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Dark energy with non-adiabatic sound speed: initial conditions and detectability
Ballesteros, Guillermo; Lesgourgues, Julien E-mail: email@example.com
Assuming that the universe contains a dark energy fluid with a constant linear equation of state and a constant sound speed, we study the prospects of detecting dark energy perturbations using CMB data from Planck, cross-correlated with galaxy distribution maps from a survey like LSST. We update previous estimates by carrying a full exploration of the mock data likelihood for key fiducial models. We find that it will only be possible to exclude values of the sound speed very close to zero, while Planck data alone is not powerful enough for achieving any detection, even with lensing extraction. We also discuss the issue of initial conditions for dark energy perturbations in the radiation and matter epochs, generalizing the usual adiabatic conditions to include the sound speed effect. However, for most purposes, the existence of attractor solutions renders the perturbation evolution nearly independent of these initial conditions.
Unified dark fluid with constant adiabatic sound speed and cosmic constraints
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Xu, Lixin; Wang, Yuting; Noh, Hyerim
As is known, more than 90% of the energy content in the Universe is made of unknown dark component. Usually this dark fluid is separated into two parts: dark matter and dark energy. However, it may be a mixture of these two energy components, or just one exotic unknown fluid. This property is dubbed as dark degeneracy. With this motivation, in this paper, a unified dark fluid having constant adiabatic sound speed cs2=α, which is in the range [0,1], is studied. At first, via the energy conservation equation, its energy density, ρd/ρd0=(1-Bs)+Bsa-3(1+α) where Bs is related to integration constant from energy conservation equation as another model parameter, is presented. Then by using the Markov Chain Monte Carlo method with currently available cosmic observational data sets which include type Ia supernova Union 2, baryon acoustic oscillation, and WMAP 7-year data of cosmic background radiation, we show that small values of α are favored in this unified dark fluid model. Furthermore, we show that smaller values of α<10-5 are required to match matter (baryon) power spectrum from SDSS DR7.
Speeding up Adiabatic Quantum State Transfer by Using Dressed States
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Baksic, Alexandre; Ribeiro, Hugo; Clerk, Aashish A.
We develop new pulse schemes to significantly speed up adiabatic state transfer protocols. Our general strategy involves adding corrections to an initial control Hamiltonian that harness nonadiabatic transitions. These corrections define a set of dressed states that the system follows exactly during the state transfer. We apply this approach to stimulated Raman adiabatic passage protocols and show that a suitable choice of dressed states allows one to design fast protocols that do not require additional couplings, while simultaneously minimizing the occupancy of the "intermediate" level.
Strong coupling problem with time-varying sound speed
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Joyce, Austin; Khoury, Justin
For a single scalar field with unit sound speed minimally coupled to Einstein gravity, there are exactly three distinct cosmological solutions which produce a scale invariant spectrum of curvature perturbations in a dynamical attractor background, assuming vacuum initial conditions: slow-roll inflation; a slowly contracting adiabatic ekpyrotic phase, described by a rapidly-varying equation of state; and an adiabatic ekpyrotic phase on a slowly expanding background. Of these three, only inflation remains weakly coupled over a wide range of modes, while the other scenarios can produce at most 12 e-folds of scale invariant and Gaussian modes. In this paper, we investigate how allowing the speed of sound of fluctuations to evolve in time affects this classification. While in the presence of a variable sound speed there are many more scenarios which are scale invariant at the level of the two-point function, they generically suffer from strong coupling problems similar to those in the canonical case. There is, however, an exceptional case with superluminal sound speed, which suppresses non-Gaussianities and somewhat alleviates strong coupling issues. We focus on a particular realization of this limit and show these scenarios are constrained and only able to produce at most 28 e-folds of scale invariant and Gaussian perturbations. A similar bound should hold more generally—the condition results from the combined requirements of matching the observed amplitude of curvature perturbations, demanding that the Hubble parameter remain sub-Planckian and keeping non-Gaussianities under control. We therefore conclude that inflation remains the unique cosmological scenario, assuming a single degree of freedom on an attractor background, capable of producing arbitrarily many scale invariant modes while remaining weakly coupled. Alternative mechanisms must inevitably be unstable or rely on multiple degrees of freedom.
NASA Now Minute: The Speed of Sound
Learn about sonic booms and the speed of sound from aerospace engineerGeorge Hatcher as he shares the excitement of physics in hisdescription of how the space shuttles reentered Earthâs atmosph...
Learn about sonic booms and the speed of sound from aerospace engineer George Hatcher. Hatcher shares the excitement of physics in his description of the space shuttle re-entering Earthâs atmosph...
Sound speed in downhole flow measurement.
Ünalmis, Ö Haldun
This paper describes the use of sound speed in flow measurement applications in the high-pressure/high-temperature downhole environment. The propagation speed of a sound wave is a powerful tool to extract useful information from a flowing fluid medium in pipe whether the medium consists of a single-phase or multiphase flow. Considering the complex nature of the flow patterns and changing phase fractions from reservoir to surface, utilizing the propagation speed of sound of a fluid mixture is not a trivial task, especially if the interest is real-time flow measurement. The demanding applications span a wide spectrum from noisy medium originating from fast-moving gas/liquid flows to quiet medium originating from slow-moving liquid/liquid flows. In the current work, multiple flow loop tests are conducted in different facilities to evaluate the direct use of sound speed in flow rate measurement and the results are associated with real-life field examples. A tool analysis map is developed that addresses the use of sound speed for flow measurement under different scenarios. Although most examples are based on strain-based local sensing of the flow, the use of sound speed is independent of the methodology and can be implemented by other methods such as acoustic-based distributed sensing. PMID:27475167
Measuring the Speed of Sound in Water
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Ward, Richard J.
This paper begins with an early measurement of the speed of sound in water. A historical overview of the consequent development of SONAR and medical imaging is given. A method of measuring the speed suitable for demonstration to year 10 students is described in detail, and an explanation of its systematic error examined.
Measurement of Sound Speed in Thread
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Saito, Shigemi; Shibata, Yasuhiro; Ichiki, Akira; Miyazaki, Akiho
By employing thin wires, human hairs and threads, the measurement of sound speed in a thread whose diameter is smaller than 0.2 mm has been attempted. Preparing two cylindrical ceramic transducers with a 300 kHz resonance frequency, a perforated glass bead to be knotted by a sample thread is bonded to the center of the end surface of each transducer. After connecting these transducers with a sample thread, a receiving transducer is attached at a ceiling so as to hang another transmitting transducer with the thread. A glass bead is bonded to another end surface of the transmitting transducer so that tension, varied with a hanged plumb, can be applied to the sample thread. The time delay of the received signal relative to the transmitting pulse is measured while gradually shortening the thread. Sound speed is determined by the proportionality of time delay with thread length. Although the measured values for metallic wires are somewhat different from the values derived from the density and Young's modulus cited in references, they are reproducible. The sound speed for human hairs of over twenty samples, which varies between 2000 and 2500 m/s, seems to depend on hair quality. Sound speed in a cotton thread is found to approach a constant value under large tension. An advanced measurement system available for uncut threads is also presented, where semi cylindrical transducers pinch the thread.
The speed of sound in periodic ducts
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Russo, Serena; Fabre, David; Giannetti, Flavio; Luchini, Paolo
The flow through corrugated pipes is known to lead to strong whistling tones which may be harmful in many industrial appliances. The mechanism is known to originate from a coupling between vortex shedding at the edges of the cavities forming the wall of the tube and the acoustical modes of the pipe. The latter depend upon the effective velocity of sound ceff within the corrugated pipe. The purpose of this paper is to compute accurately this effective velocity of sound through an asymptotic calculation valid in the long-wave limit. Results are given for a number of geometries used in previous works, and compared with a simple model in which the effective speed of sound is function of the geometry of the pipe. The latter is found to work best for short cavities but significant disagreement is found for longer cavities. The case of 2D channels with a corrugated wall is also considered.
Compressive acoustic sound speed profile estimation.
Bianco, Michael; Gerstoft, Peter
Ocean acoustic sound speed profile (SSP) estimation requires the inversion of acoustic fields using limited observations. Compressive sensing (CS) asserts that certain underdetermined problems can be solved in high resolution, provided their solutions are sparse. Here, CS is used to estimate SSPs in a range-independent shallow ocean by inverting a non-linear acoustic propagation model. It is shown that SSPs can be estimated using CS to resolve fine-scale structure. PMID:27036293
Measuring the Speed of Sound through Gases Using Nitrocellulose
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Molek, Karen Sinclair; Reyes, Karl A.; Burnette, Brandon A.; Stepherson, Jacob R.
Measuring the heat capacity ratios, ?, of gases either through adiabatic expansion or sound velocity is a well established physical chemistry experiment. The most accurate experiments depend on an exact determination of sound origin, which necessitates the use of lasers or a wave generator, where time zero is based on an electrical trigger. Other…
The sound speed anomaly of Baltic Seawater
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
von Rohden, C.; Weinreben, S.; Fehres, F.
The effect of the anomalous chemical composition of Baltic seawater on the speed of sound relative to seawater with quasi-standard composition was quantified at atmospheric pressure and temperatures of 1 to 46 °C. Three modern oceanographic time-of-flight sensors were applied in a laboratory setup for measuring the speed-of-sound difference δ w in a pure water diluted sample of North Atlantic seawater and a sample of Baltic seawater of the same conductivity, i.e. the same Practical Salinity (SP=7.766). The average δ w amounts to 0.069 ± 0.014 m s-1, significantly larger than the resolution and reproducibility of the sensors and independent of temperature. This magnitude for the anomaly effect was verified with offshore measurements conducted at different sites in the Baltic Sea using one of the sensors. The results from both measurements show values up to one order of magnitude smaller than existing predictions based on chemical models.
The sound speed anomaly of Baltic seawater
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
von Rohden, C.; Weinreben, S.; Fehres, F.
The effect of the anomalous chemical composition of Baltic seawater on the speed of sound relative to seawater with quasi-standard composition was quantified at atmospheric pressure and temperatures of 1 to 46 °C. Three modern oceanographic time-of-flight sensors were applied in a laboratory setup for measuring the speed-of-sound difference δw in a pure water diluted sample of North Atlantic seawater and a sample of Baltic seawater of the same conductivity, i.e., the same practical salinity (SP = 7.766). The average δw amounts to 0.069 ± 0.014 m s-1, which is significantly larger than the resolution and reproducibility of the sensors and independent of temperature. This magnitude for the anomaly effect was verified with offshore measurements conducted at different sites in the Baltic Sea using one of the sensors. The results from both measurements show values up to 1 order of magnitude smaller than existing predictions based on chemical models.
Ultrasonic speed of sound dispersion imaging.
Levy, Yoav; Agnon, Yehuda; Azhari, Haim
The feasibility for speed of sound dispersion (SOSD) imaging was investigated here. A through transmission new method for measuring the SOSD was utilized. With this method a long pulse comprising of two frequencies one being the double of the other is transmitted through the object and detected on its other side. SOSD projection images were obtained by scanning objects immersed in water using a raster mode utilizing a computerized scanning system. Using this approach SOSD projection images were obtained for solids and fluids as well as for a tissue mimicking breast phantom and an in vitro soft tissues phantom. The results obtained here, have clearly demonstrated the feasibility of SOSD projection imaging. SOSD may serve as a new contrast source and potentially may aid in breast diagnosis. PMID:17433854
Bubbles That Change the Speed of Sound
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Planinsic, Gorazd; Etkina, Eugenia
The influence of bubbles on sound has long attracted the attention of physicists. In his 1920 book Sir William Bragg described sound absorption caused by foam in a glass of beer tapped by a spoon. Frank S. Crawford described and analyzed the change in the pitch of sound in a similar experiment and named the phenomenon the "hot chocolate effect."…
Measurement of the speed of sound in ice
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Smith, A. C.; Kishoni, D.
The data presented demonstrate the gathering of sound speed measurements in refrigerated ice, using both compressional and shear waves, on the basis of ice thickness and sound wave time-of-travel parameters. Clear and sharp echo reflections were obtained for both compressional and shear waves at the aluminum/ice and ice/aluminum interfaces for ice at -26 C; ice formed at various conditions can have different sound speeds, depending on the density and elastic constants.
Double difference tomography for breast ultrasound sound speed imaging
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Li, Cuiping; Duric, Neb; Rama, Olsi; Burger, Angelika; Polin, Lisa; Nechiporchik, Nicole
Breast ultrasound tomography is a rapidly developing imaging modality that has the potential to impact breast cancer screening and diagnosis. Double difference (DD) tomography utilizes more accurate differential time-of-flight (ToF) data to reconstruct the sound speed structure of the breast. It can produce more precise and better resolution sound speed images than standard tomography that uses absolute ToF data. We apply DD tomography to phantom data and excised mouse mammary glands data. DD tomograms demonstrate sharper sound speed contrast than the standard tomograms.
On the estimation of sound speed in two-dimensional Yukawa fluids
Semenov, I. L. Thomas, H. M.; Khrapak, S. A.
The longitudinal sound speed in two-dimensional Yukawa fluids is estimated using the conventional hydrodynamic expression supplemented by appropriate thermodynamic functions proposed recently by Khrapak et al. [Phys. Plasmas 22, 083706 (2015)]. In contrast to the existing approaches, such as quasi-localized charge approximation (QLCA) and molecular dynamics simulations, our model provides a relatively simple estimate for the sound speed over a wide range of parameters of interest. At strong coupling, our results are shown to be in good agreement with the results obtained using the QLCA approach and those derived from the phonon spectrum for the triangular lattice. On the other hand, our model is also expected to remain accurate at moderate values of the coupling strength. In addition, the obtained results are used to discuss the influence of the strong coupling effects on the adiabatic index of two-dimensional Yukawa fluids.
Measuring the speed of sound in air using smartphone applications
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Yavuz, A.
This study presents a revised version of an old experiment available in many textbooks for measuring the speed of sound in air. A signal-generator application in a smartphone is used to produce the desired sound frequency. Nodes of sound waves in a glass pipe, of which one end is immersed in water, are more easily detected, so results can be obtained more quickly than from traditional acoustic experiments using tuning forks.
Transpulmonary speed of sound input into the supraclavicular space.
Paciej, R; Vyshedskiy, A; Shane, J; Murphy, R
The transpulmonary speed of sound input at the mouth has been shown to vary with lung volume. To avoid the disadvantages that exist in certain clinical situations in inputting sound at the mouth, we input sound in the supraclavicular space of 21 healthy volunteers to determine whether similar information on the relationship of sound speed to lung volume could be obtained. We measured the transit time at multiple microphones placed over the chest wall using a 16-channel lung sound analyzer (Stethographics). There was a tight distribution of transit times in this population of subjects. At functional residual capacity, it was 9 +/- 1 (SD) ms at the apical sites and 13 +/- 1 ms at the lung bases. The sound speed at total lung capacity was 24 +/- 2 m/s and was 22 +/- 2 m/s at residual volume (P < 0.001). In all subjects, the speed of sound was faster at higher lung volume. This improved method of studying the mechanism of sound transmission in the lung may help in the development of noninvasive tools for diagnosis and monitoring of lung diseases. PMID:12391045
Determining the Speed of Sound Using the Doppler Effect.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Gagne, Richard.
Presents a simple but effective experiment that uses ultrasonic transducers and some basic electronics to study the speed of sound using the Doppler effect. Eliminates the noise problems associated with most sound experiments. Discusses the theory, and describes the apparatus and procedure. (JRH)
Bubbles that Change the Speed of Sound
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Planinšič, Gorazd; Etkina, Eugenia
The influence of bubbles on sound has long attracted the attention of physicists. In his 1920 book Sir William Bragg described sound absorption caused by foam in a glass of beer tapped by a spoon. Frank S. Crawford described and analyzed the change in the pitch of sound in a similar experiment and named the phenomenon the "hot chocolate effect."2 In this paper we describe a simple and robust experiment that allows an easy audio and visual demonstration of the same effect (unfortunately without the chocolate) and offers several possibilities for student investigations. In addition to the demonstration of the above effect, the experiments described below provide an excellent opportunity for students to devise and test explanations with simple equipment.
Sound Affects the Speed of Visual Processing
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Keetels, Mirjam; Vroomen, Jean
The authors examined the effects of a task-irrelevant sound on visual processing. Participants were presented with revolving clocks at or around central fixation and reported the hand position of a target clock at the time an exogenous cue (1 clock turning red) or an endogenous cue (a line pointing toward 1 of the clocks) was presented. A…
In vivo breast sound-speed imaging with ultrasound tomography
Huang, Lianjie; Li, Cuiping; Duric, Neb; Littrup, Peter
We discuss a bent-ray ultrasound tomography algorithm with total-variation (TV) regularization. We have applied this algorithm to 61 in vivo breast datasets collected with our in-house clinical prototype for imaging sound-speed distributions in the breast. Our analysis showed that TV regularization could preserve sharper lesion edges than the classic Tikhonov regularization. Furthermore, the image quality of our TV bent-ray sound-speed tomograms was superior to that of the straight-ray counterparts for all types of breasts within BI-RADS density categories 1-4. For all four breast types from fatty to dense, the improvements for average sharpness (in the unit of (m{center_dot} s) {sup -1}) of lesion edges in our TV bent-ray tomograms are between 2.1 to 3.4 fold compared to the straight ray tomograms. Reconstructed sound-speed tomograms illustrated that our algorithm could successfully image fatty and glandular tissues within the breast. We calculated the mean sound-speed values for fatty tissue and breast parenchyma as 1422 {+-} 9 mls (mean{+-} SD) and1487 {+-} 21 mls, respectively. Based on 32 lesions in a cohort of 61 patients, we also found that the mean sound-speed for malignant breast lesions (1548{+-}17 mls) was higher, on average, than that of benign ones (1513{+-}27 mls) (one-sided p
Li, Cuiping; Duric, Nebojsa; Littrup, Peter; Huang, Lianjie
We discuss a bent-ray ultrasound tomography algorithm with total-variation (TV) regularization. We have applied this algorithm to 61 in vivo breast datasets collected with our in-house clinical prototype for imaging sound-speed distributions in the breast. Our analysis showed that TV regularization could preserve sharper lesion edges than the classic Tikhonov regularization. Furthermore, the image quality of our TV bent-ray sound-speed tomograms was superior to that of the straight-ray counterparts for all types of breasts within BI-RADS density categories 1 through 4. Our analysis showed that the improvements for average sharpness (in the unit of (m · s)−1) of lesion edges in our TV bent-ray tomograms are between 2.1 to 3.4-fold compared with the straight ray tomograms. Reconstructed sound-speed tomograms illustrated that our algorithm could successfully image fatty and glandular tissues within the breast. We calculated the mean sound-speed values for fatty tissue and breast parenchyma as 1422±9 m/s (mean±SD) and 1487±21 m/s, respectively. Based on 32 lesions in a cohort of 61 patients, we also found that the mean sound-speed for malignant breast lesions 1548±17 m/s was higher, on average, than that of benign ones (1513±27 m/s) (one-sided p < 0.001). These results suggest that, clinically, sound-speed tomograms can be used to assess breast density (and therefore, breast cancer risk), as well as detect and help differentiate breast lesions. Finally, our sound-speed tomograms may also be a useful tool to monitor the clinical response of breast cancer patients to neo-adjuvant chemotherapy. PMID:19647920
Sound speed measurements in liquid oxygen-liquid nitrogen mixtures
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Zuckerwar, A. J.; Mazel, D. S.
The sound speed in liquid oxygen (LOX), liquid nitrogen (LN2), and five LOX-LN2 mixtures was measured by an ultrasonic pulse-echo technique at temperatures in the vicinity of -195.8C, the boiling point of N2 at a pressure of I atm. Under these conditions, the measurements yield the following relationship between sound speed in meters per second and LN2 content M in mole percent: c = 1009.05-1.8275M+0.0026507 M squared. The second speeds of 1009.05 m/sec plus or minus 0.25 percent for pure LOX and 852.8 m/sec plus or minus 0.32 percent for pure LN2 are compared with those reported by past investigators. Measurement of sound speed should prove an effective means for monitoring the contamination of LOX by Ln2.
In situ estimation of sediment sound speed and critical angle
Maguer; Bovio; Fox; Schmidt
Understanding the basic physics of sound penetration into ocean sediments is essential for the design of sonar systems that can detect, localize, classify, and identify buried objects. In this regard the sound speed of the sediment is a crucial parameter as the ratio of sound speed at the water-sediment interface determines the critical angle. Sediment sound speed is typically measured from core samples using high frequency (100's of kHz) pulsed travel time measurements. Earlier experimental work on subcritical penetration into sandy sediments has suggested that the effective sound speed in the 2-20 kHz range is significantly lower than the core measurement results. Simulations using Biot theory for propagation in porous media confirmed that sandy sediments may be highly dispersive in the range 1-100 kHz for the type of sand in which the experiments were performed. Here it is shown that a direct and robust estimate of the critical angle, and therefore the sediment sound speed, at the lower frequencies can be achieved by analyzing the grazing angle dependence of the phase delays observed on a buried array. A parametric source with secondary frequencies in the 2-16 kHz range was directed toward a sandy bottom similar to the one investigated in the earlier study. An array of 14 hydrophones was used to measure penetrated field. The critical angle was estimated by analyzing the variations of signal arrival times versus frequency, burial depth, and grazing angle. Matching the results with classical transmission theory yielded a sound speed estimate in the sand of 1626 m/s in the frequency range 2-5 kHz, again significantly lower the 1720 m/s estimated from the cores at 200 kHz. However, as described here, this dispersion is consistent with the predictions of the Biot theory for this type of sand. PMID:11008802
Using a High-Speed Camera to Measure the Speed of Sound
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Hack, William Nathan; Baird, William H.
The speed of sound is a physical property that can be measured easily in the lab. However, finding an inexpensive and intuitive way for students to determine this speed has been more involved. The introduction of affordable consumer-grade high-speed cameras (such as the Exilim EX-FC100) makes conceptually simple experiments feasible. Since the…
Numerical calculation of convection with reduced speed of sound technique
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Hotta, H.; Rempel, M.; Yokoyama, T.; Iida, Y.; Fan, Y.
Context. The anelastic approximation is often adopted in numerical calculations with low Mach numbers, such as those including stellar internal convection. This approximation requires so-called frequent global communication, because of an elliptic partial differential equation. Frequent global communication is, however, negative factor for the parallel computing performed with a large number of CPUs. Aims: We test the validity of a method that artificially reduces the speed of sound for the compressible fluid equations in the context of stellar internal convection. This reduction in the speed of sound leads to longer time steps despite the low Mach number, while the numerical scheme remains fully explicit and the mathematical system is hyperbolic, thus does not require frequent global communication. Methods: Two- and three-dimensional compressible hydrodynamic equations are solved numerically. Some statistical quantities of solutions computed with different effective Mach numbers (owing to the reduction in the speed of sound) are compared to test the validity of our approach. Results: Numerical simulations with artificially reduced speed of sound are a valid approach as long as the effective Mach number (based on the lower speed of sound) remains less than 0.7.
Numerical Speed of Sound and its Application to Schemes for all Speeds
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Liou, Meng-Sing; Edwards, Jack R.
The concept of "numerical speed of sound" is proposed in the construction of numerical flux. It is shown that this variable is responsible for the accurate resolution of' discontinuities, such as contacts and shocks. Moreover, this concept can he readily extended to deal with low speed and multiphase flows. As a results, the numerical dissipation for low speed flows is scaled with the local fluid speed, rather than the sound speed. Hence, the accuracy is enhanced the correct solution recovered, and the convergence rate improved. We also emphasize the role of mass flux and analyze the behavior of this flux. Study of mass flux is important because the numerical diffusivity introduced in it can be identified. In addition, it is the term common to all conservation equations. We show calculated results for a wide variety of flows to validate the effectiveness of using the numerical speed of sound concept in constructing the numerical flux. We especially aim at achieving these two goals: (1) improving accuracy and (2) gaining convergence rates for all speed ranges. We find that while the performance at high speed range is maintained, the flux now has the capability of performing well even with the low: speed flows. Thanks to the new numerical speed of sound, the convergence is even enhanced for the flows outside of the low speed range. To realize the usefulness of the proposed method in engineering problems, we have also performed calculations for complex 3D turbulent flows and the results are in excellent agreement with data.
Stationary waves in tubes and the speed of sound
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Kasper, Lutz; Vogt, Patrik; Strohmeyer, Christine
The opportunity to plot oscillograms and frequency spectra with smartphones creates many options for experiments in acoustics, including several that have been described in this column.1-3 The activities presented in this paper are intended to complement these applications, and include an approach to determine sound velocity in air by using standard drain pipes4 and an outline of an investigation of the temperature dependency of the speed of sound.
Local non-Gaussianity from rapidly varying sound speeds
Emery, Jon; Tasinato, Gianmassimo; Wands, David E-mail: email@example.com
We study the effect of non-trivial sound speeds on local-type non-Gaussianity during multiple-field inflation. To this end, we consider a multiple-DBI model and use the δN formalism to track the super-horizon evolution of perturbations. By adopting a sum separable Hubble parameter we derive analytic expressions for the relevant quantities in the two-field case, valid beyond slow variation. We find that non-trivial sound speeds can, in principle, curve the trajectory in such a way that significant local-type non-Gaussianity is produced. Deviations from slow variation, such as rapidly varying sound speeds, enhance this effect. To illustrate our results we consider two-field inflation in the tip regions of two warped throats and find large local-type non-Gaussianity produced towards the end of the inflationary process.
Time of flight measurement of speed of sound in air with a computer sound card
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Aljalal, Abdulaziz
A computer sound card and freely available audio editing software are used to measure accurately the speed of sound in air using the time-of-flight method. In addition to speed of sound measurement, inversion behaviour upon reflection from an open and closed end of a pipe is demonstrated. Also, it is demonstrated that the reflection at an open end of a pipe occurs slightly outside the pipe. The equipment needed is readily available to any student with access to a microphone, loudspeaker and computer.
Using a High-Speed Camera to Measure the Speed of Sound
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Hack, William Nathan; Baird, William H.
The speed of sound is a physical property that can be measured easily in the lab. However, finding an inexpensive and intuitive way for students to determine this speed has been more involved. The introduction of affordable consumer-grade high-speed cameras (such as the Exilim EX-FC100) makes conceptually simple experiments feasible. Since the Exilim can capture 1000 frames a second, it provides an easy way for students to calculate the speed of sound by counting video frames from a sound-triggered event they can see. For our experiment, we popped a balloon at a measured distance from a sound-activated high-output LED while recording high-speed video for later analysis. The beauty of using this as the method for calculating the speed of sound is that the software required for frame-by-frame analysis is free and the idea itself (slow motion) is simple. This allows even middle school students to measure the speed of sound with assistance, but the ability to independently verify such a basic result is invaluable for high school or college students.
The effect of sound speed profile on shallow water shipping sound maps.
Sertlek, Hüseyin Özkan; Binnerts, Bas; Ainslie, Michael A
Sound mapping over large areas can be computationally expensive because of the large number of sources and large source-receiver separations involved. In order to facilitate computation, a simplifying assumption sometimes made is to neglect the sound speed gradient in shallow water. The accuracy of this assumption is investigated for ship generated sound in the Dutch North Sea, for realistic ship and wind distributions. Sound maps are generated for zero, negative and positive gradients for selected frequency bands (56 Hz to 3.6 kHz). The effect of sound speed profile for the decidecade centred at 125 Hz is less than 1.7 dB. PMID:27475218
Metastable sound speed in gas-liquid mixtures
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Bursik, J. W.; Hall, R. M.
A new method of calculating speed of sound for two-phase flow is presented. The new equation assumes no phase change during the propagation of an acoustic disturbance and assumes that only the total entropy of the mixture remains constant during the process. The new equation predicts single-phase values for the speed of sound in the limit of all gas or all liquid and agrees with available two-phase, air-water sound speed data. Other expressions used in the two-phase flow literature for calculating two-phase, metastable sound speed are reviewed and discussed. Comparisons are made between the new expression and several of the previous expressions -- most notably a triply isentropic equation as used, a triply isentropic equation as used, among others, by Karplus and by Wallis. Appropriate differences are pointed out and a thermodynamic criterion is derived which must be satisfied in order for the triply isentropic expression to be thermodynamically consistent. This criterion is not satisfied for the cases examined, which included two-phase nitrogen, air-water, two-phase parahydrogen, and steam-water. Consequently, the new equation derived is found to be superior to the other equations reviewed.
Experimenting with End-Correction and the Speed of Sound
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
LoPresto, Michael C.
What follows is an alternative to the standard tuning fork and quarter-wave tube speed of sound experiment. Rather than adjusting the water level in a glass or plastic tube to vary the length of an air column, a set of resonance tubes of different lengths is used. The experiment still demonstrates the principles of standing waves in air columns…
Relationship between breast sound speed and mammographic percent density
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Sak, Mark; Duric, Nebojsa; Boyd, Norman; Littrup, Peter; Myc, Lukasz; Faiz, Muhammad; Li, Cuiping; Bey-Knight, Lisa
Despite some shortcomings, mammography is currently the standard of care for breast cancer screening and diagnosis. However, breast ultrasound tomography is a rapidly developing imaging modality that has the potential to overcome the drawbacks of mammography. It is known that women with high breast densities have a greater risk of developing breast cancer. Measuring breast density is accomplished through the use of mammographic percent density, defined as the ratio of fibroglandular to total breast area. Using an ultrasound tomography (UST) prototype, we created sound speed images of the patient's breast, motivated by the fact that sound speed in a tissue is proportional to the density of the tissue. The purpose of this work is to compare the acoustic performance of the UST system with the measurement of mammographic percent density. A cohort of 251 patients was studied using both imaging modalities and the results suggest that the volume averaged breast sound speed is significantly related to mammographic percent density. The Spearman correlation coefficient was found to be 0.73 for the 175 film mammograms and 0.69 for the 76 digital mammograms obtained. Since sound speed measurements do not require ionizing radiation or physical compression, they have the potential to form the basis of a safe, more accurate surrogate marker of breast density.
Measurement of the Speed of Sound in a Metal Rod.
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Mak, Se-yuen; Ng, Yee-kong; Wu, Kam-wah
Suggests two improved methods to measure the speed of sound in a metal rod. One employs a fast timer to measure the time required for a compression pulse to travel along the rod from end to end, and a second uses a microphone to measure the frequency of the fundamental mode of a freely suspending singing rod. (Author/ASK)
Wikus, P.; Bagdasarova, Y.; Figueroa-Feliciano, E.; Leman, S. W.; Rutherford, J. M.; Trowbridge, S. N.; Adams, J. S.; Bandler, S. R.; Eckart, M. E.; Kelley, R. L.; Kilbourne, C. A.; Porter, F. S.; Doriese, W. B.; McCammon, D.
The Micro-X Imaging X-ray Spectrometer is a sounding rocket payload slated for launch in 2011. An array of Transition Edge Sensors, which is operated at a bath temperature of 50 mK, will be used to obtain a high resolution spectrum of the Puppis-A supernova remnant. An Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator (ADR) with a 75 gram Ferric Ammonium Alum (FAA) salt pill in the bore of a 4 T superconducting magnet provides a stable heat sink for the detector array only a few seconds after burnout of the rocket motors. This requires a cold stage design with very short thermal time constants. A suspension made from Kevlar strings holds the 255 gram cold stage in place. It is capable of withstanding loads in excess of 200 g. Stable operation of the TES array in proximity to the ADR magnet is ensured by a three-stage magnetic shielding system which consists of a superconducting can, a high-permeability shield and a bucking coil. The development and testing of the Micro-X payload is well underway.
The Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator for the Micro-X Sounding Rocket Telescope
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Wikus, P.; Adams, J. S.; Bagdasarova, Y.; Bandler, S. R.; Doriese, W. B.; Eckart, M. E.; Figueroa-Feliciano, E.; Kelley, R. L.; Kilbourne, C. A.; Leman, S. W.; McCammon, D.; Porter, F. S.; Rutherford, J. M.; Trowbridge, S. N.
The Micro-X Imaging X-ray Spectrometer is a sounding rocket payload slated for launch in 2011. An array of Transition Edge Sensors, which is operated at a bath temperature of 50 mK, will be used to obtain a high resolution spectrum of the Puppis-A supernova remnant. An Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator (ADR) with a 75 gram Ferric Ammonium Alum (FAA) salt pill in the bore of a 4 T superconducting magnet provides a stable heat sink for the detector array only a few seconds after burnout of the rocket motors. This requires a cold stage design with very short thermal time constants. A suspension made from Kevlar strings holds the 255 gram cold stage in place. It is capable of withstanding loads in excess of 200 g. Stable operation of the TES array in proximity to the ADR magnet is ensured by a three-stage magnetic shielding system which consists of a superconducting can, a high-permeability shield and a bucking coil. The development and testing of the Micro-X payload is well underway.
Effects of high sound speed confiners on ANFO detonations
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Kiyanda, Charles; Jackson, Scott; Short, Mark
The interaction between high explosive (HE) detonations and high sound speed confiners, where the confiner sound speed exceeds the HE's detonation speed, has not been thoroughly studied. The subsonic nature of the flow in the confiner allows stress waves to travel ahead of the main detonation front and influence the upstream HE state. The interaction between the detonation wave and the confiner is also no longer a local interaction, so that the confiner thickness now plays a significant role in the detonation dynamics. We report here on larger scale experiments in which a mixture of ammonium nitrate and fuel oil (ANFO) is detonated in aluminium confiners with varying charge diameter and confiner thickness. The results of these large-scale experiments are compared with previous large-scale ANFO experiments in cardboard, as well as smaller-scale aluminium confined ANFO experiments, to characterize the effects of confiner thickness.
Non-contact sound speed measurement by optical probing of beam deflection due to sound wave.
Jung, Sung Soo; Kim, Yong Tae; Pu, Yu Cheon; Kim, Min Gon; Kim, Ho Chul
We report a non-contact and non-invasive method of sound speed measurement by optical probing of deflected laser beam due to normally incident degenerated shock wave. In this study the shock wave from an exploding wire was degenerated to an ordinary sound wave at the distance exceeding 0.23 m. Temporal resolution of the deflected beam signal was improved by passing through an adequate electronic high-pass filter, as a result we obtained a better temporal resolution than that of the acoustic pressure detection by PZT transducer in terms of rising time. The spatial resolution was improved by passing the refracted beam signal into the edge of focusing lens to make a larger deflection angle. Sound speed was calculated by monitoring the time of flight of transient deflected signal at the predetermined position. Sound speed has been measured in air, distilled water and acryl, agreed well with the published values. The sound speed measured in the solution of glycerin, magnesium sulfate (MgSO4), and dimethylformamide with various mole fractions also agrees within 3% of relative error with those measured in the present work by ultrasonic pulse echo method. The results suggest that the method proposed is to be reliable and reproducible. PMID:16122774
Numerical analysis of dipole sound source around high speed trains.
Takaishi, Takehisa; Sagawa, Akio; Nagakura, Kiyoshi; Maeda, Tatsuo
As the maximum speed of high speed trains increases, the effect of aeroacoustic noise on the sound level on the ground becomes increasingly important. In this paper, the distribution of dipole sound sources at the bogie section of high speed trains is predicted numerically. The three-dimensional unsteady flow around a train is solved by the large eddy simulation technique. The time history of vortices shows that unstable shear layer separation at the leading edge of the bogie section sheds vortices periodically. These vortices travel downstream while growing to finally impinge upon the trailing edge of the section. The wavelength of sound produced by these vortices is large compared to the representative length of the bogie section, so that the source region can be regarded as acoustically compact. Thus a compact Green's function adapted to the shape can be used to determine the sound. By coupling the instantaneous flow properties with the compact Green's function, the distribution of dipole sources is obtained. The results reveal a strong dipole source at the trailing edge of the bogie section where the shape changes greatly and the variation of flow with time is also great. On the other hand, the bottom of the bogie section where the shape does not change, or the leading edge and boundary layer where the variation of flow with time is small, cannot generate a strong dipole source. PMID:12083191
Numerical analysis of dipole sound source around high speed trains
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Takaishi, Takehisa; Sagawa, Akio; Nagakura, Kiyoshi; Maeda, Tatsuo
As the maximum speed of high speed trains increases, the effect of aeroacoustic noise on the sound level on the ground becomes increasingly important. In this paper, the distribution of dipole sound sources at the bogie section of high speed trains is predicted numerically. The three-dimensional unsteady flow around a train is solved by the large eddy simulation technique. The time history of vortices shows that unstable shear layer separation at the leading edge of the bogie section sheds vortices periodically. These vortices travel downstream while growing to finally impinge upon the trailing edge of the section. The wavelength of sound produced by these vortices is large compared to the representative length of the bogie section, so that the source region can be regarded as acoustically compact. Thus a compact Green's function adapted to the shape can be used to determine the sound. By coupling the instantaneous flow properties with the compact Green's function, the distribution of dipole sources is obtained. The results reveal a strong dipole source at the trailing edge of the bogie section where the shape changes greatly and the variation of flow with time is also great. On the other hand, the bottom of the bogie section where the shape does not change, or the leading edge and boundary layer where the variation of flow with time is small, cannot generate a strong dipole source. copyright 2002 Acoustical Society of America.
Speed of Sound in Metal Pipes: An Inexpensive Lab
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Huggins, Elisha
Our favorite demonstration for sound waves is to set up a compressional pulse on a horizontally stretched Slinky[TM]. One can easily watch the pulse move back and forth at a speed of the order of one meter per second. Watching this demonstration, it occurred to us that the same thing might happen in a steel pipe if you hit the end of the pipe with…
A Comparative Study of Sound Speed in Air at Room Temperature between a Pressure Sensor and a Sound Sensor
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Amrani, D.
This paper deals with the comparison of sound speed measurements in air using two types of sensor that are widely employed in physics and engineering education, namely a pressure sensor and a sound sensor. A computer-based laboratory with pressure and sound sensors was used to carry out measurements of air through a 60 ml syringe. The fast Fourier…
A direct method for photoacoustic tomography with inhomogeneous sound speed
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Belhachmi, Zakaria; Glatz, Thomas; Scherzer, Otmar
The standard approach for photoacoustic imaging with variable speed of sound is time reversal, which consists of solving a well-posed final-boundary value problem for the wave equation backwards in time. This paper investigates the iterative Landweber regularization algorithm, where convergence is guaranteed by standard regularization theory, notably also in cases of trapping sound speed or for short measurement times. We formulate and solve the direct and inverse problem on the whole Euclidean space, which is common in standard photoacoustic imaging, but not for time reversal algorithms, where the problems are considered on a domain enclosed by the measurement devices. We formulate both the direct and adjoint photoacoustic operator as the solution of an interior and an exterior differential equation which are coupled by transmission conditions. The former is solved numerically using a Galerkin scheme in space and finite difference discretization in time, while the latter consists of solving a boundary integral equation. We therefore use a boundary element method/finite element method approach for numerical solution of the forward operators. We analyze this method, prove convergence, and provide numerical tests. Moreover, we compare the approach to time reversal.
Non-adiabatic perturbations in multi-component perfect fluids
Koshelev, N.A.
The evolution of non-adiabatic perturbations in models with multiple coupled perfect fluids with non-adiabatic sound speed is considered. Instead of splitting the entropy perturbation into relative and intrinsic parts, we introduce a set of symmetric quantities, which also govern the non-adiabatic pressure perturbation in models with energy transfer. We write the gauge invariant equations for the variables that determine on a large scale the non-adiabatic pressure perturbation and the rate of changes of the comoving curvature perturbation. The analysis of evolution of the non-adiabatic pressure perturbation has been made for several particular models.
Measurement of the ratio of the speed of sound to the speed of light
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Mehl, J. B.; Moldover, M. R.
Measurements of the resonance frequencies of the acoustic modes and of the microwave modes of a single cavity can determine u/c, the ratio of the speed of sound of a gas to the speed of light. Such measurements with a monatomic gas would determine the thermodynamic temperature T with unprecedented accuracy. By judicious choices of cavity geometry and resonance modes, u/c can be measured to part-per-million accuracy using cavities whose geometry is known only to parts per thousand. These techniques can also be applied to measurements of the universal gas constant R.
Bound on the speed of sound from holography
Cherman, Aleksey; Cohen, Thomas D.; Nellore, Abhinav
We show that the squared speed of sound v{sub s}{sup 2} is bounded from above at high temperatures by the conformal value of 1/3 in a class of strongly coupled four-dimensional field theories, given some mild technical assumptions. This class consists of field theories that have gravity duals sourced by a single-scalar field. There are no known examples to date of field theories with gravity duals for which v{sub s}{sup 2} exceeds 1/3 in energetically favored configurations. We conjecture that v{sub s}{sup 2}=1/3 represents an upper bound for a broad class of four-dimensional theories.
Sound speed and viscosity of semi-relativistic relic neutrinos
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Krauss, Lawrence; Long, Andrew J.
Generalized fluid equations, using sound speed ceff2 and viscosity cvis2 as effective parameters, provide a convenient phenomenological formalism for testing the relic neutrino "null hypothesis," i.e. that that neutrinos are relativistic and free-streaming prior to recombination. In this work, we relax the relativistic assumption and ask "to what extent can the generalized fluid equations accommodate finite neutrino mass?" We consider both the mass of active neutrinos, which are largely still relativistic at recombination m2 / T2 ~ 0.2, and the effect of a semi-relativistic sterile component. While there is no one-to-one mapping between mass/mixing parameters and ceff2 and cvis2, we demonstrate that the existence of a neutrino mass could induce a bias to measurements of ceff2 and cvis2 at the level of 0.01 m2 / T2 ~ 10‑3.
High-speed imaging of sound using parallel phase-shifting interferometry.
Ishikawa, Kenji; Yatabe, Kohei; Chitanont, Nachanant; Ikeda, Yusuke; Oikawa, Yasuhiro; Onuma, Takashi; Niwa, Hayato; Yoshii, Minoru
Sound-field imaging, the visualization of spatial and temporal distribution of acoustical properties such as sound pressure, is useful for understanding acoustical phenomena. This study investigated the use of parallel phase-shifting interferometry (PPSI) with a high-speed polarization camera for imaging a sound field, particularly high-speed imaging of propagating sound waves. The experimental results showed that the instantaneous sound field, which was generated by ultrasonic transducers driven by a pure tone of 40 kHz, was quantitatively imaged. Hence, PPSI can be used in acoustical applications requiring spatial information of sound pressure. PMID:27410311
An Inexpensive and Versatile Version of Kundt's Tube for Measuring the Speed of Sound in Air
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Papacosta, Pangratios; Linscheid, Nathan
Experiments that measure the speed of sound in air are common in high schools and colleges. In the Kundt's tube experiment, a horizontal air column is adjusted until a resonance mode is achieved for a specific frequency of sound. When this happens, the cork dust in the tube is disturbed at the displacement antinode regions. The location of the displacement antinodes enables the measurement of the wavelength of the sound that is being used. This paper describes a design that uses a speaker instead of the traditional aluminum rod as the sound source. This allows the use of multiple sound frequencies that yield a much more accurate speed of sound in air.
Model-based tomographic optoacoustic reconstruction in media with small speed of sound variations
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Deán-Ben, X. L.; Ntziachristos, Vasilis; Razansky, Daniel
The majority of optoacoustic reconstruction algorithms are based on the assumption that the speed of sound within the imaging sample is constant and equal to the speed of sound in the coupling medium, typically water. However, small speed of sound changes between different organs and structures are common in actual samples. The variations in the speed of sound within biological tissues are usually below 10% with respect to the speed of sound in water. Under these circumstances, the acoustic wave propagation can be modeled as acoustic rays and the main effect of the acoustic heterogeneities is the time-shifting of the optoacoustic signals. Herein, we describe a model-based reconstruction algorithm capable of accounting for such small speed of sound variations. It is based on modifying the integration curve in the forward optoacoustic model according to the time-shifting produced by differences in the speed of sound. The forward model is then discretized and inverted algebraically by means of the LSQR algorithm. The algorithm was tested experimentally with tissue-mimicking agar phantoms containing glycerine to simulate a higher speed of sound than water. The improvement in the image quality as compared to the results obtained by assuming a uniform speed of sound is discussed in this work.
Sound Speed of Liquid Iron Along the Outer Core Isentrope: New Pre-heated Ramp Compression Experiments
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Asimow, P. D.; Nguyen, J.; Akin, M. C.; Fatýanov, O. V.
Detailed elasticity data on liquid Fe and candidate molten core alloys should offer new constraints on the under-constrained problem of Earth's core composition. Density, sound speed, and the gradient in sound speed with pressure are each potentially distinct experimental constraints and are each well-known for Earth. The gradient in sound speed, though, has not been used because sound speed depends on both T and P, such that data must be collected or reconstructed along the correct, nearly adiabatic, thermal profile. Reconstruction requires the Grüneisen γ, which is composition-dependent, and data over a large P-T space to allow extrapolation. Both static and dynamic compression methods could be used, but the conditions (140 - 330 GPa and 4000 - 6000 K) are very challenging for static methods and standard shock compression only samples the outer core P-T profile at a single P. Instead we are applying quasi-isentropic dynamic ramp compression, using pre-heating of the target and impedance of the leading edge of a graded-density impactor (GDI) to select a probable outer core isentrope. The target material is melted and raised to a point on the outer core isentrope by the initial shock, then quasi-isentropically ramped to a maximum P by increasing shock impedance of trailing GDI layers. Particle velocity is monitored by photonic doppler velocimetry (PDV) at two step thicknesses at the interface of Fe or Fe-alloy target and MgO windows. The difference in arrival time of each particle velocity at the two steps directly gives the Lagrangian sound speed vs. particle velocity, which is integrated to obtain Pand density. At the writing of this abstract, we have completed one shot of this type. We successfully heated a two-step Fe target in a Mo capsule with MgO windows to 1350 °C, maintaining sufficient alignment and reflectivity to collect PDV signal returns. We characterized the velocity correction factor for PDV observation through MgO windows, and have confirmed
Limit of the speed-resolution properties in adiabatic supercritical fluid chromatography.
Gritti, Fabrice; Guiochon, Georges
Kinetic Poppe plots for small retained compounds were calculated in HPLC (using pure acetonitrile) and SFC (using pure carbon dioxide) for columns having twenty one different lengths (between 3 cm and 30 m), operated under strict adiabatic conditions (no heat exchange was allowed between the column and the external environment), with a constant pressure drop of 200 bar. The outlet pressures were set at 1 and 160 bar in HPLC and SFC, respectively. The eluent inlet temperature was set at 312 K. The hold-up time t0 and the apparent column efficiency
The sound speed in southern deepwater zone of the Caspian Sea, off Anzali Port
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Jamshidi, S.; Abu Bakar, N. B.
Sound velocity determination in seawater is a key component of modern hydrographic surveying; however, little data exists on sound velocity characteristics of the southern Caspian Sea. Hence, a study was undertaken in 2008 to examine the seasonal variability of sound speed in deep-waters of the South Caspian Sea near the Iranian coast. The seasonal cycle of seawater temperature and thermal stratification in the Caspian Sea water created a wide range of spatial and temporal changes of sound speed with relevant differences between shallow water (over the continental shelf) and deep-water area. The collected data showed that seasonal variations of the sound speed were most important in the upper 100 m water depth, while below this level that is in deepwater the changes were small. The maximum values of sound speed were observed at the surface in midsummer around 1517-1519 m s-1 over the continental shelf while the speed of sound was about 1453 m s-1 between 450-470 m depths with no major seasonal variations. Variations in vertical structure of the sound speed were in agreement with temperature changes, while effects of the salinity on the sound speed were little.
Variance of speed of sound and correlation with acoustic impedance in canine corneas.
Tang, Junhua; Liu, Jun
The clinical standard for measuring corneal thickness is ultrasound pachymetry that assumes a constant speed of sound. The purpose of this study was to examine the variance of speed of sound and its relationship with acoustic impedance in healthy eyes of canines with a large age span. Corneal speed of sound and acoustic impedance were measured in 34 canine eyes at room temperature (21 ± 1°C). The mean speed of sound was 1577 ± 10 m/s ranging from 1553 to 1594 m/s. There was a strong correlation between speed of sound and acoustic impedance (R = 0.84, p < 0.001). Corneal speed of sound had a small variance in healthy canines over 1-year-old, but was significantly lower in younger canines suggesting an age effect. The strong correlation between corneal speed of sound and acoustic impedance may offer a potential means to noninvasively detect abnormal speed of sound for more accurate corneal thickness estimation. PMID:21821348
Direct Measurement of the Speed of Sound Using a Microphone and a Speaker
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Gómez-Tejedor, José A.; Castro-Palacio, Juan C.; Monsoriu, Juan A.
We present a simple and accurate experiment to obtain the speed of sound in air using a conventional speaker and a microphone connected to a computer. A free open source digital audio editor and recording computer software application allows determination of the time-of-flight of the wave for different distances, from which the speed of sound is…
40 CFR 205.54-1 - Low speed sound emission test procedures.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2010 CFR
... 40 Protection of Environment 24 2010-07-01 2010-07-01 false Low speed sound emission test procedures. 205.54-1 Section 205.54-1 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (CONTINUED) NOISE ABATEMENT PROGRAMS TRANSPORTATION EQUIPMENT NOISE EMISSION CONTROLS Medium and Heavy Trucks § 205.54-1 Low speed sound emission test...
40 CFR 205.54-1 - Low speed sound emission test procedures.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2014 CFR
... 40 Protection of Environment 25 2014-07-01 2014-07-01 false Low speed sound emission test procedures. 205.54-1 Section 205.54-1 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (CONTINUED) NOISE ABATEMENT PROGRAMS TRANSPORTATION EQUIPMENT NOISE EMISSION CONTROLS Medium and Heavy Trucks § 205.54-1 Low speed sound emission test...
Mullan, D. J.; MacDonald, J.; Rabello-Soares, M. C.
Empirical radial profiles of the changes in sound speed inside the Sun between solar minimum and solar maximum have been extracted from Michelson Doppler Imager data by Baldner and Basu and Rabello-Soares. Here, we compare these results with the theoretical radial profiles predicted by a model of magnetic inhibition of convective onset: In the model, the degree of magnetic inhibition is characterized by a parameter {delta}, which is essentially the ratio of magnetic pressure to gas pressure. We find that the theoretical profiles overlap significantly with the empirical results in the outer half of the convection zone. But differences in the deeper layers indicate that the model needs to be modified there. The main result that emerges in the present comparison is that the value of {delta} must be larger near the surface than at great depth. A secondary result is that, in the course of the solar cycle, the magnetic field magnitude at the base of the convection zone may be out of phase with the field near the surface.
Causal field theory with an infinite speed of sound
Afshordi, Niayesh; Chung, Daniel J. H.; Geshnizjani, Ghazal
We introduce a model of scalar field dark energy, Cuscuton, which can be realized as the incompressible (or infinite speed of sound) limit of a scalar field theory with a noncanonical kinetic term (or k-essence). Even though perturbations of Cuscuton propagate superluminally, we show that they have a locally degenerate phase space volume (or zero entropy), implying that they cannot carry any microscopic information, and thus the theory is causal. Even coupling to ordinary scalar fields cannot lead to superluminal signal propagation. Furthermore, we show that the family of constant field hypersurfaces is the family of constant mean curvature hypersurfaces, which are the analogs of soap films (or soap bubbles) in Euclidian space. This enables us to find the most general solution in 1+1 dimensions, whose properties motivate conjectures for global degeneracy of the phase space in higher dimensions. Finally, we show that the Cuscuton action can model the continuum limit of the evolution of a field with discrete degrees of freedom and argue why it is protected against quantum corrections at low energies. While this paper mainly focuses on interesting features of Cuscuton in a Minkowski space-time, a companion paper examines cosmology with Cuscuton dark energy.
Spherical collapse in quintessence models with zero speed of sound
Creminelli, Paolo; D'Amico, Guido; Noreña, Jorge; Senatore, Leonardo; Vernizzi, Filippo E-mail: email@example.com E-mail: email@example.com
We study the spherical collapse model in the presence of quintessence with negligible speed of sound. This case is particularly motivated for w < −1 as it is required by stability. As pressure gradients are negligible, quintessence follows dark matter during the collapse. The spherical overdensity behaves as a separate closed FLRW universe, so that its evolution can be studied exactly. We derive the critical overdensity for collapse and we use the extended Press-Schechter theory to study how the clustering of quintessence affects the dark matter mass function. The effect is dominated by the modification of the linear dark matter growth function. A larger effect occurs on the total mass function, which includes the quintessence overdensities. Indeed, here quintessence constitutes a third component of virialized objects, together with baryons and dark matter, and contributes to the total halo mass by a fraction ∼ (1+w)Ω{sub Q}/Ω{sub m}. This gives a distinctive modification of the total mass function at low redshift.
Comparison of sound speed measurements on two different ultrasound tomography devices
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Sak, Mark; Duric, Neb; Littrup, Peter; Bey-Knight, Lisa; Sherman, Mark; Gierach, Gretchen; Malyarenko, Antonina
Ultrasound tomography (UST) employs sound waves to produce three-dimensional images of breast tissue and precisely measures the attenuation of sound speed secondary to breast tissue composition. High breast density is a strong breast cancer risk factor and sound speed is directly proportional to breast density. UST provides a quantitative measure of breast density based on three-dimensional imaging without compression, thereby overcoming the shortcomings of many other imaging modalities. The quantitative nature of the UST breast density measures are tied to an external standard, so sound speed measurement in breast tissue should be independent of specific hardware. The work presented here compares breast sound speed measurement obtained with two different UST devices. The Computerized Ultrasound Risk Evaluation (CURE) system located at the Karmanos Cancer Institute in Detroit, Michigan was recently replaced with the SoftVue ultrasound tomographic device. Ongoing clinical trials have used images generated from both sets of hardware, so maintaining consistency in sound speed measurements is important. During an overlap period when both systems were in the same exam room, a total of 12 patients had one or both of their breasts imaged on both systems on the same day. There were 22 sound speed scans analyzed from each system and the average breast sound speeds were compared. Images were either reconstructed using saved raw data (for both CURE and SoftVue) or were created during the image acquisition (saved in DICOM format for SoftVue scans only). The sound speed measurements from each system were strongly and positively correlated with each other. The average difference in sound speed between the two sets of data was on the order of 1-2 m/s and this result was not statistically significant. The only sets of images that showed a statistical difference were the DICOM images created during the SoftVue scan compared to the SoftVue images reconstructed from the raw data
Sound speed as a proxy variable to temperature in Fram Strait.
Dushaw, Brian D; Sagen, Hanne; Beszczynska-Möller, Agnieszka
The application of ocean acoustic tomography in Fram Strait requires a careful assessment of the accuracy to which estimates of sound speed from tomography can be converted to estimates of temperature. The Fram Strait environment is turbulent, with warm, salty, northward-flowing North Atlantic water interacting with cold, fresh, southward-flowing Arctic water. The nature of this environment suggests that salinity could play an important role with respect to sound speed. The properties of sound speed with respect to temperature and salinity in this environment were examined using climatological and in situ glider data. In cold water, a factor of about 4.5 m s(-1) °C(-1) can be used to scale between sound speed and temperature. In situ data obtained by gliders were used to determine the ambiguities between temperature, salinity, and sound speed. Tomography provides a depth-averaging measurement. While errors in the sound speed-temperature conversion at particular depths may be 0.2 °C or larger, particularly within 50 m of the surface, such errors are suppressed when the depth is averaged. Using a simple scale factor to compute temperature from sound speed introduced an error of about 20 m °C for depth-averaged temperature, a value less than formal uncertainties estimated from acoustic tomography. PMID:27475184
Speed of low-frequency sound through lungs of normal men.
Kraman, S S
The speed of propagation of vesicular lung sound through the lung has not been clearly established. In a recent study (J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 54: 304-308, 1983), Rice measured the speed of sound through the parenchyma of excised horse lungs and found it to be 25-70 m/s (less than 20% the speed of sound in air). Filling the lung with helium or sulfur hexafluoride changed the speed of transmission by less than 10%, indicating nongas propagation. The present study was designed to measure the speed of sound through human lungs in vivo. Five healthy, nonsmoking males (aged 27-38 yr) were studied. A microphone was placed on the neck beneath the larynx and another at each of eight locations on the chest wall. Measurements were made at functional residual capacity. White noise was band-pass filtered between 125 and 500 Hz, amplified, and delivered to a loudspeaker connected to a mouthpiece. The speed of sound was measured by cross-correlation analysis of the signals simultaneously detected by the tracheal and chest microphones. This was done after breathing both air and a mixture of 80% He in 20% O2 (He-O2). With air, the mean sound-transit time (trachea to chest wall) ranged from 2 ms at the upper chest to 5 ms at the lower chest (speed of approximately 30 m/s). With He-O2 the mean speed increased by only 10%, whereas the predicted increase of sound speed through gas alone would be greater than 100%. These results are consistent with the in vitro findings of Rice and suggest that within the frequency range of vesicular lung sounds transmission of sound introduced at the mouth is predominantly through the lung parenchyma, not through the airways. PMID:6662777
Experimental determination of sound and high-speed flow interaction
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Lumsdaine, E.; Silcox, R.
A facility that was used to measure the interaction of flow with sound at high Mach numbers is described. Four inlets with different area variations (or axial gradients) were tested. Sound of selected frequencies and modes (0,0), (1,0), (2,0) was generated with eight circumferential acoustic drivers.
Experimental study of the speed of sound in liquid and gaseous refrigerant R-407C
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Komarov, S. G.; Stankus, S. V.
The speed of sound in liquid and gaseous refrigerant R-407C was measured by the method of ultrasonic interferometer in the temperature range from 293 to 373 K and pressure from 0.05 to 0.5 to 3.7 MPa. The experimental uncertainties of the temperature, pressure, and speed of sound measurements were estimated to be within ±20 mK, ±4 kPa, and ±(0.1-0.3) %, respectively. The obtained results are compared with the calculated speed of sound from the fundamental state equation for the Helmholtz free energy.
Processing data, for improved, accuracy, from device for measuring speed of sound in a gas
Owen, Thomas E.
A method, used in connection with a pulse-echo type sensor for determining the speed of sound in a gas, for improving the accuracy of speed of sound measurements. The sensor operates on the principle that speed of sound can be derived from the difference between the two-way travel time of signals reflected from two different target faces of the sensor. This time difference is derived by computing the cross correlation between the two reflections. The cross correlation function may be fitted to a parabola whose vertex represents the optimum time coordinate of the coherence peak, thereby providing an accurate measure of the two-way time diffference.
Speed of sound as a function of temperature for ultrasonic propagation in soybean oil
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Oliveira, P. A.; Silva, R. M. B.; Morais, G. C.; Alvarenga, A. V.; Costa-Félix, R. P. B.
Ultrasound has been used for characterization of liquid in several productive sectors and research. This work presents the studied about the behavior of the speed of sound in soybean oil with increasing temperature. The pulse echo technique allowed observing that the speed of sound decreases linearly with increasing temperature in the range 20 to 50 °C at 1 MHz. As result, a characteristic function capable to reproduce the speed of sound behavior in soybean oil, as a function of temperature was established, with the respective measurement uncertainty.
Compact sound-speed sensor for quartz enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy based applications.
Liu, Kun; Dong, Lei; Tittel, Frank K
A compact sound-speed sensor based on a phase difference method was developed. The sensor employs a U-shaped stainless steel tube with two holes located on its front and back ends, which serves as a sound wave guide. The phase difference between the two holes was measured using two mini-microphones by means of a phase-sensitive detection technique. This method offers the advantage of eliminating the influence of signal fluctuations. The frequency of a sound source offered by a loudspeaker can be scanned between 1 kHz and 50 kHz. The slope of the phase difference as a function of frequency was obtained by scanning the frequency of the sound source. The speed of sound was retrieved from the rate of change of the phase difference. The performance of the sensor was evaluated over a wide range of speeds of sound from 260 m/s to 1010 m/s in different gas mixtures. The measured speed of sound was found to be in good agreement with the theoretical value for the sound-speed sensor. PMID:25933885
Compact sound-speed sensor for quartz enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy based applications
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Liu, Kun; Dong, Lei; Tittel, Frank K.
A compact sound-speed sensor based on a phase difference method was developed. The sensor employs a U-shaped stainless steel tube with two holes located on its front and back ends, which serves as a sound wave guide. The phase difference between the two holes was measured using two mini-microphones by means of a phase-sensitive detection technique. This method offers the advantage of eliminating the influence of signal fluctuations. The frequency of a sound source offered by a loudspeaker can be scanned between 1 kHz and 50 kHz. The slope of the phase difference as a function of frequency was obtained by scanning the frequency of the sound source. The speed of sound was retrieved from the rate of change of the phase difference. The performance of the sensor was evaluated over a wide range of speeds of sound from 260 m/s to 1010 m/s in different gas mixtures. The measured speed of sound was found to be in good agreement with the theoretical value for the sound-speed sensor.
Experimental measurement of speeds of sound in dense supercritical carbon monoxide and development of a high-pressure, high-temperature equation of state.
Zaug, Joseph M; Carter, Jeffrey A; Bastea, Sorin; Armstrong, Michael R; Crowhurst, Jonathan C; Fried, Laurence E
We report the adiabatic sound speeds for supercritical fluid carbon monoxide along two isotherms, from 0.17 to 2.13 GPa at 297 K and from 0.31 to 3.2 GPa at 600 K. The carbon monoxide was confined in a resistively heated diamond-anvil cell, and the sound speed measurements were conducted in situ using a recently reported variant of the photoacoustic light scattering effect. The measured sound speeds were then used to parametrize a single site dipolar exponential-6 intermolecular potential for carbon monoxide. PρT thermodynamic states, sound speeds, and shock Hugoniots were calculated using the newly parametrized intermolecular potential and compared to previously reported experimental results. Additionally, we generated an analytical equation of state for carbon monoxide by fitting to a grid of calculated PρT states over a range of 0.1-10 GPa and 150-2000 K. A 2% mean variation was found between computed high-pressure solid-phase densities and measured data-a surprising result for a spherical interaction potential. We further computed a rotationally dependent fluid to β-solid phase boundary; results signal the relative magnitude of short-range rotational disorder under conditions that span existing phase boundary measurements. PMID:23586650
Experimental Measurement of Speeds of Sound in Liquid Carbon Monoxide and Development of High-Pressure, High-Temperature Equations of State
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Zaug, Joseph; Carter, Jeffrey; Bastea, Sorin; Armstrong, Michael; Laurence, Fried
We report the adiabatic sound speeds for supercritical fluid carbon monoxide along two isotherms, from 0.17 to 2.13 GPa at 297 K and from 0.31 to 3.2 GPa at 600 K. The carbon monoxide was confined in a resistively heated diamond-anvil cell and the sound speed measurements were conducted in situ using a recently reported variant of the photoacoustic light scattering effect. The measured sound speeds were then used to parameterize a single site dipolar exponential-6 intermolecular potential for carbon monoxide. PT thermodynamic states, sound speeds, and shock Hugoniots were calculated using the newly parameterized intermolecular potential and compared to previously reported experimental results. Additionally, we generated an analytical equation of state for carbon monoxide by fitting to a grid of calculated PT states over a range of 0.1-10 GPa and 150-2000 K. A 2 percent mean variation was found between computed high-pressure solid-phase densities and measured data -a surprising result for a spherical interaction potential. We further computed a rotationally dependent fluid to beta-solid phase boundary; results signal the relative magnitude of short-range rotational disorder under conditions that span existing phase boundary measurements. This research was partly funded by the Joint D0D/DOE Munitions Program, and was performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory under Contract No. DE-AC52-07NA27344.
Speed and Accuracy of Rapid Speech Output by Adolescents with Residual Speech Sound Errors Including Rhotics
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Preston, Jonathan L.; Edwards, Mary Louise
Children with residual speech sound errors are often underserved clinically, yet there has been a lack of recent research elucidating the specific deficits in this population. Adolescents aged 10-14 with residual speech sound errors (RE) that included rhotics were compared to normally speaking peers on tasks assessing speed and accuracy of speech…
An Inexpensive and Versatile Version of Kundt's Tube for Measuring the Speed of Sound in Air
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Papacosta, Pangratios; Linscheid, Nathan
Experiments that measure the speed of sound in air are common in high schools and colleges. In the Kundt's tube experiment, a horizontal air column is adjusted until a resonance mode is achieved for a specific frequency of sound. When this happens, the cork dust in the tube is disturbed at the displacement antinode regions. The location of the…
Direct measurement of the speed of sound using a microphone and a speaker
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Gómez-Tejedor, José A.; Castro-Palacio, Juan C.; Monsoriu, Juan A.
We present a simple and accurate experiment to obtain the speed of sound in air using a conventional speaker and a microphone connected to a computer. A free open source digital audio editor and recording computer software application allows determination of the time-of-flight of the wave for different distances, from which the speed of sound is calculated. The result is in very good agreement with the reported value in the literature.
Clinical breast imaging using sound-speed reconstructions of ultrasound tomography data
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Li, Cuiping; Duric, Neb; Huang, Lianjie
To improve clinical breast imaging, a new ultrasound tomography imaging device (CURE) has been built at the Karmanos Cancer Institute. The ring array of the CURE device records ultrasound transmitted and reflected ultrasound signals simultaneously. We develop a bent-ray tomography algorithm for reconstructing the sound-speed distribution of the breast using time-of-flights of transmitted signals. We study the capability of the algorithm using a breast phantom dataset and over 190 patients' data. Examples are presented to demonstrate the sound-speed reconstructions for different breast types from fatty to dense on the BI-RADS categories 1-4. Our reconstructions show that the mean sound-speed value increases from fatty to dense breasts: 1440.8 m/ s (fatty), 1451.9 m/ s (scattered), 1473.2 m/ s(heterogeneous), and 1505.25 m/ s (dense). This is an important clinical implication of our reconstruction. The mean sound speed can be used for breast density analysis. In addition, the sound-speed reconstruction, in combination with attenuation and reflectivity images, has the potential to improve breast-cancer diagnostic imaging. The breast is not compressed and does not move during the ultrasound scan using the CURE device, stacking 2D slices of ultrasound sound-speed tomography images forms a 3D volumetric view of the whole breast. The 3D image can also be projected into a 2-D "ultrasound mammogram" to visually mimic X-ray mammogram without breast compression and ionizing radiation.
Estimating the effective sound speed in the bottom in shallow water areas
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Lunkov, A. A.; Petnikov, V. G.; Chernousov, A. D.
Techniques are proposed for estimating the effective sound speed in sediments in shallow water areas with a soft bottom. The techniques are oriented toward determining this physical quantity for relatively small range intervals on the order of ten depths. The estimates are based on comparison of the experimental results and calculations of the characteristics of low-frequency sound fields propagating in these water areas. It is proposed to find this sound speed quantity by calculating its value for which the best agreement between experiment and calculation occurs. We present the results of testing the proposed techniques in experiments in the Klyaz'ma reservoir.
Calculation of the relative speed of sound in a gas mixture.
Ackerman, M J; Maitland, G
Since the frequency spectrum of a voice signal is directly dependent on the velocity of sound, studies of speech spectra include the problem of calculating the speed of sound in the gas mixture being used. A computer program written in BASIC has been developed to calculate the speed of sound relative to air in various diving gas mixtures. In addition, a set of tables available as a separate technical report has been generated using this program. These tables are designed to provide a standard reference for reporting spectral shifts in speech due to different gas mixtures under normal diving conditions. PMID:1226588
Measuring the Speed of Sound Using Only a Computer
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Bin, Mo
corresponding time to cover that distance. But sound travels rapidly, covering about one meter in three milliseconds. This challenge can be met by using only a computer and an external microphone. A fixed frequency (1000 Hz) is fed into the computer's speaker and the…
Laser ultrasonics system for measurement of speed of sound in gases
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Sakamoto, J. M. S.; Pacheco, G. M.; Kitano, C.; Machado, H. A.
In this work we developed a setup to measure the speed of sound in gases using a laser ultrasonics system. The mentioned setup is an all optical system composed by a Q-switched Nd:YAG laser to generate the sound waves, and a fiber optical microphone to detect them. The Nd:YAG provided a laser pulse of approximately 420 mJ energy and 9 ns of pulse width, at the wavelength of 1064 nm. The pulsed laser beam, focused by a positive lens, was used to generate an electrical breakdown (in the gas) which, in turn, generates an sound wave that traveled through a determined distance and reached the fiber optical microphone. The resulting signal was acquired in an oscilloscope and the time difference between the optical pulse and the arrival of the sound waves was used to calculate the speed of sound, since the distance was known. The system was initially tested to measure the speed of sound in air, at room pressure and temperature and it presented results in agreement with the theory, showing to be suitable to measure the speed of sound in gases.
An audible demonstration of the speed of sound in bubbly liquids
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Wilson, Preston S.; Roy, Ronald A.
The speed of sound in a bubbly liquid is strongly dependent upon the volume fraction of the gas phase, the bubble size distribution, and the frequency of the acoustic excitation. At sufficiently low frequencies, the speed of sound depends primarily on the gas volume fraction. This effect can be audibly demonstrated using a one-dimensional acoustic waveguide, in which the flow rate of air bubbles injected into a water-filled tube is varied by the user. The normal modes of the waveguide are excited by the sound of the bubbles being injected into the tube. As the flow rate is varied, the speed of sound varies as well, and hence, the resonance frequencies shift. This can be clearly heard through the use of an amplified hydrophone and the user can create aesthetically pleasing and even musical sounds. In addition, the apparatus can be used to verify a simple mathematical model known as Wood's equation that relates the speed of sound of a bubbly liquid to its void fraction.
Evaluation of eye tissue elasticity by means of sound propagation speed measuring in vivo
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Crispim, Joao; Bogar, Adriano; Allemann, Norma; Neto, Jarbas C. C.; Chamon, Wallace
Introduction: To date, it has never been demonstrated the propagation sound speed in human corneas and lens in vivo. With the advent of Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT), it became possible to determine the dimensions of the ocular tissues without the interference of sound propagation speed and to use this information to define the real propagation sound speed for each patient and individualized structure. Aim: To determine the sound propagation speed in the cornea and lens from patients that theoretically exhibits differences in tissue elasticity (normal corneas and keratoconus, corneas of young and elderly patients, in addition to clear crystalline lens from young and elderly patients with cataract). Then, relate the determined velocity in each group with the expected tissue elasticity of the cornea and lens. Methods: We studied 100 eyes from 50 patients: 50 with keratoconus and no cataract and 50 with cataract and no corneal changes. All patients measured corneal and lens thickness by ultrasound methods (Ultrasonic Biomicroscopy - UBM and Ultrasonic Pachymetry - USP) and by OCT (RTVue®, Lenstar® and Visante®), then were divided into 2 groups: Group 1 (Cornea) analyzed the central corneal thickness (UBM, USP, RTVue®, Visante®, Lenstar®); Group 2 (Lens) analyzed the axial thickness of the lens (UBM and Lenstar®). Based on standard ultrasonic speed from USP (1640 m/s) and UBM (1548 m/s), we calculated the real sound propagation speed in each tissue. Results: Based on USP, the corneal sound speed on control group (1616 m/s) was faster than on keratoconus group (1547 m/s) (P < 0.0001). Based on UBM, the lens sound speed on cataract group (1664 m/s) was faster that on control group (1605 m/s) (P < 0.0001). Discussion: It is known that sound propagates faster in materials with lower elasticity. We found that the sound speed on keratoconic corneas (high elasticity) was slower and on cataract lens (lower elasticity) was faster than normal corneas and lens in vivo.
Detecting Temporal Change in Dynamic Sounds: On the Role of Stimulus Duration, Speed, and Emotion
Schirmer, Annett; Escoffier, Nicolas; Cheng, Xiaoqin; Feng, Yenju; Penney, Trevor B.
For dynamic sounds, such as vocal expressions, duration often varies alongside speed. Compared to longer sounds, shorter sounds unfold more quickly. Here, we asked whether listeners implicitly use this confound when representing temporal regularities in their environment. In addition, we explored the role of emotions in this process. Using a mismatch negativity (MMN) paradigm, we asked participants to watch a silent movie while passively listening to a stream of task-irrelevant sounds. In Experiment 1, one surprised and one neutral vocalization were compressed and stretched to create stimuli of 378 and 600 ms duration. Stimuli were presented in four blocks, two of which used surprised and two of which used neutral expressions. In one surprised and one neutral block, short and long stimuli served as standards and deviants, respectively. In the other two blocks, the assignment of standards and deviants was reversed. We observed a climbing MMN-like negativity shortly after deviant onset, which suggests that listeners implicitly track sound speed and detect speed changes. Additionally, this MMN-like effect emerged earlier and was larger for long than short deviants, suggesting greater sensitivity to duration increments or slowing down than to decrements or speeding up. Last, deviance detection was facilitated in surprised relative to neutral blocks, indicating that emotion enhances temporal processing. Experiment 2 was comparable to Experiment 1 with the exception that sounds were spectrally rotated to remove vocal emotional content. This abolished the emotional processing benefit, but preserved the other effects. Together, these results provide insights into listener sensitivity to sound speed and raise the possibility that speed biases duration judgements implicitly in a feed-forward manner. Moreover, this bias may be amplified for duration increments relative to decrements and within an emotional relative to a neutral stimulus context. PMID:26793161
Zhang Chunguang; Deng Licai; Xiong Darun; Christensen-Dalsgaard, Jorgen
Helioseismic inversions reveal a major discrepancy in sound speed between the Sun and the standard solar model just below the base of the solar convection zone. We demonstrate that this discrepancy is caused by the inherent shortcomings of the local mixing-length theory adopted in the standard solar model. Using a self-consistent nonlocal convection theory, we construct an envelope model of the Sun for sound-speed inversion. Our solar model has a very smooth transition from the convective envelope to the radiative interior, and the convective energy flux changes sign crossing the boundaries of the convection zone. It shows evident improvement over the standard solar model, with a significant reduction in the discrepancy in sound speed between the Sun and local convection models.
A new process to estimate the speed of sound using three-sensor method
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Simon, Alexandre; Martinez-Molina, John-Jairo; Fortes-Patella, Regiane
As a part of complex works aiming at the evaluation of the pump's dynamic transfer matrix, this paper presents an estimation method of the speed of sound in water and water/air flows using three pressure transducer measurements. The experimental study was carried out at the CREMHyG acoustic test rig, for a void ratio varying from 0 to 1 % and for amplitudes of speed of sound from 100 to 1400 m/s. To estimate the speed of sound in this large range of amplitude, a new post-treatment approach was developed, based on the least mean squares method. Experimental results obtained were compared with existing theoretical models, and a very good agreement was observed. The post-processing appeared fast, robust and accurate for all the mono- and diphasic flows analyzed. The results presented in this paper can be applied, for instance, in acoustic characterization of the hydraulic systems, mainly in the case of space rocket turbopump applications.
Sound speed profile inversion using a horizontal line array in shallow water
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Li, ZhengLin; He, Li; Zhang, RenHe; Li, FengHua; Yu, YanXin; Lin, Peng
It is better to use a simple configuration to enhance the applicability of ocean environment inversion in shallow water. A matched-field inversion method based on a horizontal line array (HLA) is used to retrieve the variation of sound speed profile. The performance of the inversion method is verified in the South China Sea in June, 2010. An HLA laid at bottom was used to receive signals from a bottom-mounted transducer. Inverted mean sound speed profiles from 9-hour long acoustic signals are in good agreement with measurements from two temperature chains at the sites of the source and receiver. The results show that an HLA can be used to monitor the variability of shallow-water sound speed profile.
Accuracy limitations on Brillouin lidar measurements of temperature and sound speed in the ocean.
Fry, E S; Emery, Y; Quan, X; Katz, J W
There are five mutually dependent variables relevant to Brillouin lidar measurements of temperature and sound speed in the ocean; they are (1) the Brillouin shift, (2) the sound speed, (3) the index of refraction, (4) the temperature, and (5) the salinity. We use three well-known relations to analyze rigorously the interdependence of these five variables. Clearly, a Brillouin shift measurement does not provide a stand-alone determination of temperature or sound speed; one more variable or one more relation must be known. The use of mean values of salinity that have been obtained by an analysis of a large set of historical in situ data is considered for this additional relation. PMID:18259560
Effect of Disorder on Bulk Sound Wave Speed : A Multiscale Spectral Analysis.
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Shrivastava, Rohit; Luding, Stefan
Disorder in the form of size (polydispersity) and mass of discrete elements/particles in a disordered media (a granular matter like soil) have numerous effects on it's sound propagation characteristics [1,2]. The influence of disorder on the sound wave speed and it's frequency filtering characteristics is the subject of investigation. The study will assist in understanding the connection between particle-scale dynamics and system-scale behavior of wave propagation which can be further used for modeling during non-destructive testing, seismic exploration of buried objects (oil, mineral, etc.) or to study the internal structure of the Earth. Studying the wave propagation characteristics through Discrete Element Models with varying polydispersity and mass of discrete elements in real-time, frequency space as well as through dispersion curves (ω (frequency) v/s k (wavenumber)) can shed light on this aspect by providing better microscopic understanding. To isolate the P-wave from shear and rotational modes, a one-dimensional system of elements/particles is used to study the effect of mass disorder on bulk sound wave speed through ensemble averaging of signals. Increasing polydispersity/disorder decreases the sound wave speed because of decrease in the number of contacts between particles [2] but, in contrast, increasing mass disorder increases the sound wave speed (in 1 D chains). Thus we conclude that a competition exists between these two kinds of disorder for their influence on the bulk sound wave speed. References [1] Brian P. Lawney and Stefan Luding. Frequency filtering in disordered granular chains. Acta Mechanica, 225(8):2385-2407, 2014. [2] O. Mouraille and S. Luding. Sound wave propagation in weakly polydisperse granular materials. Ultrasonics, 48(6-7):498 - 505, 2008. Selected Papers from ICU 2007.
A Method for Direct Localized Sound Speed Estimates Using Registered Virtual Detectors
Byram, Brett C.; Trahey, Gregg E.; Jensen, Jørgen A.
Accurate sound speed estimates are desirable in a number of fields. In an effort to increase the spatial resolution of sound speed estimates, a new method is proposed for direct measurement of sound speed between arbitrary spatial locations. The method uses the sound speed estimator developed by Anderson and Trahey. Their least squares fit of the received waveform's curvature provides an estimate of the wave's point of origin. The point of origin and the delay profile calculated from the fit are used to arrive at a spatially registered virtual detector. Between a pair of registered virtual detectors, a spherical wave is propagated. By beamforming the data, the time-of-flight between the two virtual sources can be calculated. From this information, the local sound speed can be estimated. Validation of the estimator is made using phantom and simulation data. The set of test phantoms consisted of both homogeneous and inhomogeneous media. Several different inhomogeneous phantom configurations were used for the physical validation. The simulation validation focused on the limits of target depth and signal-to-noise ratio on virtual detector registration. The simulations also compare the impact of two- and three-layer inhomogeneous media. The phantom results varied based on signal-to-noise ratio and geometry. The results for all cases were generally less than 1% mean error and standard deviation. The simulation results varied somewhat with depth and F/#, but primarily, they varied with signal-to-noise ratio and geometry. With two-layer geometries, the algorithm has a worst-case spatial registration bias of 0.02%. With three-layer geometries, the axial registration error gets worse with a bias magnitude up to 2.1% but is otherwise relatively stable over depth. The stability over depth of the bias in a given medium still allows for accurate sound speed estimates with a mean relative error less than 0.2%. PMID:22972913
First-arrival traveltime sound speed inversion with a priori information
Hooi, Fong Ming; Carson, Paul L.
Purpose: A first-arrival travel-time sound speed algorithm presented byTarantola [Inverse Problem Theory and Methods for Model Parameter Estimation (SIAM, Philadelphia, PA, 2005)] is adapted to the medical ultrasonics setting. Through specification of a covariance matrix for the object model, the algorithm allows for natural inclusion of physical a priori information of the object. The algorithm's ability to accurately and robustly reconstruct a complex sound speed distribution is demonstrated on simulation and experimental data using a limited aperture. Methods: The algorithm is first demonstrated generally in simulation with a numerical breast phantom imaged in different geometries. As this work is motivated by the authors' limited aperture dual sided ultrasound breast imaging system, experimental data are acquired with a Verasonics system with dual, 128 element, linear L7-4 arrays. The transducers are automatically calibrated for usage in the eikonal forward model.A priori information such as knowledge of correlated regions within the object is obtained via segmentation of B-mode images generated from synthetic aperture imaging. Results: As one illustration of the algorithm's facility for inclusion ofa priori information, physically grounded regularization is demonstrated in simulation. The algorithm's practicality is then demonstrated through experimental realization in limited aperture cases. Reconstructions of sound speed distributions of various complexity are improved through inclusion of a priori information. The sound speed maps are generally reconstructed with accuracy within a few m/s. Conclusions: This paper demonstrates the ability to form sound speed images using two opposed commercial linear arrays to mimic ultrasound image acquisition in the compressed mammographic geometry. The ability to create reasonably good speed of sound images in the compressed mammographic geometry allows images to be readily coregistered to tomosynthesis image volumes for
Preliminary mapping of void fractions and sound speeds in gassy marine sediments from subbottom profiles.
Leighton, T G; Robb, G B N
Bubbles of gas (usually methane) in marine sediments affect the load-bearing properties of the seabed and act as a natural reservoir of "greenhouse" gas. This paper describes a simple method which can be applied to historical and future subbottom profiles to infer bubble void fractions and map the vertical and horizontal distributions of gassy sediments, and the associated sound speed perturbations, even with single-frequency insonification. It operates by identifying horizontal features in the geology and interpreting any perceived change of depth in these as a bubble-mediated change in sound speed. PMID:19045684
The low-frequency sound speed of fluid-like gas-bearing sediments.
Wilson, Preston S; Reed, Allen H; Wood, Warren T; Roy, Ronald A
The low-frequency sound speed in a fluid-like kaolinite sediment containing air bubbles was measured using an acoustic resonator technique and found to be 114 ms with negligible dispersion between 100 and 400 Hz. The sediment's void fraction and bubble size distribution was determined from volumetric images obtained from x-ray computed tomography scans. A simplified version of Wood's effective medium model, which is dependent only upon the ambient pressure, the void fraction, the sediment's bulk mass density, and the assumption that all the bubbles are smaller than resonance size at the highest frequency of interest, described the measured sound speed. PMID:18396928
Sound from a Two-Blade Propeller at Supersonic Tip Speeds
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Hubbard, Harvey H; Lassiter, Leslie W
Report presents the results of sound measurements at static conditions made for a two-blade 47-inch-diameter propeller in the tip Mach number range 0.75 to 1.30. For comparison, spectrums have been obtained at both subsonic and supersonic tip speeds. In addition, the measured data are compared with calculations by the theory of Gutin which has previously been found adequate for predicting the sound at subsonic tip speeds. Curves are presented from which the maximum over-all noise levels in free space may be estimated if the power, tip Mach number, and distance are known.
Device for precision measurement of speed of sound in a gas
Kelner, Eric; Minachi, Ali; Owen, Thomas E.; Burzynski, Jr., Marion; Petullo, Steven P.
A sensor for measuring the speed of sound in a gas. The sensor has a helical coil, through which the gas flows before entering an inner chamber. Flow through the coil brings the gas into thermal equilibrium with the test chamber body. After the gas enters the chamber, a transducer produces an ultrasonic pulse, which is reflected from each of two faces of a target. The time difference between the two reflected signals is used to determine the speed of sound in the gas.
Speed of sound in nitrogen as a function of temperature and pressure
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Hagermann, Axel; Zarnecki, John C.
Speed of sound measurements in nitrogen by Younglove and McCarty [J. Chem. Thermodynam. 12, 1121-1128 (1980)] are revisited and an empirical polynomial equation for the speed of sound is derived. The polynomial coefficients differ from those given by Wong and Wu [J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 102, 650-651 (1997)] with the result that discrepancies between predicted and measured values at low temperatures are reduced. The maximal error over the complete temperature and pressure range from 80 to 350 K and 0.031 to 0.709 MPa is reduced from 5.38% to 0.78%.
Sound Speed Measurement of Chicken Liver from 22°C to 60°C
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Martínez-Valdez, R.; Contreras, M. V. H.; Vera, A.; Leija, L.
Soft tissue acoustic characterization has been widely explored in order to understand the ultrasonic bio-effects. Speed of sound and attenuation are the most frequently measured parameters. In hyperthermia and ablation applications, tissue temperature increases due to ultrasound exposure. Sound speed temperature dependence of 10 chicken liver samples was measured in order to obtain its behavior at hyperthermia temperature interval. Pulse-echo technique was used for measuring the ultrasound speed of the tissue sample. Sound speed measurement in chicken liver at 21.8 ̊C was 1588.2 m/s, while at 60.5 ̊C was 1609.3 m/s. With these results, we proposed a 5th order polynomial to fit the curve described by the ultrasound velocity temperature dependence in chicken liver of the form cliver=2.664e-6T5-0.000536T4+0.04192T3-1.615T2+31.76T+1337, where cliver is sound speed in chicken liver and T is the temperature. It is clear that more experimentation is needed in order to have final results.
Inference of optimal speed for sound centrifugal casting of Al-12Si alloys
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Agari, Shailesh Rao; Mukunda, P. G.; Rao, Shrikantha S.; Sudhakar, K. G.
True centrifugal casting is a standard casting technique for the manufacture of hollow, intricate and sound castings without the use of cores. The molten metal or alloy poured into the rotating mold forms a hollow casting as the centrifugal forces lift the liquid along the mold inner surface. When a mold is rotated at low and very high speeds defects are found in the final castings. Obtaining the critical speed for sound castings should not be a matter of guess or based on experience. The defects in the casting are mainly due to the behavior of the molten metal during the teeming and solidification process. Motion of molten metal at various speeds and its effect during casting are addressed in this paper. Eutectic Al-12Si alloy is taken as an experiment fluid and its performance during various rotational speeds is discussed.
Can the speed of sound be used for detecting critical states of fluid mixtures?
Reis, João Carlos R; Ribeiro, Nuno; Aguiar-Ricardo, Ana
The phenomenology of sound speeds in fluid mixtures is examined near and across critical lines. Using literature data for binary and ternary mixtures, it is shown that the ultrasound speed along an isotherm-isopleth passes through a minimum value in the form of an angular (or V-shaped) point at critical states. The relation between critical and pseudo-critical coordinates is discussed. For nonazeotropic fixed-composition fluid mixtures, pseudo-critical temperatures and pressures are found to be lower than the corresponding critical temperatures and pressures. The analysis shows that unstable pseudo-critical states cannot be detected using acoustic methods. The thermodynamic link between sound speeds and isochoric heat capacities is formulated and discussed in terms of p-Vm-T derivatives capable of being calculated using cubic equations of state. Based on the Griffiths-Wheeler theory of critical phenomena, a new specific link between critical sound speeds and critical isochoric heat capacities is deduced in terms of the rate of change of critical pressures and critical temperatures along the p-T projection of the critical locus of binary fluid mixtures. It is shown that the latter link can be used to obtain estimates of critical isochoric heat capacities from the experimental determination of critical speeds of sound. The applicability domain of the new link does not include binary systems at compositions along the critical line for which the rate of change in pressure with temperature changes sign. The new equation is combined with thermodynamic data to provide approximate numerical estimates for the speed of sound in two mixtures of carbon dioxide and ethane at different temperatures along their critical isochores. A clear decrease in the sound speed is found at critical points. A similar behavior is suggested by available critical heat capacity data for several binary fluid mixtures. Using an acoustic technique, the critical temperature and pressure were
Ultrasound attenuation measurements using a reference phantom with sound speed mismatch.
Nam, Kibo; Rosado-Mendez, Ivan M; Rubert, Nicholas C; Madsen, Ernest L; Zagzebski, James A; Hall, Timothy J
Ultrasonic attenuation may be measured accurately with clinical systems and array transducers by using reference phantom methods (RPM) to account for diffraction and other system dependencies on echo signals. Assumptions with the RPM are that the speeds of sound in the sample (c(sam)) and in the reference medium (c(ref)) are the same and that they match the speed assumed in the system beamformer (c(bf)). This work assesses the accuracy of attenuation measurements by the RPM when these assumptions are not met. Attenuation was measured for two homogeneous phantoms, one with a speed of sound of 1500 m/s and the other with a sound speed of 1580 m/s. Both have an attenuation coefficient approximately equal to that of the reference, in which the speed of sound is 1540 m/s. Echo signals from the samples and the reference were acquired from a Siemens S2000 scanner with a 9L4 linear array transducer. Separate acquisitions were obtained with c(bf) at its default value of 1540 m/s and when it was set at values matching the speeds of sound of the phantoms. Simulations were also performed using conditions matching those of the experiment. RPM-measured attenuation coefficients exhibited spatially-dependent biases when c(sam) differed from c(df) and c(ref). Mean errors of 19% were seen for simulated data, with the maximum errors in attenuation measurements occurring for regions of interest near the transmit focus. Biases were minimized (mean error with simulated data was 5.6%) using c(bf) that matched c(sam) and assuring that power spectra used for attenuation computations in the sample are from precisely the same depth as those from the reference. Setting the transmit focus well beyond the depth range used to compute attenuation values minimized the bias. PMID:22518955
Multi-frequency characterization of speed of sound for longitudinal transmission on freshly excised human skulls
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Pichardo, Samuel; Hynynen, Kullervo
The results of measurements of longitudinal speed of sound are presented for seven specimens of human calvaria. The study was done for frequencies between 0.27 and 2.525 MHz. Specimens were obtained from fresh cadavers through a protocol with the Division of Anatomy of the University of Toronto. The specimens were mounted in polycarbonate frames that were marked for stereoscopic positioning. CT scans of the skulls mounted on their frames were performed and a three-dimensional reconstruction of the skull surface was done. A positioning system ensured normal sound incidence of an acoustic signal produced by a focused device with a diameter of 5 cm and a focal length of 10 cm. Speed of sound estimation was done with measurements of time-of-flight using a needle hydrophone (diameter of 0.5 mm) and a sound propagation model through layers that takes into account change of speed of sound in function of density. For six of seven specimens, measurements were done on five locations on the calvaria and for the other specimen three measurements were done. In total, measurements were done on thirty-three locations. Results showed that the average (±s.d.) of the speed of sound was 2265(±202), 2360(±207), 2317(±283), 2309(±248) and 2080(±148) mṡs-1 for frequencies of 0.27, 0.836, 1.402, 1.965 and 2.525 MHz, respectively. Dispersion effects were observed at individual basis per specimen, which were detected for the six of specimens as in increase in the speed sound when frequency went from 0.27 to 0.836 MHz. However, this increase was only statistically significant (p-value⩽0.05) for two specimens, with a maximal increase of +152 mṡs-1. A decrease in the speed of sound was also observed for four specimens when the frequency reached the highest values but it was statistically significant only for one of them (p = 0.03), with a decrease of -229 mṡs-1.
Time-angle sensitivity kernels for sound-speed perturbations in a shallow ocean.
Aulanier, Florian; Nicolas, Barbara; Roux, Philippe; Mars, Jérôme I
Acoustic waves traveling in a shallow-water waveguide produce a set of multiple paths that can be characterized as a geometric approximation by their travel time (TT), direction of arrival (DOA), and direction of departure (DOD). This study introduces the use of the DOA and DOD as additional observables that can be combined to the classical TT to track sound-speed perturbations in an oceanic waveguide. To model the TT, DOA, and DOD variations induced by sound-speed perturbations, the three following steps are used: (1) In the first-order Born approximation, the Fréchet kernel provides a linear link between the signal fluctuations and the sound-speed perturbations; (2) a double-beamforming algorithm is used to transform the signal fluctuations received on two source-receiver arrays in the time, receiver-depth, and source-depth domain into the eigenray equivalent measured in the time, reception-angle and launch angle domain; and finally (3) the TT, DOA, and DOD variations are extracted from the double-beamformed signal variations through a first-order Taylor development. As a result, time-angle sensitivity kernels are defined and used to build a linear relationship between the observable variations and the sound-speed perturbations. This approach is validated with parabolic-equation simulations in a shallow-water ocean context. PMID:23862787
Rabello-Soares, M. C.
We present evidence that the sound-speed variation with solar activity has a two-layer configuration, similar to the one observed below an active region, which consists of a negative layer near the solar surface and a positive one in the layer immediately below the first one. Frequency differences between the activity minimum and maximum of solar cycle 23, obtained applying global helioseismology to the Michelson Doppler Imager on board the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, is used to determine the sound-speed variation from below the base of the convection zone to a few Mm below the solar surface. We find that the sound speed at solar maximum is smaller than at solar minimum at the limit of our determination (5.5 Mm). The min-to-max difference decreases in absolute values until {approx}7 Mm. At larger depths, the sound speed at solar maximum is larger than at solar minimum and the difference increases with depth until {approx}10 Mm. At this depth, the relative difference ({delta}c{sup 2}/c{sup 2}) is less than half of the value observed at the lowest depth determination. At deeper layers, it slowly decreases with depth until there is no difference between maximum and minimum activity.
Time-of-Flight Measurement of the Speed of Sound in Water
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Ganci, Salvatore
A simple setup is designed to investigate a "time-of-flight" measurement of the speed of sound in water. This experiment only requires low cost components and is also very simple to understand by students. It could be easily used as a demonstration experiment.
Determination of Thermodynamic Properties from Speed-of-Sound Measurements for Gaseous Refrigerant Mixtures
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Hozumi, Tsutomu; Sato, Haruki; Watanabe, Koichi
This paper proposes a procedure on the thermodynamically consistent determination of virial coefficients from speed-of-sound measurements. Using the speed-of-sound values for gaseous Difluoromethane (R-32) +Pentafluoroethane (R-125), R -32+ 1, 1, 1, 2 - tetrafluoroethane (R-134a), R125/134a and R-32/125/134a which have already been reported in the previous paper, the second virial coefficients of R-32/125, R -32/134a, R-125/134a and R-32/125/134a were determined by means of thermodynamic relation among the virial coefficients of two different virial equations of state with respect to pressure and density. The present virial equation of state regarding density expansion can represent not only the speed-of-sound values but also the PρT-data for R-32/125, R -32/134a, R -125/134a and R-32/125/134a. The deviation of the speed-of-sound data from the virial equation of state is about±100ppm.And the deviation of the PρT-measurements by Kleemiss and Tillner-Roth (1997) from the virial equation of state against density is about ±0.l%. The behavior of the second virial coefficient is shown at the available compositions.
Time-of-flight measurement of the speed of sound in a metal bar
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Ganci, Salvatore
A simple setup was designed for a 'time-of-flight' measurement of the sound speed in a metal bar. The experiment requires low cost components and is very simple to understand by students. A good use of it is as a demonstration experiment.
Time-of-Flight Measurement of the Speed of Sound in a Metal Bar
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Ganci, Salvatore
A simple setup was designed for a "time-of-flight" measurement of the sound speed in a metal bar. The experiment requires low cost components and is very simple to understand by students. A good use of it is as a demonstration experiment.
Observations of sound-speed fluctuations in the western Philippine Sea in the spring of 2009.
Colosi, John A; Van Uffelen, Lora J; Cornuelle, Bruce D; Dzieciuch, Matthew A; Worcester, Peter F; Dushaw, Brian D; Ramp, Steven R
As an aid to understanding long-range acoustic propagation in the Philippine Sea, statistical and phenomenological descriptions of sound-speed variations were developed. Two moorings of oceanographic sensors located in the western Philippine Sea in the spring of 2009 were used to track constant potential-density surfaces (isopycnals) and constant potential-temperature surfaces (isotherms) in the depth range 120-2000 m. The vertical displacements of these surfaces are used to estimate sound-speed fluctuations from internal waves, while temperature/salinity variability along isopycnals are used to estimate sound-speed fluctuations from intrusive structure often termed spice. Frequency spectra and vertical covariance functions are used to describe the space-time scales of the displacements and spiciness. Internal-wave contributions from diurnal and semi-diurnal internal tides and the diffuse internal-wave field [related to the Garrett-Munk (GM) spectrum] are found to dominate the sound-speed variability. Spice fluctuations are weak in comparison. The internal wave and spice frequency spectra have similar form in the upper ocean but are markedly different below 170-m depth. Diffuse internal-wave mode spectra show a form similar to the GM model, while internal-tide mode spectra scale as mode number to the minus two power. Spice decorrelates rapidly with depth, with a typical correlation scale of tens of meters. PMID:24116515
Smartphone-aided measurements of the speed of sound in different gaseous mixtures
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Parolin, Sara Orsola; Pezzi, Giovanni
Here we describe classroom-based procedures aiming at the estimation of the speed of sound in different gas mixtures with the help of a plastic drain pipe and two iPhones or iPod touches. The procedures were conceived to be performed with simple and readily available tools.
Bispectrum signatures of a modified vacuum in single field inflation with a small speed of sound
Meerburg, P. Daniel; Schaar, Jan Pieter van der; Jackson, Mark G. E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.com
Deviations from the Bunch-Davies vacuum during an inflationary period can leave a testable imprint on the higher-order correlations of the CMB and large scale structures in the Universe. The effect is particularly pronounced if the statistical non-Gaussianity is inherently large, such as in models of inflation with a small speed of sound, e.g. DBI. First reviewing the motivations for a modified vacuum, we calculate the non-Gaussianity for a general action with a small speed of sound. The shape of its bispectrum is found to most resemble the 'orthogonal' or 'local' templates depending on the phase of the Bogolyubov parameter. In particular, for DBI models of inflation the bispectrum can have a profound 'local' template feature, in contrast to previous results. Determining the projection into the observational templates allows us to derive constraints on the absolute value of the Bogolyubov parameter. In the small sound speed limit, the derived constraints are generally stronger than the constraint obtainable from the power spectrum. The bound on the absolute value of the Bogolyubov parameter ranges from the 10{sup −6} to the 10{sup −3} level for H/Λ{sub c} = 10{sup −3}, depending on the specific details of the model, the sound speed and the phase of the Bogolyubov parameter.
Smartphone-Aided Measurements of the Speed of Sound in Different Gaseous Mixtures
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Parolin, Sara Orsola; Pezzi, Giovanni
Here we describe classroom-based procedures aiming at the estimation of the speed of sound in different gas mixtures with the help of a plastic drain pipe and two iPhones or iPod touches. The procedures were conceived to be performed with simple and readily available tools.
An Undergraduate Experiment for the Measurement of the Speed of Sound in Air: Phenomena and Discussion
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Yang, Hujiang; Zhao, Xiaohong; Wang, Xin; Xiao, Jinghua
In this paper, we present and discuss some phenomena in an undergraduate experiment for the measurement of the speed of sound in air. A square wave distorts when connected to a piezoelectric transducer. Moreover, the amplitude of the receiving signal varies with the driving frequency. Comparing with the Gibbs phenomenon, these phenomena can be…
How speed-of-sound measurements could bring constraints on the composition of Titan's seas
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Cordier, D.
The hydrocarbon seas of Titan, discovered by the Cassini/Huygens mission are among the most mysterious and interesting features of this moon. In the future, a possible dedicated planetary probe will certainly measure the speed of sound in this cryogenic liquid, as was planned in the case of Huygens landing in a sea. Previous theoretical studies of such acoustic measurements were based on simple models, leading in some cases to unphysical situations. Employed in a vast body of chemical engineering works, the state-of-the-art perturbed-chain statistical associating fluid theory (PC-SAFT) model has been recently introduced in studies aimed at Titan. Here, I revisit the issue of the speed of sound in Titan's liquids, in light of this theory. I describe, in detail, the derivation of the speed of sound from the chosen equation of state and the potential limitations of the approach. To make estimations of the composition of a ternary liquid mixture N2:CH4:C2H6 from speed-of-sound measurements an original inversion algorithm is proposed. It is shown that 50 measures between 90 and 100 K are enough to ensure an accuracy of the derived compositions of better than 10 per cent. The influence of the possible presence of propane is also investigated.
Comments on "Speed of Sound in Metal Pipes: An Inexpensive Lab"
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Blodgett, Earl D.
In a recent article Huggins outlines a very simple method of measuring the speed of sound in metal pipes by striking one end with a hammer and recording the transit time as the resultant pulse echoes back and forth. We immediately adapted this for use in an introductory laboratory where we are familiarizing students with the measurement of…
Determination of correlation functions of turbulent velocity and sound speed fluctuations by means of ultrasonic technique
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Andreeva, Tatiana A.; Durgin, William W.
An experimental study of the propagation of high-frequency acoustic waves through grid-generated turbulence by means of an ultrasound technique is discussed. Experimental data were obtained for ultrasonic wave propagation downstream of heated and non-heated grids in a wind tunnel. A semi-analytical acoustic propagation model that allows the determination of the spatial correlation functions of the flow field is developed based on the classical flowmeter equation and the statistics of the travel time of acoustic waves traveling through the kinematic and thermal turbulence. The basic flowmeter equation is reconsidered in order to take into account sound speed fluctuations and turbulent velocity fluctuations. It allows deriving an integral equation that relates the correlation functions of travel time, sound speed fluctuations and turbulent velocity fluctuations. Experimentally measured travel time statistics of data with and without grid heating are approximated by an exponential function and used to analytically solve the integral equation. The reconstructed correlation functions of the turbulent velocity and sound speed fluctuations are presented. The power spectral density of the turbulent velocity and sound speed fluctuations are calculated.
Time-of-flight measurement of the speed of sound in water
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Ganci, Salvatore
A simple setup is designed to investigate a time-of-flight measurement of the speed of sound in water. This experiment only requires low cost components and is also very simple to understand by students. It could be easily used as a demonstration experiment.
40 CFR 205.54-1 - Low speed sound emission test procedures.
Code of Federal Regulations, 2011 CFR
... 40 Protection of Environment 25 2011-07-01 2011-07-01 false Low speed sound emission test procedures. 205.54-1 Section 205.54-1 Protection of Environment ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (CONTINUED) NOISE ABATEMENT PROGRAMS TRANSPORTATION EQUIPMENT NOISE EMISSION CONTROLS Medium and Heavy Trucks §...
Detecting interferences with iOS applications to measure speed of sound
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Yavuz, Ahmet; Kağan Temiz, Burak
Traditional experiments measuring the speed of sound consist of studying harmonics by changing the length of a glass tube closed at one end. In these experiments, the sound source and observer are outside of the tube. In this paper, we propose the modification of this old experiment by studying destructive interference in a pipe using a headset, iPhone and iPad. The iPhone is used as an emitter with signal generator application and the iPad is used as the receiver with a spectrogram application. Two experiments are carried out for measures: the emitter inside of the tube with the receiver outside, and vice versa. We conclude that it is even possible to adequately and easily measure the speed of sound using a cup or a can of coke with the method described in this paper.
Effects of small variations of speed of sound in optoacoustic tomographic imaging
Deán-Ben, X. Luís; Ntziachristos, Vasilis; Razansky, Daniel
Purpose: Speed of sound difference in the imaged object and surrounding coupling medium may reduce the resolution and overall quality of optoacoustic tomographic reconstructions obtained by assuming a uniform acoustic medium. In this work, the authors investigate the effects of acoustic heterogeneities and discuss potential benefits of accounting for those during the reconstruction procedure. Methods: The time shift of optoacoustic signals in an acoustically heterogeneous medium is studied theoretically by comparing different continuous and discrete wave propagation models. A modification of filtered back-projection reconstruction is subsequently implemented by considering a straight acoustic rays model for ultrasound propagation. The results obtained with this reconstruction procedure are compared numerically and experimentally to those obtained assuming a heuristically fitted uniform speed of sound in both full-view and limited-view optoacoustic tomography scenarios. Results: The theoretical analysis showcases that the errors in the time-of-flight of the signals predicted by considering the straight acoustic rays model tend to be generally small. When using this model for reconstructing simulated data, the resulting images accurately represent the theoretical ones. On the other hand, significant deviations in the location of the absorbing structures are found when using a uniform speed of sound assumption. The experimental results obtained with tissue-mimicking phantoms and a mouse postmortem are found to be consistent with the numerical simulations. Conclusions: Accurate analysis of effects of small speed of sound variations demonstrates that accounting for differences in the speed of sound allows improving optoacoustic reconstruction results in realistic imaging scenarios involving acoustic heterogeneities in tissues and surrounding media.
Determinants of the reliability of ultrasound tomography sound speed estimates as a surrogate for volumetric breast density
Khodr, Zeina G.; Pfeiffer, Ruth M.; Gierach, Gretchen L.; Sak, Mark A.; Bey-Knight, Lisa; Duric, Nebojsa; Littrup, Peter; Ali, Haythem; Vallieres, Patricia; Sherman, Mark E.
Purpose: High breast density, as measured by mammography, is associated with increased breast cancer risk, but standard methods of assessment have limitations including 2D representation of breast tissue, distortion due to breast compression, and use of ionizing radiation. Ultrasound tomography (UST) is a novel imaging method that averts these limitations and uses sound speed measures rather than x-ray imaging to estimate breast density. The authors evaluated the reproducibility of measures of speed of sound and changes in this parameter using UST. Methods: One experienced and five newly trained raters measured sound speed in serial UST scans for 22 women (two scans per person) to assess inter-rater reliability. Intrarater reliability was assessed for four raters. A random effects model was used to calculate the percent variation in sound speed and change in sound speed attributable to subject, scan, rater, and repeat reads. The authors estimated the intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) for these measures based on data from the authors' experienced rater. Results: Median (range) time between baseline and follow-up UST scans was five (1–13) months. Contributions of factors to sound speed variance were differences between subjects (86.0%), baseline versus follow-up scans (7.5%), inter-rater evaluations (1.1%), and intrarater reproducibility (∼0%). When evaluating change in sound speed between scans, 2.7% and ∼0% of variation were attributed to inter- and intrarater variation, respectively. For the experienced rater's repeat reads, agreement for sound speed was excellent (ICC = 93.4%) and for change in sound speed substantial (ICC = 70.4%), indicating very good reproducibility of these measures. Conclusions: UST provided highly reproducible sound speed measurements, which reflect breast density, suggesting that UST has utility in sensitively assessing change in density.
Joint seismic tomography for bulk sound and shear wave speed in the Earth's mantle
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Kennett, B. L. N.; Widiyantoro, S.; van der Hilst, R. D.
High-quality P and S travel times are now available from careful reprocessing of data reported to international agencies. A restricted data set has been extracted for which comparable ray coverage is achieved for P and S, and used for a joint inversion to produce a three-dimensional model for shear and bulk sound velocities represented in terms of 2° × 2° cells and 18 layers in depth through the mantle. About 106 times for each of P and S are combined to produce 312,549 summary rays for each wave type. Linearizing about the ak135 reference model, 583,200 coupled tomographic equations are solved using an iterative partitioned scheme. Clear high-resolution images are obtained for both bulk-sound speed and shear wavespeed. The bulk and shear moduli have differing sensitivity to temperature and mineral composition, and so the images of the two velocity distributions help to constrain the nature of the processes which produce the variations. Different heterogeneity regimes can be recognised in the upper mantle, the transition zone, most of the lower mantle, and the lowermost mantle. In the upper mantle, many features can be explained by thermal effects; but in some orogenic zones (e.g. western North America), the opposite sense of the bulk-sound and shear wave speed variation requires compositional effects or volatiles to outweigh any thermal effects. In the lower mantle, pronounced narrow structures which may represent remnant subduction are most marked in shear. The level of large-scale variations in bulk sound speed compared to shear diminishes with depth in the lower mantle reaching a minimum near 2000 km. Below this depth, the variability of both wave speeds increases. Near the core-mantle boundary the variations of the two wave speeds show little concordance, suggesting the presence of widespread chemical heterogeneity.
Seafloor sound-speed profile and interface dip angle characterization by the image source method.
Pinson, S; Holland, C W
The image source method is an efficient way to perform a sound-speed tomography for seafloor characterization. To date, however, it has been limited by a locally range-independent approximation. In other words, the layer boundary had to be parallel and flat within the Fresnel zone of the measurement system. Here the method is extended to take into account realistic variations of interface dip angles. To do so, the elliptical wavefront shape approximation of the reflected waves is used. This permits a fairly simple equation relating travel time to the sine of the dip angle, and consequently to an equation for the equivalent medium sound speed. The Radon transform is exploited to extract the dip angle. Simulations with varying layer dip angles and curvature provide insight into the strengths and limitations of the method. PMID:25096094
Sediment sound speed inversion with time-frequency analysis and modal arrival time probability density functions.
Michalopoulou, Zoi-Heleni; Pole, Andrew
The dispersion pattern of a received signal is critical for understanding physical properties of the propagation medium. The objective of this work is to estimate accurately sediment sound speed using modal arrival times obtained from dispersion curves extracted via time-frequency analysis of acoustic signals. A particle filter is used that estimates probability density functions of modal frequencies arriving at specific times. Employing this information, probability density functions of arrival times for modal frequencies are constructed. Samples of arrival time differences are then obtained and are propagated backwards through an inverse acoustic model. As a result, probability density functions of sediment sound speed are estimated. Maximum a posteriori estimates indicate that inversion is successful. It is also demonstrated that multiple frequency processing offers an advantage over inversion at a single frequency, producing results with reduced variance. PMID:27475202
Acoustic method for measuring the sound speed of gases over small path lengths.
Olfert, J S; Checkel, M D; Koch, C R
Acoustic "phase shift" methods have been used in the past to accurately measure the sound speed of gases. In this work, a phase shift method for measuring the sound speed of gases over small path lengths is presented. We have called this method the discrete acoustic wave and phase detection (DAWPD) method. Experimental results show that the DAWPD method gives accurate (+/-3.2 ms) and predictable measurements that closely match theory. The sources of uncertainty in the DAWPD method are examined and it is found that ultrasonic reflections and changes in the frequency ratio of the transducers (the ratio of driving frequency to resonant frequency) can be major sources of error. Experimentally, it is shown how these sources of uncertainty can be minimized. PMID:17552851
Vibrational behavior of a soundbox in an atmosphere with a variable speed of sound.
Chen, Mo; Kotlicki, Andrzej; Waltham, Chris; Wolfe, Nathan; Yu, Jing Fei; Zhu, Chenchong
This paper describes a semi-quantitative method, suitable for a student laboratory exercise that shows that the acoustic properties of the soundbox of a musical instrument depend on the sound speed of the atmosphere surrounding and filling the instrument. A gas tent was constructed and used to enclose instruments in helium, carbon dioxide and mixtures thereof, allowing the sound speed to be varied from 250 to 1000 m/s. Soundboard admittance data were taken using a guitar and a violin as examples. The data, expressed as contour plots, show clearly the qualitative relationship between air and wood modes, and the guitar data are compared with a simple mechanical model. Experimental details of the construction and operation of gas tent are given, with attention paid to safety issues. PMID:22423799
Densities, Viscosities, Speeds of Sound, and Refractive Indices of Binary Mixtures of 2-Octanol with Chlorobenzenes
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Bhatia, Subhash C.; Sangwan, Jasbir; Rani, Ruman; Bhatia, Rachna
Densities, ρ, viscosities, η, speeds of sound, u, and refractive indices, n D, of binary liquid mixtures of 2-octanol with 1,2-dichlorobenzene, 1,3-dichlorobenzene, and 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene have been measured over the entire range of composition at 298.15 K, 303.15 K, and 308.15 K and at atmospheric pressure. From the experimental data of the density, speed of sound, viscosity, and refractive index, the values of the excess molar volume, V E, deviations in isentropic compressibility, Δ κ S , and deviations in molar refraction, Δ R have been calculated. The calculated excess and deviation functions have been analyzed in terms of molecular interactions and structural effects.
Generalization of low pressure, gas-liquid, metastable sound speed to high pressures
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Bursik, J. W.; Hall, R. M.
A theory is developed for isentropic metastable sound propagation in high pressure gas-liquid mixtures. Without simplification, it also correctly predicts the minimum speed for low pressure air-water measurements where other authors are forced to postulate isothermal propagation. This is accomplished by a mixture heat capacity ratio which automatically adjusts from its single phase values to approximately the isothermal value of unity needed for the minimum speed. Computations are made for the pure components parahydrogen and nitrogen, with emphasis on the latter. With simplifying assumptions, the theory reduces to a well known approximate formula limited to low pressure.
Speed of Sound versus Temperature Using PVC Pipes Open at Both Ends
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Bacon, Michael E.
In this paper we investigate the speed of sound in air as a function of temperature using a simple and inexpensive apparatus. For this experiment it is essential that the appropriate end corrections be taken into account. In a recent paper the end corrections for 2-in i.d. (5.04-cm) PVC pipes open at both ends were investigated. The air column…
Interpretation of Helioseismic Travel Times. Sensitivity to Sound Speed, Pressure, Density, and Flows
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Burston, Raymond; Gizon, Laurent; Birch, Aaron C.
Time-distance helioseismology uses cross-covariances of wave motions on the solar surface to determine the travel times of wave packets moving from one surface location to another. We review the methodology to interpret travel-time measurements in terms of small, localised perturbations to a horizontally homogeneous reference solar model. Using the first Born approximation, we derive and compute 3D travel-time sensitivity (Fréchet) kernels for perturbations in sound-speed, density, pressure, and vector flows. While kernels for sound speed and flows had been computed previously, here we extend the calculation to kernels for density and pressure, hence providing a complete description of the effects of solar dynamics and structure on travel times. We treat three thermodynamic quantities as independent and do not assume hydrostatic equilibrium. We present a convenient approach to computing damped Green's functions using a normal-mode summation. The Green's function must be computed on a wavenumber grid that has sufficient resolution to resolve the longest lived modes. The typical kernel calculations used in this paper are computer intensive and require on the order of 600 CPU hours per kernel. Kernels are validated by computing the travel-time perturbation that results from horizontally-invariant perturbations using two independent approaches. At fixed sound-speed, the density and pressure kernels are approximately related through a negative multiplicative factor, therefore implying that perturbations in density and pressure are difficult to disentangle. Mean travel-times are not only sensitive to sound-speed, density and pressure perturbations, but also to flows, especially vertical flows. Accurate sensitivity kernels are needed to interpret complex flow patterns such as convection.
Gas Nonideality at One Atmosphere Revealed through Speed of Sound Measurements and Heat Capacity Determinations
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Halpern, Arthur M.; Liu, Allen
Using an easy-to-make cylindrical resonator, students can measure the speed of sound in a gas, u, with sufficiently high precision (by locating standing-wave Lissajous patterns on an oscilloscope) to observe real gas properties at one atmosphere and 300 K. For CO[subscript 2] and SF[subscript 6], u is found to be 268.83 and 135.25 m s[superscript…
Thermodynamic properties of nitrogen gas derived from measurements of sound speed. [for cryogenic wind tunnels
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Younglove, B.; Mccarty, R. D.
A virial equation of state for nitrogen was determined by use of newly measured speed-of-sound data and existing pressure-density-temperature data in a multiproperty-fitting technique. The experimental data taken were chosen to optimize the equation of state for a pressure range of 0 to 10 atm and for a temperature range of 60 to 350 K. Comparisons are made for thermodynamic properties calculated both from the new equation and from existing equations of state.
Speed of sound estimation with active PZT element for thermal monitoring during ablation therapy: feasibility study
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Kim, Younsu; Guo, Xiaoyu; Cheng, Alexis; Boctor, Emad M.
Controlling the thermal dose during ablation therapy is instrumental to successfully removing the tumor while preserving the surrounding healthy tissue. In the practical scenario, surgeons must be able to determine the ablation completeness in the tumor region. Various methods have been proposed to monitor it, one of which uses ultrasound since it is a common intraoperative imaging modality due to its non-invasive, cost-effective, and convenient natures. In our approach, we propose to use time of flight (ToF) information to estimate speed of sound changes. Accurate speed of sound estimation is crucial because it is directly correlated with temperature change and subsequent determination of ablation completeness. We divide the region of interest in a circular fashion with a variable radius from the ablator tip. We introduce the concept of effective speed of sound in each of the sub-regions. Our active PZT element control system facilitates this unique approach by allowing us to acquire one-way ToF information between the PZT element and each of the ultrasound elements. We performed a simulation and an experiment to verify feasibility of this method. The simulation result showed that we could compute the effective speed of sound within 0.02m/s error in our discrete model. We also perform a sensitivity analysis for this model. Most of the experimental results had less than 1% error. Simulation using a Gaussian continuous model with multiple PZT elements is also demonstrated. We simulate the effect of the element location one the optimization result.
Measuring the Speed of Sound in a 1D Fermi Gas
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Fry, Jacob; Revelle, Melissa; Hulet, Randall
We report measurements of the speed of sound in a two-spin component, 1D gas of fermionic lithium. The 1D system is an array of one-dimensional tubes created by a 2D optical lattice. By increasing the lattice depth, the tunneling between tubes is sufficiently small to make each an independent 1D system. To measure the speed of sound, we create a density notch at the center of the atom cloud using a sheet of light tuned far from resonance. The dipole force felt by both spin states will be equivalent, so this notch can be thought of as a charge excitation. Once this beam is turned off, the notch propagates to the edge of the atomic cloud with a velocity that depends on the strength of interatomic interactions. We control interactions using a magnetically tuned Feshbach resonance, allowing us to measure the speed of sound over a wide range of interaction. This method may be used to extract the Luttinger parameter vs. interaction strength. Supported by an ARO MURI Grant, NSF, and The Welch Foundation.
Evaluation Experiment of Ultrasound Computed Tomography for the Abdominal Sound Speed Imaging
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Nogami, Keisuke; Yamada, Akira
Abdominal sound speed tomographic imaging using through-transmission travel time data on the body surface was investigated. To this end, a hundred kHz range low-frequency wave was used to reduce the wave attenuation within an inner body medium. A method was investigated for the reconstruction of the image with the smallest possible number of path data around the abdominal surface. Specifically, the data from a strong scattering spinal cord should be avoided. To fulfill the requirement, the smoothed path algebraic reconstruction technique was introduced. The validity of this method was examined both on the numerically synthesized data and the experimentally measured data for the phantom specimen and actual human subject. It was shown that an abdominal tomographic sound speed image could be successfully obtained by preparing only 32 transducer locations at the circumference around the abdominal surface and their combination of less than 100 number of observation path data as well as by avoiding the data intersecting the spinal cord. In addition, fat regions were extracted having a sound speed lower than the threshold value to demonstrate the possibility of this method for metabolic syndrome diagnosis.
Sound-speed tomography images can be used for cancer detection and diagnosis. Tumors have generally higher sound speeds than the surrounding tissue. Quality and resolution of tomography images are primarily determined by the insonification/illumination aperture of ultrasound and the capability of the tomography method for accurately handling heterogeneous nature of the breast. We investigate the capability of an efficient time-of-flight tomography method using transmission ultrasound from a ring array for reconstructing sound-speed images of the breast. The method uses first arrival times of transmitted ultrasonic signals emerging from non-beamforming ultrasound transducers located around a ring. It properly accounts for ray bending within the breast by solving the eikonal equation using a finite-difference scheme. We test and validate the time-of-flight transmission tomography method using synthetic data for numerical breast phantoms containing various objects. In our simulation, the objects are immersed in water within a ring array. Two-dimensional synthetic data are generated using a finite-difference scheme to solve acoustic-wave equation in heterogeneous media. We study the reconstruction accuracy of the tomography method for objects with different sizes and shapes as well as different perturbations from the surrounding medium. In addition, we also address some specific data processing issues related to the tomography. Our tomography results demonstrate that the first-arrival transmission tomography method can accurately reconstruct objects larger than approximately five wavelengths of the incident ultrasound using a ring array.
An absolute instrument for determination of the speed of sound in water.
Li, Zhiwei; Zhu, Junchao; Li, Tao; Zhang, Baofeng
An apparatus for the absolute determination of the sound speed in water based on the time-of-flight technique is described. The time measurement is realized by hardware circuits and the distance measurement by a double-beam plane-mirror interferometer. A highly accurate time chip, with a resolution of approximately 90 ps, is employed for time measurements. The acoustic path length is adjustable and can be measured directly. Two transducers are used for transmitting and receiving ultrasonic signals without reflection. The transducers are immersed in a thermostatic vessel that maintains bath temperature with high stability. The speed of sound in pure water was measured at ambient pressure and at the temperatures 308 K, 303 K, 298 K, and 293 K. The achieved measurement uncertainties are 2 mK for temperature and 0.045 m/s for speed of sound. The results are compared to data from the literature, equation of state models, and measurements by two commercial sensors in the same experiment, showing excellent agreement among them. PMID:27250470
Verification of the helioseismology travel-time measurement technique and the inversion procedure for sound speed using artificial data
Parchevsky, K. V.; Zhao, J.; Hartlep, T.; Kosovichev, A. G.
We performed three-dimensional numerical simulations of the solar surface acoustic wave field for the quiet Sun and for three models with different localized sound-speed perturbations in the interior with deep, shallow, and two-layer structures. We used the simulated data generated by two solar acoustics codes that employ the same standard solar model as a background model, but utilize different integration techniques and different models of stochastic wave excitation. Acoustic travel times were measured using a time-distance helioseismology technique, and compared with predictions from ray theory frequently used for helioseismic travel-time inversions. It is found that the measured travel-time shifts agree well with the helioseismic theory for sound-speed perturbations, and for the measurement procedure with and without phase-speed filtering of the oscillation signals. This testing verifies the whole measuring-filtering-inversion procedure for static sound-speed anomalies with small amplitude inside the Sun outside regions of strong magnetic field. It is shown that the phase-speed filtering, frequently used to extract specific wave packets and improve the signal-to-noise ratio, does not introduce significant systematic errors. Results of the sound-speed inversion procedure show good agreement with the perturbation models in all cases. Due to its smoothing nature, the inversion procedure may overestimate sound-speed variations in regions with sharp gradients of the sound-speed profile.
Measurement of propagation speeds in adiabatic cellular premixed flames of CH{sub 4}+O{sub 2}+CO{sub 2}
Konnov, Alexander A.; Dyakov, Igor V.
Experimental measurements of the propagation speed of adiabatic flames of methane+oxygen+carbon dioxide are presented. The oxygen content O{sub 2}/(O{sub 2}+CO{sub 2}) in the artificial air was 31.55% and 35%. Non-stretched flames were stabilized on a perforated plate burner at atmospheric pressure. A heat flux method was used to determine propagation speeds under conditions when the net heat loss of the flame is zero. Under specific experimental conditions the flames become cellular; this leads to significant modification of the flame propagation speed. The onset of cellularity was observed throughout the stoichiometric range of the mixtures studied. Measurements in cellular flames are presented and compared with those for laminar flat flames. Cellularity disappeared when the flames became only slightly sub-adiabatic. Visual and photographic observations of the flames were performed to quantify their cellular structure. Increasing the oxygen content in the artificial air and increasing the temperature of the burner plate led to increase of the number of cells observed.
Measurement of sound speed vs. depth in South Pole ice: pressure waves and shear waves
IceCube Collaboration; Klein, Spencer
We have measured the speed of both pressure waves and shear waves as a function of depth between 80 and 500 m depth in South Pole ice with better than 1% precision. The measurements were made using the South Pole Acoustic Test Setup (SPATS), an array of transmitters and sensors deployed in the ice at the South Pole in order to measure the acoustic properties relevant to acoustic detection of astrophysical neutrinos. The transmitters and sensors use piezoceramics operating at {approx}5-25 kHz. Between 200 m and 500 m depth, the measured profile is consistent with zero variation of the sound speed with depth, resulting in zero refraction, for both pressure and shear waves. We also performed a complementary study featuring an explosive signal propagating vertically from 50 to 2250 m depth, from which we determined a value for the pressure wave speed consistent with that determined for shallower depths, higher frequencies, and horizontal propagation with the SPATS sensors. The sound speed profile presented here can be used to achieve good acoustic source position and emission time reconstruction in general, and neutrino direction and energy reconstruction in particular. The reconstructed quantities could also help separate neutrino signals from background.
Measured sound speeds and acoustic nonlinearity parameter in liquid water up to 523 K and 14 MPa
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Sturtevant, Blake T.; Pantea, Cristian; Sinha, Dipen N.
Sound speed in liquid water at temperatures between 275 and 523 K and pressures up to 14 MPa were experimentally determined using a high temperature/high pressure capable acoustic resonance cell. The measurements enabled the determination of the temperature and pressure dependence of sound speed and thus the parameter of acoustic nonlinearly, B/A, over this entire P-T space. Most of the sound speeds measured in this work were found to be within 0.4% of the IAPWS-IF97 formulation, an international standard for calculating sound speed in water as a function of temperature and pressure. The values for B/A determined at laboratory ambient pressure and at temperatures up to 356 K, were found to be in general agreement with values calculated from the IAPWS-IF97 formulation. Additionally, B/A at 293 K was found to be 4.6, in agreement with established literature values.
Intensive sound speed monitoring in ocean and its impact on the GPS/acoustic seafloor geodetic measurement
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Kido, Motoyuki
GPS/acoustic (GPS/A) technique, based on GPS positioning and acoustic ranging, is now getting a popular tool to measure seafloor crustal movement. Several groups in the world have been intensively conducted campaign surveys in the region of scientifically interest. As the technology of measurement has been matured and plenty of data are accumulated, researchers are now aware of the limit of its precision mainly due to unexpected undulation of sound speed in ocean, which significantly degrades acoustic ranging. If sound speed structure keeps its figure during survey period, e.g., more than a couple of hours, it can be estimated by a moving survey to get sufficient paths from various directions to illustrate the structure. However the sound speed structure often varies quickly with in a hour due to internal gravitational wave excited by interaction of tidal current and seafloor topography. In this case one cannot separate temporal and spatial variations. We revisited our numerous sound speed profile data derived from numbers of XBT measurements, which were concurrently carried out with GPS/A survey along the Nankai Trough and Japan Trench. Among the measurements, we found notably short-period variation in sound speed profile through intensive XBT survey repeatedly cast every 6 minutes for one hour, which also appeared in residuals in traveltime of acoustic ranging. The same feature is also found in more moderate rate for semidiurnal undulation, in which vertical oscillation of the middle of the profile can be clearly seen rather than variation of absolute sound speed. This also reflects traveltime residuals in the GPS/A measurement. These typical frequencies represent dominant wavelengths of spatial sound speed variation. In the latter, local horizontal variation can be negligible in the vicinity of a point survey area and the traditional analysis can be applicable that assumes time-varying stratified sound speed structure. In the former case, on the contrary, local
Optical Measurement of the Speed of Sound in Air Over the Temperature Range 300-650 K
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Hart, Roger C.; Balla, R. Jeffrey; Herring, G. C.
Using laser-induced thermal acoustics (LITA), the speed of sound in room air (1 atm) is measured over the temperature range 300-650 K. Since the LITA apparatus maintains a fixed sound wavelength as temperature is varied, this temperature range simultaneously corresponds to a sound frequency range of 10-15 MHz. The data are compared to a published model and typically agree within 0.1%-0.4% at each of 21 temperatures.
Measurement and analysis of radiated sound from a low speed fan with a large tip gap.
Bilka, M J; Anthoine, J; Schram, C
The wake flow field and radiated sound from a low speed axial fan is studied experimentally. The fan geometry uses controlled diffusion blades and is designed with a low aspect ratio (0.9). The fan is installed with a large tip gap, approximately 10% of the blade span. The radiated sound field is analyzed using a known trailing edge noise formulation. First, the model is compared to an experiment of a single airfoil in a wind tunnel to assess the predictive capabilities. Second, measurements of the fan are made at two different blade loading conditions. Hot wire measurements are made in the near wake of the fan to assess the extent of the tip leakage flow for each condition. The radiated sound fields are compared with the trailing edge noise theory. Use is made of the wake measurements as an input to a surface pressure model. When the fan is operated with the optimal blade loading, the influence of the tip leakage flow is found to be of secondary acoustic impact. When the fan is operated at a high loading condition for the blades, a more significant leakage flow develops and is found to be responsible for the dominant radiated sound. PMID:24815243
Discrimination Contours for Moving Sounds Reveal Duration and Distance Cues Dominate Auditory Speed Perception
Freeman, Tom C. A.; Leung, Johahn; Wufong, Ella; Orchard-Mills, Emily; Carlile, Simon; Alais, David
Evidence that the auditory system contains specialised motion detectors is mixed. Many psychophysical studies confound speed cues with distance and duration cues and present sound sources that do not appear to move in external space. Here we use the 'discrimination contours' technique to probe the probabilistic combination of speed, distance and duration for stimuli moving in a horizontal arc around the listener in virtual auditory space. The technique produces a set of motion discrimination thresholds that define a contour in the distance-duration plane for different combination of the three cues, based on a 3-interval oddity task. The orientation of the contour (typically elliptical in shape) reveals which cue or combination of cues dominates. If the auditory system contains specialised motion detectors, stimuli moving over different distances and durations but defining the same speed should be more difficult to discriminate. The resulting discrimination contours should therefore be oriented obliquely along iso-speed lines within the distance-duration plane. However, we found that over a wide range of speeds, distances and durations, the ellipses aligned with distance-duration axes and were stretched vertically, suggesting that listeners were most sensitive to duration. A second experiment showed that listeners were able to make speed judgements when distance and duration cues were degraded by noise, but that performance was worse. Our results therefore suggest that speed is not a primary cue to motion in the auditory system, but that listeners are able to use speed to make discrimination judgements when distance and duration cues are unreliable. PMID:25076211
Phase change measurement, and speed of sound and attenuation determination, from underwater acoustic panel tests.
Piquette, Jean C; Paolero, Anthony E
A technique for measuring the change in phase produced by the insertion of a panel between a projector and receiver is described. Presented also is a procedure for determining the phase speed and attenuation of the panel material. Although the methods were developed over the frequency decade 10-100 kHz, they are not limited to that band. It was observed that a "settling time" of approximately 20 min is required to obtain reproducible phase measurements if the experiment is disturbed even slightly. For example, rotating the panel 10 degrees, then immediately returning to the original position, causes the observed phases to differ by up to 10 deg from those obtained prior to the disturbance. These differences are distributed randomly across frequency. Temperature stabilization within the medium as well as the material is also required before measurements can take place. After the stated 20 min settling time, however, the phases return to the values obtained prior to rotation, or after temperature stabilization, to within +/- 1/2 deg. The sound speed and attenuation determination technique employs least-squares fitting of a causal model to the measurements. Four (or fewer) adjusted parameters accommodate the measurements over the stated frequency decade, even for samples that exhibit significant dispersion. The sound speed is typically determined to an accuracy of +/- 30 m/s, as judged from a propagation-of-error calculation. This model assumes single-layered panels. PMID:12656386
Inversion for Sound Speed Profile by Using a Bottom Mounted Horizontal Line Array in Shallow Water
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Li, Feng-Hua; Zhang, Ren-He
Ocean acoustic tomography is an appealing technique for remote monitoring of the ocean environment. In shallow water, matched field processing (MFP) with a vertical line array is one of the widely used methods for inverting the sound speed profile (SSP) of water column. The approach adopted is to invert the SSP with a bottom mounted horizontal line array (HLA) based on MFP. Empirical orthonormal functions are used to express the SSP, and perturbation theory is used in the forward sound field calculation. This inversion method is applied to the data measured in a shallow water acoustic experiment performed in 2003. Successful results show that the bottom mounted HLA is able to estimate the SSP. One of the most important advantages of the inversion method with bottom mounted HLA is that the bottom mounted HLA can keep a stable array shape and is safe in a relatively long period.
Hearing in slow-motion: Humans underestimate the speed of moving sounds
Senna, Irene; Parise, Cesare V.; Ernst, Marc O.
Perception can often be described as a statistically optimal inference process whereby noisy and incomplete sensory evidence is combined with prior knowledge about natural scene statistics. Previous evidence has shown that humans tend to underestimate the speed of unreliable moving visual stimuli. This finding has been interpreted in terms of a Bayesian prior favoring low speed, given that in natural visual scenes objects are mostly stationary or slowly-moving. Here we investigated whether an analogous tendency to underestimate speed also occurs in audition: even if the statistics of the visual environment seem to favor low speed, the statistics of the stimuli reaching the individual senses may differ across modalities, hence potentially leading to different priors. Here we observed a systematic bias for underestimating the speed of unreliable moving sounds. This finding suggests the existence of a slow-motion prior in audition, analogous to the one previously found in vision. The nervous system might encode the overall statistics of the world, rather than the specific properties of the signals reaching the individual senses. PMID:26370720
Waveform tomography results are presented from 800 kHz ultrasound transmission scans of a breast phantom, and from an in vivo ultrasound breast scan: significant improvements are demonstrated in resolution over time-of-flight reconstructions. Quantitative reconstructions of both sound-speed and inelastic attenuation are recovered. The data were acquired in the Computed Ultrasound Risk Evaluation (CURE) system, comprising a 20 cm diameter solid-state ultrasound ring array with 256 active, non-beamforming transducers. Waveform tomography is capable of resolving variations in acoustic properties at sub-wavelength scales. This was verified through comparison of the breast phantom reconstructions with x-ray CT results: the final images resolve variations in sound speed with a spatial resolution close to 2 mm. Waveform tomography overcomes the resolution limit of time-of-flight methods caused by finite frequency (diffraction) effects. The method is a combination of time-of-flight tomography, and 2-D acoustic waveform inversion of the transmission arrivals in ultrasonic data. For selected frequency components of the waveforms, a finite-difference simulation of the visco-acoustic wave equation is used to compute synthetic data in the current model, and the data residuals are formed by subtraction. The residuals are used in an iterative, gradient-based scheme to update the sound-speed and attenuation model to produce a reduced misfit to the data. Computational efficiency is achieved through the use of time-reversal of the data residuals to construct the model updates. Lower frequencies are used first, to establish the long wavelength components of the image, and higher frequencies are introduced later to provide increased resolution.
Sound-speed and attenuation imaging of breast tissue using waveform tomography of transmission ultrasound data
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Pratt, R. Gerhard; Huang, Lianjie; Duric, Neb; Littrup, Peter
Waveform tomography results are presented from 800 kHz ultrasound transmission scans of a breast phantom, and from an in vivo ultrasound breast scan: significant improvements are demonstrated in resolution over time-of-flight reconstructions. Quantitative reconstructions of both sound-speed and inelastic attenuation are recovered. The data were acquired in the Computed Ultrasound Risk Evaluation (CURE) system, comprising a 20 cm diameter solid-state ultrasound ring array with 256 active, non-beamforming transducers. Waveform tomography is capable of resolving variations in acoustic properties at sub-wavelength scales. This was verified through comparison of the breast phantom reconstructions with x-ray CT results: the final images resolve variations in sound speed with a spatial resolution close to 2 mm. Waveform tomography overcomes the resolution limit of time-of-flight methods caused by finite frequency (diffraction) effects. The method is a combination of time-of-flight tomography, and 2-D acoustic waveform inversion of the transmission arrivals in ultrasonic data. For selected frequency components of the waveforms, a finite-difference simulation of the visco-acoustic wave equation is used to compute synthetic data in the current model, and the data residuals are formed by subtraction. The residuals are used in an iterative, gradient-based scheme to update the sound-speed and attenuation model to produce a reduced misfit to the data. Computational efficiency is achieved through the use of time-reversal of the data residuals to construct the model updates. Lower frequencies are used first, to establish the long wavelength components of the image, and higher frequencies are introduced later to provide increased resolution.
Algorithms for Shape and Trajectory Reconstruction of Obstacles in Domains with Variable Speed of Sound
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Lozev, Kamen
We present new parallel algorithms for shape and trajectory reconstruction of moving obstacles using reflected rays. In contrast to tomography where the focus of the reconstruction method is to recover the velocity structure of the domain, the shape and trajectory reconstruction procedure directly finds the shape and trajectory of the obstacle. The rays are curves determined by the variable speed of sound and initial conditions and we develop ultrasonic ray models based on a system of differential equations. The method can achieve high-resolution and computational efficiency.
Acoustic metafluid with anisotropic mass density and tunable sound speed: An approach based on suspensions of orientable anisotropic particles
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Seitel, Mark; Tse, Stephen; Shan, Jerry
We investigate liquid suspensions of micron-scale, anisotropic particles as potential acoustic metafluids having anisotropic and actively controllable acoustic properties. The effective mass density (and hence the sound propagation speed) of these metafluids can vary because the added mass of an anisotropic particle suspended in the fluid changes with the particle's orientation relative to the direction of the wave propagation. A suspension with disc-like particles oriented broadside to the direction of wave propagation is thus expected to have higher effective inertia and lower sound speed than a suspension with particles with end-on alignment. To test these predictions, sound speed is measured with a time-of-flight method in suspensions of micron-size nickel flakes suspended in oil, with and without magnetic-field-induced alignment of the particles. The sound speed, relative to the unaligned case, is found to decrease for particles oriented broadside to the sound wave, and increase for edgewise alignment. We also investigate the frequency dependence of the effective sound speed, since the added mass effect is expected to diminish as the flow becomes steady at low frequencies. The experimental results are compared to the predictions of a model proposed by Ahuja & Hardee (J. Acoust. Soc. Am 1978) for the acoustic properties of aligned oblate-spheroid suspensions.
Oral and Hand Movement Speeds Are Associated with Expressive Language Ability in Children with Speech Sound Disorder
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Peter, Beate
This study tested the hypothesis that children with speech sound disorder have generalized slowed motor speeds. It evaluated associations among oral and hand motor speeds and measures of speech (articulation and phonology) and language (receptive vocabulary, sentence comprehension, sentence imitation), in 11 children with moderate to severe SSD…
Vortex/Body Interaction and Sound Generation in Low-Speed Flow
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Kao, Hsiao C.
The problem of sound generation by vortices interacting with an arbitrary body in a low-speed flow has been investigated by the method of matched asymptotic expansions. For the purpose of this report, it is convenient to divide the problem into three parts. In the first part the mechanism of the vortex/body interaction, which is essentially the inner solution in the inner region, is examined. The trajectories for a system of vortices rotating about their centroid are found to undergo enormous changes after interaction; from this, some interesting properties emerged. In the second part, the problem is formulated, the outer solution is found, matching is implemented, and solutions for acoustic pressure are obtained. In the third part, Fourier integrals are evaluated and predicated results presented. An examination of these results reveals the following: (a) the background noise can be either augmented or attenuated by a body after interaction, (b) sound generated by vortex/body interaction obeys a scaling factor, (C) sound intensity can be reduced substantially by positioning the vortex system in the "favorable" side of the body instead of the "unfavorable" side, and (d) acoustic radiation from vortex/bluff-body interaction is less than that from vortex/airfoil interaction under most circumstances.
Global Effects of Local Sound-Speed Perturbations in the Sun: A Theoretical Study
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Hanasoge, S. M.; Larson, T. P.
We study the effect of localized sound-speed perturbations on global mode frequencies by applying techniques of global helioseismology to numerical simulations of the solar acoustic wave field. Extending the method of realization-noise subtraction ( e.g., Hanasoge, Duvall, and Couvidat, Astrophys. J. 664, 1234, 2007) to global modes and exploiting the luxury of full spherical coverage, we are able to achieve very highly resolved frequency differences that are then used to study sensitivities and the signatures of the thermal asphericities. We find that i) global modes are almost twice as sensitive to sound-speed perturbations at the bottom of the convection zone in comparison to anomalies well inside the radiative interior ( r≲0.55 R ⊙), ii) the m degeneracy is lifted ever so slightly, as seen in the a coefficients, and iii) modes that propagate in the vicinity of the perturbations show small amplitude shifts. Through comparisons with error estimates obtained from Michelson Doppler Imager (MDI; Scherrer et al., Solar Phys. 162, 129, 1995) observations, we find that the frequency differences are detectable with a sufficiently long time series (70 642 days).
Experimental findings on the underwater measurements uncertainty of speed of sound and the alignment system
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Santos, T. Q.; Alvarenga, A. V.; Oliveira, D. P.; Mayworm, R. C.; Souza, R. M.; Costa-Félix, R. P. B.
Speed of sound is an important quantity to characterize reference materials for ultrasonic applications, for instance. The alignment between the transducer and the test body is an key activity in order to perform reliable and consistent measurement. The aim of this work is to evaluate the influence of the alignment system to the expanded uncertainty of such measurement. A stainless steel cylinder was previously calibrated on an out of water system typically used for calibration of non-destructive blocks. Afterwards, the cylinder was calibrated underwater with two distinct alignment system: fixed and mobile. The values were statistically compared to the out-of-water measurement, considered the golden standard for such application. For both alignment systems, the normalized error was less than 0.8, leading to conclude that the both measurement system (under and out-of-water) do not diverge significantly. The gold standard uncertainty was 2.7 m-s-1, whilst the fixed underwater system resulted in 13 m-s-1, and the mobile alignment system achieved 6.6 m-s-1. After the validation of the underwater system for speed of sound measurement, it will be applied to certify Encapsulated Tissue Mimicking Material as a reference material for biotechnology application.
Speed of sound measurements and the methane abundance in Titan's atmosphere
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Hagermann, A.; Rosenberg, P. D.; Towner, M. C.; Garry, J. R. C.; Svedhem, H.; Leese, M. R.; Hathi, B.; Lorenz, R. D.; Zarnecki, J. C.
Aboard the Huygens probe, which descended through Titan's atmosphere in January 2005, was the Surface Science Package (SSP), a set of 9 sensors, including a speed-of-sound sensor. We present the first detailed description of the SSP speed of sound measurements and report constraints on the methane content in Titan's lower atmosphere based on these measurements. After a careful calibration and subsequent Bayesian analysis, our measurements yield a most likely methane fraction in Titan's lower atmosphere of approximately 2% at 10 km, increasing to 3.5% at lower altitudes, based on a binary composition. Our data show that any large scale variation of methane within the lower 11 km of Titan's atmosphere is unlikely. Within experimental and theoretical uncertainties, our results are compatible with earlier estimates obtained from the GCMS experiment [Niemann, H.B., Atreya, S.K., Bauer, S.J., Carignan, G.R., Demick, J.E., Frost, R.L., Gautier, D., Haberman, J.A., Harpold, D.N., Hunten, D.M., Israel, G., Lunine, J.I., Kasprzak, W.T., Owen, T.C., Paulkovich, M., Raulin, F., Raaen, E., Way, S.H., 2005. Nature 438 (7069), 779-784].
Determination of volume fractions in two-phase flows from sound speed measurement
Chaudhuri, Anirban; Sinha, Dipen N.; Osterhoudt, Curtis F.
Accurate measurement of the composition of oil-water emulsions within the process environment is a challenging problem in the oil industry. Ultrasonic techniques are promising because they are non-invasive and can penetrate optically opaque mixtures. This paper presents a method of determining the volume fractions of two immiscible fluids in a homogenized two-phase flow by measuring the speed of sound through the composite fluid along with the instantaneous temperature. Two separate algorithms are developed by representing the composite density as (i) a linear combination of the two densities, and (ii) a non-linear fractional formulation. Both methods lead to a quadratic equation with temperature dependent coefficients, the root of which yields the volume fraction. The densities and sound speeds are calibrated at various temperatures for each fluid component, and the fitted polynomial is used in the final algorithm. We present results when the new algorithm is applied to mixtures of crude oil and process water from two different oil fields, and a comparison of our results with a Coriolis meter; the difference between mean values is less than 1%. Analytical and numerical studies of sensitivity of the calculated volume fraction to temperature changes and calibration errors are also presented.
Relationships of ultrasonic backscatter with ultrasonic attenuation, sound speed and bone mineral density in human calcaneus.
Wear, K A; Stuber, A P; Reynolds, J C
Ultrasonic attenuation and sound speed have been investigated in trabecular bone by numerous authors. Ultrasonic backscatter has received much less attention. To investigate relationships among these three ultrasonic parameters and bone mineral density (BMD), 30 defatted human calcanei were investigated in vitro. Normalized broadband ultrasonic attenuation (nBUA), sound speed (SOS), and logarithm of ultrasonic backscatter coefficient (LBC) were measured. Bone mineral density was assessed using single-beam dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). The correlation coefficients of least squares linear regressions of the three individual ultrasound (US) parameters with BMD were 0.84 (nBUA), 0.84 (SOS) and 0.79 (LBC). The 95% confidence intervals for the correlation coefficients were 0. 69-0.92 (nBUA), 0.68-0.92 (SOS) and 0.60-0.90 (LBC). The correlations among pairs of US variables ranged from 0.63-0.79. Variations in nBUA accounted for r(2) = 62% of the variations in LBC. Variations in SOS accounted for r(2) = 40% of the variations in LBC. These results suggest that ultrasonic backscattering properties may contain substantial information not already contained in nBUA and SOS. A multiple regression model including all three US variables was somewhat more predictive of BMD than a model including only nBUA and SOS. PMID:11120369
Ranging in an Underwater Medium with Multiple Isogradient Sound Speed Profile Layers
Ramezani, Hamid; Leus, Geert
In this paper, we analyze the problem of acoustic ranging between sensor nodes in an underwater environment. The underwater medium is assumed to be composed of multiple isogradient sound speed profile (SSP) layers where in each layer the sound speed is linearly related to the depth. Furthermore, each sensor node is able to measure its depth and can exchange this information with other nodes. Under these assumptions, we first show how the problem of underwater localization can be converted to the traditional range-based terrestrial localization problem when the depth information of the nodes is known a priori. Second, we relate the pair-wise time of flight (ToF) measurements between the nodes to their positions. Next, based on this relation, we propose a novel ranging algorithm for an underwater medium. The proposed ranging algorithm considers reflections from the seabed and sea surface. We will show that even without any reflections, the transmitted signal may travel through more than one path between two given nodes. The proposed algorithm analyzes them and selects the fastest one (first arrival path) based on the measured ToF and the nodes' depth measurements. Finally, in order to evaluate the performance of the proposed algorithm we run several simulations and compare the results with other existing algorithms. PMID:22736989
Application of sound intensity and partial coherence to identify interior noise sources on the high speed train
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Fan, Rongping; Su, Zhongqing; Meng, Guang; He, Caichun
In order to provide a quieter riding environment for passengers, sound quality refinement of rail vehicle is a hot issue. Identification of interior noise sources is the prerequisite condition to reduce the interior noise on high speed train. By considering contribution of noise sources such as rolling noise, mechanical equipment noise, structure-borne noise radiated by car body vibration to the interior noise, the synthesized measurement of sound intensity, sound pressure levels and vibration have been carried out in four different carriages on high speed train. The sound intensity and partial coherence methods have been used to identify the most significant interior noise sources. The statistical analysis results of sound intensity near window and floor on four carriages indicate that sound intensity near floor is higher than that near window at three traveling speeds. Ordinary and partial coherent analysis of vibro-acoustical signals show that the major internal noise source is structural-borne sound radiated by floor vibration. These findings can be utilized to facilitate the reduction of interior noise in the future.
Enhancement of photoacoustic tomography in the tissue with speed-of-sound variance using ultrasound computed tomography
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Cheng, Ren-Xiang; Chao, Tao; Xiao-Jun, Liu
The speed-of-sound variance will decrease the imaging quality of photoacoustic tomography in acoustically inhomogeneous tissue. In this study, ultrasound computed tomography is combined with photoacoustic tomography to enhance the photoacoustic tomography in this situation. The speed-of-sound information is recovered by ultrasound computed tomography. Then, an improved delay-and-sum method is used to reconstruct the image from the photoacoustic signals. The simulation results validate that the proposed method can obtain a better photoacoustic tomography than the conventional method when the speed-of-sound variance is increased. In addition, the influences of the speed-of-sound variance and the fan-angle on the image quality are quantitatively explored to optimize the image scheme. The proposed method has a good performance even when the speed-of-sound variance reaches 14.2%. Furthermore, an optimized fan angle is revealed, which can keep the good image quality with a low cost of hardware. This study has a potential value in extending the biomedical application of photoacoustic tomography. Projection supported by the National Basic Research Program of China (Grant No. 2012CB921504), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 11422439, 11274167, and 11274171), and the Specialized Research Fund for the Doctoral Program of Higher Education, China (Grant No. 20120091110001).
A Time-of-Flight Method to Measure the Speed of Sound Using a Stereo Sound Card
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Carvalho, Carlos C.; dos Santos, J. M. B. Lopes; Marques, M. B.
Most homes in developed countries have a sophisticated data acquisition board, namely the PC sound board. Designed to be able to reproduce CD-quality stereo sound, it must have a sampling rate of at least 44 kHz and have very accurate timing between the two stereo channels. With a very simple adaptation of a pair of regular PC microphones, a…
Coupled mode transport theory for sound transmission through an ocean with random sound speed perturbations: coherence in deep water environments.
Colosi, John A; Chandrayadula, Tarun K; Voronovich, Alexander G; Ostashev, Vladimir E
Second moments of mode amplitudes at fixed frequency as a function of separations in mode number, time, and horizontal distance are investigated using mode-based transport equations and Monte Carlo simulation. These second moments are used to study full-field acoustic coherence, including depth separations. Calculations for low-order modes between 50 and 250 Hz are presented using a deep-water Philippine Sea environment. Comparisons between Monte Carlo simulations and transport theory for time and depth coherence at frequencies of 75 and 250 Hz and for ranges up to 500 km show good agreement. The theory is used to examine the accuracy of the adiabatic and quadratic lag approximations, and the range and frequency scaling of coherence. It is found that while temporal coherence has a dominant adiabatic component, horizontal and vertical coherence have more equal contributions from coupling and adiabatic effects. In addition, the quadratic lag approximation is shown to be most accurate at higher frequencies and longer ranges. Last the range and frequency scalings are found to be sensitive to the functional form of the exponential decay of coherence with lag, but temporal and horizontal coherence show scalings that fall quite close to the well-known inverse frequency and inverse square root range laws. PMID:24116510
Method and apparatus for ultrasonic doppler velocimetry using speed of sound and reflection mode pulsed wideband doppler
Shekarriz, Alireza; Sheen, David M.
According to the present invention, a method and apparatus rely upon tomographic measurement of the speed of sound and fluid velocity in a pipe. The invention provides a more accurate profile of velocity within flow fields where the speed of sound varies within the cross-section of the pipe. This profile is obtained by reconstruction of the velocity profile from the local speed of sound measurement simultaneously with the flow velocity. The method of the present invention is real-time tomographic ultrasonic Doppler velocimetry utilizing a to plurality of ultrasonic transmission and reflection measurements along two orthogonal sets of parallel acoustic lines-of-sight. The fluid velocity profile and the acoustic velocity profile are determined by iteration between determining a fluid velocity profile and measuring local acoustic velocity until convergence is reached.
Speed of Sound Versus Temperature Using PVC Pipes Open at Both Ends
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Bacon, Michael E.
In this paper we investigate the speed of sound in air as a function of temperature using a simple and inexpensive apparatus. For this experiment it is essential that the appropriate end corrections be taken into account. In a recent paper the end corrections for 2-in i.d. (5.04-cm) PVC pipes open at both ends were investigated. The air column resonance was excited using a paddle as in Blue Man Group® pipes.2 The "open end" end correction is given by 0.6133r in accordance with recent experiments3 and detailed theoretical calculations.4 This correction amounted to 1.56 cm for the 2-in PVC pipe used. However, the paddle end correction was found to be influenced by the transient position of the paddle during the excitation process. The paddle end correction was found to be 1.94 cm.
Photoacoustically Measured Speeds of Sound of Liquid HBO2: On Unlocking the Fuel Potential of Boron
Bastea, S; Crowhurst, J; Armstrong, M; ., N T
Elucidation of geodynamic, geochemical, and shock induced processes is often limited by challenges to accurately determine molecular fluid equations of state (EOS). High pressure liquid state reactions of carbon species underlie physiochemical mechanisms such as differentiation of planetary interiors, deep carbon sequestration, propellant deflagration, and shock chemistry. Here we introduce a versatile photoacoustic technique developed to measure accurate and precise speeds of sound (SoS) of high pressure molecular fluids and fluid mixtures. SoS of an intermediate boron oxide, HBO{sub 2} are measured up to 0.5 GPa along the 277 C isotherm. A polarized Exponential-6 interatomic potential form, parameterized using our SoS data, enables EOS determinations and corresponding semi-empirical evaluations of > 2000 C thermodynamic states including energy release from bororganic formulations. Our thermochemical model propitiously predicts boronated hydrocarbon shock Hugoniot results.
High-speed helicopter rotor noise - Shock waves as a potent source of sound
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Farassat, F.; Lee, Yung-Jang; Tadghighi, H.; Holz, R.
In this paper we discuss the problem of high speed rotor noise prediction. In particular, we propose that from the point of view of the acoustic analogy, shocks around rotating blades are sources of sound. We show that, although for a wing at uniform steady rectilinear motion with shocks the volume quadrupole and shock sources cancel in the far field to the order of 1/r, this cannot happen for rotating blades. In this case, some cancellation between volume quadrupoles and shock sources occurs, yet the remaining shock noise contribution is still potent. A formula for shock noise prediction is presented based on mapping the deformable shock surface to a time independent region. The resulting equation is similar to Formulation 1A of Langley. Shock noise prediction for a hovering model rotor for which experimental noise data exist is presented. The comparison of measured and predicted acoustic data shows good agreement.
Modelling acoustic scattering, sound speed, and attenuation in gassy soft marine sediments.
Mantouka, A; Dogan, H; White, P R; Leighton, T G
A model for nonlinear gas bubble pulsation in marine sediments is presented. This model is then linearized to determine the resonance frequency and the damping terms for linear radial oscillations. The linear model is then used to predict the effects that such bubble pulsations will have on the sound speed and attenuation of acoustic waves propagating in gassy marine sediment. The results are compared for monodisperse populations against the predictions of a model of Anderson and Hampton and, furthermore, the additional abilities of the model introduced in this paper are discussed. These features include the removal of the sign ambiguities in the expressions, the straightforward implementation for acoustic propagation through polydisperse bubble populations, the capability to estimate bubble size distributions through a full acoustic inversion, and the capability to predict nonlinear effects. PMID:27475152
The effect of variations in transducer position and sound speed in intravascular ultrasound: a theoretical study.
Thompson, R S; Wilson, L S
The intravascular insonation of a blood vessel in the presence of an impedance interface between blood and the inner vessel wall is studied theoretically. The model, which uses a ray approximation, is three dimensional and allows consideration of arbitrary noncircular lumen shapes. Model results are presented for the image geometry, and the insonating intensity over the vessel wall. It is shown that the inner lumen can be imaged accurately with the transducer at any position within the lumen, and at any forward viewing angle, provided the point of origin of the beam is stationary. If it is not stationary but rotating with the same angular velocity as the beam itself, the inner vessel wall is not mapped accurately. A particular geometric distortion which has been observed in practice is predicted if the transducer is near vessel wall. Acoustic impedance interfaces will be encountered in vascular disease because the speed of sound in fatty plaque is less than in blood, whereas the speed of sound in fibrous and calcified plaque is greater than in blood. A simplified model representation of an atherosclerotic lumen in developed using a cardioid-like curve and a single impedance interface. Model results show that refraction at this interface leads to an intensity distribution which is not uniform around the lumen, and which depends on lumen shape and transducer position. The exception is the special case of a circular lumen with a centrally positioned transducer. Noncircular impedance interfaces encountered in vivo in vascular disease may cause considerable intensity distortion, particularly if the transducer is close to the wall in an irregularly shaped lumen. PMID:8865567
Constraints on primordial gravitational waves with variable sound speed from current CMB data
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Cheng, Cheng; Huang, Qing-Guo; Li, Xiao-Dong; Ma, Yin-Zhe
We make a comprehensive investigation of the observational effect of the inflation consistency relation. We focus on the general single-field inflation model with the consistency relation r=-8csnt, and investigate the observational constraints of sound speed cs by using the seven-year WMAP data, the background imaging of cosmic extragalactic polarization tensor power spectrum data, and the constraints on non-Gaussian parameters fNLequil and fNLorth from the five-year WMAP observations. We find that the constraints on the tensor-to-scalar ratio r is much tighter if cs is small, since a large tilt nt is strongly constrained by the observations. We obtain r<0.37, 0.27, and 0.09 (dns/dlnk=0) for cs=1, 0.1, and 0.01 models at 95.4% confidence level (CL). When taking smaller values of cs, the positive correlation between r and ns also leads to a slightly tighter constraint on the upper bound of ns, while the running of scalar spectral index dns/dlnk is generally unaffected. For the sound speed cs, it is not well constrained if only the cosmic microwave background power spectrum data is used, while the constraints are obtainable by taking fNLequil and fNLorth priors into account. With the constraining data of fNLequil and fNLorth, we find that, cs≲0.01 region is excluded at 99.7% CL, and the cs=1 case (the single-field slow-roll inflation) is slightly disfavored at 68.3% CL. In addition, the inclusion of fNLequil. and fNLorth. into the analysis can improve the constraints on r and ns. We further discuss the implications of our constraints on the test of inflation models.
Hadronic equation of state and speed of sound in thermal and dense medium
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Nasser Tawfik, Abdel; Magdy, Hend
The equation of state p(ɛ) and speed of sound squared cs2 are studied in grand canonical ensemble of all hadron resonances having masses ≤2 GeV. This large ensemble is divided into strange and non-strange hadron resonances and furthermore to pionic, bosonic and fermionic sectors. It is found that the pions represent the main contributors to cs2 and other thermodynamic quantities including the equation of state p(ɛ) at low temperatures. At high temperatures, the main contributions are added in by the massive hadron resonances. The speed of sound squared can be calculated from the derivative of pressure with respect to the energy density, ∂p/∂ɛ, or from the entropy-specific heat ratio, s/cv. It is concluded that the physics of these two expressions is not necessarily identical. They are distinguishable below and above the critical temperature Tc. This behavior is observed at vanishing and finite chemical potential. At high temperatures, both expressions get very close to each other and both of them approach the asymptotic value, 1/3. In the hadron resonance gas (HRG) results, which are only valid below Tc, the difference decreases with increasing the temperature and almost vanishes near Tc. It is concluded that the HRG model can very well reproduce the results of the lattice quantum chromodynamics (QCD) of ∂p/∂ɛ and s/cv, especially at finite chemical potential. In light of this, energy fluctuations and other collective phenomena associated with the specific heat might be present in the HRG model. At fixed temperatures, it is found that cs2 is not sensitive to the chemical potential.
Oral and Hand Movement Speeds are Associated with Expressive Language Ability in Children with Speech Sound Disorder
Peter, Beate
This study tested the hypothesis that children with speech sound disorder have generalized slowed motor speeds. It evaluated associations among oral and hand motor speeds and measures of speech (articulation and phonology) and language (receptive vocabulary, sentence comprehension, sentence imitation), in 11 children with moderate to severe SSD and 11 controls. Syllable durations from a syllable repetition task served as an estimate of maximal oral movement speed. In two imitation tasks, nonwords and clapped rhythms, unstressed vowel durations and quarter-note clap intervals served as estimates of oral and hand movement speed, respectively. Syllable durations were significantly correlated with vowel durations and hand clap intervals. Sentence imitation was correlated with all three timed movement measures. Clustering on syllable repetition durations produced three clusters that also differed in sentence imitation scores. Results are consistent with limited movement speeds across motor systems and SSD subtypes defined by motor speeds as a corollary of expressive language abilities. PMID:22411590
Speed-of-sound measurements and ideal-gas heat capacity for 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane and difluoromethane
Hozumi, T.; Sato, H.; Watanabe, K.
The speed of sound in gaseous 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (R-134a, CF{sub 3}CH{sub 2}F) and difluoromethane (R-32, CH{sub 2}F{sub 2}) has been measured by using a spherical resonator. The measurements for R-134a have been carried out along two isotherms at 323 K and 343 K and at pressures up to 400 kPa for a total of 26 values. For R-32 the measurements were made at 308 K, 323 K, 333 K, and 343 K and at pressures up to 500 kPa for a total of 44 measurements. The experimental uncertainties for R-134a in temperature, pressure, and speed of sound are estimated to be not greater than {+-}6 mK, {+-}0.2 kPa, and {+-}0.0061%, respectively. The experimental uncertainties for R-32 in temperature, pressure, and speed of sound are estimated to be not greater than {+-}8 mK, {+-}0.2 kPa, and {+-}0.0061%, respectively. The purities of the R-134a and R-32 samples were better than 99.95% and 99.99% of area percent of the gas chromatography, respectively. The authors have determined the ideal-gas heat capacities and the second acoustic virial coefficients from the speed-of-sound measurements.
The partial molar sound speed of TiO2 in sodium silicate melts: Evidence for an exceptionally compressible component
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Liu, Q.; Ai, Y.; Lange, R. A.
Longitudinal acoustic velocities were measured at one bar by an ultrasonic frequency sweep acoustic interferometer for ten Na2O-TiO2-SiO2 (NTS) liquids for which previous density and thermal expansion measurements were made (Liu and Lange, 2001). This previous study showed that the partial molar volume of the TiO2 component varied systematically with composition and reflected changes in the average coordination of Ti4+ from values of ~4.6 to ~5.4. Sound speed data were collected at frequencies of 4.5, 5, and 6 MHz between 1233 and 1896 K; in all cases, the sound speeds decrease with increasing temperature. Six of the liquids share a similar (~25 mol%) TiO2 concentration, so that the effect of varying Na:Si ratio on the partial molar sound speed of the TiO2 component can be evaluated. The results for these ten NTS liquids were combined with sound speed data on Na2O-SiO2 liquids from the literature to derive the partial molar sound speed of the TiO2 component in these liquids. The results show that, at 1573 K, it is inversely correlated with SiO2 concentration, from values as low as 571±56 m/s to those as high as 1235±54 m/s, a variation of more than 100%. Fitted values for the partial molar sound speeds of the SiO2 and Na2O components at 1573 K are constants at 2538±52 and 2713±52 m/s, respectively. When the sound speed data are combined with density data to calculate melt compressibility, the results show that the TiO2 component is 3-15 more compressible than either the Na2O or SiO2 component. The partial molar compressibility of the TiO2 component is also strongly correlated to its partial molar thermal expansivity. It is shown that the TiO2 component is most compressible and most expansive when the average Ti4+ coordination in these sodium silicate liquids is near five, which strongly suggests that the abundance of five-coordinated Ti4+ enhances topological mechanisms of both compression and thermal expansion.
High-speed system for FBG-based measurements of vibration and sound
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Karabacak, Devrez M.; Ibrahim, Selwan K.; Koumans, Yorick; Meulblok, Bastiaan; Knoppers, Rik
Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBGs) allow for optical detection of localized physical effects without the need to couple the light out and back into a fiber, enabling robust and multiplexed sensor systems. The need of combining wide bandwidth and high resolution for dynamic sensing applications, like acoustics and vibrations, has presented significant challenges for FBG-based solutions. Here, we present a novel FBG-based measurement system enabled by using high-speed and highprecision tunable laser-based optical interrogation scheme. Multiple levels of integrated wavelength referencing coupled with low-noise high-speed electronics allow for spectral feature tracking at a resolution of <20 fm at kHz-frequencies. In combination with fiber accelerometers that employ unique force transmission mechanisms, amplifying strain on the Bragg grating and increasing the resonance frequency of the transducer, resolutions <10 μg (150 Hz bandwidth) to submg resolution in kHz-frequencies is achieved. Similarly, compact wavelength-multiplexed hydrophones with wide range linearity and dynamic range, sub-Pa resolution and flat-sensitivity down to static pressures are demonstrated. The sensors are demonstrated to be customizable to application-specific requirements, and designed to be scalable to large quantity reproducible manufacturing. In contrast to interferometry-based solutions, the tunable swept-laser detection scheme in combination with strain-based FBG sensors provides a cost-effective system that allows for easy scaling of sensor counts per fiber with multiple fibers being simultaneously recorded. Finally, the integrated high accuracy triggering and hybrid measurement capabilities present the potential to monitor sounds and vibrations in a wide range of applications from seismic surveys to machine and structural monitoring applications in harsh environments.
Optical coherence tomography enables accurate measurement of equine cartilage thickness for determination of speed of sound.
Puhakka, Pia H; Te Moller, Nikae C R; Tanska, Petri; Saarakkala, Simo; Tiitu, Virpi; Korhonen, Rami K; Brommer, Harold; Virén, Tuomas; Jurvelin, Jukka S; Töyräs, Juha
Background and purpose - Arthroscopic estimation of articular cartilage thickness is important for scoring of lesion severity, and measurement of cartilage speed of sound (SOS)-a sensitive index of changes in cartilage composition. We investigated the accuracy of optical coherence tomography (OCT) in measurements of cartilage thickness and determined SOS by combining OCT thickness and ultrasound (US) time-of-flight (TOF) measurements. Material and methods - Cartilage thickness measurements from OCT and microscopy images of 94 equine osteochondral samples were compared. Then, SOS in cartilage was determined using simultaneous OCT thickness and US TOF measurements. SOS was then compared with the compositional, structural, and mechanical properties of cartilage. Results - Measurements of non-calcified cartilage thickness using OCT and microscopy were significantly correlated (ρ = 0.92; p < 0.001). With calcified cartilage included, the correlation was ρ = 0.85 (p < 0.001). The mean cartilage SOS (1,636 m/s) was in agreement with the literature. However, SOS and the other properties of cartilage lacked any statistically significant correlation. Interpretation - OCT can give an accurate measurement of articular cartilage thickness. Although SOS measurements lacked accuracy in thin equine cartilage, the concept of SOS measurement using OCT appears promising. PMID:27164159
Searching for Minimum in Dependence of Squared Speed-of-Sound on Collision Energy
Liu, Fu-Hu; Gao, Li-Na; Lacey, Roy A.
Experimore » mental results of the rapidity distributions of negatively charged pions produced in proton-proton ( p - p ) and beryllium-beryllium (Be-Be) collisions at different beam momentums, measured by the NA61/SHINE Collaboration at the super proton synchrotron (SPS), are described by a revised (three-source) Landau hydrodynamic model. The squared speed-of-sound parameter c s 2 is then extracted from the width of rapidity distribution. There is a local minimum (knee point) which indicates a softest point in the equation of state (EoS) appearing at about 40 A GeV/ c (or 8.8 GeV) in c s 2 excitation function (the dependence of c s 2 on incident beam momentum (or center-of-mass energy)). This knee point should be related to the searching for the onset of quark deconfinement and the critical point of quark-gluon plasma (QGP) phase transition.« less
Novel automatic first-arrival picking method for ultrasound sound-speed tomography
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Qu, Xiaolei; Azuma, Takashi; Imoto, Haruka; Raufy, Riaz; Lin, Hongxiang; Nakamura, Hirofumi; Tamano, Satoshi; Takagi, Shu; Umemura, Shin-ichiro; Sakuma, Ichiro; Matsumoto, Yoichiro
Ultrasound sound-speed tomography (USST) is a promising technique for breast cancer diagnosis that is currently under investigation. Compared with two-dimensional X-ray mammography, it not only provides three-dimensional images but also avoids radiation exposure. However, the image quality of USST is highly dependent on the accuracy of travel time map (TTM). To improve the accuracy, a novel automatic first-arrival picking method is proposed in this study. With this method, Akaike information criterion is used to obtain travel time roughly, then cross-correlation of neighboring traces is employed to correct the obtained travel time. Simulation, phantom, and ex vivo experiments are implemented. The simulation experiments showed that the absolute errors of the proposed method were 52 and 98 ns for simple and complex structure data, respectively. The phantom and ex vivo experiments demonstrated the feasibility of the proposed method. In this study, a novel and robust first-arrival picking method was proposed for USST.
101-SY waste sample speed of sound/rheology testing for sonic probe program
Cannon, N.S.
One problem faced in the clean-up operation at Hanford is that a number of radioactive waste storage tanks are experiencing a periodic buildup and release of potentially explosive gases. The best known example is Tank 241-SY-101 (commonly referred to as 101-SY) in which hydrogen gas periodically built up within the waste to the point that increased buoyancy caused a roll-over event, in which the gas was suddenly released in potentially explosive concentrations (if an ignition source were present). The sonic probe concept is to generate acoustic vibrations in the 101-SY tank waste at nominally 100 Hz, with sufficient amplitude to cause the controlled release of hydrogen bubbles trapped in the waste. The sonic probe may provide a potentially cost-effective alternative to large mixer pumps now used for hydrogen mitigation purposes. Two important parameters needed to determine sonic probe effectiveness and design are the speed of sound and yield stress of the tank waste. Tests to determine these parameters in a 240 ml sample of 101-SY waste (obtained near the tank bottom) were performed, and the results are reported.
Ideal-Gas Heat Capacity for 2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene (HFO-1234yf) Determined from Speed-of-Sound Measurements
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Kano, Yuya; Kayukawa, Yohei; Fujii, Kenichi; Sato, Haruki
The isobaric ideal-gas heat capacity for HFO-1234yf, which is expected to be one of the best alternative refrigerants for HFC-134a, was determined on the basis of speed-of-sound measurements in the gaseous phase. The speed of sound was measured by means of the acoustic resonance method using a spherical cavity. The resonance frequency in the spherical cavity containing the sample gas was measured to determine the speed of sound. After correcting for some effects such as the thermal boundary layer and deformation of the cavity on the resonance frequency, the speed of sound was obtained with a relative uncertainty of 0.01 %. Using the measured speed-of-sound data, the acoustic-virial equation was formulated and the isobaric ideal-gas heat capacity was determined with a relative uncertainty of 0.1 %. A temperature correlation function of the isobaric ideal-gas heat capacity for HFO-1234yf was also developed.
In situ acoustic and laboratory ultrasonic sound speed and attenuation measured in heterogeneous soft seabed sediments: Eel River shelf, California
Gorgas, T.J.; Wilkens, R.H.; Fu, S.S.; Neil, Frazer L.; Richardson, M.D.; Briggs, K.B.; Lee, H.
We compared in situ and laboratory velocity and attenuation values measured in seafloor sediments from the shallow water delta of the Eel River, California. This region receives a substantial volume of fluvial sediment that is discharged annually onto the shelf. Additionally, a high input of fluvial sediments during storms generates flood deposits that are characterized by thin beds of variable grain-sizes between the 40- and 90-m isobaths. The main objectives of this study were (1) to investigate signatures of seafloor processes on geoacoustic and physical properties, and (2) to evaluate differences between geoacoustic parameters measured in situ at acoustic (7.5 kHz) and in the laboratory at ultrasonic (400 kHz) frequencies. The in situ acoustic measurements were conducted between 60 and 100 m of water depth. Wet-bulk density and porosity profiles were obtained to 1.15 m below seafloor (m bsf) using gravity cores of the mostly cohesive fine-grained sediments across- and along-shelf. Physical and geoacoustic properties from six selected sites obtained on the Eel margin revealed the following. (1) Sound speed and wet-bulk density strongly correlated in most cases. (2) Sediment compaction with depth generally led to increased sound speed and density, while porosity and in situ attenuation values decreased. (3) Sound speed was higher in coarser- than in finer-grained sediments, on a maximum average by 80 m s-1. (4) In coarse-grained sediments sound speed was higher in the laboratory (1560 m s-1) than in situ (1520 m s-1). In contrast, average ultrasonic and in situ sound speed in fine-grained sediments showed only little differences (both approximately 1480 m s-1). (5) Greater attenuation was commonly measured in the laboratory (0.4 and 0.8 dB m-1 kHz-1) than in situ (0.02 and 0.65 dB m-1 kHz-1), and remained almost constant below 0.4 m bsf. We attributed discrepancies between laboratory ultrasonic and in situ acoustic measurements to a frequency dependence of
Smooth 2-D ocean sound speed from Laplace and Laplace-Fourier domain inversion of seismic oceanography data
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Blacic, Tanya M.; Jun, Hyunggu; Rosado, Hayley; Shin, Changsoo
In seismic oceanography, processed images highlight small temperature changes, but inversion is needed to obtain absolute temperatures. Local search-based full waveform inversion has a lower computational cost than global search but requires accurate starting models. Unfortunately, most marine seismic data have little associated hydrographic data and the band-limited nature of seismic data makes extracting the long wavelength sound speed trend directly from seismic data inherently challenging. Laplace and Laplace-Fourier domain inversion (LDI) can use rudimentary starting models without prior information about the medium. Data are transformed to the Laplace domain, and a smooth sound speed model is extracted by examining the zero and low frequency components of the damped wavefield. We applied LDI to five synthetic data sets based on oceanographic features and recovered smoothed versions of our synthetic models, showing the viability of LDI for creating starting models suitable for more detailed inversions.
Densities, Viscosities, Speeds of Sound, and Refractive Indices of Binary Mixtures of 2-Ethyl-1-hexanol with Benzene and Halobenzenes
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Bhatia, Subhash C.; Sangwan, Jasbir; Rani, Ruman; Kiran, Vijay
Densities, , viscosities, , speeds of sound, , and refractive indices, , of binary liquid mixtures of 2-ethyl-1-hexanol with benzene, chlorobenzene, and bromobenzene have been measured over the entire range of composition at 298.15 K, 303.15 K, and 308.15 K and at atmospheric pressure. From the experimental data of the density, speed of sound, viscosity, and refractive index, the values of the excess molar volume, , isentropic compressibility, , and deviations in molar refraction, , have been calculated. The viscosity data have been correlated using McAllister's three-body interaction model at different temperatures. The calculated excess and deviation functions have been analyzed in terms of molecular interactions and structural effects.
Densities, Viscosities, Speeds of Sound, and Refractive Indices of Binary Mixtures of 1-Decanol with Isomeric Chlorotoluenes
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Bhatia, Subhash C.; Rani, Ruman; Sangwan, Jasbir; Bhatia, Rachna
Densities, ρ, viscosities, η, speeds of sound, u, and refractive indices, n D, of binary liquid mixtures of 1-decanol with o-chlorotoluene, m-chlorotoluene, and p-chlorotoluene have been measured over the entire range of composition at 298.15 K, 303.15 K, and 308.15 K and at atmospheric pressure. From the experimental data of density, speed of sound, viscosity and refractive index, the values of the excess molar volume, V E, deviations in isentropic compressibility, Δ κ S , and deviations in molar refraction, Δ R, have been calculated. The calculated excess and deviation functions have been analyzed in terms of molecular interactions and structural effects.
Measurement of the speed of sound by observation of the Mach cones in a complex plasma under microgravity conditions
Zhukhovitskii, D. I. Fortov, V. E.; Molotkov, V. I.; Lipaev, A. M.; Naumkin, V. N.; Thomas, H. M.; Ivlev, A. V.; Morfill, G. E.; Schwabe, M.
We report the first observation of the Mach cones excited by a larger microparticle (projectile) moving through a cloud of smaller microparticles (dust) in a complex plasma with neon as a buffer gas under microgravity conditions. A collective motion of the dust particles occurs as propagation of the contact discontinuity. The corresponding speed of sound was measured by a special method of the Mach cone visualization. The measurement results are incompatible with the theory of ion acoustic waves. The estimate for the pressure in a strongly coupled Coulomb system and a scaling law for the complex plasma make it possible to derive an evaluation for the speed of sound, which is in a reasonable agreement with the experiments in complex plasmas.
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Capstick, J. W.
1. The nature of sound; 2. Elasticity and vibrations; 3. Transverse waves; 4. Longitudinal waves; 5. Velocity of longitudinal waves; 6. Reflection and refraction. Doppler's principle; 7. Interference. Beats. Combination tones; 8. Resonance and forced vibrations; 9. Quality of musical notes; 10. Organ pipes; 11. Rods. Plates. Bells; 12. Acoustical measurements; 13. The phonograph, microphone and telephone; 14. Consonance; 15. Definition of intervals. Scales. Temperament; 16. Musical instruments; 17. Application of acoustical principles to military purposes; Questions; Answers to questions; Index.
Laser Measurement of the Speed of Sound in Gases: A Novel Approach to Determining Heat Capacity Ratios and Gas Composition
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Baum, J. Clayton; Compton, R. N.; Feigerle, Charles S.
The speed of sound is measured in several gases using a pulsed laser to create a micro-spark on a carbon rod and a microphone connected to a digital oscilloscope to measure the time-of-flight of the resulting shockwave over a known distance. These data are used to calculate the heat capacity ratios (C[subscript p]/C[subscript V]) of the gases and…
Density and sound speed of two gelatinous zooplankton: ctenophore (Mnemiopsis leidyi) and lion's mane jellyfish (Cyanea capillata).
Warren, Joseph D; Smith, Joy N
The density and sound speed of two coastal, gelatinous zooplankton, Mnemiopsis leidyi (a ctenophore) and Cyanea capillata (lion's mane jellyfish), were measured. These parameters are important inputs to acoustic scattering models. Two different methods were used to measure the density of individual animals: one used a balance and graduated cylinder to determine the mass and displacement volume of the animal, the other varied the density of the solution the animal was immersed in. When the same animal was measured using both methods, density values were within 1% of each other. A travel-time difference method was used to measure the sound speed within the animals. The densities of both zooplankton slightly decreased as the animals increased in length, mass, and volume. The ratio of animal density and sound speed to the surrounding seawater (g and h, respectively) are reported for both animals. For Mnemiopsis leidyi ranging in length from 1 to 5 cm, the mean value (+/-standard deviation) of g and h were 1.009 (+/-0.004) and 1.007 (+/-0.001). For Cyanea capillata ranging in bell diameter from 2 to 11 cm, the mean value (+/-standard deviation) of g and single value of h were 1.009 (+/-0.004) and 1.0004. PMID:17614513
Transitionless driving on adiabatic search algorithm
Oh, Sangchul; Kais, Sabre
We study quantum dynamics of the adiabatic search algorithm with the equivalent two-level system. Its adiabatic and non-adiabatic evolution is studied and visualized as trajectories of Bloch vectors on a Bloch sphere. We find the change in the non-adiabatic transition probability from exponential decay for the short running time to inverse-square decay in asymptotic running time. The scaling of the critical running time is expressed in terms of the Lambert W function. We derive the transitionless driving Hamiltonian for the adiabatic search algorithm, which makes a quantum state follow the adiabatic path. We demonstrate that a uniform transitionless driving Hamiltonian, approximate to the exact time-dependent driving Hamiltonian, can alter the non-adiabatic transition probability from the inverse square decay to the inverse fourth power decay with the running time. This may open up a new but simple way of speeding up adiabatic quantum dynamics.
Transitionless driving on adiabatic search algorithm
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Oh, Sangchul; Kais, Sabre
We study quantum dynamics of the adiabatic search algorithm with the equivalent two-level system. Its adiabatic and non-adiabatic evolution is studied and visualized as trajectories of Bloch vectors on a Bloch sphere. We find the change in the non-adiabatic transition probability from exponential decay for the short running time to inverse-square decay in asymptotic running time. The scaling of the critical running time is expressed in terms of the Lambert W function. We derive the transitionless driving Hamiltonian for the adiabatic search algorithm, which makes a quantum state follow the adiabatic path. We demonstrate that a uniform transitionless driving Hamiltonian, approximate to the exact time-dependent driving Hamiltonian, can alter the non-adiabatic transition probability from the inverse square decay to the inverse fourth power decay with the running time. This may open up a new but simple way of speeding up adiabatic quantum dynamics.
Transitionless driving on adiabatic search algorithm.
Oh, Sangchul; Kais, Sabre
We study quantum dynamics of the adiabatic search algorithm with the equivalent two-level system. Its adiabatic and non-adiabatic evolution is studied and visualized as trajectories of Bloch vectors on a Bloch sphere. We find the change in the non-adiabatic transition probability from exponential decay for the short running time to inverse-square decay in asymptotic running time. The scaling of the critical running time is expressed in terms of the Lambert W function. We derive the transitionless driving Hamiltonian for the adiabatic search algorithm, which makes a quantum state follow the adiabatic path. We demonstrate that a uniform transitionless driving Hamiltonian, approximate to the exact time-dependent driving Hamiltonian, can alter the non-adiabatic transition probability from the inverse square decay to the inverse fourth power decay with the running time. This may open up a new but simple way of speeding up adiabatic quantum dynamics. PMID:25494733
Multi-frequency characterization of the speed of sound and attenuation coefficient for longitudinal transmission of freshly excised human skulls
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Pichardo, Samuel; Sin, Vivian W.; Hynynen, Kullervo
For medical applications of ultrasound inside the brain, it is necessary to understand the relationship between the apparent density of skull bone and its corresponding speed of sound and attenuation coefficient. Although there have been previous studies exploring this phenomenon, there is still a need to extend the measurements to cover more of the clinically relevant frequency range. The results of measurements of the longitudinal speed of sound and attenuation coefficient are presented for specimens of human calvaria. The study was performed for the frequencies of 0.27, 0.836, 1.402, 1.965 and 2.525 MHz. Specimens were obtained from fresh cadavers through a protocol with the Division of Anatomy of the University of Toronto. The protocol was approved by the Research Ethics Board of Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre. The specimens were mounted in polycarbonate supports that were marked for stereoscopic positioning. Computer tomography (CT) scans of the skulls mounted on their supports were performed, and a three-dimensional skull surface was reconstructed. This surface was used to guide a positioning system to ensure the normal sound incidence of an acoustic signal. This signal was produced by a focused device with a diameter of 5 cm and a focal length of 10 cm. Measurements of delay in time of flight were carried out using a needle hydrophone. Measurements of effective transmitted energy were carried out using a radiation force method with a 10 µg resolution scale. Preliminary functions of speed of sound and attenuation coefficient, both of which are related to apparent density, were established using a multi-layer propagation model that takes into account speed of sound, density and thickness of the layer. An optimization process was executed from a large set of random functions and the best functions were chosen for those ones that closest reproduced the experimental observations. The final functions were obtained after a second pass of the optimization
Radiated Sound of a High-Speed Water-Jet-Propelled Transportation Vessel.
Rudd, Alexis B; Richlen, Michael F; Stimpert, Alison K; Au, Whitlow W L
The radiated noise from a high-speed water-jet-propelled catamaran was measured for catamaran speeds of 12, 24, and 37 kn. The radiated noise increased with catamaran speed, although the shape of the noise spectrum was similar for all speeds and measuring hydrophone depth. The spectra peaked at ~200 Hz and dropped off continuously at higher frequencies. The radiated noise was 10-20 dB lower than noise from propeller-driven ships at comparable speeds. The combination of low radiated noise and high speed could be a factor in the detection and avoidance of water-jet-propelled ships by baleen whales. PMID:26611054
A theoretical study of the effect of forward speed on the free-space sound-pressure field around propellers
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Garrick, I E; Watkins, Charles E
The sound-pressure field of a rotating propeller in forward flight in free space is analyzed by replacing the normal-pressure distribution over the propeller associated with thrust and torque by a distribution of acoustic pressure doublets acting at the propeller disk and subject to uniform rectilinear motion. The basic element used to synthesize the field is the pressure field of a concentrated force moving uniformly at subsonic speeds, for which an expression generalizing one of Lamb's for the fixed concentrated force is given. The sound field is expressed by integration over the propeller disk, and also by integration over an effective ring, and is given both for the near pressure field and, in a simpler form, for the far field. Some illustrated examples are calculated and discussed.
Computed Ultrasound Tomography in Echo mode (CUTE) of speed of sound for diagnosis and for aberration correction in pulse-echo sonography
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Jaeger, Michael; Held, Gerrit; Preisser, Stefan; Peeters, Sara; Grünig, Michael; Frenz, Martin
Sound speed as a diagnostic marker for various diseases of human tissue has been of interest for a while. Up to now, mostly transmission ultrasound computed tomography (UCT) was able to detect spatially resolved sound speed, and its promise as a diagnostic tool has been demonstrated. However, UCT is limited to acoustically transparent samples such as the breast. We present a novel technique where spatially resolved detection of sound speed can be achieved using conventional pulse-echo equipment in reflection mode. For this purpose, pulse-echo images are acquired under various transmit beam directions and a two-dimensional map of the sound speed is reconstructed from the changing phase of local echoes using a direct reconstruction method. Phantom results demonstrate that a high spatial resolution (1 mm) and contrast (0.5 % of average sound speed) can be achieved suitable for diagnostic purposes. In comparison to previous reflection-mode based methods, CUTE works also in a situation with only diffuse echoes, and its direct reconstruction algorithm enables real-time application. This makes it suitable as an addition to conventional clinical ultrasound where it has the potential to benefit diagnosis in a multimodal approach. In addition, knowledge of the spatial distribution of sound speed allows full aberration correction and thus improved spatial resolution and contrast of conventional B-mode ultrasound.
T1 ρ MRI contrast in the human brain: Modulation of the longitudinal rotating frame relaxation shutter-speed during an adiabatic RF pulse
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Michaeli, Shalom; Sorce, Dennis J.; Springer, Charles S.; Ugurbil, Kamil; Garwood, Michael
Longitudinal relaxation in the rotating frame (T1ρ) is the dominant mechanism during a train of adiabatic full passage (AFP) RF pulses with no interpulse intervals, placed prior to an excitation pulse. Asymptotic apparent time constants (T1ρ ‧) were measured for human occipital lobe 1H2O at 4 T using brief imaging readouts following such pulse trains. Two members of the hyperbolic secant (HSn) AFP pulse family (n = 1 or 4; i.e., arising from different amplitude- and frequency-modulation functions) were used. These produced two different non-monoexponential signal decays during the pulse trains. Thus, there are differing contrasts in asymptotic T1ρ ‧ maps derived from these data. This behavior is quite different than that of 1H2O signals from an aqueous protein solution of roughly the same macromolecular volume fraction as tissue. The ROI-averaged decays from the two acquisitions can be simultaneously accommodated by a two-site-exchange model for an equilibrium isochronous process whose exchange condition is modulated during the pulse. The model employs a two-spin description of dipolar interaction fluctuations in each site. The intrinsic site R1ρ (≡T1ρ-1) value is sensitive to fluctuations at the effective Larmor frequency (ωeff) in the rotating frame, and this is modulated differently during the two types of AFP pulses. Agreement with the data is quite good for site orientation correlation time constants characteristic of macromolecule-interacting water (site A) and bulk-like water (site B). Since R1ρA is significantly modulated while R1ρB is not, the intrinsic relaxographic shutter-speed for the process (≡|R1ρA - R1ρB|), and thus the exchange condition, is modulated. However, the mean residence time (67 ms) and intrinsic population fraction (0.2) values found for site A are each rather larger than might be expected, suggesting a disproportionate role for the water molecules known to be "buried" within the large and concentrated macromolecules of
On the significance of density-induced speed of sound variations on US-guided radiotherapy
Fontanarosa, Davide; Meer, Skadi van der; Verhaegen, Frank
Purpose: To show the effect of speed of sound (SOS) aberration on ultrasound guided radiotherapy (US-gRT) as a function of implemented workflow. US systems assume that SOS is constant in human soft tissues (at a value of 1540 m/s), while its actual nonuniform distribution produces small but systematic errors of up to a few millimeters in the positions of scanned structures. When a coregistered computerized tomography (CT) scan is available, the US image can be corrected for SOS aberration. Typically, image guided radiotherapy workflows implementing US systems only provide a CT scan at the simulation (SIM) stage. If changes occur in geometry or density distribution between SIM and treatment (TX) stage, SOS aberration can change accordingly, with a final impact on the measured position of structures which is dependent on the workflow adopted. Methods: Four basic scenarios were considered of possible changes between SIM and TX: (1) No changes, (2) only patient position changes (rigid rotation-translation), (3) only US transducer position changes (constrained on patient's surface), and (4) patient tissues thickness changes. Different SOS aberrations may arise from the different scenarios, according to the specific US-gRT workflow used: intermodality (INTER) where TX US scans are compared to SIM CT scans; intramodality (INTRA) where TX US scans are compared to SIM US scans; and INTERc and INTRAc where all US images are corrected for SOS aberration (using density information provided by SIM CT). For an experimental proof of principle, the effect of tissues thickness change was simulated in the different workflows: a dual layered phantom was filled with layers of sunflower oil (SOS 1478 m/s), water (SOS 1482 m/s), and 20% saline solution (SOS 1700 m/s). The phantom was US scanned, the layer thicknesses were increased and the US scans were repeated. The errors resulting from the different workflows were compared. Results: Theoretical considerations show that workflows
Fast calibration of speed-of-sound using temperature prior in whole-body small animal optoacoustic imaging
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Mandal, Subhamoy; Nasonova, Elena; Deán-Ben, X. L.; Razansky, Daniel
The speed of sound (SoS) in the imaged sample and in the coupling medium is an important parameter in optoacoustic tomography that must be specified in order to accurately restore maps of local optical absorbance. In this work, several hybrid focusing functions are described that successfully determine the most suitable SoS based on post-reconstruction images. The SoS in the coupling medium (water) can be determined from temperature readings. Thereby, this value is suggested to be used as an initial guess for faster SoS calibration in the reconstruction of tissues having a different SoS than water.
Sound speed based patient-specific biomechanical modeling for registration of USCT volumes with X-ray mammograms
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Hopp, T.; Stromboni, A.; Duric, N.; Zapf, M.; Gemmeke, H.; Ruiter, N. V.
Ultrasound Computer Tomography is an upcoming imaging modality for early breast cancer detection. For evaluation of the method, comparison with the standard method X-ray mammography is of strongest interest. To overcome the significant differences in dimensionality and compression state of the breast, in earlier work a registration method based on biomechanical modeling of the breast was proposed. However only homogeneous models could be applied, i.e. inner structures of the breast were neglected. In this work we extend the biomechanical modeling of the breast by estimating patient-specific tissue parameters automatically from the speed of sound volume. Two heterogeneous models are proposed modeling a quadratic and an exponential relationship between speed of sound and tissue stiffness. The models were evaluated using phantom images and clinical data. The size of all lesions is better preserved using heterogeneous models, especially using an exponential relationship. The presented approach yields promising results and gives a physical justification to our registration method. It can be considered as a first step towards a realistic modeling of the breast.
Image reconstruction and system optimization for three-dimensional speed of sound tomography using laser-induced ultrasound
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Anis, Fatima; Su, Richard; Nadvoretsky, Vyacheslav V.; Conjusteau, André; Ermilov, Sergey A.; Oraevsky, Alexander A.; Anastasio, Mark A.
We developed the first prototype of dual-modality imager combining optoacoustic tomography (OAT) and laser ultrasound tomography (UST) using computer models followed by experimental validation. The system designed for preclinical biomedical research can concurrently yield images depicting both the absorbed optical energy density and acoustic properties (speed of sound) of an object. In our design of the UST imager, we seek to replace conventional electrical generation of ultrasound waves by laser-induced ultrasound (LU). While earlier studies yielded encouraging results [Manohar, et al., Appl. Phys. Lett, 131911, 2007], they were limited to two-dimensional (2D) geometries. In this work, we conduct computer-simulation studies to investigate different designs for the 3D LU UST imager. The number and location of the laser ultrasound emitters, which are constrained to reside on the cylindrical surface opposite to the arc of detectors, are optimized. In addition to the system parameters, an iterative image reconstruction algorithm was optimized. We demonstrate that high quality volumetric maps of the speed of sound can be reconstructed when only 32 emitters and 128 receiving transducers are employed to record time-of-flight data at 360 tomographic view angles. The implications of the proposed system for small animal and breast-cancer imaging are discussed.
Laser-Induced Thermal Acoustics (LITA): Four-wave mixing measurement of sound speed, thermal diffusivity, and viscosity
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Cummings, Eric B.
Laser-induced thermal acoustics (LITA) is a promising optical four-wave mixing technique for gasdynamic measurement. The Chi(3) nonlinear process is a sequence of two opto-acoustic effects, electrostriction and absorption/ rapid-thermalization, and the acousto-optic effect. The evolution of the laser-induced acoustic structures temporally modulates Chi(3) and thereby the LITA signal. Time resolution of the signal provides the sound speed, thermal diffusivity, and acoustic damping rate, along with information about atomic or molecular energy transfer rates. LITA can also measure spectra of both the real and imaginary gas susceptibility. The physics of LITA is discussed and the derivation is sketched of a simple analytical expression that accurately describes both the magnitude and time history of the LITA signal. Early experimental results are presented. Sound speeds accurate to 0.5% and transport properties accurate to 30% have been measured in a single-shot without calibration. More realistic modeling should dramatically improve transport-property measurement. LITA spectra have been taken of weak spectral lines of NO2 in concentrations less than 50 ppb. Signal reflectivities as high as 0.0001 have been estimated. New applications of LITA, including velocimetry, are suggested.
About the equilibrium speed of sound in a liquid with gas-vapor bubbles
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Gubaidullin, D. A.; Gubaidullina, D. D.; Fedorov, Yu V.
The general expression of an equilibrium velocity of a sound in vapor-gas-liquid mixtures is presented and influence of concentration of vapor and a volume content of bubbles on the received expression is analyzed. In special cases, for gas-liquid and vapor-liquid mixtures expressions of an equilibrium velocity are presented and the satisfactory consent of the received expressions with known experimental data is discovered.
What Makes Speech Sound Fluent? The Contributions of Pauses, Speed and Repairs
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Bosker, Hans Rutger; Pinget, Anne-France; Quene, Hugo; Sanders, Ted; de Jong, Nivja H.
The oral fluency level of an L2 speaker is often used as a measure in assessing language proficiency. The present study reports on four experiments investigating the contributions of three fluency aspects (pauses, speed and repairs) to perceived fluency. In Experiment 1 untrained raters evaluated the oral fluency of L2 Dutch speakers. Using…
Protons at the speed of sound: Predicting specific biological signaling from physics
Fichtl, Bernhard; Shrivastava, Shamit; Schneider, Matthias F.
Local changes in pH are known to significantly alter the state and activity of proteins and enzymes. pH variations induced by pulses propagating along soft interfaces (e.g. membranes) would therefore constitute an important pillar towards a physical mechanism of biological signaling. Here we investigate the pH-induced physical perturbation of a lipid interface and the physicochemical nature of the subsequent acoustic propagation. Pulses are stimulated by local acidification and propagate – in analogy to sound – at velocities controlled by the interface's compressibility. With transient local pH changes of 0.6 directly observed at the interface and velocities up to 1.4 m/s this represents hitherto the fastest protonic communication observed. Furthermore simultaneously propagating mechanical and electrical changes in the lipid interface are detected, exposing the thermodynamic nature of these pulses. Finally, these pulses are excitable only beyond a threshold for protonation, determined by the pKa of the lipid head groups. This protonation-transition plus the existence of an enzymatic pH-optimum offer a physical basis for intra- and intercellular signaling via sound waves at interfaces, where not molecular structure and mechano-enyzmatic couplings, but interface thermodynamics and thermodynamic transitions are the origin of the observations. PMID:27216038
Protons at the speed of sound: Predicting specific biological signaling from physics.
Fichtl, Bernhard; Shrivastava, Shamit; Schneider, Matthias F
Local changes in pH are known to significantly alter the state and activity of proteins and enzymes. pH variations induced by pulses propagating along soft interfaces (e.g. membranes) would therefore constitute an important pillar towards a physical mechanism of biological signaling. Here we investigate the pH-induced physical perturbation of a lipid interface and the physicochemical nature of the subsequent acoustic propagation. Pulses are stimulated by local acidification and propagate - in analogy to sound - at velocities controlled by the interface's compressibility. With transient local pH changes of 0.6 directly observed at the interface and velocities up to 1.4 m/s this represents hitherto the fastest protonic communication observed. Furthermore simultaneously propagating mechanical and electrical changes in the lipid interface are detected, exposing the thermodynamic nature of these pulses. Finally, these pulses are excitable only beyond a threshold for protonation, determined by the pKa of the lipid head groups. This protonation-transition plus the existence of an enzymatic pH-optimum offer a physical basis for intra- and intercellular signaling via sound waves at interfaces, where not molecular structure and mechano-enyzmatic couplings, but interface thermodynamics and thermodynamic transitions are the origin of the observations. PMID:27216038
Protons at the speed of sound: Predicting specific biological signaling from physics
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Fichtl, Bernhard; Shrivastava, Shamit; Schneider, Matthias F.
Local changes in pH are known to significantly alter the state and activity of proteins and enzymes. pH variations induced by pulses propagating along soft interfaces (e.g. membranes) would therefore constitute an important pillar towards a physical mechanism of biological signaling. Here we investigate the pH-induced physical perturbation of a lipid interface and the physicochemical nature of the subsequent acoustic propagation. Pulses are stimulated by local acidification and propagate – in analogy to sound – at velocities controlled by the interface's compressibility. With transient local pH changes of 0.6 directly observed at the interface and velocities up to 1.4 m/s this represents hitherto the fastest protonic communication observed. Furthermore simultaneously propagating mechanical and electrical changes in the lipid interface are detected, exposing the thermodynamic nature of these pulses. Finally, these pulses are excitable only beyond a threshold for protonation, determined by the pKa of the lipid head groups. This protonation-transition plus the existence of an enzymatic pH-optimum offer a physical basis for intra- and intercellular signaling via sound waves at interfaces, where not molecular structure and mechano-enyzmatic couplings, but interface thermodynamics and thermodynamic transitions are the origin of the observations.
Using speed of sound measurements to constrain the Huygens probe descent profile
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Svedhem, Håkan; Lebreton, Jean-Pierre; Zarnecki, John; Hathi, Brijen
The Acoustic Properties Investigation (API) is a set of sensors for acoustic measurements in gases or liquids, making a part of the Surface Science Package (SSP) on the Huygens probe. It consists of two units, API-V (Velocity of sound) and API-S (Sounding). The API-V has two ultrasonic transducers sending and receiving acoustic pulses over an unobstructed path of 15 cm. An accurate timing circuit is measuring the time it takes to propagate over the distance. Measurements are made in both directions to eliminate the effect of a constant drift of the medium. The transducers have been optimised to operate at low pressure (high altitude) and will operate from about 60 km down to the surface. They will also perform well in case of landing in a liquid. The API-S unit is an acoustic sounder, sending short pulses at 15 kHz every second and listening for echoes in between. It will detect droplets in the atmosphere and for the last 100 m it will characterise the acoustic scattering properties of the surface below. It will also give an accurate value for the descend velocity during the last 100 m. In case of landing in a (liquid) lake/ocean it will measure the depth of the late-ocean down to a maximum of about 1000 m. Accurate measurements of the velocity of sound will, together with knowledge on the temperature, enable the mean molecular weight to be calculated along the descent trajectory. The temperature will be measured by complementary sensors inside the SSP Top Hat, near the API-V, and to a high accuracy by the HASI instrument at the periphery of the Huygens probe. The API units and associated electronics has been designed and build at the Research and Scientific Support Department at ESTEC, where also the testing and initial calibration has been done. Detailed calibration has been performed with different gas mixtures and at different temperatures in the Titan simulation chamber at the University of Kent, Canterbury, UK. Further supporting studies are planned in the
Modeling unsteady sound refraction by coherent structures in a high-speed jet
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Kan, Pinqing; Lewalle, Jacques
We construct a visual model for the unsteady refraction of sound waves from point sources in a Ma = 0.6 jet. The mass and inviscid momentum equations give an equation governing acoustic fluctuations, including anisotropic propagation, attenuation and sources; differences with Lighthill's equation will be discussed. On this basis, the theory of characteristics gives canonical equations for the acoustic paths from any source into the far field. We model a steady mean flow in the near-jet region including the potential core and the mixing region downstream of its collapse, and model the convection of coherent structures as traveling wave perturbations of this mean flow. For a regular distribution of point sources in this region, we present a visual rendition of fluctuating distortion, lensing and deaf spots from the viewpoint of a far-field observer. Supported in part by AFOSR Grant FA-9550-10-1-0536 and by a Syracuse University Graduate Fellowship.
Photoacoustically Measured Speeds of Sound and the Equation of State of HBO2: On Understanding Detonation with Boron Fuel
Zaug, J M; Bastea, S; Crowhurst, J; Armstrong, M; Fried, L; Teslich, N
Elucidation of geodynamic, geochemical, and shock induced processes is limited by challenges to accurately determine molecular fluid equations of state (EOS). High pressure liquid state reactions of carbon species underlie physiochemical mechanisms such as differentiation of planetary interiors, deep carbon sequestration, propellant deflagration, and shock chemistry. In this proceedings paper we introduce a versatile photoacoustic technique developed to measure accurate and precise speeds of sound (SoS) of high pressure molecular fluids and fluid mixtures. SoS of an intermediate boron oxide, HBO{sub 2} are measured up to 0.5 GPa along the 277 C isotherm. A polarized exponential-6 interatomic potential form, parameterized using our SoS data, enables EOS determinations and corresponding semi-empirical evaluations of >2000 C thermodynamic states including energy release from bororganic formulations. Our thermochemical model propitiously predicts boronated hydrocarbon shock Hugoniot results.
Joint inversion for transponder localization and sound-speed profile temporal variation in high-precision acoustic surveys.
Li, Zhao; Dosso, Stan E; Sun, Dajun
This letter develops a Bayesian inversion for localizing underwater acoustic transponders using a surface ship which compensates for sound-speed profile (SSP) temporal variation during the survey. The method is based on dividing observed acoustic travel-time data into time segments and including depth-independent SSP variations for each segment as additional unknown parameters to approximate the SSP temporal variation. SSP variations are estimated jointly with transponder locations, rather than calculated separately as in existing two-step inversions. Simulation and sea-trial results show this localization/SSP joint inversion performs better than two-step inversion in terms of localization accuracy, agreement with measured SSP variations, and computational efficiency. PMID:27475210
Determination of the Boltzmann constant k from the speed of sound in helium gas at the triple point of water
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Pitre, L.; Risegari, L.; Sparasci, F.; Plimmer, M. D.; Himbert, M. E.; Giuliano Albo, P. A.
The Boltzmann constant k has been determined from a measurement of the speed of sound in helium gas in a quasi-spherical resonator (volume 0.5 l) maintained at a temperature close to the triple point of water (273.16 K). The acoustic velocity c is deduced from measured acoustic resonance frequencies and the dimensions of the quasi-sphere, the latter being obtained via simultaneous microwave resonance. Values of c are extrapolated to the zero pressure limit of ideal gas behaviour. We find k=1.380 6487(14)× {{10}-23} JṡK-1, a result consistent with previous measurements in our group and elsewhere. The value for k, which has a relative standard uncertainty of 1.02 ppm, lies 0.02 ppm below that of the CODATA 2010 adjustment.
Measurement of the speed of sound in trabecular bone by using a time reversal acoustics focusing system
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Lee, Kang Il; Choi, Bok Kyoung
A new method for measuring the speed of sound (SOS) in trabecular bone by using a time reversal acoustics (TRA) focusing system was proposed and validated with measurements obtained by using the conventional pulse-transmission technique. The SOS measured in 14 bovine femoral trabecular bone samples by using the two methods was highly correlated each other, although the SOS measured by using the TRA focusing system was slightly lower by an average of 2.2 m/s. The SOS measured by using the two methods showed high correlation coefficients of r = 0.92 with the apparent bone density, consistent with the behavior in human trabecular bone in vitro. These results prove the efficacy of the new method based on the principle of TRA to measure the SOS in trabecular bone.
Speed of Sound of a Spin-Balanced Fermi Gas with s- and d-Wave Pairings Across the BCS-BEC Evolution
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Koinov, Zlatko; Mendoza, Rafael
The authors of a recent paper (Phys Rev A 87:013613, 2013) argued that in fermionic systems with d-wave pairing the speed of sound is nonanalytic across the BCS-BEC crossover at the point where the chemical potential vanishes, regardless of the specific details of the interaction potential. On the contrary, the numerical results reported here suggest that the speed of sound across the BCS-BEC evolution of atomic Fermi gases with s- and d-wave pairings in two-dimensional square lattices is a smooth analytic function at the vanishing chemical potential.
Indirect Measurement Of Nitrogen In A Multi-Component Gas By Measuring The Speed Of Sound At Two States Of The Gas.
Morrow, Thomas B.; Behring, II, Kendricks A.
A methods of indirectly measuring the nitrogen concentration in a gas mixture. The molecular weight of the gas is modeled as a function of the speed of sound in the gas, the diluent concentrations in the gas, and constant values, resulting in a model equation. Regression analysis is used to calculate the constant values, which can then be substituted into the model equation. If the speed of sound in the gas is measured at two states and diluent concentrations other than nitrogen (typically carbon dioxide) are known, two equations for molecular weight can be equated and solved for the nitrogen concentration in the gas mixture.
Speed of Sound of a Spin-Balanced Fermi Gas with s- and d-Wave Pairings Across the BCS-BEC Evolution
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Koinov, Zlatko; Mendoza, Rafael
The authors of a recent paper (Phys Rev A 87:013613, 2013) argued that in fermionic systems with d-wave pairing the speed of sound is nonanalytic across the BCS-BEC crossover at the point where the chemical potential vanishes, regardless of the specific details of the interaction potential. On the contrary, the numerical results reported here suggest that the speed of sound across the BCS-BEC evolution of atomic Fermi gases with s- and d-wave pairings in two-dimensional square lattices is a smooth analytic function at the vanishing chemical potential.
Speed of sound in solid molecular hydrogen-deuterium: Quantum Molecular Dynamics Approximation
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Guerrero, Carlo Luis; Perlado, Jose Manuel
Uniformity of the solid layer is one of the critical points for an efficient ignition of the Deuterium-Tritium (DT) target. During the compression process this layer, perturbations grow as the Rayleigh-Taylor instability. Knowing the mechanical properties of this layer and its thermo-mechanical limits is necessary if we want to control or to minimize these instabilities. In this work we have used a simplified approach, replacing the DT ice system with a mixture of hydrogen-deuterium (HD) because beta decay of tritium complicates the analysis in the former case. Through simulation with ab initio methods we have calculated the elastic constants, the bulk modulus and sound velocity for hydrogen isotopes in solid molecular state. In this work we present the results for hydrogen-deuterium mixtures 50%-50%, at 15 K and with a compression which covers the range of 1 to 15 GPa. This system is interesting for study the early stages of the dynamic compression and provides conditions that are close to the manufacture of DT target in inertial confinement fusion. Discontinuities in the curve that have been observed on pure hydrogen, which are associated with phase transitions and the phase hysteresis.
Sound Sources Identified in High-Speed Jets by Correlating Flow Density Fluctuations With Far-Field Noise
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Panda, Jayanta; Seasholtz, Richard G.
Noise sources in high-speed jets were identified by directly correlating flow density fluctuation (cause) to far-field sound pressure fluctuation (effect). The experimental study was performed in a nozzle facility at the NASA Glenn Research Center in support of NASA s initiative to reduce the noise emitted by commercial airplanes. Previous efforts to use this correlation method have failed because the tools for measuring jet turbulence were intrusive. In the present experiment, a molecular Rayleigh-scattering technique was used that depended on laser light scattering by gas molecules in air. The technique allowed accurate measurement of air density fluctuations from different points in the plume. The study was conducted in shock-free, unheated jets of Mach numbers 0.95, 1.4, and 1.8. The turbulent motion, as evident from density fluctuation spectra was remarkably similar in all three jets, whereas the noise sources were significantly different. The correlation study was conducted by keeping a microphone at a fixed location (at the peak noise emission angle of 30 to the jet axis and 50 nozzle diameters away) while moving the laser probe volume from point to point in the flow. The following figure shows maps of the nondimensional coherence value measured at different Strouhal frequencies ([frequency diameter]/jet speed) in the supersonic Mach 1.8 and subsonic Mach 0.95 jets. The higher the coherence, the stronger the source was.
Use of a new high-speed digital data acquisition system in airborne ice-sounding
Wright, David L.; Bradley, Jerry A.; Hodge, Steven M.
A high-speed digital data acquisition and signal averaging system for borehole, surface, and airborne radio-frequency geophysical measurements was designed and built by the US Geological Survey. The system permits signal averaging at rates high enough to achieve significant signal-to-noise enhancement in profiling, even in airborne applications. The first field use of the system took place in Greenland in 1987 for recording data on a 150 by 150-km grid centered on the summit of the Greenland ice sheet. About 6000-line km were flown and recorded using the new system. The data can be used to aid in siting a proposed scientific corehole through the ice sheet.
Substituting an Inexpensive Function Generator for the Pulsed Laser in the Experiment "Laser Measurement of the Speed of Sound in Gases"
ERIC Educational Resources Information Center
Epstein, Mark G.; Laszlo, Matthew W.; Mayer, Steven G.
We present an adaptation to an experiment previously published in this "Journal". The experiment was designed to determine the heat capacity ratios of gases by measuring the speed of sound using a modified Kundt's tube. The experiment yielded excellent results for all of the gases and gas mixtures measured. Although elegant in its simplicity, it…
Compressibilities of ternary mixtures C{sub 1-n}C{sub 16}-CO{sub 2} under pressure from ultrasonic measurements of sound speed
Daridon, J.L.; Lagourette, B.; Labes, P.
Speed of sound measurements have been performed on three mixtures of the ternary system methane + carbon dioxide + normal hexadecane. The systems have been investigated from 12 to 70 MPa in the temperature range from 313 to 393 K. Furthermore, these measurements have allowed the evaluation of the isothermal and the isentropic compressibilities up to 70 MPa from low pressure (<40-MPa) density data.
Phase aberration correction by multi-stencils fast marching method using sound speed image in ultrasound computed tomography
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Qu, Xiaolei; Azuma, Takashi; Lin, Hongxiang; Imoto, Haruka; Tamano, Satoshi; Takagi, Shu; Umemura, Shin-Ichiro; Sakuma, Ichiro; Matsumoto, Yoichiro
Reflection image from ultrasound computed tomography (USCT) system can be obtained by synthetic aperture technique, however its quality is decreased by phase aberration caused by inhomogeneous media. Therefore, phase aberration correction is important to improve image quality. In this study, multi-stencils fast marching method (MSFMM) is employed for phase correction. The MSFMM is an accurate and fast solution of Eikonal equation which considers the refraction. The proposed method includes two steps. First, the MSFMM is used to compute sound propagation time from each element to each image gird point using sound speed image of USCT. Second, synthetic aperture technique is employed to obtain reflection image using the computed propagation time. To evaluate the proposed method, both numerical simulation and phantom experiment were conducted. With regard to numerical simulation, both quantitative and qualitative comparisons between reflection images with and without phase aberration correction were given. In the quantitative comparison, the diameters of point spread function (PSF) in reflection images of a two layer structure were presented. In the qualitative comparison, reflection images of simple circle and complex breast modes with phase aberration correction show higher quality than that without the correction. In respect to phantom experiment, a piece of breast phantom with artificial glandular structure inside was scanned by a USCT prototype, and the artificial glandular structure is able to be visible more clearly in the reflection image with phase aberration correction than in that without the correction. In this study, a phase aberration correction method by the MSFMM are proposed for reflection image of the USCT.
Modification of Kirchhoff migration with variable sound speed and attenuation for acoustic imaging of media and application to tomographic imaging of the breast
Schmidt, Steven; Duric, Nebojsa; Li, Cuiping; Roy, Olivier; Huang, Zhi-Feng
Purpose: To explore the feasibility of improving cross-sectional reflection imaging of the breast using refractive and attenuation corrections derived from ultrasound tomography data. Methods: The authors have adapted the planar Kirchhoff migration method, commonly used in geophysics to reconstruct reflection images, for use in ultrasound tomography imaging of the breast. Furthermore, the authors extended this method to allow for refractive and attenuative corrections. Using clinical data obtained with a breast imaging prototype, the authors applied this method to generate cross-sectional reflection images of the breast that were corrected using known distributions of sound speed and attenuation obtained from the same data. Results: A comparison of images reconstructed with and without the corrections showed varying degrees of improvement. The sound speed correction resulted in sharpening of detail, while the attenuation correction reduced the central darkening caused by path length dependent losses. The improvements appeared to be greatest when dense tissue was involved and the least for fatty tissue. These results are consistent with the expectation that denser tissues lead to both greater refractive effects and greater attenuation. Conclusions: Although conventional ultrasound techniques use time-gain control to correct for attenuation gradients, these corrections lead to artifacts because the true attenuation distribution is not known. The use of constant sound speed leads to additional artifacts that arise from not knowing the sound speed distribution. The authors show that in the context of ultrasound tomography, it is possible to construct reflection images of the breast that correct for inhomogeneous distributions of both sound speed and attenuation. PMID:21452737
Constant-sound-speed parametrization for Nambu-Jona-Lasinio models of quark matter in hybrid stars
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Ranea-Sandoval, Ignacio F.; Han, Sophia; Orsaria, Milva G.; Contrera, Gustavo A.; Weber, Fridolin; Alford, Mark G.
The discovery of pulsars as heavy as 2 solar masses has led astrophysicists to rethink the core compositions of neutron stars, ruling out many models for the nuclear equations of state (EoS). We explore the hybrid stars that occur when hadronic matter is treated in a relativistic mean-field approximation and quark matter is modeled by three-flavor local and nonlocal Nambu-Jona-Lasinio (NJL) models with repulsive vector interactions. The NJL models typically yield equations of state that feature a first-order transition to quark matter. Assuming that the quark-hadron surface tension is high enough to disfavor mixed phases and restricting to EoSs that allow stars to reach 2 solar masses, we find that the appearance of the quark-matter core either destabilizes the star immediately (this is typical for nonlocal NJL models) or leads to a very short hybrid star branch in the mass-radius relation (this is typical for local NJL models). Using the constant-sound-speed parametrization we can see that the reason for the near absence of hybrid stars is that the transition pressure is fairly high and the transition is strongly first order.
Sound speed and thermal property measurements of inert materials: laser spectroscopy and the diamond-anvil cell
Zaug, J.M.
An indispensable companion to dynamical physics experimentation, static high-pressure diamond-anvil cell research continues to evolve, with laser diagnostic, as an accurate and versatile experimental deep planetary properties have bootstrapped each other in a process that has produced even higher pressures; consistently improved calibrations of temperature and pressure under static and dynamic conditions; and unprecedented data and understanding of materials, their elasticity, equations of state (EOS), and transport properties under extreme conditions. A collection of recent pressure and/or temperature dependent acoustic and thermal measurements and deduced mechanical properties and EOS data are summarized for a wide range of materials including H2, H2O, H2S, D2S, CO2, CH4, N2O, CH3OH,, SiO2, synthetic lubricants, PMMA, single crystal silicates, and ceramic superconductors. Room P&T sound speed measurements are presented for the first time on single crystals of beta-HMX. New high-pressure and temperature diamond cell designed and pressure calibrant materials are reviewed.
Gene-dietary fat interaction, bone mineral density and bone speed of sound in Children: a twin study in China
Huang, Tao; Liu, Huijuan; Zhao, Wei; Li, Ji; Wang, Youfa
Scope Dietary fat correlates with bone mineral density (BMD). We tested the association between fat intake and BMD, and tested if fat intake modified the degree of genetic influence on BMD and bone speed of sound (SOS). Methods and results We included 622 twins aged 7–15 y from South China. Data on anthropometry, dietary intake, BMD, and SOS were collected. Quantitative genetic analyses of structural equation models were fit using the Mx statistical package. The within-pair intra-class correlations (ICC) for BMD in DZ twins were nearly half of that for MZ twins (ICC=0.39 vs 0.70). The heritability of BMD and SOS were 71% and 79%. Phenotypic correlation between fat intake and SOS was significant (r=−0.19, p=0.04). SOS was negatively correlated with fat intake in boys (r=−0.11, p=0.05), but not in girls. Full Cholesky decomposition models showed SOS has a strong genetic correlation with fat intake (rA =−0.88, 95% CI=−0.94, 0.01); the environmental correlation between fat intake and SOS was weak (rE =−0.04, 95% CI=−0.20, 0.13). Fat intake modified the additive genetic effects on BMD. Conclusion Genetic factors explained 71% and 79% of individual variance in BMD and SOS, respectively. Low fat intake counteracts genetic predisposition to low BMD. PMID:25546604
Magnitude of speed of sound aberration corrections for ultrasound image guided radiotherapy for prostate and other anatomical sites
Fontanarosa, Davide; Meer, Skadi van der; Bloemen-van Gurp, Esther; Stroian, Gabriela; Verhaegen, Frank
Purpose: The purpose of this work is to assess the magnitude of speed of sound (SOS) aberrations in three-dimensional ultrasound (US) imaging systems in image guided radiotherapy. The discrepancy between the fixed SOS value of 1540 m/s assumed by US systems in human soft tissues and its actual nonhomogeneous distribution in patients produces small but systematic errors of up to a few millimeters in the positions of scanned structures. Methods: A correction, provided by a previously published density-based algorithm, was applied to a set of five prostate, five liver, and five breast cancer patients. The shifts of the centroids of target structures and the change in shape were evaluated. Results: After the correction the prostate cases showed shifts up to 3.6 mm toward the US probe, which may explain largely the reported positioning discrepancies in the literature on US systems versus other imaging modalities. Liver cases showed the largest changes in volume of the organ, up to almost 9%, and shifts of the centroids up to more than 6 mm either away or toward the US probe. Breast images showed systematic small shifts of the centroids toward the US probe with a maximum magnitude of 1.3 mm. Conclusions: The applied correction in prostate and liver cancer patients shows positioning errors of several mm due to SOS aberration; the errors are smaller in breast cancer cases, but possibly becoming more important when breast tissue thickness increases.
Characterization of condenser microphones under different environmental conditions for accurate speed of sound measurements with acoustic resonators.
Guianvarc'h, Cécile; Gavioso, Roberto M; Benedetto, Giuliana; Pitre, Laurent; Bruneau, Michel
Condenser microphones are more commonly used and have been extensively modeled and characterized in air at ambient temperature and static pressure. However, several applications of interest for metrology and physical acoustics require to use these transducers in significantly different environmental conditions. Particularly, the extremely accurate determination of the speed of sound in monoatomic gases, which is pursued for a determination of the Boltzmann constant k by an acoustic method, entails the use of condenser microphones mounted within a spherical cavity, over a wide range of static pressures, at the temperature of the triple point of water (273.16 K). To further increase the accuracy achievable in this application, the microphone frequency response and its acoustic input impedance need to be precisely determined over the same static pressure and temperature range. Few previous works examined the influence of static pressure, temperature, and gas composition on the microphone's sensitivity. In this work, the results of relative calibrations of 1/4 in. condenser microphones obtained using an electrostatic actuator technique are presented. The calibrations are performed in pure helium and argon gas at temperatures near 273 K and in the pressure range between 10 and 600 kPa. These experimental results are compared with the predictions of a realistic model available in the literature, finding a remarkable good agreement. The model provides an estimate of the acoustic impedance of 1/4 in. condenser microphones as a function of frequency and static pressure and is used to calculate the corresponding frequency perturbations induced on the normal modes of a spherical cavity when this is filled with helium or argon gas. PMID:19655971
Seafloor sound-speed profile characterization with non-parallel layering by the image source method: Application to CLUTTER'09 campaign data.
Pinson, Samuel; Holland, Charles W
The image source method was originally developed to estimate sediment sound speed as a function of depth assuming plane-layered sediments. Recently, the technique was extended to treat dipping, i.e., non-parallel layers and was tested using synthetic data. Here, the technique is applied to measured reflection data with dipping layers and mud volcanoes. The data were collected with an autonomous underwater vehicle towing a source (1600-3500 Hz) and a horizontal array of hydrophones. Data were collected every 3 m criss-crossing an area about 1 km(2). The results provide a combination of two-dimensional sections of the sediment sound-speeds plotted in a three-dimensional picture. PMID:27586773
Speed-of-sound measurements in gaseous binary refrigerant mixtures of difluoromethane (R-32) + 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (R-134a)
Hozumi, Tsutomu; Sato, Haruki; Watanabe, Koichi
One hundred ninety-three speed-of-sound values in gaseous difluoromethane (R-32, CH{sub 2}F{sub 2}) + 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (R-134a, CF{sub 3}CH{sub 2}F) have been measured using a spherical resonator. The measurements have been carried out at temperatures from 303 K to 343 K, pressures up to 240 kPa, and mole fractions of R-32 from 0.16 to 0.90. The experimental uncertainties in the temperature, pressure, and speed of sound for the binary mixture are estimated to be not greater than {+-}8 mK, {+-}0.1 kPa, and {+-}0.0072%, respectively. The samples purified and analyzed by the manufacturers were used and were better than 99.99 mass % for R-32 and 99.98 and 99.99 mass % for two different R-134a samples. The authors have accurately determined the compositions of the binary refrigerant mixture, R-32 + R-134a, and the second acoustic virial coefficients from the speed-of-sound measurements.
Measurements of Speed of Sound in Lean and Rich Natural Gas Mixtures at Pressures up to 37 MPa Using a Specialized Rupture Tube
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Botros, K. K.
Measurements of the speed of sound in 42 different compositions of lean, medium, and rich natural-gas mixtures using a specialized high-pressure rupture tube have been conducted. The rupture tube is made of stainless steel (internal diameter = 38.1 mm and length = 42 m), and is instrumented with 13 high-frequency-response dynamic pressure transducers (Endevco) mounted very close to the rupture end and along the length of the tube to capture the pressure-time traces of the decompression wave. Tests were conducted for initial pressures ranging from 10 MPa to 37 MPa and a temperature range from -25°C to+68°C. Gas mixture compositions were controlled by mixing conventional natural-gas mixtures from an adjacent gas pipeline with richer components of alkanes. Temperature control is achieved by a heat tracer along the tube with a set point at the desired gas temperature of the particular test. Uncertainty analysis indicated that the uncertainty in the experimentally determined speed of sound in the undisturbed gas mixture at the initial pressure and temperature is on the order of 0.306 %. The measured speeds of sound were compared to predictions by five equations of state, namely; the Benedict-Webb-Rubin-Starling (BWRS), AGA-8, Peng-Robinson (PR), Redlich-Kwong-Soave (RK-Soave), and Groupe Européen de Recherches Gaziéres (GERG-2004) equations.
An in vitro investigation of the dependence on sample thickness of the speed of sound along the specimen.
Njeh, C F; Hans, D; Wu, C; Kantorovich, E; Sister, M; Fuerst, T; Genant, H K
To measure the speed of sound (SOS), most quantitative ultrasound (QUS) devices use the transmission mode, whereby two transducers are placed on opposite sides of the sample. This mode is limited to a few specific skeletal sites because of the varying configuration of bone geometry and varying amounts of overlying soft tissue at most other sites. The aim of this study was to address the dependence of SOS measured along the sample on the thickness and composition of the bone sample. Bovine samples from mid-femur and trochanter, and perspex phantoms were used. We prepared the perspex samples in the shapes of blocks and cylinders to investigate the effect of wall thickness on SOS. The thickness of the blocks was decreased in decrements of 1 mm; a 22 mm diameter hole was drilled through the cylindrical samples and the hole size was gradually increased. The second configuration was also used with the bovine samples. For each experimental set-up five SOS measurements were acquired, with the probe aligned along the sample and a mean value computed. All measurements were taken with castor oil as the coupling agent, and in the cylindrical cases, the oil was used to fill the tube. The measurement precision determined as the root mean square coefficient of variation (RMSCV) was determined to be 0.14% and 0.65% for perspex and bovine samples respectively. The measured SOS on the perspex phantom (2760+/-4 m/s) was within the published values for bulk velocity. It was observed that for both perspex and bovine samples the SOS was independent of sample wall thickness greater than the wavelength (2.2 mm, 2.7 mm and 3.5 mm for perspex, trochanter and mid-femur respectively). The SOS decreased with sample wall thickness smaller than the wavelength in concordance with theoretical predictions. The SOS values obtained for bovine samples reflected either totally cortical (mid-femur) or a composite of cortical and cancellous bone (trochanter). PMID:10699567
French, Martin; Becker, Andreas; Lorenzen, Winfried; Nettelmann, Nadine; Bethkenhagen, Mandy; Redmer, Ronald; Wicht, Johannes
We determine basic thermodynamic and transport properties of hydrogen-helium-water mixtures for the extreme conditions along Jupiter's adiabat via ab initio simulations, which are compiled in an accurate and consistent data set. In particular, we calculate the electrical and thermal conductivity, the shear and longitudinal viscosity, and diffusion coefficients of the nuclei. We present results for associated quantities like the magnetic and thermal diffusivity and the kinematic shear viscosity along an adiabat that is taken from a state-of-the-art interior structure model. Furthermore, the heat capacities, the thermal expansion coefficient, the isothermal compressibility, the Grueneisen parameter, and the speed of sound are calculated. We find that the onset of dissociation and ionization of hydrogen at about 0.9 Jupiter radii marks a region where the material properties change drastically. In the deep interior, where the electrons are degenerate, many of the material properties remain relatively constant. Our ab initio data will serve as a robust foundation for applications that require accurate knowledge of the material properties in Jupiter's interior, e.g., models for the dynamo generation.
Density, Viscosity, Sound Speed, and Thermoacoustical Parameters of Benzaldehyde with Chlorobenzene or Nitrobenzene at 303.15 K, 308.15 K, and 313.15 K
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Lavanya, T. G.; Saravanakumar, K.; Baskaran, R.; Kubendran, T. R.
The values of the density, viscosity, and speed of sound for binary liquid mixtures of benzaldehyde with chlorobenzene or nitrobenzene have been measured over the entire range of composition at (303.15, 308.15, and 313.15) K. These values have been used to calculate the excess molar volume (), and excess free volume (). McAllister's three-body interaction model is used for correlating the kinematic viscosity of binary mixtures. The thermophysical properties (density, viscosity, and ultrasonic velocity) under study were fit to the Jouyban-Acree model.
Wireless adiabatic power transfer
Rangelov, A.A.; Suchowski, H.; Silberberg, Y.; Vitanov, N.V.
Research Highlights: > Efficient and robust mid-range wireless energy transfer between two coils. > The adiabatic energy transfer is analogous to adiabatic passage in quantum optics. > Wireless energy transfer is insensitive to any resonant constraints. > Wireless energy transfer is insensitive to noise in the neighborhood of the coils. - Abstract: We propose a technique for efficient mid-range wireless power transfer between two coils, by adapting the process of adiabatic passage for a coherently driven two-state quantum system to the realm of wireless energy transfer. The proposed technique is shown to be robust to noise, resonant constraints, and other interferences that exist in the neighborhood of the coils.
Shortcut to adiabatic gate teleportation
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Santos, Alan C.; Silva, Raphael D.; Sarandy, Marcelo S.
We introduce a shortcut to the adiabatic gate teleportation model of quantum computation. More specifically, we determine fast local counterdiabatic Hamiltonians able to implement teleportation as a universal computational primitive. In this scenario, we provide the counterdiabatic driving for arbitrary n -qubit gates, which allows to achieve universality through a variety of gate sets. Remarkably, our approach maps the superadiabatic Hamiltonian HSA for an arbitrary n -qubit gate teleportation into the implementation of a rotated superadiabatic dynamics of an n -qubit state teleportation. This result is rather general, with the speed of the evolution only dictated by the quantum speed limit. In particular, we analyze the energetic cost for different Hamiltonian interpolations in the context of the energy-time complementarity.
Adiabatically driven Brownian pumps.
Rozenbaum, Viktor M; Makhnovskii, Yurii A; Shapochkina, Irina V; Sheu, Sheh-Yi; Yang, Dah-Yen; Lin, Sheng Hsien
We investigate a Brownian pump which, being powered by a flashing ratchet mechanism, produces net particle transport through a membrane. The extension of the Parrondo's approach developed for reversible Brownian motors [Parrondo, Phys. Rev. E 57, 7297 (1998)] to adiabatically driven pumps is given. We demonstrate that the pumping mechanism becomes especially efficient when the time variation of the potential occurs adiabatically fast or adiabatically slow, in perfect analogy with adiabatically driven Brownian motors which exhibit high efficiency [Rozenbaum et al., Phys. Rev. E 85, 041116 (2012)]. At the same time, the efficiency of the pumping mechanism is shown to be less than that of Brownian motors due to fluctuations of the number of particles in the membrane. PMID:23944411
Simultaneous measurement of speed of sound, thermal diffusivity, and bulk viscosity of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium-based ionic liquids using laser-induced gratings.
Kozlov, Dimitrii N; Kiefer, Johannes; Seeger, Thomas; Fröba, Andreas P; Leipertz, Alfred
The technique of laser-induced gratings (LIGs) has been applied to the simultaneous determination of speed of sound and thermal diffusivity of four 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium ([EMIm])-based room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs)-[EMIm][N(CN)2], [EMIm][MeSO3], [EMIm][C(CN)3], and [EMIm][NTf2]-at ambient pressure (1 bar (0.1 MPa)) and temperature (28 °C (301 K)). Transient laser-induced gratings were created as a result of thermalization of a quasi-resonant excitation of highly lying combinational vibrational states of the RTIL molecules and electrostrictive compression of the liquid by radiation of a pulse-repetitive Q-switched Nd:YAG pump laser (1064 nm). The LIGs temporal evolution was recorded using Bragg diffraction of the radiation from a continuous-wave probe laser (532 nm). By fitting the temporal profiles of the LIG signals, the speed of sound and thermal diffusivity were determined, and the isentropic compressibility and thermal conductivity were calculated. Independently, the special experimental arrangement allowed the measurement of the damping of the laser-excited acoustic waves and the derivation of the RTIL bulk viscosity for the first time. PMID:25415848
Full correction for spatially distributed speed-of-sound in echo ultrasound based on measuring aberration delays via transmit beam steering
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Jaeger, Michael; Robinson, Elise; Günhan Akarçay, H.; Frenz, Martin
Aberrations of the acoustic wave front, caused by spatial variations of the speed-of-sound, are a main limiting factor to the diagnostic power of medical ultrasound imaging. If not accounted for, aberrations result in low resolution and increased side lobe level, over all reducing contrast in deep tissue imaging. Various techniques have been proposed for quantifying aberrations by analysing the arrival time of coherent echoes from so-called guide stars or beacons. In situations where a guide star is missing, aperture-based techniques may give ambiguous results. Moreover, they are conceptually focused on aberrators that can be approximated as a phase screen in front of the probe. We propose a novel technique, where the effect of aberration is detected in the reconstructed image as opposed to the aperture data. The varying local echo phase when changing the transmit beam steering angle directly reflects the varying arrival time of the transmit wave front. This allows sensing the angle-dependent aberration delay in a spatially resolved way, and thus aberration correction for a spatially distributed volume aberrator. In phantoms containing a cylindrical aberrator, we achieved location-independent diffraction-limited resolution as well as accurate display of echo location based on reconstructing the speed-of-sound spatially resolved. First successful volunteer results confirm the clinical potential of the proposed technique.
A Study of the Zero-Lift Drag-Rise Characteristics of Wing-Body Combinations Near the Speed of Sound
NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Whitcomb, Richard T
Comparisons have been made of the shock phenomena and drag-rise increments for representative wing and central-body combinations with those for bodies of revolution having the same axial developments of cross-sectional areas normal to the airstream. On the basis of these comparisons, it is concluded that near the speed of sound the zero-lift drag rise of a low-aspect-ratio thin-wing and body combination is primarily dependent on the axial development of the cross-sectional areas normal to the airstream. It follows that the drag rise for any such configuration is approximately the same as that for any other with the same development of cross-sectional areas. Investigations have also been made of representative wing-body combinations with the body so indented that the axial developments of cross-sectional areas for the combinations were the same as that for the original body alone. Such indentations greatly reduced or eliminated the zero-lift drag-rise increments associated with the wings near the speed of sound.
Analytical and numerical prediction of harmonic sound power in the inlet of aero-engines with emphasis on transonic rotation speeds
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Lewy, Serge; Polacsek, Cyril; Barrier, Raphael
Tone noise radiated through the inlet of a turbofan is mainly due to rotor-stator interactions at subsonic regimes (approach flight), and to the shock waves attached to each blade at supersonic helical tip speeds (takeoff). The axial compressor of a helicopter turboshaft engine is transonic as well and can be studied like turbofans at takeoff. The objective of the paper is to predict the sound power at the inlet radiating into the free field, with a focus on transonic conditions because sound levels are much higher. Direct numerical computation of tone acoustic power is based on a RANS (Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes) solver followed by an integration of acoustic intensity over specified inlet cross-sections, derived from Cantrell and Hart equations (valid in irrotational flows). In transonic regimes, sound power decreases along the intake because of nonlinear propagation, which must be discriminated from numerical dissipation. This is one of the reasons why an analytical approach is also suggested. It is based on three steps: (i) appraisal of the initial pressure jump of the shock waves; (ii) 2D nonlinear propagation model of Morfey and Fisher; (iii) calculation of the sound power of the 3D ducted acoustic field. In this model, all the blades are assumed to be identical such that only the blade passing frequency and its harmonics are predicted (like in the present numerical simulations). However, transfer from blade passing frequency to multiple pure tones can be evaluated in a fourth step through a statistical analysis of irregularities between blades. Interest of the analytical method is to provide a good estimate of nonlinear acoustic propagation in the upstream duct while being easy and fast to compute. The various methods are applied to two turbofan models, respectively in approach (subsonic) and takeoff (transonic) conditions, and to a Turbomeca turboshaft engine (transonic case). The analytical method in transonic appears to be quite reliable by comparison
Parallelizable adiabatic gate teleportation
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Nakago, Kosuke; Hajdušek, Michal; Nakayama, Shojun; Murao, Mio
To investigate how a temporally ordered gate sequence can be parallelized in adiabatic implementations of quantum computation, we modify adiabatic gate teleportation, a model of quantum computation proposed by Bacon and Flammia [Phys. Rev. Lett. 103, 120504 (2009), 10.1103/PhysRevLett.103.120504], to a form deterministically simulating parallelized gate teleportation, which is achievable only by postselection. We introduce a twisted Heisenberg-type interaction Hamiltonian, a Heisenberg-type spin interaction where the coordinates of the second qubit are twisted according to a unitary gate. We develop parallelizable adiabatic gate teleportation (PAGT) where a sequence of unitary gates is performed in a single step of the adiabatic process. In PAGT, numeric calculations suggest the necessary time for the adiabatic evolution implementing a sequence of L unitary gates increases at most as O (L5) . However, we show that it has the interesting property that it can map the temporal order of gates to the spatial order of interactions specified by the final Hamiltonian. Using this property, we present a controlled-PAGT scheme to manipulate the order of gates by a control qubit. In the controlled-PAGT scheme, two differently ordered sequential unitary gates F G and G F are coherently performed depending on the state of a control qubit by simultaneously applying the twisted Heisenberg-type interaction Hamiltonians implementing unitary gates F and G . We investigate why the twisted Heisenberg-type interaction Hamiltonian allows PAGT. We show that the twisted Heisenberg-type interaction Hamiltonian has an ability to perform a transposed unitary gate by just modifying the space ordering of the final Hamiltonian implementing a unitary gate in adiabatic gate teleportation. The dynamics generated by the time-reversed Hamiltonian represented by the transposed unitary gate enables deterministic simulation of a postselected event of parallelized gate teleportation in adiabatic
Optical and thermodynamic properties of MgO from radiative shock temperature and sound speed measurements on samples preheated to 2300 K
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Fatýanov, O. V.; Asimow, P. D.
Thermodynamic properties of MgO, one of the major end-members of deep planetary interiors, play a significant role in the processes inside the Earth's lower mantle. Of particular importance in geophysics and geochemistry is the MgO melting behavior at high pressure. Despite considerable theoretical and experimental efforts over decades, it remains essentially unknown. The melting temperature predictions for MgO at 135 GPa, the Earth's core-mantle boundary pressure, range from 5 to 9 kK. In a continuous effort to resolve this inconsistency and to probe the P-T region previously unexplored, we developed a technique for radiative shock temperature measurements in single-crystal MgO preheated to 2300 K. Large ventilated Mo capsules were employed to hold ~20 mm long MgO crystals with controlled longitudinal thermal gradients. These hot targets were impacted by 0.8 mm thick Ta flyers launched at 6.5 to 7.5 km/s on the Caltech two-stage light-gas gun. Six spectral radiance histories from MgO shock front were recorded in every shot with 3 ns time resolution over 440-750 nm or 500-830 nm spectral range. The majority of our experiments showed smooth pressure dependence of MgO shock temperature and sound speed consistent with the solid phase at 197-243 GPa. Although most observed temperatures are ~700 K lower and sound speeds ~1 km/s higher than the model predictions, the pressure slopes for both parameters are in close agreement with those calculated for the solid phase. Unconfirmed data from a single experiment at 239 GPa and 8.3 kK showed correlated temperature and sound speed anomalies (both values lower than expected) that may be explained by partial melting. Our past and recent data on shock-compressed preheated MgO suggest its melting curve above 200 GPa is higher than the extrapolation of the experiments of Zerr & Boehler or the theoretical calculation by Strachan et. al. These results, features of shock experiments with 2300 K pre-heat temperatures, data analysis
Speed of Sound in Aqueous Solutions at sub-GPa Pressures: a New Experiment to Unveil the Properties of Extra-Terrestrial Oceans
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Bollengier, O.; Brown, J. M.; Vance, S.; Shaw, G. H.
Geophysical data from the Galileo and Cassini-Huygens missions are consistent with the presence of aqueous subsurface oceans in Ganymede, Callisto and Titan, the largest icy satellites of the solar system. To understand the history and present state of these moons, the next generation of evolution models will require an accurate description of the properties of these liquid layers to predict the phase boundaries, heat transports and chemical exchanges within them. Sound speed measurements in pressure and temperature allow for the reconstruction of the Gibbs free energy surface of a phase, which in turn gives access to the desired properties (chemical potential, density, heat capacity...). However, such data are still scarce for aqueous solutions bearing Na+, Mg2+, Cl- and SO42- ions (major ions expected in extra-terrestrial oceans) at the high pressures and low temperatures expected for water inside these moons (up to 1.5 GPa for Ganymede, down to freezing temperatures). For pure water, IAPWS accuracy for sound speeds is given to 0.3% above 0.4 GPa. MgSO4aqueous solutions have been explored to 0.7 GPa with a precision limited to about 0.5%. Most other aqueous solutions bearing any combination of these four ions have not been explored at all above a few hundreds MPa. To acquire new high-precision sound speeds in aqueous solutions of various compositions, we set up a new experimental system working in the 0 - 0.7 GPa pressure range and 240 - 350 K temperature range. The device consists in an oil-pressurized steel vessel enclosing a titanium alloy rod supporting the sample and a sealing bellows. A transducer at the top end of the titanium rod generates ultrasonic waves and collects the series of subsequent reflections. Preliminary tests with pure water illustrate a precision of 0.02% and an accuracy within 0.1% of IAPWS on our whole pressure range. Revision of the properties of pure water and H2O-MgSO4 solutions up to 0.7 GPa along with the first data in the H2O-MgCl2
Densities, Viscosities, Sound Speeds, Refractive Indices, and Excess Properties of Binary Mixtures of Isoamyl Alcohol with Some Alkoxyethanols
NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
Roy, Mahendra Nath; Sah, Radhey Shyam; Pradhan, Prasanna
Densities and viscosities were measured for binary mixtures of isoamyl alcohol with 2-methoxyethanol, 2-ethoxyethanol, and 2-butoxyethanol over the entire range of composition at 303.15 K, 313.15 K, and 323.15K and ultrasonic speeds and refractive indices at 303.15 K under atmospheric pressure. From the experimental values of density, viscosity, ultrasonic speed, and refractive index, the values of excess molar volume ( V E), viscosity deviations (Δ η), deviations in isentropic compressibility (Δ K S ), and excess molar refraction (Δ R) have been calculated. The excess or deviation properties were found to be either negative or positive, depending on the molecular interactions and the nature of liquid mixtures.
Adiabatic cooling of antiprotons.
Gabrielse, G; Kolthammer, W S; McConnell, R; Richerme, P; Kalra, R; Novitski, E; Grzonka, D; Oelert, W; Sefzick, T; Zielinski, M; Fitzakerley, D; George, M C; Hessels, E A; Storry, C H; Weel, M; Müllers, A; Walz, J
Adiabatic cooling is shown to be a simple and effective method to cool many charged particles in a trap to very low temperatures. Up to 3×10(6) p are cooled to 3.5 K-10(3) times more cold p and a 3 times lower p temperature than previously reported. A second cooling method cools p plasmas via the synchrotron radiation of embedded e(-) (with many fewer e(-) than p in preparation for adiabatic cooling. No p are lost during either process-a significant advantage for rare particles. PMID:21405511
Adiabatic Cooling of Antiprotons
Gabrielse, G.; Kolthammer, W. S.; McConnell, R.; Richerme, P.; Kalra, R.; Novitski, E.; Oelert, W.; Grzonka, D.; Sefzick, T.; Zielinski, M.; Fitzakerley, D.; George, M. C.; Hessels, E. A.; Storry, C. H.; Weel, M.; Muellers, A.; Walz, J.
Adiabatic cooling is shown to be a simple and effective method to cool many charged particles in a trap to very low temperatures. Up to 3x10{sup 6} p are cooled to 3.5 K--10{sup 3} times more cold p and a 3 times lower p temperature than previously reported. A second cooling method cools p plasmas via the synchrotron radiation of embedded e{sup -} (with many fewer e{sup -} than p) in preparation for adiabatic cooling. No p are lost during either process--a significant advantage for rare particles.