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Mirror of His Beauty: Feminine Images of God from the Bible to the Early Kabbalahby Peter Schafer
In this beautifully realized study, Peter Schäfer investigates the origins of a female manifestation of God in Jewish mysticism. The search itself is a fascinating exploration of the idea of a feminine divinity. And Schäfer's surprising but persuasive conclusions yield deeper understanding of the complex but frequently intimate relationship between
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In this beautifully realized study, Peter Schäfer investigates the origins of a female manifestation of God in Jewish mysticism. The search itself is a fascinating exploration of the idea of a feminine divinity. And Schäfer's surprising but persuasive conclusions yield deeper understanding of the complex but frequently intimate relationship between Christianity and Judaismand of the development of religious concepts more generally.
Toward the end of the twelfth century, a small book titled the Bahir (Light) appeared in Provence. The first document of Judaism's emerging kabbalistic movement, it introduced a completely new view of God, one that included a divine potency that was essentially female. This female divinity was portrayed both as a mediator between Jews and God and as part of the Godhead itself. Examining Judaic history from the biblical Wisdom tradition to the Middle Ages, Schäfer finds some precedents for the Kabbalah's feminine divinity. But he cannot account for her forceful appearance in twelfth-century southern France without reference to the immediate Christian environment, particularly the flourishing veneration of the Virgin Mary. Indeed, twelfth-century Jews and Christians were simultaneously rediscovering the feminine as an aspect of the Godhead after having abandoned it in favor of either an abstract, disembodied God or an exclusively male one.
In proposing that the medieval cult of Maryrather than eastern Gnosticismis the appropriate framework for understanding the feminine elements in Jewish mysticism, Mirror of His Beauty represents a sea change in Kabbalah and Jewish-Christian cultural studies. It shifts our attention from the Byzantine East to the Latin Christian West. And in contrast to histories that treat the development of Judaism and Christianity in isolation, it leads us to a fuller understanding of Jews and Christians living in proximity, aware of each other.
Editorial Reviews
Peter Schäfer, Winner of the 2007 Distinguished Achievement Award from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation
"This work deals with esoteric ideas that are bold and complex, but it is also culturally important, providing a wonderful antecedent for feminist theological speculation today. Schäfer supports his thesis admirably, showing its importance for understanding medieval Jewish-Christian relationships and the cultural environment's influence on religion."Library Journal
"Schäfer's book is clearly written and forcefully presents an interesting and plausible thesis for the presence, survival and re-emergence of the feminine in the Jewish divine from antiquity to the middle ages."Tal Ilan, Journal of Jewish Studies
Tal Ilan
Product Details
- 9780691119809
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- Publication date:
- 09/27/2004
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- Jews, Christians, and Muslims from the Ancient to the Modern World Series
- Pages:
- 328
- Product dimensions:
- 5.90(w) x 8.90(h) x 0.80(d)
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IT BELONGS to the cherished traditions of Western civilization that Judaism "invented" monotheism. In the eyes of most Jews and Christians, as well as numerous scholars of religion, the "monotheistic revolution" of the Hebrew Bible represents a radical break with the backward and underdeveloped abominations of the polytheistic cultures that surroundedand continuously threatenedancient Israel. As such, Jewish monotheism is considered to be a decisive step in the development of humanity towards ever higher forms of religion. According to the triumphalistic Christian view of history and its progress-oriented academic counterparts, this "evolution" reached its climax in Christianity (more precisely, in nineteenth-century Protestantism). Just as polytheism inevitably lead to monotheism, so the remote and stern God of Judaism had to be replaced by the loving God of Christianity. When Christianity adopted Jewish monotheism, it simultaneously softened it by including the idea of God's Trinity and his son's incarnation on earth. Only through this "extension" of strict monotheism, it is argued, could Christianityliberate true faith from Jewish ossification and guarantee its survival and perfection.
The notion of the necessary evolution of monotheism out of polytheism is as stereotyped as the conceit of its successful fulfillment in Christianity. Regarding the latter, the Christian doctrine of the Trinity can hardly claim, despite the efforts of the church fathers, to manifest the apex of monotheism. As for the former, the polytheistic religions of the ancient Near East were certainly not the embodiment of religious crudeness and unethical behavior, yearning to be saved by the dawn of biblical monotheisman image that our Western tradition has impressed upon us since childhood. Nor did biblical monotheism represent the final and clear-cut break with polytheistic superstition that we have come to believe since Sunday school. The transitions were fluent and flowed in both directions. It was one of the great achievements of the Bible to adopt the abhorrent customs of its pagan neighbors and to domesticate them by integrating them in an evolving monotheistic system that became ever more dominant. But the many attacks that the authors of the Bible found necessary to launch against the polytheistic practices of their fellow countrymen prove that these alleged "survivals" remained very much alive.
One case in point is the Canaanite goddess Asherah, well-known from the Ugarit pantheon as the consort of El. Literary and archeological evidence suggests that this goddess was worshiped as the consort of Ba'al in Israel as well (1 Kings 18:19). Whether or not the cultic installation of a wooden pole, which is also called "Asherah" in the Bible, symbolized the goddess of the same name, it clearly was a widely recognized object of worship (King Manasseh even brought it into the Temple of Jerusalem; 2 Kings 21:3,7), and only gradually banished from the official biblical cult.1 Our picture of early Israelite religion has become even more diverse with the discovery of the inscriptions from Kuntillet Ajrud (near the road from Gaza to Eilat), which date from the time of the Judaean monarchy. They mention the God of Israel (using the classical biblical tetragrammaton YHWH) and, most likely, "his Asherah." This translation, of course, is controversialit accords to the Jewish God a Queen consort, who is worshiped together with himbut such a reading cannot be easily dismissed.2 Indeed, the Jewish mercenaries who settled at the military colony of Elephantine at the southern border of Egypt precisely during the reign of King Manasseh (about 650 BCE), not only built a temple of their own in Elephantine (in the immediate vicinity of the Egyptian god Khnum), but even worshiped two goddesses alongside Yahu (YHW) in their temple. Their cult obviously reflectsand preserves for more than two centuries3a stage of the Judaean religion that can hardly be called monotheistic in the strict sense of the term.4
Judaeo-Christian monotheism, then, was neither "achieved" once and forever at a certain point in the history of Western religions, nor is it the peak of any simple religious evolution. The term is not particularly helpful as a historical category, and much less as a moral indicator. Rather, we should consider "monotheism" as one pole of a broad spectrum, of which "polytheism" marks the other. Between these two poles there exists a wide range of possible combinations and configurations, which realize themselves in time and spacenot in an ascending line from (primitive) polytheism to (higher and higher forms of) monotheism, but in movements back and forth between polytheism and varying degrees of monotheism. Such a dynamic model has the benefit of avoiding any value judgement. It does not favor monotheism over polytheism, but neither does it strive to exorcise the prejudice of the alleged superiority of Jewish-Christian monotheism with the attempted revival of ancient pagan values. The latter has become the prerogative of postmodern philosophers and historians of religion,5 who extol ancient polytheistic religions as in harmony with nature, appreciate "paganism" as body- and life-affirming,6 and claim to rediscover Egyptian "cosmotheism" as the ultimate salvation from the "Mosaic distinction," that epitome of monotheism.7
What is necessary is not to replace one cliché with another but to expose Jewish and Christian monotheism as a construct that encompasses more than the alleged end product, as a process continuously in flux, moving between the poles of a broad and varied spectrum. Such a revaluation of monotheism recognizes historical developments and shifts of emphasis within both Judaism and Christianity, and simultaneously allows for an examination of the relationship between both religions that liberates itself from the fatal pattern of the fulfillment of one religion in the other. From this viewpoint the notions of "orthodoxy" and "heresy" within one religion become less fixed,8 and the boundaries between the two religions are seen to be permeable.
With the reform of King Josiah towards the end of the seventh century BCEwith its centralization of the cult of the one, unchanging, and male God worshiped in the one Temple in the one city, JerusalemJudaism definitely took up the path of an ever stricter monotheism. And yet nothing could be more mistaken than the assumption that the idea of the oneness of God is the quasi-dogmatic "essence" of Judaism. True, the daily Shema' Yisra'el prayer proclaims that "the Lord, our God, is one God alone" (Deut. 6:4)and no one would ever contradict this solemn declaration, at least not openlybut the history of Judaism teaches us that this is only part of the story. Unless we want to ignore the other part and to dismiss any deviation from the strict monotheistic ideal as heresy, we must face the fact that the history of Judaism is much more complex and multifaceted than monotheistic zeal would have us believe.
The most salient example of an intra-Jewish movement that does not comply with the rules of a rigorous monotheism is Jewish mysticism, particularly the variety that bears the technical term "Kabbalah." It is a thorn in the flesh of all those who regard the liberal Judaism of the nineteenth century as the culmination of monotheism, and accordingly, has long been scorned or suppressed by Jewish and Christian historians of religion alike. But since the pioneering work of Gershom Scholem,9 we know that the Kabbalah was one of the most powerful and vital movements in Judaism and that it began as the activity of a learned elite, eventually becoming a popular mass movement that shaped Judaism for centuries to come, up to this very day. To be sure, the Kabbalah is anything but a uniform phenomenon, having developed many faces during a long historical process; there can be no doubt, however, that it promoted some of the most radical ideas in the history of the Jewish religion, ideas that depart considerably from the paradigm of King Josiah and his "monotheistic reform." That the Kabbalists insisted that their theology was perfectly monotheistic, and that some of these ideas subsequently had to be domesticated to conform to the demands of a more orthodox image of the Jewish religion, only reinforces their radical and bold nature.10
The most daring innovation of the Kabbalah is its distinction between two "realms" within God: the hidden and transcendent God who is beyond any human comprehension, and the God who has revealed himself and his multiple inner structure to the initiate (the Kabbalist). The revealed God has a dynamic inner life that unfolds in ten potencies (Hebrew Sefirot), embodying different "facets" of the one God. The various systems of the Kabbalah develop different configurations of the ten Sefirot (and give them different names), but all agree that these potencies include one female Sefirah; nine are male and one is female. This female principle within God is called Shekhinah (literally "dwelling"), a term familiar from classical Rabbinical literature. There, it refers to the presence of God in the world and is always synonymous with God; as such it does not have any feminine characteristics. In the Kabbalah, however, the Shekhinah is not only included as a distinctive principle within the inner divine life, but this distinctive principle is explicitly, and quite graphically, described as female.
These two major innovations of the Kabbalah, in the technical sense of the termthe ten Sefirot and the inclusion among them of a female potencyemerge for the first time in history in a small book that appears in late twelfth-century Provence in Southern France: the book Bahir.11 The earliest sources that we possess already attribute this book to R. Nehunya ben Haqana, a sage of the second century CE, but they disagree about the historical value of this early attribution. Whereas Isaac ben Jacob Cohen of Soria, a Spanish Kabbalist of the late thirteenth century, appeals to it in order to establish the book's origin from ancient Palestine and thus its "orthodoxy,"12 Meir ben Simon, a Provencal Talmudist and opponent of the Kabbalah in the early thirteenth century, uses it to prove the opposite: that the Bahir is a forgery and the product of heretics,
who speak blasphemously of God and of the scholars who walk in the ways of the pure Torah and who fear God, while they themselves are wise in their own eyes, invent things out of their own minds and lean toward heretical opinions. . . . But God save us from the sin of heeding such heretical words, concerning which it would be better to keep silence in Israel. And we have heard that a book had already been written for them,13 which they call Bahir, that is "bright," but no light shines through it. This book has come into our hands, and we have found that they falsely attribute it to R. Nehunya ben Haqana. God forbid! There is no truth in this. That righteous man, as we know him, did not come to ruin [by editing such a work] and his name is not to be mentioned in the same breath as sacrilege. The language of the book and its whole content show that it is the work of someone who lacked command of either literary language or good style, and in many passages it contains words which are out and out heresy.14
"Heresy" is the keyword of this fervent accusation, and the heresy against which Meir ben Simon fights is precisely the dreaded danger that the oneness and unity of God might be abandoned and replaced by a multitude of gods; in other words that polytheism, believed to be defeated for centuries, might rise from the dead. What we encounter in the Kabbalah looks indeed very much like the return of the repressed, a return that proved to be all the more forceful and explosive for the longer it had been prevented. And the polytheistic component of the Jewish religion had been repressed for many centuries. This is particularly true for the feminine element, the notion of goddesses as partners and consorts of the gods. Although Meir ben Simon does not specify this aspect of the detested heresy, it is obvious that he was aware of it and disapproved of it wholeheartedly. For those who had a static perception of the one God and his everlasting victory over the many gods, any supposed or real deviation from this ideal had to be denounced as heresy and to be condemned accordingly. The Kabbalists, however, propagated a different and much more dynamic view of the Jewish religion, boldly claiming that their "new" ideas were nothing but the revival of the "old." Perhaps they were more correct than they knew or would ever admit.
This book deals with the return of "polytheistic" tendencies in the Kabbalah or, more concretely, of the feminine manifestation of God in the earliest kabbalistic tractate, the Bahir. It takes as its starting point the question of whether the kabbalistic concept of God, with its emphasis on God's femininity, represents the innovation that it seems to bedespite all of its proponents' affirmations to the contrary. Or, to put it differently, the book tries to place the Bahir's concept of God in historical perspective and to demonstrate that its authors were right to claim that all they did and intended to do was reaffirm the "old," to reestablish the "Torah which was given to Moses on Mount Sinai." The problem, however, is what they conceived as "old." Most likely not what we today, after centuries of critical biblical research, have come to understand. They could have hardly been aware of the fact that what they offered as the Torah of Moses was in one sense a revival of polytheistic countertendencies in the monotheistic program of the Hebrew Bible, a new breaking up of an encrusted monotheism that had become all too secure of its superiority over "pagan" polytheism and, worst, had neglected or suppressed some of the basic needs of human beings.
In reopening the question of the origin of the bahiric concept of God and his feminine manifestation, I pursue two lines of inquiry. The first part of the book ("From the Bible to the Bahir") traces the development of the idea of God's femininity from the Hebrew Bible to the medieval Bahir. It begins in chapter 1 with a discussion of the early Jewish Wisdom tradition, which manifests itself in the canonical books of Job and Proverbs, and in the non-canonical books of Jesus Sirach (Wisdom of ben Sirach) and Sapientia Salomonis (Wisdom of Solomon). What all these texts have in common is that they connect Wisdom (Hebrew hokhmah, Greek sophia) with the process of creation and conceive "her" as the intrinsic structure of the created world, which can (in most cases) be obtained and understood by human beings.15 Moreover, Wisdom is often personified and as such embodies God's revelation on earth. With the sole exception of Job, all of these texts envisage Wisdom as female, as God's beloved daughter (Proverbs) or even spouse (Sapientia Salomonis). Clearly in contact and interchange with surrounding Hellenistic cultures, Wisdom literature inaugurates (or rather reaffirms) the idea of a feminine manifestation of God within the received fabric of biblical monotheism.
The most courageous step in ancient Judaism towards the inclusion of the feminine in God was taken in the first century CE by Philo of Alexandria, the famous Jewish philosopher, who is the subject of the second chapter. Influenced both by the biblical Wisdom tradition and by the Greek philosophy of his time (particularly the Stoa and Platonism), Philo develops a complex network of relationships between God, his (female) Wisdom, his (male) Logos, and the human world. In adopting daughter and wife/mother imagery to describe Wisdom, he seems to combine the Proverbs and the Wisdom of Solomon traditions. Most conspicuously, however, he plays with Wisdom's gender and goes so far as to change deliberately her sex from female to male, apparently following the Platonic model of the active role of the masculine in contrast to the passive role of the feminine. As such, he embodies the culmination of the biblical and postbiblical Wisdom tradition, which would soon break off in Judaism and be taken up by Christianity.
The next chapter considers one of the most striking transformations of the heritage of the Wisdom tradition: the Sophia myth developed by so-called gnostic Christian groups that flourished in the second century CE. Among the most salient features of their doctrine belongs an elaborate narrative about the origin of the divine realm and of the mundane world. The material world of human beings is considered to be the result of a "mishap" in the divinity, a cosmic catastrophe inaugurated by an imperfect and "false" god, which needs to be mended through the abolition of all matter and the return of the spiritual human soul to its divine origin.
As in the early Jewish Wisdom tradition and in Philo, the gnostic Godhead contains a feminine power, which plays a prominent role in the gnostic myth of creation. According to the Apocryphon of John, one of the earliest and most succinct expositions of the gnostic myth that we now possess, Wisdom (Sophia) is held responsible for the break within the cosmic process and hence for the origin of the material world: she creates an imperfect image of herself who becomes the originator of the material universe outside of the divine realm, an evil counterworld, inhabited by all kinds of "rulers," "demons," and finally Adam and Eve with their offspring. In order to rectify her mistake, Sophia is sent down to earth to heal the rupture she caused and to redeem humanity. Here, the task of salvation is reserved for Wisdom, the feminine power of Godnot the male Logos.
Quite a different picture emerges from the vast literature (Mishnah, Talmud, Midrash, Targum) passed on to us from the Rabbis, as we will see in Chapter 4. As the creators and leaders of what would become the "classical" and "normative" manifestation of late antique Judaism, the Rabbis presented themselves as hakhamim ("wise men," "sages"); they claimed to be the embodiment of the ideal of "Wisdom" developed in the biblical and postbiblical Wisdom tradition. More precisely, they took up the idea of Wisdom's identification with the Torah in Jesus Sirach and made it the essence and pivot of their thought. According to the Rabbis, Wisdom/Torah was simultaneously the blueprint of and God's tool for the creation of the universe; hence, the one who masters the Torah masters the world. It goes without saying that the Rabbis, with their concept of the dual ("Written" and "Oral") Torah revealed to Moses on Mount Sinai and transmitted to them, regarded themselves as the sole and true guardians of the Torah and its correct interpretation.
In adopting the equation of Wisdom with the Torah from Jesus Sirach, the Rabbis emphasized the availability of Wisdom on earth: Wisdom/Torah was given to human beings and is not only present among us, but at our disposal. Yet this increased availability was achieved at the expense of Wisdom's personality and her close relationship with God. Wisdom lost her persona and became a book, albeit a book revealed by God. Despite abandoning the biblical and postbiblical idea of Wisdom's personal presence among the people of Israel (as God's emissary), the Rabbis maintained and expanded the concept that God made himself present and available on earth. For this, they invented the term "Shekhinah" (from Hebrew shakhan, "to dwell, reside"), which denotes God's "indwelling" or "presence" on earth. But there is little in the vast literary corpus left to us by the Rabbis to indicate that this Shekhinah has any female attributes. On the contrary, despite the feminine gender of the Hebrew word "Shekhinah," the Rabbis went to great efforts to emphasize that the Shekhinah is no one else but the familiar (male) God of the Hebrew Bible. Even as a distinction between God and "his Shekhinah" was gradually introduced, leading to the increasing personification of the Shekhinah, they affirmed the unquestionable masculinity of their image of God. For the Rabbis, the feminine aspect of God seems to have been completely forgotten.
The most radical step in this direction was taken by the Jewish philosophy of the early Middle Ages, which developed under the influence of Islam and its adaptation of Greek philosophy. In fact, the early representatives of medieval Jewish philosophy are the most outspoken advocates of a rationalistic trend that was up in arms against anthropomorphic tendencies in the Hebrew Bible. In other words, the Jewish philosophers were concerned to recover what they believed was the original and pure form of Jewish monotheism, and they fought against what they feared was its all-too-human aberration. Theirs was the concept of a transcendent and spiritual God, dwelling not on earth but in the most remote heights of heaven or rather, even beyond the heavenly realm and certainly beyond human comprehension.
These philosophical and theological developments have important ramifications for the concept of the Shekhinah, as we will see in Chapter 5, which discusses the doctrines of Saadia Gaon (882-942 CE), Judah ben Barzillai of Barcelona (ca. 1035-1105), Judah ha-Levi (before 1075-1141), and Moses Maimonides (1135-1204). The image that these philosophers formed of God did not tolerate the Rabbinic concept of the Shekhinah as God's presence on earth. Since they could not simply eliminate this familiar and cherished Rabbinic tradition, they audaciously reinterpreted it, suggesting that the Shekhinah was not identical with God but on the contrary a created entity. With this move, they fended off the danger of positing any multiplicity within God and rejected latent polytheistic tendencies inherent in the concept of the Shekhinah. By "cleansing" God of any hint of corporeality, they simultaneously eliminated any trace of divine gender, whether male or female.
With Chapter 6, we reach the late twelfth century and the appearance of the Bahir, the kabbalistic counterpart of rationalistic Jewish philosophy. In many ways, the Bahir represents the return of the repressed: the recovery of an archaic and mythical world with a rich imagery that graphically depicts the dynamic inner life of the Godhead, the origin of evil, and God's relationship with his created world. Against the philosophers, it revives the Rabbinical concept of the Shekhinah as identical with God. It goes much further still, however, reintegrating the Shekhinah into God as one of the facets and aspects of his essence that can be fathomed and described by the initiate. And initiates they were, the editors of the Bahir and the heralds of its old/new doctrine. They knew that God, the heavenly King of the Rabbis, has "sons" who constitute, together with their father, the Godhead (the ten Sefirot) and that one of these "sons" is actually female, hence his "daughter." Moreover, they maintained that this "daughter" is simultaneously his "spouse"; in other words, that the "King" has a "Queen" with whom he procreates children (who are the people of Israel on earth).
It is this dynamic relationship between the manifold Godhead with its female component and the created world of human beings that constitutes the focus of the Bahir's creative interest. Within this interplay of divine and human forces, great importance is attached to the role of the Shekhinah. As the tenth and "lowest" among the Sefirot, the Shekhinah stands at the borderline between the heavenly and earthly realms and is sent down to earth as God's emissary. In her dual capacity as part of the Godhead and the "Oral Torah," she serves as God's "embodiment" on earth, with the sole task of leading Israel back to God and then, upon completion of her mission, reuniting herself with the Godhead. The bahiric Shekhinah is the bridge between both worlds, the true intercessor (mediatrix) between God and humanity.
In the chronological survey of the first six chapters, the bahiric concept of the Shekhinah has been located within the history of the suppression and reinterpretation of feminine images of the divine in Judaism and Christianity. This background, however, only serves to sharpen the problem of the origins of this concept, starkly exposing the kabbalistic notion of God's femininity as a radical departure from earlier Jewish models. It is to this problem that we turn in the second part of the book, "The Quest for Origins." I begin, in Chapter 7, with an examination of Scholem's explanatory model, which suggests that the concept originated in the gnostic systems of the first centuries of the Christian era. When we confront his theory with a fresh analysis of the gnostic sources, most of which were unavailable to Scholem, the result is quite paradoxical. Despite Scholem's dubious sources and particular prejudices, his intuition did not fail him. The bahiric idea of the Shekhinah comes closer to the gnostic myth than Scholem thought or was able to prove. This intensifies the problem posed by the fact that no historical connection between the "Gnosis" and the Bahir can be established.
However instructive and illuminating structural or phenomenological similarities may be, they are not particularly satisfying. In order to test the historical background more thoroughly, the eighth chapter turns to examine the immediate Christian context of twelfth-century France, the provenance of the Bahir itself. Scholem tried in vain to find some connection between the Bahir and the supposedly gnostic movements of the Cathari and Albigenses, but he completely ignored a more obvious and widespread phenomenon that profoundly shaped the Christian environment of the Jews in twelfth-century France: the veneration of the Virgin Mary. The chapter summarizes the evolution of the veneration of Mary from its beginnings in the Eastern church until it reached Western Christendom. Although Western theologians were initially hesitant to adopt Eastern Mariology, it is striking that their veneration of Mary would reach its climax in the twelfth centuryat precisely the time when the Bahir was being edited.
When we examine the Marian doctrines of Peter Damian (1007-1072), Herman of Tournay (ca. 1090-ca. 1147), Bernard of Clairvaux (1091-1153), Godfrey of Admont (ca. 1100-1165), Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179), and Peter of Blois (ca. 1135-1212?), we find striking parallels with the increased emphasis on the feminine aspects of divinity in the Kabbalah. All of these writers emphasize Mary's function as mediator (mediatrix) between God and humanity and as intercessor (interventrix) on behalf of humankind. Mary is essential for the success of God's plan of salvation; she "repairs" the first creation, which was spoiled by Eve. As such she is praised as the "restorer" (reparatrix) of humanity and, together with her son Jesus, assumes the role of co-redeemer (corredemptrix). Hildegard even goes so far as to bestow on her the honorary title "savior" (salvatrix), usually reserved for Christ.
In her pivotal position, raised above human beings and angels alike, Mary is identified with biblical Wisdom. Her assumption into heaven not only reunites her with her son Jesus but elevates her into the holy Trinity. The eleventh and twelfth centuries thus saw the gradual deification of Maryalthough often veiled with dogmatic considerations and frequently qualified by the superficial subordination of Mariology to Christology. It appears that the role and function of the Christian Mary comes very close to the role and function of the Jewish Shekhinah in the Bahir.
If the medieval Christian veneration of Mary is historically and geographically much closer to the Bahir than Scholem's proposed "Gnosis," can one seriously assume that the reemergence of God's femininity in Judaism was influenced by similar developments in Christianity? Such a proposal becomes all the more problematic in view of the long history of Christian polemics against the Jewish "stubbornness" in not believing in Jesus and Jewish polemics against Mary (Chapter 9). Christian sources transmit a number of legends that portray the Jews as full of hatred against Mary and her son Jesus: they disturb Mary's funeral in order to desecrate the holy body of the deceased Virgin, they dishonor the image of the Virgin by throwing it into a latrine, and they try to burn their own children who partake of the Holy Communion together with their Christian playmates. These stories originate in the Byzantine East and travel to the West, where they are readily adopted and widely publicized in both literature and art.
Such anti-Jewish legends and images could have hardly escaped the attention of the Jews. They responded with similarly unflattering narratives in which they polemicize against the Christian claim of Mary's virginity and the gradual process of her deification. Quite surprisingly, however, these responses are not as clear-cut and unambiguous as one might expect. The famous (or rather infamous) Toledot Yeshu, the best-known polemical Jewish tractate of Late Antiquity, reserves its polemical fervor for Jesus and to a large extent spares his mother Mary. A much more complicated story is told in the Apocalypse of Zerubbavel, a Byzantine-Jewish apocalypse from the early seventh century. Here the Christian narrative of the birth of the Messiah Jesus from the Virgin Mary is parodied in the counternarrative of the birth of the Anti-christ Armilos from a beautiful statue with which Satan had intercourse. Yet the same text provides us with a mother of the Jewish Messiah, who plays an active role in the redemption process and helps her son to gain the final victory over the Anti-christ. Thus the polemical rejection of Mary's function in the process of salvation is supplemented by the adaptation, or rather usurpation, of her role in a Jewish context.
This connection between Judaism and Christianity in an area in which it was the least expected makes the question of historical channels and trajectories of supposed mutual influences all the more pressing and disturbing. Such questions, however, raise major methodological problems that concern the nature of categories such as "origins," "dependence," "influence," and historical "evidence." In the last chapter I propose to reconsider these terms: instead of searching for the single mythical "origin" of a concept, I suggest that we focus our attention upon the dynamic interplay of the various factors under consideration in their historical dimension; and instead of defining "influence" as the interaction between two static entities, of which one is "active" and the other "passive," I present a dynamic model of "influence," in which both partners are engaged in a process of creative adaptation. Such a model rejects the myth of the "priority of origins" and instead draws our attention to the continuous process of the digestion, transformation, and recreation of traditions in ever-changing historical circumstances.
Applied to the Jewish and Christian view of God's femininity, such a dynamic theory of influence yields a much more colorful picture. It does not consider both religions as static and distinct entities but as two components of one religious discourse; it is not concerned with the origin of this idea in one or the other religion but with the process of its transformation in a shared cultural space, a process that gains its vitality through mutual exchange. Such a model takes into account a historical process extending over a longer period of time, as well as permitting a highly intensified exchange in the twelfth century, in particular. During this century, which marks the heyday of an entirely new view of the feminine both in the religious (veneration of Mary) and in the secular realm (love poetry of the troubadours), both Judaism and Christianity reach the climax of their high esteem for the feminine. This high esteem results from a long process, which is rooted in the shared Biblical Wisdom tradition, continues in different ways in Judaism and Christianity, and yet intersects at various points in history in mutual attraction and repulsion.
In proposing that the blossoming of the veneration of the Virgin Mary in the Christian world and the reintegration of the Shekhinah into the divinity in Judaism are neither accidental nor merely the results of parallel developments, I follow the increasing trend in recent scholarship to reject the static and erratic image of Judaism and Christianity as hermetically sealed against one another, forever frozen, as it were, in a perpetual state of hatred and fear.16 The Jews of Southern France certainly did not live in a ghetto; they participated in a society that they shared with their Christian neighbors. To be sure, they were a minority culture dominated by a majority culture, but this does not necessarily mean that the minority culture defined itself solely in antipathy to the hegemonic culture. On the contrary, both communities lived in close proximity, and the common ground of daily life clearly facilitated a high degree of interaction. Ivan Marcus calls this phenomenon of cultural openness and adaptation "inward acculturation" and puts the emphasis on the often inverted and parodistic ways in which ancient Jewish traditions were fused with Christian themes and images.17 This is certainly the case, but we will see that inward attraction and adaptation as the correlate of outward repulsion and rejection could come along in two disguises: as a parodistic counternarrative and as the näive (or brazen) retelling of the same story.
The range of themes and texts, the span of time, and the geographical area covered in this book are alarmingly wide, and I gladly admit that each chapter merits a monograph of its own. Each has its own host of specialists within the scholarly community, and I am painfully aware that I cannot do justice to all of their manifold expectations. It is, however, not my aim here to write these many monographs and to fulfill the expectations that the specialists legitimately have. I take the deliberate risk of drafting a much broader picture, conscious of all the shortcomings that such an undertaking entails. It is my firm conviction that the time is more than ripe for such an enterprise, as daring as it may be, and that scholarly progress cannot and must not be restricted to ever-higher degrees of specialization.
I am also aware that it is a delicate venture for any "serious" historian to propose the possibility of the inward Jewish adaptation of Christian patterns. Not only does such research easily incur the reproach of being speculative and not providing sufficient evidence. Moreover, and more precariously, the historian is exposed to the danger of consciously or unconsciously bringing his/ her own personal background into the sacred halls of scholarship and, depending on that background, betraying his/her own identity or oppressing the identity of the other. Woe to the historian of Judaism who happens to be Christian (Roman Catholic, no less) and to "discover" that the Christian veneration of Mary might have had an impact on the feminine manifestation of God in the Kabbalah! And yet, in the long run, I am confident in our ability to liberate ourselves, not only from medieval stereotypes, but also from modern ones.
What People are Saying About This
Ivan Marcus, Yale University
Israel Jacob Yuval, Hebrew University
Meet the Author
Peter Schafer is Professor of Religion and Ronald O. Perelman Professor of Jewish Studies at Princeton University as well as University Professor of Jewish Studies and Director of the Institut fur Judaistik at Freie Universitat Berlin. His last book was "Judeophobia: Attitudes toward the Jews in the Ancient World".
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Virchow-Robin spaces are enclosed spaces filled with interstitial fluid and covered with pia that accompany arteries, arterioles, veins and venules as they perforate the brain. They are round, linear or punctuate areas depending on the image that parallel cerebrospinal fluid attenuation or signal intensity. They are classically described as isointense to… (More)
The perivascular spaces are normally microscopic. Even in normal brain some Robin-Virchow spaces are usually seen in the area of substantia innominata at the level of anterior commissure. Many pathologic states result in abnormal dilatation with an increased number of spaces visible on MRI imaging. Dilatation is most commonly associated with anterior… (More)
During the last three years, CT and MRI brain scans of 40 patients revealed falx cerebri partial ossification as an incidental finding. The patients had been admitted for brain CT and MRI for several reasons. In most cases, there was no problem in the differential diagnosis of falx cerebri ossification during interpretation of the cases. In a few cases, the… (More)
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I promise you will not find a more amazing KID PONY anywhere! This little Mare already had my attention but after what I saw yesterday, SHE HAS MY RESPECT…SOLD
If you are in the market for a perfect Show, Riding or Breeding PROSPECT or even if you are not in the market for a horse at all unless The Right One comes…SOLD
***ACCEPTING ALL REASONABLE OFFERS ON MAGGIE!*** Maggie is a 4 year old, 11.1 Hand tall (45 inches) Chestnut Pony Mare who is "spoiled rotten"!!! She…SOLD


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It's a little bit confusing to admire because this roller coaster-inspired scooter by Eddi Prabandono pushes the limits of what might be perceived as a standard piece of mobile equipment. The installation is luckily not designed for street use and is rather for visual enjoyment rather than riding purposes.
Scooters are an international part of our modern world. In various cities around the world, scooters are opted for because of their ability to quickly weave through traffic and not require a proper parking space when you have to stop somewhere. As such, this design by Prabandono is truly an international piece of artwork because there is likely a very few number of people who wouldn't be able to identify the familiar vehicle.
Roller Coaster-Inspired Scooters
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Wildlife-Protecting Chocolates
Colorful Shower Bubbles
Vintage Workwear Napkins
Ultra-Spicy Flatbread Sandwiches
Healthy Terra-Cotta Cookware
Eddi Prabandono Creates a Scooter That Emulates a Loop De Loop
Feb 27, 2013By: Michael Hemsworth -
References: indoartnow & notcot.org
References: indoartnow & notcot.org


text: A szchaun restaurant in West Island, without having to go downtown. Very good szechaun food at a reasonable price. Hot and sour soup, hunan dumplings, spring rolls, pepper chicken with crispy spinach are my favorites. Service is good and ambiance changes with the time of the day depending upon the number of clients in the restuarant.


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If you want to pay your bill, please visit Dillards.com/payonline.
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Love! I have 2 pairs. My Dillards salesman suggested I go one-half size down in a peep-toe and he was right. Lucky shoes are stylish and well-made.
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I love the way these look on very cute but they are not comfortable at all. There is a seam that runs down the middle of the shoe that rubs a blister on my toe.
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Comments about Lucky Brand Jazspur Perforated Leather Peep Toe Wedges:
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Perfect Peep Toe spring booties
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Love these receive compliments every time I wear them. Comfortable too!
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I would not purchase this again
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Looks great but there is a seam that kills the toes
Beautiful Shoes!
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These are so stylish and I absolutely love them. They did hurt the top of my toes when I was standing and walking in them for a while.
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Adorable and comfortable.
These shoes will get a lot of wear!!
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I love these shoes not only very stylish but very comfortable.
Lucky Wedges
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Love these shoes. Very comfortable. Have had a different color and style.
I love these !
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These are super cute and they go with everything! Yes I recommend them.
Awesome shoe
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Very elegant bootie! Comfortable


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Tag: Weed Prevention
Get rid of garden weeds with the help of Blain's Farm & Fleet. You work hard to grow your flower or vegetable garden. When weeds start to pop up, they not only ruin the appearance of your beautiful garden, but they also suck up nutrients that your plants need. With the help of Blain's Farm & Fleet, you can learn about 10 different ways to kill unwanted garden weeds. 1.(…)
Learn how and when to use crabgrass preventer with Blain's Farm & Fleet. As the temperatures start to warm up, your lawn will start to wake up. With this comes the possibility of crabgrass. Crabgrass is a common weed that can invade your lawn. While it's not harmful, it can be an eyesore in an otherwise luscious lawn. With the help of Blain's Farm & Fleet, you can learn about(…)
Don't let lawn weeds get you down; fight back with Blain's Farm & Fleet! There are a lot of different methods for fighting weeds, and they depend on what stage the weeds in your lawn are in. Take action early when dealing with lawn weeds. They spread very quickly. Preventative weed fighting Pre-ermergent herbicides – The best practice is to prevent lawn weeds before they happen. You can do this by(…)


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еҮәзүҲж—Ҙжңҹ: 1996-10-15
дҪңиҖ…пјҡ зҺӢй ҶйҺ®/и'—
иЈқиЁӮпјҡ е№іиЈқ.е–®иүІеҚ°еҲ·.418й Ғ.
йҡӢж–ҮеёқгҖҢжҘҠе …гҖҚпјҢиў«зҫҺеңӢеӯёиҖ…йәҘе…ӢвҖ§е"Ҳзү№еҚҡеЈ«йҒёзӮәгҖҢдё–з•ҢжңҖе…·еҪұйҹҝеҠӣзҡ"100дәәгҖҚд№ӢдёҖпјҢдҪҶжҳҜд»–зҡ"е»әеңӢеӨ§жҘӯеҚ»жңүеҰӮжӣҮиҠұдёҖзҸҫгҖӮ дёҖжүӢзөҗжқҹеҚ—еҢ—жңқдёүзҷҫе№ҙеӨ§еӢ•дәӮгҖҒе»әз«ӢйҡӢжңқзҡ"жҘҠе …пјҢд»Ҙд»–иҒ°жҳҺгҖҒеҲ»иӢҰгҖҒеӨҡз–'зҡ"иӨҮйӣңжҖ§ж јпјҢз®ЎзҗҶи'—йҫҗеӨ§зҡ"еңӢ家ж©ҹеҷЁпјҢе'ҢдёҖзҫӨд»Ҙж¬Ҡж…ҫзөҗеҗҲпјҢеҗ"жҮ·й¬јиғҺзҡ"иҮЈеӯҗпјҢе…ұеҗҢеҗҲжј"дёҖ幕幕гҖҢеҫ©д»ҮиҲҮжҺ еҘӘгҖҚзҡ"жҲІзўј----жҘҠе …еҫҒжңҚдәҶеӨ©дёӢпјҢеҫҒжңҚдёҚдәҶиҖҒе©ҶпјӣеүҠејұдәҶеј·ж•өзӘҒеҺҘпјҢеҚ»йҳ»жӯўдёҚдәҶе…'еӯҗй–"зҡ"ж®әжҲ®пјӣд»–зҡ"еӨ©дёӢжҳҜе…ө家зҡ"еӨ©е ӮпјҢд№ҹжҳҜдәәй–"зҡ"ең°зҚ"гҖӮ и¶ЁеӢўе°Ҳ家詹е®Ҹеҝ—иӘҚзӮәгҖҠй•·жІіиҗҪж—ҘгҖӢжҳҜдёҖйғЁгҖҢж°ЈжҙҫдёҚеҮЎзҡ"жӯЈзөұжӯ·еҸІе°ҸиӘӘпјҢжғ…зҜҖиЁӯиЁҲеҮәиүІпјҢеҘҪзңӢеҸҲеј•дәәж·ұжҖқгҖҚгҖӮ
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We currently accept Mastercard and Visa credit cards. Your credit card information is secured and safeguarded when shopping at Youbeli.com. All information are encrypted and sent through secured and protected channels. As we are employing Mobile88 (iPay88) as our payment gateway, Mobile88 will be stated in your credit card statement.
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Diocese of Spokane
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Mercy Never Ends...
- John Fencik
The Father's intent was the restoration of our heritage as God's children, the redemptive sacrifice to atone for all sins and the proclamation of salvation (mercy) to be found in Jesus alone.
Why We Should Address Jesus as Thou
- Bishop Robert Barron
I believe that one of the major problems we have in evangelizing our culture is that many Christians don't walk with Jesus personally. Finally, evangelization is not a sharing of ideas—though this can be very important at the level of pre-evangelization or clearing the ground—but rather the sharing of a relationship.
St. Virginia Centurione Bracelli
- Faith Catholic
Virginia Centurione, born into a noble family in Genoa, Italy, in 1587, was forced into marriage at a young age, despite her wish to live a religious life. She had two daughters, Leila and Isabella. But her husband died when she was just 20 years old, which allowed her to devote her life to abandoned children and the needs of the elderly, the sick and the poor.
How do I pray for someone to come back to God?
- Sister Ann Shields
God loves and cares for the person even more than you do. He wants that person back in his family, back in relationship with him. To have a son or daughter of God back in the fold must bring untold joy to the Lord. Think about the prodigal son (see Luke 15:11-32); think about the father waiting and watching for his son – looking for him on the road, running out to meet him.
Lessons in mercy: The parable of the sower
- Doug Culp
The official Year of Mercy ended for the universal Church in November. However, the Church's mission of mercy has no end. Let us pray that the call to "be merciful, just as your Father is merciful," resounds throughout our lives and the life of the Church in all the years to come.


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Martin takes the wand to my pussy and attempts to make me cum. After 5 minutes go by, Martin denies me of my orgasm because it takes me so long to cum, leaving me sexually frustrated!Ball gagged, tied in that painful chicken wing, back arched from my hair being pulled back, and me, on my knees throughout a majority of the live show with no reward. All punishment, no pleasure for me tonight.Format: mp4Duration: 14:39Video: 1920x1080, AVC(H.264), 2643kbpsAudio: 156kbps
BDSM Show - Hogtie Tapout Custom Video - 1080 HD
Two-Timing Ho Gets Punished


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Brussels, February, 21st, 2017 (GFMD). Who tells the stories to the world about the development (...)
Wednesday 15 June 2016, by SIGNIS
Brussels, 15th June 2016 (SIGNIS/Frank Frost). The SIGNIS Board, meeting in Québec City, Canada, June 6-10, 2016, devoted most of its time and energy to plans for the next SIGNIS World Congress, which will be held in Québec June 19-21, 2017. Of course regular business was not neglected, making for a full work schedule.
The week of meetings began with a tour of the facilities of Laval University, which will host our Congress. Four floors of rooms of every size, from ball-room expanse for plenary meetings, to comfortable meeting rooms seating 30-50 people are organized around a central atrium – ideal for displays and receptions. The Dean of the Laval University Theology Faculty, Fr Gilles Routhier, extended a warm welcome and a promise of full support and collaboration as we plan our programme.
Our local host and organizer, board member Fr Pierre Murray, arranged two tours of old Quebec City, which is sure to be a major attraction for our Congress attendees. Kicking off the first tour was a visit to the historic Basilica-Cathedral Notre-Dame de Québec, where we were warmly welcomed by the Cardinal Archbishop of Québec, Gérald Cyprien Lacroix. We were then able to make a very short pilgrimage through the Holy Door of the Year of Mercy, the only official holy door in North America.
Back at our desks we heard reports from our President, Gustavo Andujar, our Acting Secretary General, Ricardo Yáñez, and our Acting General Treasurer, Fr Pierre Murray. They were able to report substantial progress in the Brussels office, where Ricardo Yáñez has been performing two jobs admirably since the departure of Alvito De Souza. Ricardo has reorganized the internal structure of the Brussels office to provide more robust services and collaboration among staff. This included a professional workshop on team building, which also involved the staff of SIGNIS Services Rome (SSR) for the first time. It is hoped that, since finances are stable, Ricardo will soon be able to hire an additional staff person to fill his former position.
Fabrizio Colombo also reported that SSR has made a transition from primarily a provider of technical services to missionary regions, to include a pastoral consulting dimension that will enable SSR to advise missionary dioceses on their larger communications plans and needs.
Reports from every region of SIGNIS around the world reported robust activity. SIGNIS is alive and well! A new SIGNIS web portal will be going live soon and the members of every region are urged to report activities there on an ongoing basis.
Challenges that continue to confront the SIGNIS Secretariat include financial growth and fundraising, as well as comprehensive communications planning. A Development Committee was established to address fundraising.
With quadrennial elections pending in 2017, an election committee was named to manage nominations. A permanent Secretary General will be elected, along with a permanent General Treasurer, the President, and two Vice-Presidents. The current officers were asked if they intend to run for second terms, and all three officers, President Gustavo Andujar, Vice-President Lawrence Sinniah, and Vice-President Frank Frost all expressed an interest in a second term.
Claudia Di Giovanni has long been our appointed liaison with the Holy See. She was present to report on the reorganization of all communications functions of the Vatican under one Secretariat of Communications, which is now headed by Msgr. Dario Viganò, previously the head of Vatican Television. We are pleased that Msgr Viganò has assigned Claudia the continuing role of representing his secretariat within SIGNIS. The Pontifical Council for Social Communications (PSSC) has been dissolved, and Archbishop Claudio Maria Celli retires this July. His deputy at the PSSC, Bishop Paul Tighe, has been appointed Adjunct Secretary of the Pontifical Council for Culture.
But, as stated earlier, the greatest attention at the board meeting went to planning for SWC 2017. This congress will be coordinated with the Catholic Press Association of North America, which will hold its annual Catholic Media Conference (CMC) immediately following SWC 2017. One day of combined programme will bridge the two events.
MARK YOUR CALENDARS! SWC 2017 June 19-21, 2017. CMC June 21-23, 2017.
The theme of SWC 2017 (which has also been adopted by CMC) is "Promoting Stories of Hope." This theme is timely and rich with possibilities, offering perfect continuity with our long-time umbrella theme, "Media for a Culture of Peace." Plans are to organize the programme across four concurrent strands (tracks): production, spirituality, media education/technology, and news (reporting). Extensive reaction to the planned theme and tracks was followed by brainstorming in three phases, which arrived at a rich variety of possible workshops and events. It was determined that the keynote events would be of the "TED" presentation style, no longer than 20 minutes, followed by breakout discussions. It was noted that our presence in French Canada should not become a lost opportunity. In particular, Laval University itself will become a participating host, through Theology Dean Gilles Routhier. Dean Routhier will participate in the Programming Committee that was appointed to clarify the planning process and define the programme.
Finally we want to note with pleasure that two veteran leaders of OCIC blessed us with their presence for part of the meeting. They were Sister Huguette Turcotte, who worked at the OCIC General Secretariat 1976-1978 and 1984-1989 and Fr. Jean-Paul Guillet PME, director 1987-2003 of what is now SIGNIS Services Rome.
Photos in the Flickr gallery
Brussels, February, 21st, 2017 (GFMD). Who tells the stories to the world about the development (...)
Brussels, February, 21st, 2017 (SIGNIS Europe). As you might already know, SIGNIS Europe is (...)
New York, February, 20th, 2017 (Plural+). The United Nations Alliance of Civilizations (UNAOC) (...)
Rome, February, 13th, 2017 (SSR). Did you always want to create a website for your Diocese, (...)


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I forgot to mention that if you didn't make the cross yourself to
produce your big seed pod, a bee must have. Apparently their fur
rubs against the pollen of one flower and they carry it to the next
and get it on that stigmatic lip -- often more effectively than we
do, it sometimes appears. Chalk up another to Mother Nature!
--- In iris-talk@y..., "cengelstad1" <Chris.Engelstad@h...> wrote:
> try the archive feature on iris-talk or iris-photos. another great
> resource is http://www.geocities.com/RainForest/7679/.
> yeah for plump pods!
> chris
> --- In iris-talk@y..., Karen von Bargen <esteban_maturin@y...>
> > Hi, All!
> > I have got a huge seed pod on one of the iris.
> > Really big, like 4 inches long and about as big around
> > as two of my fingers. Impressive to me, at least. Can
> > someone direct me to a place where I can learn how to
> > perhaps grow the seeds? I know it is a well discussed
> > topic and do not want to clog up the line with 'common
> > knowledge'. We would very much like to experiment with
> > the mysterious seeds, see if we could actually get
> > anything. Thanks in advance!
> >
> > Karen von Bargen
> > San Martin, CA
> > zone 8A
> >
> > __________________________________________________
> > Do You Yahoo!?
> > LAUNCH - Your Yahoo! Music Experience
> > http://launch.yahoo.com
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Click to Buy Now
November 26, 2014
Konga offers Black Friday Yakata Deals November 27 with 70% discount
Konga is currently offering an amazing deals known as Konga Yakata sales which offers 50% discount on all sales from all categories. This amazing offer has free shipping included offering the best black Fridays sales ever. With this, you can buy 20,000 NGN, item for 10,000 NGN and a 50,000 NGN, item for 25,000 Naira. This deal is quite awesome as you can purchase a voucher for shopping at half the price to be used only on this year's Black Friday.
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The people of Laos are very diverse, as there are a large number of different ethnic groups living in the country. They are friendly, have a rich sense of humor and love telling stories. They are also patient and very accepting of life, not trying to change the way things are, but taking them as they are. The precepts of Buddhism are a very important part of their lives.
Lao is the main language spoken throughout the country, however, given the wide range of ethnic groups, you may hear a variety of tribal languages. French, Vietnamese and English are also sometimes spoken.
The majority of the people in Laos are Buddhists. Other belief systems from Confucianism to animism to Christianity are also represented.
As with most Asia countries, don't touch anyone on the head or with the foot, and women should never touch a monk. Public displays of affection are frowned upon. Dress appropriately for your visit to this Buddhist country. Short shorts and revealing clothing should be avoided. Footwear must be removed when entering a temple. Always carry your ID or passport with you. The typical Lao greeting is the nop, with the hands pressed together as if in prayer, however some people will shake hands instead.
Lao cuisine, with its Thai, Vietnamese, Chinese and French influences, tends to be spicy, with a liberal use of chiles. Some of the local specialties are: sticky rice, feel free to eat this with your fingers - just roll it in a bite-size ball and pop it in your mouth; pho, a rice noodle soup, usually served with beef or pork; laap, minced meat, fish or vegetables tossed in lime juice, garlic, onions and chiles; tam maal hung, a salad of papaya mixed with chiles, garlic, lime, fish sauce and palm sugar; and khai phaan, moss from the Mekong River usually topped with garlic and tomato, a Luang Prabang specialty.Favorite local libations include lao lao, a rice whisky, and Beerlao.


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Unified Fabric Nová generace 10Gb Ethernetu pro datová centra
Splňuje nároky datových center nové generace na optimalizované služby virtuálních strojů s vícenásobnými sockety a vícenásobnými jádry a je vhodný pro prostředí, ve kterém se běžně řeší problematika expanze infrastruktury a narůstající zátěže.
- Vysoce výkonný 10gigabitový Ethernet s krátkou čekací dobou
- Volitelně Unified Fabric s technologií Fibre Channel Over Ethernet (FCoE) pro konsolidaci vstupu a výstupu
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226-40th Street, Sea Isle City, This vacation rental property sleeps 8 with 4 bedrooms and 2 and one half baths. 4 bedroom 2 bath townhouse near center of town and close to restaurants and shopping. First level has 3 bedrooms and 1 full bath, one bedroom → Read More
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Since Graduation from Georgetown University Law Center in 1977, I have taken and passed the bar, and practiced in five States: Virginia, Pennsylvania, Arizona, New Mexico and Ohio. I have worked for the government, for large and small corporatio...
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Hotfrog Singapore provides information regarding Infosoft in Singapore. Infosoft is located at Blk 809 French Rd #03-190 Kitchener Complex, Singapore 200809 and provides Repair Services services. Contact them on 6783 1718.
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5 Bedroom Close to Downtown, 5 minutes to CONVENTION CENTER, 1 minute to The PEARL which is the north end of the River WAlk. Walk to the natural River, Zoo, Japanese Garden, Witte and Children's Museums, Gardens, Restaurants- NEW BEDS AND FURNISHINGS-3 Queen beds, 6 Single Beds, 2 Living Areas with 2 sofas- Upscale Historic House with granite and new stainless appliances, linens, completely ready kitchen with dishes, cooking pots and pans, toaster, coffee and espresso machines, mixer, gas stove, outdoor gas grill, new stainless appliances. Historic house has just had a beautiful renovation. The house and neighborhood are nestled in Brackenridge Park, bordered by the Golf Course, the natural river, Brackenridge Park, Davis Park and Mulberry Ave. Quiet private area of town-Sleeps 14, 5 BR, 3 queen beds, 6 single beds, 2 living areas, 2 Couches - NEW: Beds, GRANITE COUNTERS, NEW STAINLESS APPLIANCES, Designer Decorated, Historic, Quiet residential area, Unique: the only area on the natural river, safe area, Walk to Zoo, Japanese Garden, new Children's DoSeum, Zoo, Brackenridge Park, Witte Museum, park walk and bike trails, kiddie rides, playground. House is close to main highways-3 mi. to CONVENTION Center & ALAMO and right off 281 to get to Sea World, Six Flags Fiesta Texas, Lackland AFB Very--Close to Highways--Many guests have said they had the best time ever in San Antonio staying at this house because the location is ideal. It is a quiet, historic, unique neighborhood, just north of the city center; but a very safe area. It's proximity to so many of the historical sites, missions, conv. center, zoo, museums, Spur's games, is ideal. That is the reason we began to offer the house to guests: so they could enjoy the area, too. It is unique in that the neighborhood is small and right on the natural San Antonio River at Brackenridge Park. The neighborhood is small and home to some famous artists and musicians, like Jim Cullum, one of the jazz greats. One of the homes was built in the 1700's. The neighborhood's boundaries are the River, Golf Course, Brackenridge Park, Davis Park and Mulberry Ave. Trinity and Univ. of Incarnate Word, Ft. Sam, Alamo Downtown, Market Square only a few minutes.
We recently purchased this historic home and restored it. It is in such a nice location and a charming historic house, that we wanted to be able to share it with others.
James or Jean purchased this house in 2015
Wow! The natural river is around the corner. You can walk over to the zoo and Japanese Garden. You are in a safe unique neighborhood right in the Park. Cool!
LOCATION is at natural river and close to all the downtown and mission sites. It is in the unique neighborhood of River Road, location of historic houses and some world famous musicians (Jim Cullum) and artists. Close to highways, golf, zoo, city center- spacious updated house.
The location of this house is perfect .The owner, Jean, was very good about providing extra details and amenities that made the trip perfect for my family and friends. She is very responsive and was able to answer all my questions quickly about the rental and local area. The key however is the location. It allowed us to use Uber almost anywhere for under $20. The Pearl is very close and is perfect for the trendy crowd. Hotel Emma is a must to see and it is only a few blocks from the house.
The rental is very clean, comfortable, and spacious. The property pictures and description are accurate. If you are staying in the San Antonio area this is a great rental. The only drawback is if you like to watch TV. There is a limited number of channels. However the WiFi was great and can be used.
This house is in a cute, tucked away neighborhood close to major San Antonio attractions. The house itself is very nice and has everything you need. Perfect little get away! Highly recommended.
This home is very conveniently located in the heart of all downtown activities and attractions. We had a total of 8 people staying at the home with a mix of adults and children. The layout of the home and the bedrooms were perfect for our group. The 2 living room areas allowed separate spaces for the kids and adults to enjoy some down time. We all enjoyed walking along the river and exploring the riverbanks. The neighborhood is quiet and peaceful. Jean responded quickly during the reservation process, was available for any questions we had and obviously wanted us to enjoy our stay. We definitely did and we will return to this home if we ever need a place in San Antonio again!
We had a group of nine who stayed in the Pearl River property for the weekend. House was very convienent to downtown and to Brackenride Park/Brackenridge Golf Course. There were some very good restaurants close by, so it was not necessary to go downtown for a great meal. The La Fonda on main was wonderful and only 5 minutes away for great Mexican food.
The owner, Jean, was most helpful even though she was in the middle of a family emergency. She even allowed me to see the property beforehand so that I could insure it would be adequate for my group. There was ample parking in the driveway and on the street to accommodate all the vehicles of my group. Property description and photos were accurate.
Only have a couple of comments concerning the amenities. Everything was great with a couple of exceptions.
1. The coffee maker was extremely slow to make a pot of coffee. Think the place needs a new one., especially for a big group of adults.
2. TV was a little spotty, and a better cable/dish package would help with football game viewing.
Overall was great, and have gotten very favorable feedback from everyone in our group. Would highly recommend this property for anyone visiting San Antonio for a group or a family gathering.
Our family was in town for a wedding at the Japanese Tea Garden. Rental is close to the event as well as River Walk, Brackenridge Park, etc. The rental house was comfortable for our large family group of mixed ages
Jean was very helpful in getting this booked and making sure we had what we needed.
I think my favorite thing about the property was having my morning coffee in the back sitting room looking at the tropical landscape. The place was very clean and the pictures are a great representation of what to expect.
We will definitely be staying there again.
Property is walking distance to the Zoo, Museums, Gardens, and 1 minute to The Pearl where there is shopping, world class restaurants, and the start of the River Boats and the River Walk. CONVENTION CENTER is 5 minutes. ALAMO and visitor center is 3 minutes. The neighborhood is bordered by Brackenridge Park, Zoo, Golf, Davis Park and close to Highway 281, I35, restaurants, Military Bases. Close to Trinity and UIW. Small, quiet, unique neighborhood. Historic and house is all NEW inside, new beds, etc.
|Rental Period
|Minimum Price
|Additional Nights
|Weekend Night
|Monthly *
|Event Price
My Standard Rate
1 night minimum stay
for 1 night
|Notes: Rates are based on 4 guests; add £40 per night, per additional guest
|Refundable Damage Deposit
|Cleaning Fee
Rates are subject to change until reservation is confirmed by management of property.
Reservation and Cancellation Policy: Full refund if cancelled within twenty days of reservation, except for $50 fee.
50% refund if cancelled within ten days of reservation. No refund otherwise. Contact owner: if the property can be booked at same or better price after you cancel, refund will be given minus a $200 fee.
* Approximate monthly price. Actual pricing will depend on the days of the month you stay.


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Creating a Business Letter Business Technology Applications
2 What is a Business Letter? Why write one? Written to give information Written to serve as evidence in cases of dispute Written to build goodwill Written to remember facts Written because they are convenient To Whom is one written? What should be in one? What is proper format?
3 What are the types of Business Letters? Formal Business May or May not be typed on LetterheadLetterhead Already contains your return address You dont retype it
4 What are the Required Parts of a Business Letter? Letterhead or Heading Dateline Inside Address Salutation Body Complimentary Closing Signature Typists Initials Optional: Enclosure Attachment
5 Whats in The Heading (your information) Single Spaced – followed by four lines Always includes the date As the last entry Business Letter (no letterhead) Your return address Only abbreviation is Postal Code - NJ May include Phone#, Fax#, Email@ Date Formal Business Letter (on letterhead) Date only
6 What is the Inside Address (addressees information) Persons Name, Title Company Name/Department Company Address Single Spaced Followed by one blank lines (Enter Key twice)
7 What is the Salutation? (a greeting) Dear Mr. Sloan Dear Dr. Smith Dear Ms. Jones Gentlemen Dear Sir or Madam
8 What is the Body? (The actual letter) Brief and to the point! Strictly Business Guideline – 3 paragraphs (at least) Brief Introduction Contents - What I want Conclusion and Thank you Each paragraph: Single Spaced Followed by one blank lines (Enter Key twice)
9 Complimentary Close Sincerely, Yours truly, Respectfully yours, Followed by three lines (Enter Key 4 times) After printing you will sign the letter here
10 Signature Your Full Name Mrs. Regina Sikorski Your Title (if appropriate) Computer Club Moderator Followed by one lines (Enter Key twice) If optional parts are required
11 Optional Parts Typist Initials If your secretary typed this for you RES/js Enclosure If something else is in the letter or package Followed by one lines (Enter Key twice)
12 What are acceptable formats for a Business Letter? Block All parts are Left Justified to the margin Modified Block All parts Left aligned Heading, Close, Signature at tab position 3.25 Indentation – choose either No paragraph indentation All paragraphs first line indent.5
13 What are acceptable punctuation styles for a Business Letter? Open No punctuation after Salutation or Complimentary Closing Dear Mrs. Smith Respectfully yours Mixed Punctuation after Colon (:) after Salutation Dear Sir: Comma (,) after Complimentary Closing Sincerely,
14 Understand that parameters can be mixed and matched –8 Possibilities
15 Example: Example: Block/mixed punctuation
16 Example: Example: Modified Block/Open Punctuation
17 Letterhead
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Explaining Politics
Culture, Institutions, and Political Behavior
By (author) Oliver Woshinsky
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Explaining Politics by Oliver Woshinsky
Book DescriptionThis unique text offers a comprehensive overview of who participates in politics and why, how social and political institutions shape that involvement, and, ultimately, what form citizen political participation takes. Drawing on a multitude of factors to explain politics and political behaviour, Woshinsky shows that political outcomes depend on a complex interplay between individuals and their environment. Psychology, personality, and ideology, together with culture, institutions, and social context shape political behaviour. Explaining Politics offers a wealth of comparative examples and practical applications through a lively and engaging narrative.
Buy Explaining Politics book by Oliver Woshinsky from Australia's Online Bookstore, Boomerang Books.
Book DetailsISBN: 9780415960786
(229mm x 152mm x 22mm)
Pages: 424
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Publisher: Taylor & Francis Ltd
Publish Date: 15-Jan-2008
Country of Publication: United Kingdom
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Oliver H. Woshinsky is Professor Emeritus at the University of Southern Maine and author of several previous books. He has taught undergraduates for over three decades and has lived and taught in France, Russia, and Great Britain.
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"Go to Burren, Co Clare! It's..." Ireland Favorite Tip by johis
Ireland General: 351 reviews and 266 photos
Favorite thing: Go to Burren, Co Clare! It's the most amazing area of limestone you'll ever see, about 300 sq kilometers in size. There are lots of different spieces of plants, both alpine and mediterranean which is quite interesting. However, you don't have to be a botanist/biologist to appreciate this fantastic place... it has something of a magic feel to it.
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Views: 111, Replies: 1 » Jump to the end
Mar 29, 2016 2:48 PM CST
|One that's still fairly new to me and still quite tiny. 2015 was it's second year and I still had it in a pot. It was decimated by slugs in its first year, but did much better in 2015.
It's a real cute one. (('Swoosh' x longissima) x 'Red Neck Heaven') x 'Elvis Lives'<br> I look forward to seeing it grow up. So far no bloom on this one, but it lasted well through the season. Please feel free to add your photos of this hosta.
June 21
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Pictures of all my hostas, updated annually and tracked since 2008 begin at: https://violaann.smugmug.com/G...
Name: Gary
Wyoming MN (Zone 4a)
Mar 29, 2016 11:48 PM CST
|Mine is about 4yrs old now. It is a very attractive small hosta.
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Failures are normal rather than exceptional in the cloud computing environments. To improve system availability, replicating the popular data to multiple suitable locations is an advisable choice, as users can access the data from a nearby site. This is, however, not the case for replicas which must have a fixed number of copies on several locations. How to… (More)
Coverage control is one of the key problems of research and application of wireless sensor networks. In this paper, the coverage control problem for hybrid wireless sensor network consisting of both static and mobile sensors is investigated. A dynamic repair mechanism based on the ant colony algorithm is proposed for coverage blind spots found in the… (More)
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- Lake Vista in Ambe Gaon, Ambegaon, Pune, Maharashtra
- Price : On Request
Build up Area: 628 Sq. Feet Highlights: 1 Bedroom, 1 Bathroom,
- It's a 1 bedroom Flat with an adjoining hall. This Fully Furnished flat has a covered area of 628 Sq-ft & has 1 bathrooms. The flat has Vitrified floo... View More
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- Copyscape pass guaranteed.
- High quality
I'm always available, and deliver on time, so my work will be in your inbox in just a few hours. With the guarantee of a free revision you are certain to end with the story that you are hoping for.
Kindly let me know if you want to design the book cover of your eBook so that you won't waste time looking for cover designers.
I'm always ready to listen to your advice. If there is ANYTHING you don't like about the content, I'll rewrite it for free until you are 100% happy.
Enjoy this opportunity! Don't let it pass you by!