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In incidental learning situations, contingencies are extracted from the environment without the intention to learn and can change behavior without awareness for the extracted regularity. The development of explicit access to the learned regularity is an important learning mechanism that is rarely examined. With a series of behavioral, electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies, we were able to show that the emergence of awareness for a hidden regularity is accompanied by an increase in neural activity and in high-frequency coupling between distant brain areas as observed with a time–frequency resolved EEG analysis. More importantly, the increase in neural coupling was observed before awareness for the learned material was established behaviorally. In addition, coupling increases were paralleled by an fMRI-signal increase in the ventral striatum and the right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex directly preceding the emergence of awareness. The involvement of this system, which has already been linked to the processing of predictions and prediction errors, indicates the relevance of a reinforcement signal to generate awareness for the learned contingencies. Thus, our data provide direct evidence for the necessity of large-scale coupling and the evaluation of a predictive stimulus value as the basis for a transition from implicit to explicit memory.
The transition from implicit to explicit memory during incidental learning offers an experimentally tractable paradigm to study neuronal processes underlying the development of a consciously available memory trace. This transition is an important process in order to adapt to changing environments (Koch et al. 2006) and can be observed in operant conditioning (O'Doherty et al. 2004): Initially, learning relies on implicitly formed associations, which is then followed by conscious awareness about the basis of what one's decisions rely on. This is a very effective way to experience the complex contingencies in the environment and is assumed to be an important learning mechanism during development, when concepts of the world are often acquired incidentally. However, the pertinent question is how these explicit memories are acquired.
The observation of a sudden insight into underlying rules is a widely known finding in research on implicit learning (Seger 1994). During implicit learning, participants gradually adapt to the contingencies inherent in the task, mostly without being able to report anything about the underlying regularities. However, in nearly all implicit learning tasks, a variable number of participants also gains explicit knowledge about the underlying regularities. Furthermore, several findings suggest that this generation of explicit memories leads to a change in behavior and thus might be of great relevance for a rapid adaptation to a changing environment (e.g., Koch 2007; Tubau et al. 2007; Haider and Frensch 2009). Despite the significance of these findings, the emergence of explicit memory in incidental learning situations and the neural basis for this transition process, in particular, is rarely examined. Theoretical models suggest a distinct cognitive process that initiates the transition from incidental learning to explicit memory formation (Runger and Frensch 2008), and the evaluation of the neural activity in relation to this process may provide evidence for the existence and the possible nature of this additional process.
Several studies have shown that the anterior lateral prefrontal cortex plays a role in situations in which the learning process is already explicit (Strange et al. 2001; Turner et al. 2004; Carter et al. 2006). In a previous study, we observed an increase in neural activity in the right ventral prefrontal cortex for the implicit detection of prediction errors during learning (Rose et al. 2005). This process is discussed as an important precondition for the development of explicit memory (Runger and Frensch 2008). An additional contribution of the striatum for the generation of predictions during learning is discussed for feedback-based learning (Shohamy et al. 2004; Bischoff-Grethe et al. 2009). Furthermore, there is evidence for an involvement of the ventral striatum (VS) in motivational learning (Seger 2008). In a previous experiment, it was suggested that the basal ganglia and the medial temporal lobe (MTL) interact during learning, depending on the implicit or explicit mode of processing (Poldrack et al. 2001). In this study, the MTL activity decreased, and the activity in the basal ganglia increased with implicit learning. However, in our own study, we found evidence for an involvement of MTL structures even in implicit learning of relational knowledge comparable with the present study (Rose et al. 2002). The present study further examines this area used to represent the regularity in order to directly test for possible changes due to the development of explicit memory.
Furthermore, studies on conscious awareness during learning (McIntosh et al. 1999) and problem solving (Jung-Beeman et al. 2004) revealed the importance of interactions of the right prefrontal cortex with other areas to establish the neural correlate of the explicit aspect of the memory. In the actual study, we examined the neural activity and interactions in direct temporal relation to the emergence of explicit memory to test the hypothesis that frontal activity and interconnectivity increase in the time period directly preceding the emergence of explicit knowledge and therefore can be regarded as the neural basis for an additional process that is the basis for the generation of explicit memory.
For a detailed examination of the transition process from incidental learning to conscious knowledge, an objective measure of the development of awareness is necessary (Persaud et al. 2007). However, using confidence ratings or directly asking volunteers might bias participants to explicitly search for an underlying regularity (Dienes and Scott 2005).
Recent findings have revealed that participants, who develop explicit memories during incidental learning, show a dramatic decrease in reaction time (RT) (Haider and Frensch 2005; Haider and Rose 2007), which indicates that the actual stimuli become less important for response preparation (Tubau et al. 2007). In these experiments, participants were instructed to solve tasks on the basis of simple explicit rules. Unbeknownst to the participants, the tasks also contained a hidden regularity. This hidden regularity, if explicitly noticed, allows participants to prepare their responses in advance to the occurrence of the stimuli resulting in a clear decrease of RT. The results demonstrated that explicit memory in these kinds of experiments correlated with an RT drop across several consecutive trials. In contrast, single fast responses in individual trials did not signal explicit memory.
The goal of the behavioral experiments therefore was to evaluate the reliability of this RT-drop as an indicator for the point in time when explicit memory emerges. If we can show that the RT drop reliably indicates the emergence of explicit memory, we should be able to investigate the neural events accompanying and, in particular, preceding this process of insight in subsequent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG) studies.
Materials and Methods
Eighteen healthy volunteers (age 19–36, 12 females) participated in the fMRI experiment; 19 volunteers participated in the EEG study (age 20–36, 9 females), and 77 healthy subjects were recruited for the behavioral studies (age 19–41, 49 females). All subjects were right handed and had normal or corrected-to-normal vision. The study was approved by the ethics committee, and all participants gave written informed consent prior to participating in the study.
The colored squares (0.6° × 0.6°; all 4 responses together 2.3°) were presented on a gray background controlled by a PC that ensured synchronization with the MR scanner using the software "Presentation" (http://nbs.neuro-bs.com). For the MR experiment, an LCD projector projected the stimuli on a screen positioned on top of the head coil that was viewed by the subjects through a mirror (10 × 15° field of view), and the stimuli for the EEG and behavioral studies were presented on a monitor. Participants entered the responses by pressing buttons on an MR-compatible device or on a keyboard with the right hand (EEG and behavioral studies).
In the employed experimental design, participants practiced a simple sequential task. This task was identical in all experiments. During the task, volunteers were shown pairs of colored squares (red, green, or blue) and had to simply compare the colors of 1 pair of squares in order to generate a response according to 2 simple rules (see Fig. 1). The first rule stated that the result of 2 identical colors is the same color (i.e., the first stimulus red and red = red). The second rule stated that the response to 2 different colors is the remaining of the 3 colors (e.g., in the second stimulus, green and red = blue). Each color response was assigned to a distinct button that should be pressed. Each stimulus pair was presented for a maximum of 3 s. It disappeared after the response was made, and the response appeared in the row below. Regardless of the RT to the previous stimulus pair, the next stimulus pair was always presented after an interval of 3 s.
The response is presented in the row below the stimulus pair containing a total of 4 responses per task. Importantly, unbeknownst to the participants, a hidden regularity was embedded into this response row, such that the final response in each trial was identical to the first one (determined), whereas the other responses were unpredictable (undetermined). Thus, participants could incidentally learn this hidden regularity while performing the explicit color comparison task. The stimuli that the volunteer had to compare to make the final response varied across trials. Thus, although the response pattern always follows the hidden regularity, the presentation of the stimulus pairs was not regular (i.e., a response to red could result from a red–red stimulus pair or from a green–blue stimulus pair). As in our previous experiments, participants who gain an explicit insight in the hidden regularity should show an abruptly occurring decrease in RT for the final determined response in comparison with the undetermined responses.
The goal of the behavioral studies was to test whether this abrupt RT drop indicates the emergence of explicit memory. The aim of the fMRI and EEG studies was to evaluate the neural events that accompany and precede this process.
In all experiments reported, the interstimulus interval between consecutive stimulus pairs was 3 s, allowing for a separate estimation of the evoked fMRI signal for each input (i.e., convolution). Incorrect responses or no response within a 3-s window were considered as errors, and the complete trial was excluded from further analyses. Visual feedback was given to the participants in error trials only, and error trials were excluded from all analyses. The intertrial interval was randomized between 8 and 12 s for the fMRI study and between 1 and 3 s for the behavioral and EEG studies. Before the experiment started, participants were trained on the task using unstructured material (i.e., no hidden rule). One study block consisted of 30 trials. In the fMRI and EEG experiment, participants performed a total of 6 blocks.
Behavioral Studies
In all 3 behavioral studies, the reliability of the abrupt RT drop was examined by interrupting the experiment according to the amount of fast responses to the determined input and assessing the degree of explicit knowledge (Table 1). If none of the criteria was reached, the participants also performed a total of 6 blocks like in the fMRI and EEG studies. To detect a reliable fast response to the determined inputs, the RTs were measured online, and the determined inputs were compared statistically against the undetermined inputs. This was done by a method identical in all experiments (online for the behavioral studies and after the experiment for the fMRI and EEG experiment).
For each participant, the time series of RTs across trials for each input (undetermined inputs 1–3 and determined last input) were filtered using a moving median filter (lag 1, width 5, and calculation of median). Furthermore, in each 5-trial-long window of the moving median filter function, confidence intervals (90%) for the undetermined inputs (inputs 2 and 3 only) were estimated. The mean confidence interval of both undetermined inputs was used for a statistical comparison to define the starting point of the RT drop as that point, where the median filtered RTs of the determined input position significantly deviate from the RTs of the undetermined input position. Thus, the confidence interval estimated from the moving median filter was adaptive to general changes in RTs across time, such as habituation or unspecific learning, and the lower confidence value reflected the fast RTs of the undetermined inputs within the specific time interval. If a single RT (median filtered) to a determined input fell below the confidence interval of the undetermined inputs, the RT was counted as significantly faster.
In Experiment 1, the task was interrupted when the participant's responses to the determined input were significantly faster than the confidence interval in 3 successive trials (later referred to as triple RT decrease [TRT]). Thus, the starting point of the TRT was defined as that point when 3 consecutive responses to the determined input position fell below the confidence intervals of responses to input positions 2 and 3. In Experiment 2, the task was interrupted after each single fast response and then continued until the TRT criterion was observed.
It could be argued that explicit memory is already established after the first fast response, and therefore, Experiment 2 directly assessed the relevance of single fast RTs. To compare the reliability of the TRT criterion against the occurrence of single fast responses, the training in Experiment 2 was interrupted after a participant had exhibited a total of 10 fast responses to the determined input, irrespective of whether or not these fast responses occurred in successive trials. Thus, here explicit knowledge was assessed after the occurrence of 10 fast trials that did not result in a constant RT drop.
In the fMRI experiment, the participants performed 6 blocks (with 30 trials each), and explicit knowledge was assessed after the whole experiment. For the participants who were able to verbalize the hidden rule, the RTs were analyzed offline with the method described above to detect the start of the constant RT drop (TRT criterion). In each participant, the first fast RT within this constant RT drop was taken as the reference point for the boundaries of the experimental parts where the blood oxygen level–dependent (BOLD) signal was contrasted statistically. Beginning with this first fast RT, neuronal activity across the next 10 trials was analyzed to detect changes that accompany the emergence of explicit knowledge. The 10 trials before the first fast RT were analyzed to examine neural activity related to the initiation of explicit memory, thus in a time range in which the behavioral experiments demonstrated nearly no occurrence of explicit knowledge. All trials preceding this time period were combined and labeled as the Start period and all trials following the 10 trials after the TRT were subsumed to the End period.
fMRI was performed on a 3-T system (Siemens Trio) with a gradient echo-planar imaging (EPI) T2 sensitive pulse sequence in 38 axial slices (2-mm thickness with a 1-mm gap, time repetition 2.2 s, time echo 25 ms, flip angle 90°, field of view 192 × 192 mm2, and matrix 64 × 64). SPM2 (http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm) was used for image processing and statistical analysis. All volumes were realigned to that first acquired, spatially normalized to the standard EPI template, and smoothed with a 12-mm full-width at half-maximum isotropic Gaussian kernel.
The fMRI data were analyzed by an estimation of the BOLD signal for each single trial and each input in each trial and modeled as a hemodynamic response function (HRF). Error trials were modeled as a separate regressor and were excluded from further contrasts. Using a general linear model, regression coefficients were obtained for each regressor (trial). In each subject, contrasts for the different time periods were calculated with respect to the individual RT decrease. Therefore, the regressor weights of the individual trials were combined by the contrasts according to the individual time point of the emergence of explicit memory (TRT criterion). Thus, in each subject, contrasts for the 4 different time periods (referenced to the individual TRT) were estimated, and all contrasts were entered into a group analysis. To detect changes with learning for the determined inputs within the time period of the emergence of explicit memory (10 trials after the RT decrease), this time period was compared with the Start period. To test the specificity of this effect, it was compared against changes evoked by the undetermined inputs. This was statistically implemented at the level of the group analysis as an interaction contrast testing for an increase of activity from the Start period to the period 10 trials after the TRT specific for the determined input [factor time period × determined/undetermined, corrected for multiple comparisons, False Discovery Rate (FDR) whole brain].
The effects within the time period of 10 trials before the RT decrease were tested using a comparable interaction effect comparing the activity during Start period with the period 10 trials before the TRT between the determined and undetermined inputs (corrected for multiple comparisons, region of interest analysis, 20-mm sphere centered around regions of interest: VLPFC according to Turner et al. 2004, striatum according to Bischoff-Grethe et al. 2009).
Two additional analyses were performed to address possible changes in the area involved in the representation of the learned material. Therefore, 1 contrast tested for an increase of the BOLD signal of the determined inputs from the Start period to both periods around the TRT (10 trials before and after the TRT) and another contrast for a decrease. Both contrasts again were modeled as an interaction effect between time periods and the determined and undetermined inputs (corrected for multiple comparisons, region of interest analysis, 20-mm sphere centered around regions of interest MTL according to Rose et al. 2002).
In the EEG experiment, the participants also performed 6 blocks (with 30 trials each). The explicit knowledge was assessed after the whole experiment, and the TRT criterion was determined in each participant with explicit memory. Using the individual TRT occurrence, the EEG was assigned to comparable time periods as in the fMRI study (Start, 10 before the TRT, 10 trials after the TRT, and End).
EEG was recorded from 57 channels (BrainVision System), impedance <5 kΩ, low cutoff of 0.03 Hz, high cutoff of 250 Hz, 500-Hz sampling rate, referenced to the nose. Vertical and horizontal electrooculographs (EOGs) were recorded from above versus below the left eye and from the outer canthi of the eyes, respectively. Data segments (−800 until 1200 ms around the appearance of a stimulus pair) were extracted for correct trials only, using the individual TRT and the 4 different time periods, checked for artifacts, and decomposed using a time–frequency analysis based on multitapers (Fieldtrip, www.ru.nl/fcdonders/fieldtrip/; window length 256 ms, spectral concentration over 8 Hz). To correct for the bias due to different numbers of trials, a z-transform was applied (Jarvis and Mitra 2001). Each resulting spectrum was normalized by subtracting the baseline values (−300 to −100 ms). To calculate a global index of synchronization, coherence spectra within the time–frequency domain were estimated for all possible channel combinations, and the mean overall spectra were calculated. Single-subject z-transformed mean coherence values were extracted in the frequency range between 35 and 45 Hz (450–550 ms) and 5–20 Hz (300–400 ms). Statistical comparisons were based on interaction effects between undetermined and determined inputs and between different time periods (time ranges with respect to the TRT) comparable with the fMRI contrasts. Of most interest here was the evaluation of an increase of synchronization from the Start period to the period of 10 trials before the TRT limited to the determined inputs.
Behavioral Experiments
In all experiments, the development of explicit insight into the regularity of the determined last response resulted in a clear and abrupt decrease of reaction times (RTs) for the final stimulus pair due to anticipating the correct response even before the stimulus had appeared (Fig. 2). In 3 behavioral experiments (Experiment 1: n = 22, Experiment 2: n = 24, and Experiment 3: n = 31), we evaluated the predictive value of this decrease in RT for the development of explicit memory in further detail.
Although participants practiced the task, their RTs were monitored online, and a confidence interval of the undetermined inputs was estimated (see the Materials and Methods section). The confidence interval was used to detect those RTs to the determined last inputs that were significantly faster than the RTs to the undetermined input position during the ongoing experiment. Each reliably fast response to the determined input position was counted, and training was interrupted when the number of fast responses reached a predetermined criterion that differed in both experiments, and the status of explicit knowledge was assessed. In Experiment 1, the task was interrupted if participants produced 3 fast responses to the determined input position in immediate succession. Reanalyses of former experiments had revealed that participants showing an abrupt RT drop during training never produced more than 1 or 2 fast responses in immediate succession before the drop occurred (Haider and Rose 2007). Therefore, we assumed that this criterion might reflect the starting point of the abrupt and robust decrease in RT. If so, participants showing 3 fast responses in immediate succession should be able to deliberately describe the underlying hidden rule. The status of explicit knowledge was assessed directly after the training had been interrupted. The participants were first asked, whether they noticed something special in the task and if yes, they were asked to explain it. If they did not start to describe the regularity on their own, they were told that a regularity was built into the tasks and were asked to describe it and to write down examples. The memory was categorized as explicit if a participant was able to deliberately verbalize the hidden regularity. In all other cases, participants' knowledge was classified as implicit. The results indicated that 3 fast responses (compared with the undetermined inputs) in successive trials (TRT) were a reliable indicator for a robust and lasting RT decrease and the development of explicit knowledge. At this point in time, 88% of the participants who reached the criterion of Experiment 1 (n = 17) were able to deliberately verbalize the hidden rule, whereas 70% of the participants who did not reach the criterion (n = 7) could not report anything (χ2(1) = 71.69, P < 0.001). Thus, nearly all participants immediately interviewed after the occurrence of 3 fast successive responses were able to explicitly name the hidden rule. By contrast, nearly all participants who never reached this criterion during training were unaware of the presence of a structural regularity. Only 2 of the 7 participants who did not reach the criterion of Experiment 1 mentioned that there was a regularity in the material but were not able to further describe the rule. For those participants, it remained unclear whether they really detected a regularity or whether the interview induced the feeling of a regularity. Consequently, participants with such partial explicit knowledge were excluded from further EEG and fMRI analyses.
In summary, the results of Experiment 1 demonstrated that 3 fast responses in immediate succession (TRT) are a sufficient behavioral predictor for the development of explicit memory. However, an outstanding question was whether explicit knowledge develops in the course of training before the 3 fast responses occurred or whether the 3 fast responses indicate the point in time when explicit memory emerges. Therefore, the goal of Experiment 2 was to test these 2 alternatives with the procedure described above.
In Experiment 2, we additionally controlled for the role of single fast responses. To do so, we interrupted participants' training after they had produced a total of 10 fast responses irrespective of the distribution of these 10 fast responses during training. If these single fast responses already result from explicit memory about the hidden rule, then these participants should also be able to deliberately name the regularity.
The results from Experiment 2 revealed that the predictive value of single fast responses was low. All 22 participants were interrupted after they produced 10 fast responses in nonsuccessive trials distributed over the entire course of training, but only 12 participants could report the hidden rule (55%). A comparison of the distribution of the fast responses in Experiment 2 between volunteers with and without explicit memory showed that participants with explicit memory produced significantly more fast RTs within the last 10 trials before training was interrupted (4.2 vs. 1.3 responses; t[20] = 2.74, P < 0.05).
Experiment 3 was designed to directly evaluate the existence of explicit processes in the time period preceding the RT criterion (TRT). It can be assumed that explicit memory develops gradually over a broader time range before behavioral changes. To test this possibility, the training was interrupted whenever the determined response in a single trial was faster than the undetermined response, using the online estimated confidence interval. Then, the participant was asked for the reason of the fast response. The participant had to select 1 possible response out of several given answers ("not noticed," "a possible mistake," "practice effect," or "knowing the correct answer in advance") and then the experiment continued. As before, the experiment ended when the RT criterion (TRT) was reached or after 6 blocks and the amount of explicit memory was assessed (n = 23 reached the criterion, 87% of these participants were able to deliberately verbalize the entire hidden regularity after the experiment; n = 8 did not reach the criterion and were also not able to verbalize the hidden regularity). Before the occurrence of the TRT, participants were interrupted in 28% of all trials and responded in 7% of all trials that they knew the correct answer in advance. Neither the rate of fast responses nor the rate of answers—possibly indicating explicit knowledge—differed between groups (T(29) = 1.35 and T(29) = 1.27, respectively; P >0.15). Importantly, although the questions may have induced a search process different from all other experiments, the results clearly demonstrated that before the occurrence of the TRT only few of the responses suggested that participants had some explicit knowledge about the hidden rule. By contrast and most interestingly, participants reaching the criterion responded in 92% of the TRT trials that they knew the answer in advance. For these participants, we additionally analyzed the 10 trials before the TRT. Here, only 11% of the responses indicated probable explicit knowledge. Thus, the results of Experiment 3 indicate a strong correlation of the TRT and the sudden emergence of explicit memory.
Overall, the behavioral results of Experiments 1–3 indicate that 1) the development of explicit knowledge is reliably signaled by an abrupt decrease in RT (TRT), and 2) awareness for the regularity starts to emerge at this point in time. The results from Experiment 3, in particular, demonstrated that the TRT signals the emergence of the explicit knowledge with a high temporal precision. As a consequence, the mechanisms that initiate the emergence of explicit knowledge should precede this abrupt decrease in RT, and the results from Experiment 3 suggested that an important time period starts around 10 trials before the RT decrease. Based on these behavioral results, we were in a position to investigate the neuronal basis of this transition process from incidental learning to explicit memory using fMRI and EEG. We used the design of the behavioral experiments (Fig. 1). However, instead of using the prespecified criteria for interrupting the training within a session, the experiment was finished if a participant deliberately named the regularity during the break between 2 successive blocks, and the RT time series was analyzed offline, or the experiment ended after 6 blocks.
|Criterion for interruption
|Aim of the experiment
|Experiment 1
|3 Fast responses in succession
|Amount of explicit knowledge after constant the RT drop
|Experiment 2
|10 Fast responses irrespective of successive occurrence
|Reliability of single fast responses for explicit knowledge
|Experiment 3
|After each single fast response, then continued and aborted after the occurrence of 3 fast responses in succession
|Amount of explicit knowledge before the constant RT drop
|Criterion for interruption
|Aim of the experiment
|Experiment 1
|3 Fast responses in succession
|Amount of explicit knowledge after constant the RT drop
|Experiment 2
|10 Fast responses irrespective of successive occurrence
|Reliability of single fast responses for explicit knowledge
|Experiment 3
|After each single fast response, then continued and aborted after the occurrence of 3 fast responses in succession
|Amount of explicit knowledge before the constant RT drop
fMRI Experiment
Overall, 10 participants (55%) stated during the break between successive blocks that they have noticed a hidden rule in the preceding block and were able to deliberately describe the rule. The error rate was very low (6%), and error regressors were not included in the analyses. No reliable change of error rate was detected across the sessions. Analyses of their performance revealed that they also reached the RT criterion evaluated in the behavioral experiments (TRT). After having reached this criterion, RTs to the determined input position remained consistently faster than RTs to the undetermined inputs in both the fMRI and EEG experiments (repeated measures analysis of variance [ANOVA], interaction: input by time [before/after RT decrease]; MR study: F(3,27) = 100, P < 0.001; EEG study F(3,24) = 40, P < 0.001). To dissociate the RT decrease from implicit learning effects, the RTs after the TRT were compared with the RTs of the last session of the implicit group. A reliable interaction of group by input (fMRI study: F(3,24) = 86.9, P < 0.001; EEG study: F(3,24) = 40.2, P < 0.001) demonstrated that with explicit knowledge, the determined position is processed faster than with implicit memory. This further demonstrated that the TRT signaled an additional process that is specific for the development of explicit memory.
Thus, the personal report together with the behavioral data allowed a precise temporal prediction of the emergence of explicit knowledge. This temporal information was then used in a single-trial analysis of fMRI data to evaluate the neural responses in different brain areas in relation to the transition process. For each participant, the whole time series of learning was divided into 4 segments of interest around the individual time point of the TRT (see Fig. 3). From our behavioral studies, it was concluded that the first 10 trials of the RT drop are the trials when explicit memory has emerged. Within that time segment, a clear increase of neural activity in several brain areas, including bilateral VS, frontal, parietal, and anterior cingulate cortex was observed (Table 2). The increase in the BOLD signal was limited to the processing of the determined input position and was time locked to the individual occurrence of the TRT.
|Coordinates (mm) and magnitudes of main activations
|Emergence of explicit knowledge (TRT) (modeled as an interaction inputs × time period, P < 0.05, corrected)
|10 Trials before (interaction inputs × time period, P < 0.05, corrected)
|Left ventral striatum
|Right ventral striatum
|Right VLPFC
|Left VLPFC
|Medial orbitofrontal cortex
|Cingulate cortex
|Left lateral parietal cortex
|Right lateral parietal cortex
|Parietal cortex
|Left temporal
|Right temporal
|Visual cortex
|Coordinates (mm) and magnitudes of main activations
|Emergence of explicit knowledge (TRT) (modeled as an interaction inputs × time period, P < 0.05, corrected)
|10 Trials before (interaction inputs × time period, P < 0.05, corrected)
|Left ventral striatum
|Right ventral striatum
|Right VLPFC
|Left VLPFC
|Medial orbitofrontal cortex
|Cingulate cortex
|Left lateral parietal cortex
|Right lateral parietal cortex
|Parietal cortex
|Left temporal
|Right temporal
|Visual cortex
Both effects were tested as an interaction contrast between the time periods and the input category (determined against undetermined), that is, a steeper increase of the BOLD signal intensity across the training trials for the determined inputs.
Most interestingly, individually determining for each participant the point in time when explicit memory starts to emerge, additionally enabled us to investigate changes in neuronal activity that preceded the transition to explicit knowledge; that is, in a time period when the following transition process is likely to be initiated with no behavioral or attentional confounds (Koch and Tsuchiya 2007). Therefore, the time period of 10 trials before the first fast RT within the TRT was evaluated; thus, we focused the analysis on a time period with no reliable difference between the RTs of the determined and undetermined inputs. Within the 10 trials before the TRT, activity increased within the ventrolateral striatum and the right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC), indicating the relevance of these structures for the development of explicit insight into the hidden rule. Again this effect was limited to the determined inputs.
To evaluate the specificity of the BOLD-signal increase for the development of explicit memory, we compared participants with and without explicit memory. First, the determined input was compared within the first block between both groups to test for possible differences starting from the beginning of the experiment. No region showed a reliably higher BOLD signal for the explicit group (threshold P < 0.05, FDR whole brain). This result indicated that the process relevant for the development of explicit memory develops over time (i.e., with learning). To test whether the increase of the BOLD signal to the determined inputs was specific for the explicit group, the increase in 10 trials before the TRT was compared against determined inputs of the implicit group within the last block. One could assume that the BOLD signal to the determined inputs also increased with implicit learning. In this case, the fMRI signal to the determined inputs should also increase in the implicit group and should be largest in the last block. The increase was calculated as the difference to the undetermined inputs 10 trials before the TRT in the explicit group and within all trials of the last block for the implicit group.
The mean BOLD signal difference 10 trials before the TRT was significantly higher in the group that developed explicit memory than the BOLD signal difference in the last block of the implicit group (striatum: t(16) = 4.5, P < 0.01; right VLPFC: t(16) = 5.7, P < 0.05).
The additional analysis that used both time periods around the TRT revealed an increase in the BOLD signal for the determined inputs within the right MTL (x = 30, y = −21, z = −15, t(63) = 3.86, P <0.05, corrected). In contrast, the second additional contrast did not reveal any reliable decrease of the BOLD signal in these time periods in the whole brain.
EEG Results
Again, only participants with a reliable RT criterion (TRT) were analyzed (n = 10; 53%), and the EEG of these participants was again segmented into the 4 time periods of interest with respect to the starting point of the TRT. The error rate was low (4%), and errors were not included in the analyses. No reliable change of error rate was detected across the sessions.
In addition to an increase in neural activity as observed in the fMRI data, theoretical models (Dehaene et al. 2003; Baars 2005) suggest an increase in the long-range information exchange of distributed brain areas, resulting in the general availability of the information acting as a basis for the explicit nature of information.
To obtain a direct measure for large-scale functional coupling of neural activity between several areas, we examined the coherence of EEG signals between different brain regions in an additional experiment. Because we were first of all interested in the overall long-range coupling of neural activity, we estimated a global index of synchronization (Uhlhaas et al. 2006). Therefore, all segments of the different time periods were transformed in the time–frequency domain. Next, coherence spectra for all possible channel combinations were estimated, and the mean overall coherence spectrum was used as the global index of synchronization. This global measure shows an increase in overall synchronization in the time period within 10 trials directly preceding the TRT. The mean coherence evoked by the processing of the determined inputs increased within this time period but not for the undetermined inputs. Between 300 and 800 ms after stimulus onset, coherence in the gamma band (35–45 Hz) and in lower frequencies (LFs, 5–20 Hz) increased during the time period of 10 trials before the TRT (repeated measures ANOVA, interaction of input position (determined vs. undetermined) by time period for the gamma-band coherence: F(1,9) = 6.6, P < 0.05, for the LF: F(1,9)=7, P < 0.05). The coherence increase in lower frequencies was accompanied by a comparable increase in spectral power (F(1,9) = 6.2, P < 0.05), whereas in the gamma band, no reliable power changes were observed (F(1,9) = 0.4, n.s.). An increase in gamma-band coherence in the absence of changes in power underscores the fact that the gamma-band coherence effect relies on a true synchronization of neural activity. Recently, it was suggested that induced gamma-band responses reflects properties of miniature saccades (Yuval-Greenberg et al. 2008). To control for this possible confound, gamma-band power of a horizontal EOG channel of the identical time range was compared for the determined input within the first time periods. No difference was found for the gamma-band power of the EOG channel (t(10) = 1.8, P = 0.1) indicating that the effect is not related to possible miniature saccades.
To evaluate the topographic distribution of the gamma-band coherence increase, the mean coherence from each electrode to all other electrodes was calculated, and the difference between the time periods was estimated. In accord with the fMRI results, the topographic distribution of gamma-band coherence increase was maximal over right frontal electrodes. We further estimated coherence from that location (maximum at electrode AF8) to all other electrodes and again observed a maximal increase of gamma-band coherence over neighboring right frontal electrodes (Fig. 4). Thus, although there was a widespread increase in gamma-band coherence, the synchronization changes over the right prefrontal cortex were maximal.
These results show that in addition to the activity increase within the rPFC as shown in the fMRI experiment, this area is part of a dynamically assembled network, which subserves the development of explicit knowledge by participating in the synchronized coupling across many areas.
The present data elucidate the neural correlates of different stages of the transition from incidental learning to explicit memory formation. In accord with our predictions, the neural activity within the right VLPFC and the VS increased in the time period directly preceding the emergence of explicit memory. This demonstrates that key areas observed during explicit and motivational learning may play an important role for the initiation of the transition from implicit to explicit memory formation. In conclusion, processes such as the evaluation of predictions during learning may form the cognitive and motivational basis for this change in the mode of learning.
The objective behavioral measure used here allows the examination of neural activity that precedes the emergence of explicit memory. The behavioral studies clearly confirmed that the RT criterion (TRT) can be used to determine the individual time point when explicit knowledge or conscious awareness about the hidden rule begins to develop. The experimental design implemented the hidden rule as a relational link between the first and the last response. Thus, the hidden rule could not be learned as a simple motor sequence and could not be predicted from the stimulus pair. Therefore, the learned association has an abstract, rule-based character. The ability to deliberately verbalize the hidden rule occurs immediately after a participant has shown fast responses in direct succession (3 trials) and is strengthened across the next trials. The results from Experiment 3 further demonstrate that during the period before the TRT, nearly no explicit knowledge can be assessed. This statement is supported by the behavioral data from all 3 studies reported here that show that after single fast responses explicit knowledge is rare, but after 3 successive fast responses, most of the participants (ca. 85%) were able to verbalize the rule. More importantly, the RTs to the determined inputs remained faster than to the undetermined inputs for all participants after the TRT criterion. Therefore, the TRT can be characterized as indicating the starting point of a constant RT drop that signals explicit knowledge with a very high reliability. The TRT can thus be used as a reliable measure of the emergence of explicit knowledge. To ensure the absence of explicit knowledge in the period directly preceding the TRT, only trials before the first fast RT of the TRT, thus in a time period where no differences between the RTs could be observed, were used in the fMRI and EEG analyses.
The results from the fMRI study show a clear change in the neural activity in the trials directly preceding the individual TRT and before the consecutive insight into the hidden rule occurs. This increase in neural activity is in close temporal relation to the emerging awareness and indicates a qualitative change in information processing as the basis for the development of explicit memory. Thus, our results suggest that the insight is not simply due to a strengthening of memory representation alone as proposed in a theoretical model (Cleeremans and Jimenez 2002) but rather requires additional processes, such as restructuring (or integrating) task representations on the basis of the ongoing evaluation of predictions. Theoretical models suggest such an additional process that initiates or triggers insight and should precede the development of awareness (Runger and Frensch 2008). A frequently discussed mechanism here is the generation and evaluation of event predictions. During incidental learning, predictions about upcoming events such as a required response, response speed, or feedback are generated. Unexpected deviations of those predictions are detected, and attention is allocated to the unexpected events that resulted in the generation of awareness for the event (Haider and Frensch 2009). Previous studies established a role of a cortico-subcortical network including the striatum and the frontal cortex for implicit learning (Grafton et al. 1995; Berns et al. 1997), for the generation of predictions during learning (Schultz and Dickinson 2000; Waelti et al. 2001), for feedback-based learning (Shohamy et al. 2004; Bischoff-Grethe et al. 2009) and for the coding of abstract rules (Wallis et al. 2001). Within this network, midbrain dopaminergic projections to the VS are assumed to be involved in the representation of predictions (Schultz 2000; Elliott et al. 2003; O'Doherty et al. 2004; Yacubian et al. 2006) and enhance synaptic plasticity within several regions (Seger 2008). Previous results demonstrated that the striatum is involved in the evaluation of feedback valence independent of reward (Bischoff-Grethe et al. 2009). Recently, it has been demonstrated that the striatum generates sustained activity that can be used to stabilize the learned information (Histed et al. 2009). Thus, there is strong evidence for an involvement of the VS in motivational learning, and our results may indicate that an evaluative process of predictions about the determined response within the frontostriatal network can be regarded as the process that triggers the consecutive insight in the hidden rule. It could be speculated that the effort or speed of the processing of the determined input differed due to implicit learning, and this resulted in a discrepancy between the predicted and actual costs for the production of the response. The prediction and the unexpected violation of the prediction may be coded within the frontostriatal network that generates a signal that enhances learning. This signal presumably supports learning and resulted in the acquisition of additional explicit representations of the task structure. This assumption is in accord with a previous study that reported an involvement of the right VLPFC in the implicit detection of a deviation from learned associations (Rose et al. 2005). The acquisition of additional representations could also explain why no decreases in the BOLD signal were observed. Due to the development of explicit knowledge about the determined last response, there was no need for the participant to further apply the given processing rules, which could have resulted in a decrease of activity in regions related to this mode of processing. However, the signal from the frontostriatal network enhances learning in many regions related to learning that may overlap with regions activated by applying the explicitly given rules. Alternatively, the participants may not fully rely on the hidden rule and may have crosschecked both results.
In previous experiments, it has been suggested that the basal ganglia and the MTL interact during learning, depending on the implicit or explicit mode of processing (Poldrack et al. 2001). In accord with this observation, we found an increase of MTL activity around the TRT with the generation of explicit memory. However, no decrease within the basal ganglia was observed. Furthermore, the MTL effect was located close to the area that showed an effect of implicit learning of a comparable hidden rule in a previous study (Rose et al. 2002). Taken together, the results indicate no change in the area involved for the representation of the information but that the signal generated by the frontostriatal network may enhance learning and consequently strengthens the representation of the task structure within the MTL.
In addition, the fact that our data show an increase in coupling between cortical areas is in agreement with a top-down binding and amplification signal, which is presumably modulated by the increasing strength of incidentally acquired predictions. Such a top-down binding process is postulated by many frameworks of consciousness in relation to the emergence of large-scale coupling between the neural populations that represents different aspects of the information (Engel et al. 2001; Crick and Koch 2003; Dehaene et al. 2003). Furthermore, some authors assume that the widespread connectivity between those neural populations can make represented knowledge available to a variety of processes, which is subjectively experienced as a conscious state. This global availability of information is also required for the explicit character of incidentally learned knowledge that consists of memory traces that are processed in different neural circuits. However, one implication of these models is that the coherent neural network has to be established before the information can become consciously available. Therefore, the observed increase in gamma-band coherence that directly preceded the starting point of the following decrease in RT may reflect the formation of such a global network and therefore represents the driving neural process for the emergence of conscious awareness.
The temporal and spatial localization of the fMRI and EEG effects and the accordance with the results from experiments on perceptual awareness strongly suggest an interpretation of the results in terms of a reinforcement process and a top-down binding signal, which is important for the development of explicit memory.
Overall, our approach provides direct experimental evidence for a qualitative change in information processing as a prerequisite for the emergence of awareness during incidental learning in accord with several theoretical models (Dehaene et al. 2003; Baars 2005; Seth et al. 2006). An important cognitive process for this transition process is the generation of awareness, but possible other processes may also play a role. The characterization of the neuronal events that initiate the emergence of explicit memory is the basis for further studies to evaluate the contribution of distinct processes such as working memory or attention. Taken together, the fMRI and the EEG results strongly support the role of a subcortico-cortical network including the lateral frontal cortex and the VS in establishing explicit memory during incidental learning.
The capacity to generate explicit representations of complex rules is also the basis for higher cognitive functions such as reasoning and language. It has therefore been speculated that an evolutionary advantage in the architecture of the human frontal cortex may explain the constraints of nonhuman primates for such processes (Fitch and Hauser 2004; Friederici et al. 2006).
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and Bundesministerium für Bildung, Wissenschaft, Forschung und Technologie.
Conflict of Interest: None declared.


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Natural Stress Relief -Himalayan Salt Lamps
If you are looking for a natural way to make your home more interesting, check out a Himalayan Natural Salt Lamp. The glow is said to sooth nerves and the negative ions (emitted from the salt when heated by the light bulb inside) are said to clean the air. The high mineral content of a Himalayan Salt Crystal is due to the millions of years spent forming deep underground. Each salt crystal has a unique in shape and color with the most common and most popular being a blended color pallet of orange and red. In order to preserve the original shape of the salt crystals, craftsmen hollow them out by hand. The Himalayan Salt Lamps consist of a hollowed out salt crystal mounted on a wooden base, a light kit and a light bulb.
All Himalayan Salt Lamps are not the same color. White ones are the rarest. Some like the brighter light that shines through the white salt crystals while others prefer the softer glow from the orange salt crystals. There are pink salt crystals that are also rare. The red salt crystals provide much less light than the lighter colors. Some like the red salt crystal lamps for their bedrooms to use as a night-light.
The soft glow of a Himalayan Salt Lamp warms up a room. It does not add heat it adds ambiance. The mood of the room can affect those that are in it. Air pollutants such as allergens food odors put positive ions into the air. The bonding between the negative ions emitted into the room from a Himalayan Salt Lamp and those positive ions are effectively cancelled out. Once bonded the ions are heavier than air so they drop to the ground-hence the air is cleansed.
The size of the room will determine what size salt lamp is best. Each one is sold by weight and range from 4 to 5 pounds (best for rooms less than 10 feet x 10 feet) up to about 40 pounds (best for rooms up to 20 feet by 20 feet). If you do not want a huge salt lamp in a single room it may be more pleasing to have several small ones instead. The light and any other benefits will be spread around the room. The size and number of Himalayan Natural Salt Lamps used in any room is a personal choice.
Before purchasing any Himalayan Natural Salt Lamp look for a few features. There should not be any cracks in the crystal. The crystal should set evenly on the base of the lamp without gaps. The light socket should be spring mounted whether there is a metal clip or not. This makes it possible to remove the light fixture easily when changing the light bulb.
Before purchasing any Himalayan Natural Salt Lamp look for a few features. There should not be any cracks in the crystal. The crystal should set evenly on the base of the lamp without gaps. The light socket should be spring mounted whether there is a metal clip or not. This makes it possible to remove the light fixture easily when changing the light bulb.
At this point you may be thinking that this is just a bunch of bunk. However, negative and positive ions are real. Smell the air after a spring rain. The rain drops are negatively charged and as they come in contact with the positive ions of pollution they are negated. The air is literally cleansed by the rain drops. The color Orange is thought to add balance and the color Red is thought to add energy. Whether the claims can or cannot be proven – the Himalayan Natural Salt Lamps are an interesting and decorative addition to any room.
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A new release boasting many extras and well worth a viewing. This home occupies a superb position in Kosmos Village, tranquility with panoramic views of the Hartbeespoort Dam and the yacht club! It is the ideal weekend getaway or family home with great entertainment areas. The large well-appointed kitchen leads into the family room and dining room with fire place this opens onto the patio with pool. Two bedrooms are situated upstairs and open onto a veranda with superb dam views. The master and third bedroom are both on the living level and both en-suite.
Rates and taxes approx. R1 500 pm.
Kosmos Village with its unique atmosphere and curvy streets is situated on the Northern shores of the Hartbeespoort Dam, with the Magalies Mountains as a backdrop, and breath taking 180-degree views of Hartbeespoort Dam. It is less than an hour's drive away from Johannesburg & Pretoria, and only 37kms away from Lanseria Airport. Kosmos Village offers sought after investment properties, full title, and sectional title and also have a few vacant stands available. It is popular for its leisure properties, but more than 50% of our residents live here permanently. The Kosmos Marina Club is ideal for boat launching. Kosmos Village has its own Community Hall, Library, Garden Chapel and an Art Gallery. Kosmos Village is also a popular weekend destination and the Village has a couple of guest houses. The surrounding area offers various entertainment possibilities, including a selection of quality golf courses and numerous tourist attractions. There are excellent schools as well as shopping facilities in the area. Various water sports are enjoyed on the Dam.


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Watch A Chorus of Angels (2012) Free Online
A Chorus of Angels
IMDB Link:
Rating: 6.7/10 (208 votes)
Director: Junji Sakamoto
Writer: Kanae Minato (based on the novel by), Machiko Nasu (screenplay)
Stars: Ayako Fujitani, Renji Ishibashi, Ryo-katsuji, Yozaburo-ito
FULL CAST: A Chorus of Angels (2012) - Full Cast and Crew
Runtime: 122 min
Rated: N/A
Type: movie
Year: 2012
Genre: Mystery
Quality: HD
Language: Japanese
Released: 03 Nov 2012
|Storyline: 20 years ago, an elementary school student falls on an island in the northern tip of Hokkaido. A teacher and 6 students makes contact through songs. What happened to the student who fell? ...


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Awesome little filly! Very calm, no spook, buck, or bite. Has been roped off of, pushed cows with, and been ridden on the trails for over 20 hours. She…$3,500
"Leroy" is a 6 yr old has been used for the last year on ranch and green on the head and heel side.. Papered.. 15 hands.. 1000lbs.. He does what a person…$5,000
"Brown" is a 7 yr old 14.3 hands 1000lbs.. Good green horse.. Been started heading and heeling.. Been ranched on for the last year.. Papered.. Does what…$5,000
Black is used for regular trail riding. I have put beginner riders on him, but would recommend an intermediate rider because he likes to be on the move…$700
7up is a 17 year old Quarter Horse Gelding you can heel or head off from him works both ways. He is good for any age of rider my son got him when he was…$8,000
Diamond is an 11 year old APHA Mare. Currently started on barrel pattern. Consistent with pattern. Very gentle, very athletic, and no bad habits .$4,000
LaKota is a gurulla thoroughbred mare that needs an experienced rider. Kota loves to run and swim! She knows both left and right barrel and pole patterns…$1,500
Legendary High Brow Hickory X out of Lenas Sonitas Izora by Jab O Lena: 2003 Equi-Stat 5 Year Leading Stallion •Sire of Champion Cutting Horses •Sire…Stud Fee: $500
Lakeview, OR


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Urban , Education , Volunteering , Family , Community development , Civic engagement , Economic development , Immigration , Poverty and hunger , Health and medicine , , , , , , , , , , More
About us
The Central Florida Urban League (formerly known as the Metropolitan Orlando Urban League) was founded on August 5, 1977 and chartered as a national organization on May 28, 1978. An affiliate of the National Urban League, our chapter was created by respected community leaders who believed that Orlando's minority community would benefit from professional, economic, and social support. Today, over 40,000 residents have benefited from our various empowerment programs and the organization has expanded its reach to serve all Central Floridians.
Today, there are more than 100 local affiliates of the National Urban League in 36 states and the District of Columbia, directly impacting the lives of more than 2 million people nationwide.
Visit us at www.cful.org
Like us on Facebook : https://www.facebook.com/pages/Central-Florida-Urban-League/110452675639705
Follow us on Twitter: https://twitter.com/CFLUrbanLeague
Contact information
Date Founded: 1977
Government ID number: 59-1766368
Email: Log in to view email addresses.
Phone: 407-841-7654
Fax: 407-841-9114
595 West Church Street Suite I-B, Orlando, FL, 32805, US


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Ben Franklin was an early advocate of preventive maintenance. He wisely wrote: "A little neglect may breed mischief… for want of a nail, the shoe was lost: for want of a shoe the horse was lost." Our founding father understood that when seemingly minor repairs are overlooked, they can turn into major problems. In my […]
Tag Archives | HOA
What Ben Franklin May Have Said About Preventative Wood Maintenance
By on September 22, 2011 in Advice, Decks, Preventative Maintenance, Wood Rot
Best Rate Repair
License #700811
P.O Box 600491
San Diego, CA 92160
phone. 619.229.0116
fax. 619.229.0117
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- How Termites Damage Your Home from the Inside Out October 3, 2016


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home › event - multi-tasking in the workplace: tasks, information, and interaction contexts
Multi-tasking in the workplace: Tasks, information, and interaction contexts
PARC Forum
- Gloria Mark, University of California, Irvine
25 March 2010
George E. Pake Auditorium, PARC
map/ directions
Information workers experience a high amount of disruptions in their daily work due to managing multiple tasks and interactions, and large amounts of information using various technologies. In this talk I will present empirical results from fieldwork observations and experiments over several years that detail the extent to which information workers multi-task, irrespective of their organizational role. I will discuss how multi-tasking impacts various aspects of collaboration and communication in the workplace. Not only do information workers switch continually among multiple tasks but they also switch continually among interactions in varied workplace contexts, such as the work home and organization. We found that people compensate for interruptions by working faster, but this comes at a price of experiencing more stress. These results challenge the traditional way that most Information Technology (IT) is designed to organize information, i.e. in terms of distinct tasks. Instead, I will discuss how IT should support information organization in a way consistent with how most people were found to organize their work, which is in terms of much larger thematically connected units of work. I will present a prototype of a technology that can help support people in their multi-tasking and will also discuss how the results present opportunities for new social and technical solutions to support multi-tasking in the workplace.
Gloria Mark is Professor in the Department of Informatics, University of California, Irvine. Dr. Mark received her Ph.D. in Psychology from Columbia University. Prior to joining UCI, she was a Research Scientist at the GMD (German National Research Center for Information Technology), in Bonn, Germany, a visiting research scientist at the Boeing Company, and a research scientist at the Electronic Data Systems Center for Advanced Research. Dr. Mark's research focuses on the design and evaluation of collaborative systems. Her current projects include studying multi-tasking of information workers, technology use in disrupted environments and the use of virtual worlds for work collaboration. In 2006, she received a Fulbright scholarship to conduct research at the Humboldt University in Berlin. Dr. Mark has published in numerous conferences and journals including the ACM CSCW, CHI, ECSCW, DIS, Group, and RE conferences and CSCW, CACM, and ISR journals. She was program chair for the ACM CSCW'06 and ACM Group'05 conferences and is on the editorial board of the CSCW journal.
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text: The war in Afghanistan. How has the public support for the cause in Afghanistan stood since it's inception in 2001? Has it wavered, bolstered or remained stable? As time ticks along and events unfold, how has the support for the Cause changed? Are we now looking to withdraw or what? This is all contributing towards my A* in English in form of a written argument concerning the above. I'm also reading 3 Para and Ground Truth, both by Patrick Bishop for some Intel on all this.


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Savannah has a population of 131,510 and is located in Chatham county.
Computer Forensics schools in Savannah charged students an average tuition of $9,919.00 if they were Georgia residents, and $13,317.00 if they were non-residents, during the 2009 - 2010 school year.
The average cost of books and supplies for computer forensics schools in Savannah is $1,279.00. Students living on campus at computer forensics schools in Savannah paid an average of $7,831.00 for room and board during the 2009 - 2010 school year. Students living at home incurred costs of $4,713.00. There are two computer forensics colleges in Savannah from which students can pick the one that best suits their needs. 6 students were reported to have graduated from computer forensics programs in Savannah in the 2008 - 2009 school year.
|Average Salary
|Number Employed in City
|Computer Specialists, All Other


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Garry O'Connor's agent believes that there is plenty more to come from the striker after he was given a second chance with Scotland. The Lokomotiv Moscow forward, 24, was welcomed back into the national team fold last month after a six-month exile from international football.
He was dropped from the squad after going Awol ahead of a Euro 2008 qualifier against Ukraine during Walter Smith's reign in October. O'Connor eventually apologised for his actions and was drafted into new manager Alex McLeish's plans for a friendly in Austria and last week's qualifier in the Faeroe Isles.
He made the most


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Noel Blake, the England Under-19 coach, believes that the country will be able to reproduce its flourishing record at youth level in tournaments only if the governing bodies dismiss selfinterest and open the way for top young players to play domestic football at the highest levels.
As England go into their first tournament since the World Cup, Blake offered a frank assessment of why the FA's coaching strategy is working fine — until it encounters the Barclays Premier League.
England have won the European Under-17 Championship and finished runners-up at the under-21 and under-19 levels. To back up how effectively Sir


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Photo: John Kernick
Add heat and sweet to these chicken wings by tossing them in a mixture of apricot jam, mustard, and crushed red pepper.
30 servings (serving size: 2 chicken wings)
+ Add To Shopping List
2 cups apricot jam
4 garlic cloves, minced
1-2 teaspoons crushed red pepper
1/4 cup Dijon mustard
1 tablespoon kosher salt
60 chicken wings
Preheat oven to 425°. In a large bowl, combine apricot jam, minced garlic, crushed red pepper, Dijon mustard, and kosher salt. Add chicken wings; toss to coat. Refrigerate for 30 minutes or up to 4 hours. Line 2 baking sheets with foil; bake chicken wings for 25-30 minutes, turning once, until golden brown and slightly charred.
Created date
May 2011
Nutritional Information
Calories 252
Fat 13 g


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NEW LISTING! Sully 2000 Morgan/Appaloosa Gelding Sully is the horse you have been looking for!!! WOW!! He is the perfect horse for all ages and…SOLD
Daisy has done it all !!! .... and VERY well ! Versatility Plus 2010 Calgary Stampede Showriders "Pony of the Year" 13.3 hh Tennessee Walker Welsh…SOLD
will be 2 soon, big pretty roan. Was told previous siblings were all 16H. She is easily 14.2 now and growing like a weed. She is big boned and deep…SOLD
***NEW VIDEO AVAILABLE*** http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vwxJywVfovU UPDATE - Fabulous fabulous guy - safe, simple and ready to show. Exceptional hunter…SOLD
Here is a good looking, fast and athletic, well broke AQHA gelding. He is 4 years old and has an absolutely great disposition, just a very friendly good…SOLD
This horse comes to us with and extraordinary start. Has been there and done it already. With 18 months of professional world class training... his failure…SOLD
DOB: 1993 SEX: Mare Breed: Quarter Horse/Morgan Height: 14.3hh Color: Brindle Bay Roxy is a beautiful brindle bay mare that has had tonnes…SOLD
Here is a well broke red roan 5 year old gelding. He is a very sensible horse for almost anyone to ride. Has never bucked, bolted, or reared up. He's got…SOLD


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Seeds of meadow fescue
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Fescue seeds
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Price:1.11 EUR
Long-term cereal culture. Forms beautiful, dark green, dense, thin and equal herbage, powerful root system which densely gets into the soil and well f Read more
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Fescue meadow (Festuca pratensis Huds.)
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Price:1.96 EUR
We offer fescue seeds a meadow grade "Sverdlovsk 37". Seeds are zoned for 4, 7, 9, 10, 12 regions, but will perfectly grow also in other districts. Read more
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Semyon Ovsyanitsa
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Fescue (lat.festuca) — rodtravyanisty plants of a semeystvazlaka (Poaceae). Meet on meadows, in the woods. Grow in all areas of Earth with cold, moder Read more
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Seeds of meadow fescue Morshanskaya 1304 ES reproduction
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Meadow fescue (Morshanskaya 1304). Reproduction: ES. For export. Wholesale. Features of grade: winter hardiness and drought resistance high. C Read more
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Fescue red Gondolin
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News // Grieves
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We are excited to release Grieves' official video for Shreds, the first single from his forthc…Read More →
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Rhymesayers Entertainment is pleased to announce that Grieves' forthcoming album, Winter & The…Read More →
9.24.13 Grieves announces additional Back …
Grieves is excited to announce that his homies Sweatshop Union from Canada will be joining in …Read More →


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Cajeput Oil (0.5 fl oz)
Average Review:
Cajeput is an analgesic, antiseptic oil with warming and stimulating qualities. With a strong and slightly sweet camphoraceous smell, it blends well with lavender, geranium, clary sage, and spice oils.
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Event: Salman Khan met Katrina Kaif on her birthday where many other celebs were also present.
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Forum - View topicSo, I Can't Play H! (TV).
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Posts: 344
So, I Can't Play H!
Plot Summary: Kaga Ryosuke is an ecchi high school boy. One day, he meets a girl standing alone in the rain. She is Lisarah Restor, an elite Death, who visited the human world in order to find "Singular Man".
Ryosuke makes a contract with Lisarah and she sucks energy required for her activity in the human world from Ryosuke. The source of the energy is his ecchi spirit.
To recover the sexual desire, Ryosuke has no choice but to help Lisarah's search.
(?) Episodes
Comedy, Romance, Supernatural
Well, it wasn't as bad as High School DxD, although i'm not sure this will win over anyone who disliked DxD either.
I can pretty much just say that this is the same as DxD, with a few small differences.
1. Male lead is slightly more likeable
2. Female lead is more of a tsundere-type
3. Slightly less ecchi, not much difference
There might be other small differences but it felt far to similar for me to notice them with something that wasn't exactly the most concentrated watching i've ever done, but it just didn't pull me in enough or distinguish itself for me to really care a great deal. I think i'll probably end up chalking this one up as a drop after 1 more episode, but i'll give it a fair go first.
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Posts: 10835
Location: Earth
Well, this does feel like High School DxD's second coming but uh, so far, it's just meh for me.
Going to watch it through but not expecting much out of it although the ending scene was somewhat dramatic. Next episode looks like the introduction of some of the other main characters.
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Parse Error
Posts: 530
I was... rather underwhelmed by nearly every aspect of this, to say the least. I couldn't shake the feeling that the character designs were a bit past their expiration date, and the animation was really lacking, especially for a first episode. The MC is supposed to be appealing for no other reason except being a pervert, okay a nice pervert supposedly, but he doesn't seem to have any other characteristics whatsoever. The female lead was more a flat-out, tsun-tsun arrogant sadist but not in an interesting way. The story seemed much more obvious than usual as a thin justification for a comedy setup.
There were actually a few funny moments, but it just doesn't seem worth it for me when the fanservice was pretty weak. I hate being so negative and all, but maybe it will save somebody else from wasting their time. There's just not that much to see here.
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Posts: 2817
So, you're the kind of girl who freaks out at the thought of some guy looking at you naked. Once the situation gets under control, choose one of the following options:
a) Wear pants.
b) Don't wear pants.
I have to admit, I found the "carpet matches the drapes" discussion far more fascinating when a later scene seemed to show there is no carpet.
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Posts: 4118
Where are you guys watching this? CR doesn't have the first episode up yet and it would be horrible to fall behind y'all.
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Posts: 9248
Some of us are just unscrupulous cretins. Wasn't CR going to be 9 days behind on this? I'm glad we won't have the same situation QBR had.
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Posts: 344
For some reason i thought Crunchyroll is airing this one something like 28h after it airs or something like that, or a week later, i can't remember, i deleted my times for it once i watched it and then i saved the document and closed it, so i lost it now
I have it queued on my CR to rewatch when it becomes avaliable, but there isn't any release times for it yet to check either, so i guess i'm imagining seeing a time or its lost on some news item i saw somewhere that i'm too tired to find right now
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Exempt from Grammar Rules
Posts: 1084
oh yes this is indeed the 2nd coming of DxD even more showing ero is justice?!
ok then we got a guy who nice guy also ero person one day rain meet red hair then got sword' jab cause she is a grim reaper.
then battle main guy see ero stuff realize do ero stuff for power up all check but he got 3 til rest in peace.
ok then after seeing yea might see how it goes & manage go beyond 3 months.
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Posts: 1881
Location: Two Steps from Hell.
Holy shi-! Those are some nice tits. I'm speaking about the Death God, of course. She's the only character I really care for right now. The rest are just... I'm indifferent to them.
Ryou has no redeeming qualities and he isn't special as a character besides being a perverted human. He's open about it, too. Regarding what he said to Lisarah, he may be onto something. Sex is good for you! According to research it can relieve stress!
The fanservice was alright; it was neither good nor bad, just mediocre. A couple glimpses spoiler[of Lisarah's nipples, Ryou seeing her... red threads..., zoom in on D-cups of the next door neighbor chick.] It wasn't special but I guess it satisfied me enough. The action was alright as well though I didn't really care for because I was too focused on Lisarah's body.
I'll probably tune in every week just for Lisarah and her tits. Those two make up the whole show.
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It...it's not like I post for you or anything!
Posts: 11295
Location: Brisbane, Australia
Looks like he was hoping for some kind of red string of fate, but seeing a different type of red strings almost got his thread cut by a Fate. On the other hand he might at least he got to see her in those hot threads (I am referring to clothes here), though things started to heat up as the flames diminished, and on a related note his seems to end in spoiler[3 months.]
To be honest, I was hoping that this was going to have a female shinigami that liked to play H, I don't want another unlikeable character like D's. But the saying out loud thing did get a laugh, may get old though.
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Posts: 7760
Ecchi this ecchi that, why not make it hentai already?
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Posts: 9248
Lower budgets, sporadic releases, censorship of what matters.
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Brent Allison
Posts: 1445
Location: Athens-Clarke County, GA, USA
I would think that the first two characteristics would be an appeal for anime producers. Not being tied to a regular schedule and having less worry over money during the process sounds like a better deal. Still, from what I've heard the market for "normal" hentai has moved towards eroge visual novels and away from OAVs. At least it seems the current crop of hentai OAVs feature rape, marginal fetishes, and other, ahem, motifs that I would rather not experience.
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Posts: 77
Does seem like highschool dxd, but I'm not expecting much from this show anyway.
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Exempt from Grammar Rules
Posts: 1084
spoiler[so let see ryosuke need find special person to save his ero life?
ok then & oh lisara move in go to school search from strange stuff still no found.
then here her cousin yea seem found but IT A TRAP cause cousin want get special person cue fight & ryosuke to the ero-rescue with cousin fall back.
all well but now cat out of the bag with childhood friend now in the loop too wonder what next?]
well after all this indeed dxd jr really more to go.
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Shelf Life - Mobile Suit Gundam F91
This little-known Gundam movie has long been last to the sands of time, now available on Blu-ray for the first time. But is it any good? Gabriella Ekens finds out, plus all this week's new releases! ― I finally got started on my "watch popular anime that I skipped the first time around" New Year's resolution this week. Since the second season of Konosuba is airing now, it seemed like as good a time ...
There may not be much to the story, but the sharp CG more than makes the experience in this Gantz splatterfest. Theron Martin digs deeper. ― The Gantz franchise has gone through three iterations over the past 17 years: manga, anime series, and a pair of live-action movies. Now its fourth version comes in a 3D CG movie from 2016, which has recently become available on Netflix. But this isn't any garde...
My Big Sister Lives in a Fantasy World Novel 1
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Back in the 80s, comedy anime characters would make cameo appearances in other anime all the time - why doesn't that happen anymore? Justin explains. ― Phoenix asks: Whatever happened to anime cameos? I feel like in the 80s and 90s they were relatively abundant. The Dirty Pair and Crusher Joe seemed to make it into every other 80s anime. Why, I was just watching Macross and wouldn't you know it, the...
ANNCast (Video) - Sevakis of Death
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[1.5.2] Chococraft Mod Download
Category: Minecraft Mods, Mods 1.5.2
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4 Comments
Umm… is this multiplayer compatable?
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Bachelors in International Relations
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Duration: Full Time, 4 Years
Degree Type: BSc
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Campus: Lahore
Admission Date
How To Apply
The candidates can obtain admission forms along with prospectus from the university office on the dates notified. They are directed to attach the attested photocopies of the required documents with the form and submit the same at university offices before the due date.
Tuition Fee
The program in International Relations is a hands-on, practical and comprehensive program that prepares students for a career in the international public and private sectors.
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