.0 (0.16)
|51.5 (0.15)
|52.9 (0.17)
|52.1 (0.12)
|48.6 (0.17)
|50.7 (0.16)
|51.7 (0.18)
|49.3 (0.25)
|45.0 (0.27)
|51.1 (0.25)
|54.6 (0.36)
|Long-term illness at Phase 3
|48.3 (0.17)
|45.5 (0.23)
|50.0 (0.19)
|50.8 (0.23)
|No long-term illness
|53.9 (0.08)
|50.4 (0.13)
|51.6 (0.11)
|52.9 (0.13)
|Townsend deprivation scorea
|Quartile 1 (least deprived)
|52.8 (0.14)
|49.3 (0.21)
|51.4 (0.19)
|52.9 (0.21)
|Quartile 2
|52.5 (0.15)
|49.3 (0.22)
|51.6 (0.18)
|52.7 (0.22)
|Quartile 3
|51.7 (0.17)
|48.5 (0.24)
|50.9 (0.20)
|51.8 (0.24)
|Quartile 4 (most deprived)
|51.0 (0.19)
|47.5 (0.27)
|50.2 (0.22)
|50.9 (0.29)
|Social fragmentation scoreb
|Quartile1 (least fragmented)
|52.3 (0.16)
|49.1 (0.22)
|51.5 (0.19)
|52.8 (0.22)
|Quartile 2
|52.4 (0.15)
|48.9 (0.22)
|51.4 (0.20)
|52.6 (0.22)
|Quartile 3
|51.9 (0.17)
|48.5 (0.25)
|50.7 (0.20)
|51.7 (0.25)
|Quartile 4 (most fragmented)
|51.5 (0.19)
|48.3 (0.25)
|50.5 (0.21)
|51.4 (0.26)
Analysis of movers and non-movers combined
PCS declined at a rate of 2.7 units for each 10 years of follow up (table 2). Table 2 shows significant variation in PCS scores between neighbourhoods, between individuals and within individuals. The variation in average PCS between neighbourhoods was small in magnitude (1.241) compared with variation within neighbourhoods (40.270 and 28.842). There was no evidence that the change in PCS over time (i.e. the slope) varies across neighbourhoods. However, there was evidence that the slope varied across individuals. This could be interpreted as evidence that the ageing process is heterogeneous across individuals although this is not the focus of the present study. On average, small improvements in MCS scores were seen over time at a rate of ∼1.0 unit every 10 years. There was significant variation in MCS scores between neighbourhoods which, as for PCS scores, was small in magnitude compared with the variation within neighbourhoods. The change in MCS over time also varied across neighbourhoods (shown by variation in slope of 0.010 and SE 0.005). The covariance between the intercept and slope was positive (0.088 from table 2), indicating that neighbourhoods with high initial levels of PCS saw greater improvements in PCS over time. In other words, there was a fanning out of PCS scores across neighbourhoods over time.
|SF-36 PCS scores
|SF-36 MCS scores
|Fixed estimates
|50.354 (0.086)
|51.069 (0.090)
|−0.274 (0.008)
|0.098 (0.010)
|Variation (SE) between neighbourhoods
|Intercept (σv02)
|1.241 (0.346)
|1.280 (0.410)
|Slope (σv12)
|0.000 (0.000)
|0.010 (0.005)
|Covariance intercept-slope
|0.000 (0.000)
|0.088 (0.031)
|Variation (SE) between individuals within a neighbourhood
|Intercept (σu02)
|40.270 (0.820)
|43.665 (0.940)
|Slope (σu12)
|0.174 (0.010)
|0.166 (0.013)
|Covariance intercept-slope
|1.031 (0.061)
|0.198 (0.076)
|Variation (SE) within individuals
|Intercept (σe02)
|28.842 (0.451)
|44.812 (0.668)
|Slope (σe12)
|−0.149 (0.023)
|−0.319 (0.032)
|Covariance intercept-slope
|0.219 (0.034)
|−0.129 (0.049)
Table 3 summarizes the full models for physical component scores which add neighbourhood and individual fixed effects. Each one standard deviation increase in Townsend deprivation score was associated with a drop in PCS score of 0.311 points (P < 0.001) (Model 1). The relationship between PCS score and time did not differ by Townsend deprivation. In other words, the time-Townsend interaction term was not statistically significant. Social fragmentation was not associated with PCS scores (Model 2). Older people and those in lower socioeconomic positions had lower PCS scores compared with older and more advantaged participants and they also experienced greater declines in PCS over time. Trajectories did not differ for men and women so a gender by time interaction was not included. No significant variation between neighbourhoods remained.
|Model 1: Townsend deprivation
|Model 2: Social fragmentation
|Multilevel regression estimate (SE)
|Multilevel regression estimate (SE)
|53.4 (0.18)
|53.5 (0.18)
|Time (per year of follow up)
|−0.189 (0.019)
|−0.187 (0.019)
|Townsend deprivation
|Score (per 1 SD increase)
|−0.311 (0.083)
|Score × Time
|−0.008 (0.009)
|Social fragmentation
|Score (per 1 SD increase)
|−0.083 (0.079)
|Score × time
|0.000 (0.008)
|−2.202 (0.177)
|−2.250 (0.176)
|Age at Phase 3
|Age 45–55
|−1.612 (0.185)
|−1.593 (0.185)
|Age 55–65
|−3.371 (0.210)
|−3.338 (0.210)
|Age 45–55 × time
|−0.048 (0.020)
|−0.048 (0.020)
|Age 55–65 × time
|−0.148 (0.023)
|−0.147 (0.023)
|Socioeconomic position
|−0.818 (0.170)
|−0.879 (0.169)
|−2.433 (0.257)
|−2.648 (0.250)
|Intermediate × time
|−0.035 (0.018)
|−0.036 (0.018)
|Low × time
|−0.072 (0.027)
|−0.079 (0.026)
|Variation (SE) between neighbourhoods
|Intercept (σv02)
|0.264 (0.260)
|0.373 (0.268)
|Slope (σv12)
|0.000 (0.000)
|0.000 (0.000)
|Covariance intercept-slope
|0.000 (0.000)
|0.000 (0.000)
|Variation (SE) between individuals
|Intercept (σu02)
|36.602 (0.748)
|36.560 (0.749)
|Slope (σu12)
|0.172 (0.010)
|0.172 (0.010)
|Covariance intercept-slope
|0.923 (0.058)
|0.925 (0.058)
|Variation (SE) within individuals
|Intercept (σe02)
|29.037 (0.451)
|29.037 (0.451)
|Slope (σe12)
|−0.162 (0.023)
|−0.161 (0.023)
|Covariance intercept-slope
|0.221 (0.033)
|0.221 (0.033)
Multilevel regression estimates are adjusted for all other variables listed in the Table.
Each 1 SD increase in Townsend deprivation score was associated with a drop in MCS score of 0.5 points (P < 0.001) (table 4, Model 1). Although there was a suggestion that this effect got larger over time, the Townsend-time interaction term was not statistically significant [estimate (SE) −0.014 (0.010)]. Social fragmentation was also associated with MCS scores but trajectories did not differ by social fragmentation (Model 2, table 4). MCS scores increased over time and older cohorts saw higher initial scores and greater increases over time. Those in lower socioeconomic positions had lower MCS scores and these socioeconomic differences widened over time. After adjustment for individual and neighbourhood characteristics, variation in the intercept and slope of MCS was of borderline statistical significance.
|Model 1: Townsend deprivation
|Model 2: Social fragmentation
|Multilevel regression estimate (SE)
|Multilevel regression estimate (SE)
|49.5 (0.20)
|49.6 (0.20)
|Time (per year of follow up)
|0.042 (0.022)
|0.044 (0.022)
|Townsend deprivation
|Score (per 1 SD increase)
|−0.500 (0.091)
|Score × time
|−0.014 (0.010)
|Social fragmentation
|Score (per 1 SD increase)
|−0.446 (0.087)
|Score × time
|−0.011 (0.010)
|−1.100 (0.197)
|−1.098 (0.197)
|Age 45–55
|2.422 (0.200)
|2.432 (0.200)
|Age 55–65
|4.695 (0.226)
|4.708 (0.226)
|Age 45–55 × time
|0.155 (0.023)
|0.155 (0.023)
|Age 55–65 × time
|0.029 (0.026)
|0.030 (0.026)
|Socioeconomic position
|−0.799 (0.184)
|−0.906 (0.183)
|−0.784 (0.280)
|−1.080 (0.272)
|Intermediate × time
|−0.023 (0.020)
|−0.026 (0.020)
|Low × time
|−0.102 (0.030)
|−0.109 (0.029)
|Variation (SE) between neighbourhoods
|Intercept (σv02)
|0.677 (0.349)
|0.743 (0.353)
|Slope (σv12)
|0.008 (0.005)
|0.009 (0.005)
|Covariance intercept-slope
|0.051 (0.028)
|0.053 (0.029)
|Variation (SE) between individuals
|Intercept (σu02)
|40.466 (0.880)
|40.434 (0.880)
|Slope (σu12)
|0.156 (0.013)
|0.157 (0.013)
|Covariance intercept-slope
|0.195 (0.073)
|0.195 (0.073)
|Variation (SE) within individuals
|Intercept (σe02)
|44.414 (0.661)
|44.427 (0.661)
|Slope (σe12)
|−0.293 (0.032)
|−0.294 (0.032)
|Covariance intercept-slope
|−0.134 (0.049)
|−0.134 (0.049)
Multilevel regression estimates are adjusted for all other variables listed in the Table.
Analysis of non-movers only
When analyses were confined to participants who were still in the same neighbourhood after 10 years of follow-up, the regression estimates for associations between PCS and neighbourhood deprivation and social fragmentation were a little larger in magnitude [−0.445 (SE 0.116) and −0.228 (0.113) per 1 SD increase, respectively]. Estimates of the associations between MCS and both deprivation and social fragmentation were similar to those for the full dataset [−0.457 (SE 0.125) and −0.458 (0.123), respectively] and terms representing the interaction between these neighbourhood characteristics and time indicated significant widening over time [−0.028 (SE 0.014) and −0.037 (0.013), respectively] (figure 1).
Analysis of participants who were illness-free at baseline
Table 5 summarizes the associations between neighbourhood characteristics and functioning for those who reported no long-term illness at baseline. Neither neighbourhood characteristic was associated with PCS score among those who were free of long-term illness at baseline. However, neighbourhood deprivation and social fragmentation remained significantly associated with initial MCS scores for participants who were illness-free at baseline.
|SF-36 PCS scores
|SF-36 MCS scores
|Multilevel regression estimate (SE)
|Multilevel regression estimate (SE)
|Time (per year of follow-up)
|−0.197 (0.021)
|0.067 (0.025)
|Townsend deprivation
|Score (per 1 SD increase)
|−0.114 (0.078)
|−0.355 (0.104)
|Score × time
|−0.004 (0.010)
|−0.011 (0.012)
|Social fragmentation
|Score (per 1 SD increase)
|−0.018 (0.075)
|−0.381 (0.100)
|Score × time
|0.003 (0.010)
|−0.006 (0.011)
Multilevel regression estimates are adjusted for gender, age, age by time, socioeconomic position and socioeconomic position by time.
This study shows an inverse relationship between physical and mental components of health-related functioning (captured by the SF-36) and neighbourhood deprivation, independent of individual socioeconomic characteristics. In contrast, social fragmentation was associated with mental health functioning but not with physical health functioning, independently of individual socioeconomic characteristics. A previous study also found that social fragmentation is more closely related to mental rather than physical health outcomes.24
For participants who had lived in the same neighbourhood for more than 10 years, there was evidence that neighbourhood deprivation and social fragmentation were associated with both baseline mental health functioning and change in mental health functioning throughout follow-up. Mental health functioning tended to improve throughout follow-up in this cohort of middle-aged workers but the improvements were smaller in deprived and socially fragmented neighbourhoods. Mental health functioning actually declined over time in the most deprived and fragmented neighbourhoods (those with scores of 2 SD). This supports the notion that those with greater cumulative exposure to deprived or fragmented neighbourhoods experience smaller age-related improvements in mental health functioning, although we did not have information on the destination neighbourhoods of movers. In the analysis of non-movers, health-related selective migration cannot explain the associations seen between neighbourhood characteristics and functioning. The results are also consistent with the hypothesis that the local neighbourhood influences the ageing process, in this case by diminishing the ageing-related gains in mental health functioning. Data were not available to examine the processes which may explain this finding. However, it is interesting to note that neighbourhood characteristics were not associated with trajectories of change in physical health functioning.
Previous cross-sectional studies have described associations between neighbourhood deprivation and SF-36 scores in line with those seen here.21,33–35 Our findings suggest that differences in mental health functioning for people remaining in deprived vs. less deprived areas or fragmented vs. less fragmented areas widen over time. The SF-36 is a subjective assessment of health which focuses on the extent to which health problems limit daily activities. It is plausible that a person's local neighbourhood constrains the way that person copes with any health conditions and the extent to which that condition results in functional impairment. This possibility should be explored in future studies. Neighbourhood deprivation has been hypothesized to be a marker for a range of characteristics including poor public services, decaying urban fabric and social disorder. Given the available data, we can only speculate as to the pathways linking neighbourhood deprivation to health functioning and echo calls for more research to illuminate this.36 The Townsend deprivation and social fragmentation indices are differently related to SF-36 scores, suggesting that they are capturing different elements of the residential environment. It has been argued that social fragmentation seeks to measure lack of social integration into institutions such as the family, religion and the community and that this can occur in affluent as well as deprived areas.37 However, with a correlation coefficient of 0.69 for England in 1991 and even higher in other countries,27 they are clearly closely associated constructs.
Strengths and limitations
Study strengths include its size, its prospective design with over 10 years of follow up, its multilevel approach and its inclusion of two neighbourhood indices capturing both fragmentation and deprivation. Some limitations must be acknowledged. The study was observational in nature so the possibility of self-selection into certain kinds of neighbourhoods as an explanation for the findings is an important consideration. However, we have adjusted for employment grade, which is a highly accurate measure of individual socioeconomic position, being highly correlated with income and education and a most consistent predictor of health and disease in the Whitehall II cohort,38 and is likely a major determinant of people's ability to choose where they live. Sixty percent of participants were initially resident in London and a further 37% in the southeast of England. There is no reason to suppose that the relationships between deprivation/social fragmentation and health would be different in other parts of the country and the range of values for these indices was very similar for areas included in this study and for England as a whole. However, the extent to which these indices truly capture deprivation and social fragmentation may vary across the country. Car access, included in the Townsend deprivation index, may be a less valid indicator of material deprivation in urban areas.39 Imprecision in the measurement of deprivation or social fragmentation might lead to underestimation of their associations with health. The use of administrative boundaries, rather than theoretically-driven or participant defined neighbourhood boundaries, might also lead to imprecision in the neighbourhood measures although other studies which compared different areal units suggest that this might not have a large impact on the estimation of the association between area deprivation and health.40,41 The omission of important individual or neighbourhood level variables might lead to under- or overestimation for the variables that were included. We elected not to include individual health behaviours and social support as we conceived these to be on the explanatory pathway linking neighbourhood characteristics to health. Differential loss to follow-up can lead to bias but drop-out was greatest amongst those in lower socioeconomic positions, living in more deprived or socially fragmented areas and having lower initial PCS and MCS scores so associations between neighbourhood characteristics and SF-36 scores are unlikely to be overestimated here. Confining the analysis to non-movers reduces the possibility that selective migration by health status is driving any associations seen but a full exploration of this issue requires longitudinal information on neighbourhood characteristics at each residential location and on the changing nature of neighbourhoods over time. Our study did not have information on the destination neighbourhood of movers so we are unable to confirm that their exposure to deprivation or fragmentation was lower than non-movers.
Implications and conclusions
These prospective findings are indicative of a dose response relationship between mental health and neighbourhood deprivation or fragmentation. In the absence of intervention studies, they provide one piece in the jigsaw of evidence linking neighbourhood characteristics to health. It is important to remember that the largest differences in physical and mental functioning can be attributed to gender, age and socioeconomic position and initiatives to reduce functional impairment should not ignore these individual level determinants. Nevertheless, the large numbers of people that are resident in deprived and fragmented neighbourhoods means that neighbourhood-based interventions have the potential to have an important public health effect. Our findings highlight the need for greater understanding and more detailed studies of deprived and fragmented neighbourhoods and their consequences for health.
Medical Research Council (to Whitehall II study); Economic and Social Research Council; British Heart Foundation; Health and Safety Executive; Department of Health; National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (HL36310), US, National Institutes of Health; National Institute on Aging (AG13196), US, National Institutes of Health; Agency for Health Care Policy Research (HS06516); and the John D and Catherine T MacArthur Foundation Research Network on Successful Midlife Development and Socioeconomic Status and Health; MRC research professorship (to M.G.M.);National Institute of Health Research personal award (to M.S.).
Conflicts of interests: None declared.
Key points
Independent of personal socioeconomic characteristics, residence in a deprived neighbourhood is associated with sub-optimal physical and mental health functioning, as captured by the SF-36.
Neighbourhood social fragmentation is additionally associated with deficits in mental health functioning.
Mental health functioning improves with age but those with greater cumulative exposure to deprived or fragmented neighbourhoods experience smaller age-related improvements.
This contributes further evidence that social and economic features of the neighbourhood may be important for health and functioning.
The authors thank all participating civil service departments and their welfare, personnel, and establishment officers; the Occupational Health and Safety Agency; the Council of Civil Service Unions; all participating civil servants in the Whitehall II study; and all members of the Whitehall II study team.
- © The Author 2008. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the European Public Health Association. All rights reserved.


text:
Kourtney Kardashian is raising the sexy stakes in her family's game of seflie one-upmanship.
A few weeks ago, Kim Kardashian flaunted her booty in a self-portrait snapped at the gym.
Kendall Jenner then barged in on the picture party, admitting in her own butt-based selfie that she was trying to out-do her half-sister.
But now Kourtney had turned the camera around to the front and easily defeated her siblings. How so? By simply shoving her breasts in our face:
Kourtney snapped this selfie while on vacation over the weekend in Mexico. She didn't include a caption with it because… come on.
What is there that needs to be said?
We've gone ahead and added the image to our gallery of famous celebrity selfies, which includes everyone from Barack Obama to Rihanna and Jenelle Evans getting in on this trend:


text:
N. Rowntree
Children and Young People Now, July 2nd-8th 2009, p. 18-19
Birth rates in the UK have soared in recent years and this is placing added demand on already stretched early years services. As 70% of mothers now work, up from just 58% in 1992, many are experiencing difficulty in arranging childcare and accessing nursery school places. This article looks at how councils are responding to the challenge.
N. Salari
Community Care, July 9th 2009, p. 20-21
Bristol Council has embraced the Common Assessment Framework (CAF) as a standardised approach to assessing and meeting the needs of vulnerable children. More than 1,000 staff from education, health, police, housing and children's services have been trained in how to complete a CAF. The system has enabled social workers to delegate the meeting of children's lower level needs to other professionals, while they concentrate on safeguarding responsibilities.
R. Watson
Children and Young People Now, July 2nd-8th 2009, p. 12
Demand for formal childcare is falling in areas where unemployment is high due to the recession. There are concerns that local providers may close due to lack of demand. This article looks at ways in which local authorities are intervening to ensure that childcare settings survive in the current adverse economic climate.
J. Mahadevan
Children and Young People Now, July 2nd-8th 2009, p. 10
It is being recognised that foster care is not suitable for some looked-after children with complex needs, and that they are better served by placements in specialist residential care homes with therapeutic services. However, there are concerns that some councils are limiting use of residential care on cost grounds.
A. France and others
Department for Children, Schools and Families, 2009 (Research report DCSF-RR126)
This interim report examines the structure of more than 100 of the 144 local safeguarding children boards in existence. It reveals huge variations in the way that they are structured. The smallest board has just 12 members, while the largest has a massive 91. Chairing is also a contentious issue. Forty-one percent are chaired by directors of children's services and 40% are chaired independently. Chairs are concerned about the quality of serious case reviews, but as no-one can predict how many reviews will be undertaken in a year, it is impossible to budget for the expense. This puts boards under great pressure.
I. Shaw and others
British Journal of Social Work, vol. 39, 2009, p. 613-626
The integrated children's system (ICS) is a government-led initiative and part of a wider package of children's services reforms. It aims to promote integration and systematisation of services. The ICS 'provides a conceptual framework, a method of practice and a business process to support practitioners and managers in undertaking the key tasks of assessment, planning, intervention and review'. The key elements of the ICS are said to be:
Department for Children, Schools and Families
All three- and four-year-olds in England will be entitled to 15 hours of free childcare provision a week from September 2010. This consultation proposes:
(For a summary of responses see Children and Young People Now, July 16th-22nd 2009, p. 12)
URL: http://www.dcsf.gov.uk/consultations/index.cfm?action=con
L. Hughes and H. Owen (editors)
London: J. Kingsley, 2009
The book considers how front-line professionals can keep the best interests of the child at the heart of their work when statutory guidance, the way agencies are integrated and the delivery of services are changing. It draws together a broad range of issues, including neglect, trafficked children, parents with learning difficulties and child protection supervision. The contributors discuss current dilemmas in safeguarding children work and provide models of good practice, including case scenarios and exercises. They also explores how changes in the system offer an opportunity to enhance the quality of service provision in order to achieve better outcomes for children and their families.
Daily Telegraph, July 30th 2009, p. 2
Ofsted inspectors warn that a third of childminders and nurseries are not good enough at keeping young pre-school children safe. Of the 21,212 childminders and nurseries inspected in 2008/09, 6,899 were found to be either inadequate (842) or merely satisfactory (6,057). Under Ofsted rules, satisfactory is classed as not good enough.
G. Schofield and E. Ward
London: British Association for Adoption and Fostering, 2008
This book reports the findings of the first national study of care planning for permanence in foster care in England and Wales. The study was based on a survey of foster care planning systems and practice, and included the perspectives of social workers, managers and foster carers. Although long-term foster care is seen in policy as a legitimate permanence option, there is no Government guidance on how it should be defined and managed. The study showed how local authorities have therefore developed their own varied terminology, definitions, systems, procedures and practice. An important factor in determining different routes to permanence is the age of the child, and the study raises key questions about the boundaries between adoption and long-term/permanent fostering for younger children and about how care plans for older children and teenagers may or may not reflect the aim of permanence. Most important of all, the book makes a case for ensuring that procedure and practice support a care plan for permanence in foster care, which will meet the needs of children through to adulthood.
C. Osborne, R. Norgate and M. Traill
Adoption and Fostering, vol. 33, no.2, 2009, p. 13-25
Fostered and adopted children form a vulnerable group with a range of educational, social and mental health needs, and are likely to benefit from input from a range of professions, one of these being educational psychology. This article reports on the results of a questionnaire sent to all educational psychology services in England, with a view to clarifying the nature and level of educational psychologist input into this area of work. Sixty-nine per cent of services were involved to some extent in this work, with a skew in favour of work with fostered rather than adopted children. A wide range of work was carried out and was considered to have led to improved communication between agencies, enhanced working arrangements and a greater understanding of factors related to fostering and adoption.
N. Rowntree
Children and Young People Now, June 25th-July 1st 2009, p. 18-19
A government action plan published in June 2008 promised to improve services for runaway children. However, this progress at the policy level has yet to translate into better services on the ground. Services at present are patchy and constrained by lack of funding, with only three specialist refuges operating nationally.
D. Barnes
Professional Social Work, July 2009, p. 10-11
This article comments on the findings of the second serious case review of the death of Baby Peter in Haringey, and suggests how social work can learn lessons from the tragedy. It calls for implementation of a multi-agency approach to case review, improvements in evidence-based practice, and a stronger role for 'expert practitioners' in ensuring effective practice.
D. Brindle
The Times, July 30th 2009, p.8
The Commons Select Committee for Children, Schools and Families has published a report today which warns children are being put at risk because social workers are not being prepared adequately for the job. Degree courses in social work are criticised, in particular.
K. Broadhurst and C. Hall
Professional Social Work, July 2009, p. 20-21
Standardised and largely technocratic approaches to risk management are now significantly impacting on day-to-day social work with children and families. However, there is more to 'real-time' management of risk than following procedures and protocols. It is an essentially professional activity, requiring skilled, situation-specific analyses of particular cases.
J. Hargreaves
Clubs for Young People, 2009
This inquiry into the state of Britain's youth clubs finds that many experience chronic funding shortages and struggle to win local authority contracts. The report calls for: 1) more funding options for smaller youth clubs; 2) better commissioning of voluntary groups to run council-funded clubs; 3) better training for youth club workers; and 4) the promotion of open-access clubs available to all, in place of initiatives targeted on vulnerable groups.
A. Pithouse and others
British Journal of Social Work, vol. 39, 2009, p. 599-612
The Common Assessment Framework (CAF) is an electronic system for assessing children and sharing information between child welfare professionals, which is at various stages of pilot and implementation in England and Wales. This study shows that in the course of its implementation, policy aims have been submerged in day-to-day practice and that, analytically, there are differences between the 'CAF of policy' and the 'CAF of practice'. There are conceptually two CAFs: the formal construct of policy and the applied CAF as constructed by multiple organisations.
S. Boseley
The Guardian, July 8th 2009, p. 7
An evaluation of the Young People's Development Programme, a 3-year pilot project commissioned by the Department of Health to reduce the number of teenage pregnancies, has found that it actually led to an increase in the number of girls getting pregnant. The evaluation, conducted by the Institute of Education, is published in the British Medical Journal of 7 July.
M. Beckford
Daily Telegraph, July 31st 2009, p. 11
From November 2010, anyone in England, Wales or Northern Ireland who starts a job in a school or hospital will have to register with the new Independent Safeguarding Agency (ISA), or face prosecution. Those already in such posts will be phased in over the next five years. A wide range of other people who have contact with children will also be required to enrol, including teenage volunteers, medical students, clergy, personal tutors, sports coaches, and organisers of children's clubs. The ISA will check applicants' backgrounds for sex offences.
(See also Independent, July 17th 2009, p.12)
J. Mahadevan
Children and Young People Now, July 16th-22nd 2009, p. 11
This article introduces a new initiative, branded as The Youth of Today, which promises to expand leadership opportunities for 13-19-year-olds. Made up of a consortium of seven organisations led by the National Youth Agency, the body aims to increase the quality, quantity and diversity of leadership options open to teenagers, while overturning negative portrayals of young people.


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My father tried so hard to turn me into a snow bunny. When I was 5, he took me to the top of the "green" (easy) trail at Red Jacket Ski Club in Eden.
I peered over the side, and then into his toothy grin. "Remember, it's just pizza and french fries," he said. (What he meant was my positioning: "pizza" was pointing the tips of my skis toward one another, resembling a pizza slice; "french fries" was making them parallel to one another.)
And away we went!
I didn't get five seconds downward until I lost total control and ran straight into the forest - into a tree - that bordered the sides of the hill. I hurt my neck fairly badly and had to be brought down on a red emergency sled the rest of the way.
"Good thing you veered left," said one of my father's friends. I was in the lodge, in front of the fireplace, with an ice pack on my neck, and a hot chocolate in my hand. "If you went straight, you would've gone right over that waterfall."
This was that day I learned about the 50-foot waterfall at the bottom of the trail. It was cushioned with a bit of forest. But if a small enough person skied past the trees, s/he could go over the edge. After that, no matter how many pizzas and fries people tried to coax me with, I wouldn't budge; I was too afraid.
I've thought about skiing over the years. Mark, my college boyfriend, tried taking me snowboarding. But I couldn't get over my fear of heights. What if I lost control? What if I ran into a tree? People die all the time skiing into trees ...
Last weekend, one of my close friends Joe (the 24-year-old, Jewish accountant, whom I've mentioned in previous columns) took me to Killington, Vt. One of his college buddies has a cabin in the woods and opened it up to friends.
I was reluctant at first. "I may just watch from the lodge," I said. I told him about my fear.
He was unfazed. "I'll get you down the hill," he said.
It was 3 degrees the morning we arrived at the resort. It looked like a trillion glistening diamonds carpeting the ground; the mountain was pure ice.
I fell about 10 times on the bunny hill.
"Remember, pizza!" Joe called each time I tumbled. I was ready to strangle him with my pole. But after five runs, I finally made it down without falling. "You're ready for a green," he decided.
My skin went sallow. A green in Eden is quite different than a green in Vermont; the resort on Killington Peak is the largest in the Eastern United States. I told him I wasn't ready. But my excuses didn't work. Before I knew it, we were on a lift upward.
When I peered over the edge, familiar emotions twisted my stomach into knots: terror, panic. At the same time, I was in awe - the world looked so beautiful from such great heights: the rippling landscape, the frosted pines, and the cottony clouds. The azure sky reminded me of a photo album my father had shown me when I was little. It was filled solely with cloud photographs. He'd taken them when he was my age, while he was skiing in France.
The memory pushed me over the edge. It picked me up when I fell. It brought me back to the top of the mountain, again and again and again.
Joe stayed with me for eight hours that day. I must have fallen at least fifty times. My muscles were scalding by the time we got back to the cabin that night. There was a plum-colored bruise the size of my hand on my right hip.
"Ready for day two?" Joe asked before bed.
I smiled. "Totally," I said.
Jan. 11 was my father's birthday; Jan. 14 was the six-year anniversary of his death. I initially thought that becoming a snow bunny was my gift to him. But really, it was overcoming my fear that I dedicate in his memory.
Sarah T. Schwab is a Sunday OBSERVER contributor and Fredonia State graduate. Send comments to
or view her Web site at www.SarahTSchwab.com


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August 26, 2016
Why Are Cluster Flies Taking Over My Home?
Although fall has not officially arrived, now is the time to learn about cluster flies so that you can be on the lookout for these nuisance pests… Continue
August 24, 2016
Sometimes Little Things Can Cause Big Problems
Have you ever noticed that sometimes the littlest things cause the biggest problems? Think about it. A little yellow jacket, that has a small stinger… Continue


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Wake for Amy Lord scheduled for Monday afternoon. Investigation continues on person of interest in murder.
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Get your Browns questions ready and join Mary Kay Cabot today at 2 p.m. as she talks Browns football.
Mary Kay will talk with cleveland.com's Glenn Moore about the Browns and their matchup against the Bengals on Sunday.
You can jump in the chat room and ask your questions as well as interact with other users and respond to Mary Kay's remarks, or you can just listen. The chat will also be made available shortly after its completion in MP3 format.


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From Portland Pilots:
SANTA CLARA, Calif. --- Portland's Michelle Cruz scored in the first
half and Amanda Frisbie tied the game in the 82nd minute before the No.
22 Pilots and No. 18 Santa Clara Broncos would play to a 2-2 tie in a
West Coast Conference women's soccer game at Buck Shaw Stadium on
Thursday night. Frisbie followed her equalizer by hitting the post with a
near game-winner less than two minutes later.
After a scoreless first overtime, Portland's Kaila Cameli had a golden opportunity in the 103rd minute. Cameli had a defender on her hip and only Santa Clara goalkeeper Andi Tostanoski in front of her, but the junior forward dragged her shot just wide of the left post.
Cameli's shot came after a game-saving stop by Portland keeper Erin Dees on the other end of the field. Julie Johnston re-directed a cross with a header, but Dees made a diving save to preserve the 2-2 tie.
The draw ends a four-game winning streak for the Pilots, who do run their unbeaten streak to five games with just one regular season game remaining. Portland will enter Saturday night's finale with a 10-4-4 overall record and a 4-1-2 league mark.
It's the sixth tie this season for the Broncos, who sit at 10-3-6 on the year and are 3-1-3 in the WCC.
The first half was wide open and the Broncos were able to strike early when Dani Weatherholt notched her fourth goal of the season in the third minute. Weatherholt took a pass from Olivia Klei and finished with a shot inside the right post to hand the Broncos the early 1-nil lead.
But the lead was short-lived as the Pilots answered in the form of Cruz, who has scored four goals during Portland's last three matches. Cruz gained possession near the sideline in the sixth minute, made a long run up the field, beat a pair of defenders and calmly finished past Tostanoski to tie the score at 1-1.
The game would remain tied for much of the rest of the first half until Johnston deposited a shot into the right corner of the net in the 44th minute. The goal from about 20 yards out allowed the Broncos to take a 2-1 advantage into the halftime locker room.
The Pilots then tightened up on defense in the second half and increased their pressure on the Santa Clara frame.
Cruz hit the crossbar in the 72nd minute before Frisbie registered the equalizer with her league-best 12th goal of the year. Tostanoski came charging off her line trying to get to a 50-50 ball near the top of the 18-yard box. UP's Noelle La Prevotte got there at the same time, and the ball bounced right to Frisbie, who buried a low shot inside the right post.
Frisbie attempted a team-high seven shots on the night, while the Pilots totaled 14 as a team. Santa Clara was credited with 22 shots, and Dees finished with six important saves.
By virtue of Portland's tie with Santa Clara and a win by BYU earlier on Thursday, the Cougars clinch the WCC title to claim the league's automatic berth into the NCAA Playoffs. The Pilots can clinch second place in the conference and solidify its claim for an at-large bid to the post-season with a win over San Francisco on Saturday.
Kickoff with the Dons is set for 7 p.m., and Portland will honor its lone senior on the roster, Taylor Brooke, with a pre-game ceremony.


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Obituaries: Your Experts
Funeral Home
Preston-Hanley Funeral Homes & Crematory
500 N 4th St
Pekin, IL 61554
(309) 346-2176
405 Rusche St
Creve Coeur, IL 61610
(309) 694-3322
Pekin, IL 61554
(309) 346-2176
405 Rusche St
Creve Coeur, IL 61610
(309) 694-3322
Specializing in personalized funeral and cremation servicesPreston-Hanley Funeral Homes & Crematory has been providing funeral and cremation services to area families for over 75 years. Locally owned and operated, Preston-Hanley has chapels in Pekin and Creve Coeur, along with a private crematory. The licensed funeral directors and certified crematory operators at Preston-Hanley take pride in anticipating families' needs before, during and after the time of service. They specialize in offering a variety of funeral and cremation options in beautiful, spacious chapels with handicap-accessible facilities.
Whether before or at the time of need, Preston-Hanley helps to set the high standards for funeral and cremation services with pre-planning expertise, compassionate care, competitive pricing, online planning and obituaries, multimedia capabilities, personalized tributes, and a reputation for excellence.
From pre-planning and pre-funding options through Pathway from Pekin Insurance to a variety of options in funeral and cremation services, Preston-Hanley Funeral Homes & Crematory offers the utmost in service and attention to detail.
Unlike most funeral homes that outsource cremation, Preston-Hanley owns and operates our very own private crematory. Plus, all of our licensed funeral directors are also certified crematory operators. We are also the exclusive provider of Pathway from Pekin Insurance in Pekin, ensuring value by determining our own costs. As a local, family owned and operated funeral home, our prices are based solely on what's fair and reasonable for our community. Unlike the growing number of other funeral homes, we have not sold out to an international conglomerate and we are not a subsidiary of any corporation. Therefore, we do not answer to a board of directors whose first responsibility is to their shareholders. We only answer to the families we serve. That's why we can offer pre-payment options, with single payments or payments over 3, 5, 7 or even 10 years.
Frequently Asked Questions
- Why choose a family owned and operated funeral home?
- It can make a difference in the personal service and support your family receives. At Preston-Hanley, we don't have an out-of-town parent company telling us what we can and cannot do. Decisions are made right here by the same people you are directly dealing with on every aspect of your loved one's funeral. In addition, because the Hanley name is on the sign, families in our care can trust that we will provide the same dignity, care and compassion that we would expect for our own family. After all, our personal reputation is at stake. That's accountability. At Preston-Hanley, we literally live with our decisions. We see the families we serve in the grocery store, at church, and in other places in the community. When we do, we are able to look them in the eye because we know that we've treated them right.
- When I made my pre-arrangements, the funeral home was locally owned. Although the home is still operated under the same name, I know it's now owned by a large conglomerate. I prefer to keep my money in my hometown. Can I transfer to Preston-Hanley?
- Yes. Our staff is experienced in transferring all types of pre-arrangements. We can prepare the necessary paperwork and provide copies of your new arrangements so that you can be assured your wishes will be carried out. Our funeral directors discuss all your plans and make transferring your pre-arrangements a smooth and simple process. Because we are locally owned and operated, you can feel comfortable knowing that the same people who handle your pre-arrangement will also take care of your loved one's funeral.
- I've heard a lot about burial services, but very little about cremations. I'd like to learn what's involved in the cremation process. Can you help me?
- Yes. At Preston-Hanley, we can offer your family the opportunity to have a traditional visitation and/or funeral service before cremation or cremation followed by a memorial service with facilities for private or public services. What's more, we don't outsource cremation like so many other funeral homes because we own and operate our own private crematory.
- If I make pre-arranged plans, can you assure that my wishes are carried out?
- Yes. When you choose to pre-fund your funeral through our Pathway plan from Pekin Insurance, you'll receive a written letter of guarantee. It gives you the assurance that the services you have selected will be provided according to your wishes, and at no additional cost to your loved ones. At Preston-Hanley, you can feel confident knowing that the arrangements you have selected are what you will receive. Call us today to make an appointment with one of our five professionals to pre-arrange your funeral.
- Why is Preston-Hanley a good value?
- As a local, family owned and operated funeral home, our competitive prices are based solely on what's fair and reasonable for our community. Unlike the growing number of other funeral homes, we have not sold out to an international conglomerate like SCI. We are not a subsidiary of any corporation. Therefore, we do not answer to a board of directors whose first responsibility is to their shareholders. We only answer to the families we serve.