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Melvin VermeerTaunton, Somerset, GB
Professional Dutch Voice-over artist
Melvin has a bright, confident, friendly voice. Smooth and engaging.
He can also provide English voice overs with an attractive Dutch accent.
Peter Dickson, X-Factor UK: "Melvin has a laid back, sophisticated, cosmopolitan voice."
Ricky Salmon, BBC Radio 2 News, UK: "Smooth and charming - a warm and assuring voice."
30+ Five Star Reviews!!
International clients used my voice for their radio and TV ads, web videos, apps, e-learning and documentaries
Dutch, English
Middle Aged, Young Adult
Special Skills
Business, Documentaries, Educational, Internet, Radio, Telephone, Television, Videogames
Melvin Vermeer is a Dutch Voice-Over Talent who has worked with high profile clients around the world, as well as production companies and local businesses who require a voice for their media.
Throughout his voicing years Melvin has helped many businesses grow by adding value to their videos with my voice such as Apple, Microsoft, Intel, Opel, Toyota, BMW, AirBnB, Siemens, Beko, Vodafone, Marc O' Polo and Douwe Egberts Coffee. He has provided many voice-overs for local business, e-learning projects, corporate videos, commercials, apps, explainer videos and narration for television programmes.
In addition, Melvin Vermeer lives and works in the United Kingdom and as a result, he is able to deliver English voice-overs as well. He has his own fully equipped recording studio in which he is able to provide his voice over service.
Specialties: Corporate Video Narration, Explainer Video Narration, Radio and TV Commercials, Television Programme Narration, IVR Telephone Messages, Voices for Apps, Radio Jingle Production
I studied Marketing and PR, Advertising and Copy writing, and I have a broad knowledge of the media industry in The Netherlands and the United Kingdom. During the years I worked in the broadcast industry I learned a variety of skills which complement me as a voice-over artist. My confidence and being a genuine peoples person, comes through in my voice work.
Electronics SE2200A, NT1 Rode, AKG Perception 220
Computer & Software
MacBook Pro and PC
Special Equipment
Pro Tools, Logic Studio, Adobe Audition CS6
Delivery Methods
Available through IPDTL, ftp, E-mail, wetransfer, cd/dvd
Turnaround Time
Available almost immediately
Service Description
- Versatile
- Very quick response
- Fast delivery
- Flexible and easy to work with
"Melvin is a pro! That was the second time we worked together and once again, he was really flexible in terms of twists we requested and did an awesome job :) Thank you!"Deborah Folloni, Chiligumvideos, Sao Paulo, Brazil
The client was ecstatic about your performance. You have a great ear for technical quality which made my job much easier.Alex Ortiz, Somatone, San Francisco, USA
Melvin has a very professional attitude towards his work as a voiceover. He is dedicated and alert to detail.Martin Robbins, Fashot, London, UK
What a great job! You turned the project around faster than I'd hoped.Chad Newman, Digital Island Media, Florida, USA
Voice Over Clients
Apple, Vodafone, BMW, Opel, Spotify, DPD Parcel Service, Douwe Egberts, Marc O'Polo, Iveco, 3M, Intel, Telsell, HappyCar, Toyota, Leitz, Fullmex, Reichelt, Gold Trade Center, Bex Beveiliging, Capricorn Computers, Schepers Tweewielers, Night at the Park, Schollenpop, Somatone, Your Music Festival, MResell, Dreamlines Cruises, Wix, AirBnB, GoDaddy, Het Feestpaleis, Hydro+, De Scootspecialist, Powerplate, Cubelets, Warchild, Blokker, Gouda cheese market, Toys 'r Us and Intertoys.
TV commercials broadcasted on RTL4,5,7, STER, SBS6, Net5, Fox Sports, Eurosport, E! Entertainment, Comedy Central, MTV, 13th Street, TLC, Nickelodeon.
Melvin provided voice overs for hundreds of local businesses : DIY businesses, firework sales, pubs, car cleaning, bicycle shops and a variety of hotels, restaurants, car companies, plumbing, kitchen sales, cleaning companies.
Payment Terms
Hire Melvin as a voice actor. Payment is made through Voices.com SurePay, an escrow service that guarantees your work is done to your satisfaction. Send payment securely by Visa, Mastercard or PayPal through Voices.com then download your files from the website.
Watch a video to see how to make a payment
Next Steps
To contact Melvin Vermeer about your project, request a quote today. We'll walk you through the process step-by-step. It's fast and easy.
Rolex | English 127
Tom Malecha for Job #222186 Vaude Green Shape Great job, fast delivery, nice guy!Feb 22, 2017
Cortney Western for Job #219865 Golds Gym Workouts 2017 (Dutch) Melvin is great to work with!
Easy to communicate with and very professional!
Would recommend!Feb 20, 2017
Dale Dupuis for Job #217771 Voices - Plywood Script (Dutch) Very well done Melvin!Feb 9, 2017
Agnes Kes for Job #209746 Voices: Male Deep Dutch Voice for Corporate Online Video Great work!Dec 15, 2016
Dale Dupuis for Job #201571 Voices - Global Travel Agency (Continuation of Job # 182041) Great job Melvin! It was a pleasure working with you!Dec 5, 2016
Stu Barwick for Job #210543 Voice work for a video with tiny robots! Melvin is a pro. Wonderful guy and a great partner as always!Nov 21, 2016
Agnes Kes for Job #209605 Voices: Review voor Melvin Great work!Nov 21, 2016
Edwin Perez for Job #202715 Online Bidding & Pre-Bid Tutorial - NLD Excellent voice. Excellent recording. Excellent service. Melvin was extremely fast, capable, professional, and patient. A pleasure working with him. He's great!Oct 3, 2016
Thorsten Hary for Job #192372 myQ Garage-Door Opener Explainer Video (NL) Great job again, thanks Melvin!Jul 10, 2016
Tom Malecha for Job #188184 Sustainability Film - Dutch Great cooperation. Fast turnaround, great performance, fun to work with!Jun 11, 2016
Dale Dupuis for Job #182041 Voices - Dutch VO Talent: Global Travel Agency Melvin did an awesome job and the project was a success! 5 ++ STARSJun 3, 2016
Kyle Holder for Job #184707 Voices - explainer video Thanks!May 24, 2016
aurelie rimbaud for Job #179425 Looking for a Dutch voice It's the first time we worked with Melvin and he has done a really good job.
The syncing jobs was a success and he guided us through the process.
I'll recommend him to anyone!
Thanks!May 16, 2016
Emily Campbell for Job #184547 Voices- Awards Ceremony Presentation Great work!May 13, 2016
Rob Mundy for Job #178972 Voices - Professional and Corporate - Dutch Fantastic files!May 12, 2016
Rolandas Sereika for Job #185083 A Dutch VO for a web-video Extremely professional, very quick turnaround. Great voice and carrying out of the work! Thank you!May 12, 2016
Avital Abramzon for Job #178994 Create your own website - NLApr 12, 2016
Stu Barwick for Job #179650 Getting Started with Cubelets Melivn is one of my favorites. He nails it every time. Very professional and timely voice actor!Mar 31, 2016
Thorsten Hary for Job #174712 Corporate Explainer Video (Ha-Ra) Great communication, thank you Melvin!Mar 7, 2016
Ashlie Dobbs for Job #171634 Voices - Dutch Accent - English Speaking - Character for Online Video AMAZING WORK!Feb 4, 2016
Emily Campbell for Job #170656 Voices- Conference Video for Sales Incentives Excellent work!Feb 2, 2016
Stephanie Dickson for Job #155079 Voices: Internet Video - 184 words Nailed It- Thanks for everything!Sep 8, 2015
Hnek Jan Bergevoet for Job #154028 AzurSelect Very good service excellent quality in 24 hours without any comments perfect MelvinAug 25, 2015
Stu Barwick for Job #137809 Threshold Cubelet Voice Over Melvin is a pro... quick turn around, took feedback well and adjusted as needed. Would certainly work with him again.Apr 1, 2015
Micah Neidhart for Job #134269 Dutch VO Reading Needed Melvin did an excellent job, and completed the project very quickly. Definitely recommended.Mar 17, 2015
Thorsten Hary for Job #130212 DirectFlush Explainer Video (Dutch Version) Very fast & Great work! Thank you!Jan 22, 2015
Kimon Kodossis for Job #128559 Provize Working with Melvin was a pleasure!! He was really responsive, and did an outstanding job!
Jan 10, 2015
Kyle Holder for Job #126540 Voices - Instructional videos Melvin is a terrific VO talent!!Jan 9, 2015
Richard Derks for Job #113664 Scootmobiel voice-over Thank you! Very fast response and very fast delivery! Many thanks Melvin!Aug 4, 2014
Kirsty Stark for Job #96442 **DUTCH VO** Voices - Scribble Animation Thank you for your amazing work!Feb 19, 2014
Adriaan van der Hek for Job #97382 Spoedje nieuwe video Great work again!Feb 10, 2014
Grant Thomas for Job #93555 DUTCH (NL) - 036-040 Amazing!!! Thank you!Jan 29, 2014
Adriaan van der Hek for Job #95299 Editor 7 Topwerk en supersnel. Mooi om talent aan het werk te horen.Jan 17, 2014
Adriaan van der Hek for Job #94012 Hero voiceover Great voice, great communication, great speed, great end result.Jan 7, 2014
Tom Ramont for Job #92893 Spectra Precision Grade Match and PlaneLok videos - Dutch Melvin gave us exactly what we needed. I look forward to being able to work with him again.Dec 29, 2013
Maurice Kersten for Job #91651 PowerPlate Fitness Great job done and understood right away the intention of usage. Right in one go and quick turnaround. Thanks melvin, definately hiring again for this product.Dec 6, 2013
Deborah Folloni for Job #90451 Slagboom #2 Melvin is a pro! That was the second time we worked together and once again, he was really flexible in terms of twists we requested and did an awesome job :)
Thank you!Nov 28, 2013
Chad Newman for Job #84607 Dutch Web Video Project Melvin did a great job and turned the project around even faster then I had hoped. Thank You Melvin!
Sep 9, 2013
Eric Stolz for Job #74819 4 voice overs approx. 1 minute each needed in Dutch Thank you for your excellent work! I look forward to working with you again in the future!Apr 14, 2013
Doug Anderson for Job #17353 Lens on Leeuwenhoek Working with Melvin Vermeer Productions is a delight. Melvin's work is first-rate. He is prompt and cheerful, a professional in every respect. I plan to use Melvin Vermeer Productions again for my next video.Jul 22, 2010


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Project Ideas for All Occasions From Paper to Fabric
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Latest Comments
"This is an excellent collection for crochet beginners and those of us who have crocheted for years. For me in the early days I had to learn to slow down and count each stitch. This is a main problem for misaligned work. Also understanding what gauge is and being sure that the first stitches and rows match the patterns gauge instruction. Sometimes changing hook size solves a problem. How long have you been crocheting?"
"I've got to Pin this one! This is an adorable craft to make with children while they are home on school vacation this week. Crafting sessions are perfect for February vacation in the cold states of New England. Isn't it great to share special time with children or grandchildren? This is an excellent craft for daycare or the babysitter to share for entertainment."
"I actually thought the magnets were inside the material. It's excellent that they are attached underneath. I reaIly think this is a great idea. I would consider making one for my mother. She has vision problems so not only would this keep her straight pins in place but she'd be able to feel them if concentrating on a project. I'm thinking that a solid color would be a better idea for someone who is elderly and having problems seeing things. Do you agree?"
"The two strand Fold basket is a very clever pattern. Making this and keeping in your kitchen to use it for a catch all. This could be made in two colors and would so cute. The pattern dos not seem too complicate and probably would work up fast. This would make a great gift or use it for a basket on the back of the toilet. It is make with cotton yarn which is very easy to work with. I am definitely going to make this one up."
"The mop or sweeper cover is a great idea. They are so expensive to buy and these would work great. The cover is made with cotton yarn which is great for this purpose. The pattern is very simple to follow and should be able to be worked up in one sitting. I know I am going to make a couple of these for my mop. Great project."
Rose Chair Caddy
By: Dimensions Needlecrafts
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Click here to view your Craft Projects.
A cross-stitch rose pillowcase transforms into a handy chair caddy, perfect for storing supplies at your craft desk. With a pre-stamped design, the cross-stitch design from Dimensions is simple to create on the pillowcase. You can also create a Rose Bed Caddy on this same idea.
- One pillow case from kit #72759
- One 17" x 14-1/2" piece of calico for the lining
- One 17" x 1-1/2" strip of calico for the pocket binding
- Two 22" x 2-1/2" strips of calico for the ties
- Two 4" x 2-1/2" strips of calico for the seam bindings
NOTE: All seam allowances are 1/2". Cut off the hem of the pillow case. Pin the front and back together around the stitching. Treating the front and back as one, cut out the pocket as shown below. Save the top piece for the apron back.
Press one long edge of the pocket binding 1/2" to the wrong side. Place it right side down on the wrong side of the pocket, aligning the top edges. Sew them together. Fold the binding to the right side. Stitch the folded edge of the binding to the pocket, working as close to the edge as possible.
Press the short ends of the ties 1/2" to the wrong side. Press the ties in half by bringing the long edges together. Open them up and press the long edges in to meet the fold. Refold them along the fi rst fold and stitch the layers together along the open edge. Press the seam binding pieces in the same way, but don't stitch them together. Use the calico lining to cut out one back piece from the top of the pillow case you saved. With the right sides together, sew the lining and back together at the top 17" edge. Turn right side out and press the top edge. Sew the pocket to the back.
Cover the exposed seam allowances at the top of the apron with the seam binding.
Trim the seam allowances at the bottom corners, then turn the apron right side out. Press the seams. Stitch through all layers to make three sections as shown.
Sew the ties to the seam binding at the top corners of the apron.
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quanahs 5032097
Mar 02, 2016
What a lovely use of a nice old linen. Does anyone else check the local thrifts and find you cannot pass up a beautifully embroidered pillowcase? I always imagine the person who spent their time trying to make something beautiful. This chair caddy is great and the instructions are simple. This would be good on the back of a high chair too, holding extra bibs and a packet of wipes. I think there could be a lot of uses for this project, please share your ideas.
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subset: commoncrawl


text:
Which Mobile Provider Will Win the UK's Autonomous Car Race?SP360: Service Provider
The network has and will become ever more central to the driving experience. MNOs investing in pervasive road, rail and geographical coverage stand to win in the connected transport andRead More
You can enjoy 5G benefits todaySP360: Service Provider
5G is closer than you might realize. It seems like a not a week goes by where you read about another development, test, or government agency helping to pave theRead More
What's driving future profits for mobile network operators?SP360: Service Provider
From retail to entertainment, mobility is transforming industries across the spectrum. It's part of the wider digitalization that is transforming our world and bringing new opportunities for businesses to getRead More
The world cuts the cable: Wireless Traffic to Exceed Fixed IP Traffic Next YearSP360: Service Provider
One key take out for me from the latest Cisco VNI report is that wireless traffic is about to exceed fixed for the first time. Today wireless (Wi-Fi & Mobile)Read More
The Mobile Paradox – Why Are There Price Wars in a Time of Plenty?SP360: Service Provider
One of the first lessons that every economics student is taught is "supply and demand" – the fundamental economic principle that price goes up with increased demand. Yet we areRead More
Cisco the Voice Over Wi-Fi Leader: Improves New Features and PerformanceMobility
Voice over Wi-Fi With its native support in Apple's iOS 8.0, Voice over Wi-Fi (aka Wi-Fi Calling) has suddenly gotten a lot of attention. With Voice over Wi-Fi, a mobileRead More


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I have recently stumbled across a really useful app called Hotjar. I've had some time to test it and get some insights on how it's working so I've decided to take the next rational step: do a Hotjar review. To get an overview, you can use the app to get a better understanding of how users interact with your website and receive feedback from them. I liked the software so here are some quick thoughts about the usage. If you find it useful, register here and you can start using it.
Behavior analytics
So here's a bit about the features: probably the most useful one is screen recording. Basically Hotjar tracks and records user interaction with your website. Afterwards you can watch these interactions in the screen recordings section. You will spend some quality time there, just you and the sexy recordings.
It's basically very useful and I've thought about a way to track behaviors like these for a long time. Until I've tried Hotjar, I was not really feeling the other apps.
But it's not just the screen recordings. Hotjar also offers a neat way of studying heatmaps for one or more web properties. I know – lots of other apps do it but Hotjar does that plus a ton of other things, minus the headaches associated with complicated solutions.
Funnels are easy to set up and track (or so I've heard because I still use other analytics software for this but I will definitely give it a try).
User feedback
So that covers the basic analytics tools. One thing you will find here that is not available in other tools is user feedback, received through three separate channels, basically:
- the feedback polls (basically embedded forms you can use to receive information from customers)
- surveys (a great way of registering user feedback and getting a statistical overview)
- user testers recruiting (recruit testers through custom messages and incentives – coupons, discounts etc )
Key take aways:
- Hotjar is awesome for ecommerce and digital sales operations. It is a great way to receive feedback and track user behavior
- It's an all-in-one solution without being cluttered or complicated, which is a big plus for me
- Even the free version is a lot better than some of its competitors
Long story short: you can certainly give it a try. The free version offers quite a lot of options and is really no strings attached.


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670 Hawks Ridge Dr,Ball Ground GA, 30107
7 beds , 6 Full/1 Half baths
10,306 sq. ft
Status: Active
Berkshire Hathaway HomeServices Georgia Properties
(770) 355-5995
Last Updated: 2/21/2017 9:30 AM
Description for 670 Hawks Ridge Dr Ball Ground, GA 30107
Prestigious Hawks Ridge gated luxury. Incredible value throughout this quality constructed brick home sited on over 3 acres for privacy & beauty. Travertine floors, richly appointed study on main, masterfully designed kitchen w/ Wolf, Subzero, 2 Asko dishwashers, double islands. Master suite on main. Elevator. 5 covered porches. Plantation shutters throughout. Grand Manor roof. Sound system throughout. 5 HVAC units. Gorgeous landscaping with outdoor fireplace. Shaded dog pen. Private 18 hole championship golf club community w/ guest cottages & helicopter pad.
Listing Information
Hawks Ridge
Gas Water Heater, Public Water Service
Holding Tank
School Information
Room Information
Family Room, Living Room, Recreation Room, Exercise Room, Library
Master Bedroom on Main
Island, pantry walk-in
Interior Features
Central Vacuum, Dishwasher, Microwave Built-In, Refrigerator
Hardwood, Carpet
Electric, A/C - Zone, Ceiling Fan(s)
Gas Heat, Zone
Bath Finished, Daylight, Entrance Inside, Entrance Outside, Finished Rooms
5, Great Room, Living Room, Master Bedroom
Alarm -Smoke/Fire
Bookcases, Elevator, Walk-in Closets
Exterior / Lot Features
Sprinkler System
Airstrip, Garden, Level, Wooded
Community Features
Golf Facilities, Gated Community
Financial Considerations
Inside AccessTM
Current market conditions for 670 Hawks Ridge Dr
Active Market Trends
Source:MLS DATA
Median list price$252,400
Days on market94
Properties for sale112
Sold Market Trends
Source:MLS DATA
Median sold price$202,450
Sales to list price9,635.0%
Properties sold64
Median sq ft price$103
Arrows indicate 90 day trend
Listing Price History for 670 Hawks Ridge Dr
Ball Ground Real Estate
Ball Ground is located in Georgia. Ball Ground, Georgia 30107 has a population of 1,435.
The median household income in Ball Ground, Georgia 30107 is $63,103. The median household income for the surrounding county is $67,928 compared to the national median of $53,046. The median age of people living in Ball Ground 30107 is 44.5 years.
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Hosted by Jenny Brockie, Insight is a discussion forum focusing on a single issue with the participation of a studio audience.
May 13th, 2015
Episode 132 of 189 episodes
Where do women draw the line on sexual harassment in the workplace? Hosted by award-winning journalist Jenny Brockie. (An SBS Production) CC
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Welcome to the daily audio workout for your head.


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Watch the full 90 minutes from Craven Cottage as the Whites took on Wigan Athletic.
Fulham will be hoping to beat AFC Wimbledon on Monday to extend their advantage at the top of their group in the Premier League Cup.
Slaviša Jokanović was not entirely happy after watching his Fulham side snatch a late victory at home to Wigan Athletic.
Take a look through a selection of snaps from Craven Cottage as the Whites played host to Wigan Athletic on Saturday.
Who do you think was Fulham's best performer in Saturday's last-gasp win over Wigan Athletic?
Fulham are back in action this Tuesday evening as we take on Nottingham Forest. Fans can buy an additional ticket for just £10!
Denis Odoi and Neeskens Kebano both opened their account for Fulham as we left it late to beat Wigan Athletic 3-2 on Saturday.
Two Michael Elstone strikes and an own goal gave all three points to Fulham in a hard earned win over Southampton.
Tickets for today's meeting with Wigan at the Cottage are still available for supporters to buy, priced from £25 for adults and £15 for juniors.
Slaviša Jokanović previews the visit of Wigan Athletic to Craven Cottage on Saturday afternoon as we return home.


text:
Hialeah is located in Miami-Dade county and has a population of 226,419.
The average in-state tuition for full time undergraduate students in illustration schools in Hialeah during the 2009 - 2010 school year was $9,195.00. The average tuition was $9,195.00 for non-residents studying in Florida.
Books and supplies for illustration schools in Hialeah cost an average of $950.00. There is one illustration college in Hialeah for students to choose from. In the 2008 - 2009 school year, reportedly 0 students completed illustration programs in Hialeah.
|Average Salary
|Number Employed in City
|Multi-Media Artists and Animators
|Graphic Designers


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SPI voltage level translation | Cypress Semiconductor
Support & Community
SPI voltage level translation
Last Updated: December 29, 2011
Why two different SPI connection schemes are presented in the WirelessUSB datasheet?
The reason for the different SPI hardware interfacing connection schemes in the WirelessUSB datasheet is that in tranmit-only battery powered device block diagram both devices are powered from the same 3V source and in the USB bridge transceiver block diagram the enCoRe device is powered from the USB connector (VBus ~5V source) and the WirelessUSB device is powered from 3V source (via LDO).
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| View Exclusive AAUP Compensation Survey Data |
New survey identifies top strategies to direct students toward sexual assault policies and resources on campus; White House hopes other colleges will take advantage of the free advice.
A national survey uses commonly collected data from colleges to assess the postsecondary outcomes of graduates.
The class biases of those hiring for the highest-paid entry-level jobs ensure that those jobs go to graduates of elite colleges from affluent backgrounds, a new book argues.
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Genius Ergo 525v Laser Driver Download
Genius Ergo 525v Laser Driver Details:
Genius Ergo 525v Laser File Name: genius_ergo_525v_laser.zip
Genius Ergo 525v Laser Driver Version: 79kKZW.
Genius Ergo 525v Laser ZIP Size: 108.kb
Manufacturer: Genius
Scan Status: OK
Genius Ergo 525v Laser special revision for: Windows 7 Home Basic 32 bit, Windows 7 Professional 64 bit, Windows 10 64 bit, Windows XP Media Center Edition 64 bit, Windows 7 Home Premium 64 bit, Windows 8 Enterprise 64 bit, Windows XP Tablet PC Edition 32 bit
Genius Ergo 525v Laser Download Stats:
Direct Downloads: 408
Most Recent Download: 2/21/2017
Managed Downloads: 4967
Most Recent Download: 2/23/2017
Download Mirrors: 1
Current Delay: 11 Seconds
Driver License: Free
Direct Download Success Stats:
Reports Issued By 355/408 Users
Success Reported By 73/355 Users
Driver Download Score68/100
Driver Installation Score70/100
Overall preformance Score70/100
Installation Manager Success Stats:
Reports Issued By 4760/4967 Users
Success Reported By 3993/4760 Users
Driver Download Score97/100
Driver Installation Score96/100
Overall preformance Score78/100
1. Direct DownloadSelect your OS and press "Download".
This option requires basic OS understanding.
Select Your Operating System, download zipped files, and then proceed to
manually install them.
Recommended if Genius Ergo 525v Laser is the only driver on your PC you wish to update.
2. Driver Installation Manager
This option requires no OS understanding.
Automatically scans your PC for the specific required version of Genius Ergo 525v Laser + all other outdated drivers, and installs them all at once.
After downloading and installing Genius Ergo 525v Laser, or the driver installation manager, take a few minutes to send us a report:
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In the month of July, International Action's Southeast team is going to bring 11 more schools clean water. These 11 schools are located in the cities of Jacmel and Bainet. All 11 schools have agreed to let local residents access their clean, safe water after school hours.
We continue to help young girls in Haiti by improving the quality of their educational institutes. One of the schools that we will be working with in July is an all girls school with over 1,200 students.
Please follow our page here at Global Giving and on our website, www.HaitiWater.org, to stay abreast of our progress in the Southeast of Haiti. Thank you for all the support.
Best regards,
The International Action Team
Project Reports on GlobalGiving are posted directly to globalgiving.org by Project Leaders as they are completed, generally every 3-4 months. To protect the integrity of these documents, GlobalGiving does not alter them; therefore you may find some language or formatting issues.
If you donate to this project or have donated to this project, you will get an e-mail when this project posts a report. You can also subscribe for reports via e-mail without donating.
We'll only email you new reports and updates about this project.
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text:
Blouse Beauty
Semi pure shaded Georgette saree with Pure Raw Silk Blouse mt.
Sneha Half White Kota Saree
If I have a baby gal
hangings on blouse
Deeksha panth
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Preparation time
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Makes 3 litres
This is a great Halloween cocktail recipe with an almost scary amount of booze - sipping required!
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Place the brown sugar and the lemon juice into a jug and stir to dissolve.
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Existing evidence suggests that the organization of cognitive functions may differentiate during development. We investigated two key components of executive functions, memory maintenance and inhibitory control, by applying latent factor models appropriate for examining developmental differences in functional associations among aspects of cognition. Two-hundred and sixty-three children (aged 4 to 14 years) were administered tasks that required maintaining rules in mind or inhibiting a prepotent tendency to respond on the same side as the stimulus. Memory maintenance and inhibitory control were not separable in children of 4–7 or 7–9.5 years, but were differentiated in an older group (9.5–14.5 years).
Psychometric research generally emphasizes the stability of the structure of cognitive abilities (see Carroll, 1993; Sternberg, 1994, for reviews). In contrast, multivariate research on cognitive development in children and older adults highlights developmental differences in the structure of cognitive abilities and their functional organization (Cattell, 1971; Flavell, 1982; Garrett, 1946; Horn, 1968; Jones & Conrad, 1933). One of the main hypotheses concerning changes in the functional organization of cognitive abilities during child development is the differentiation hypothesis (e.g., Garrett, 1946). It postulates that the structure of intelligence develops from a relatively unified, general ability in childhood to more differentiated, specific cognitive abilities by early adulthood. Heinz Werner (1957) generalized the notion of differentiation to the orthogenetic principle, denoting that development proceeds from a state of relative globality to a state of increasing differentiation and hierarchical integration. The notion of developmental changes in specificity and differentiation of cognitive processes was later extended to account for cognitive changes across the lifespan, suggesting that the organization of cognitive processes de-differentiates in old age. Indeed, considerable evidence for such de-differentiation has been found (Baltes, Cornelius, Spiro, Nesselroade, & Willis, 1980; Schaie, 1962; for recent evidence, see de Frias et al., 2007; Li et al., 2004).
Methodologically, developmental differentiation refers to the observation that the degree of correlation across different intellectual abilities, often represented as the prominence of a general factor (g) of intellectual functioning, decreases from childhood to adulthood (e.g., Carroll, 1993). This empirical observation is assumed to reflect the decreasing influence of domain-general processing constraints and the increasing importance of specialized mechanisms and knowledge across development (Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 2006; Deary et al., 1996; cf. Spearman, 1927).
This study provides evidence for the developmental differentiation of two cognitive functions that depend on the prefrontal cortex (PFC), working memory and inhibitory control, in the course of child development. Both working memory and inhibitory control are key components of executive functions, broadly defined as processes that control (e.g., regulate and coordinate) goal-directed behavior and are often linked to the functioning of the PFC (Diamond, 2006; Miller & Cohen, 2001; Miyake & Shah, 1999; Stuss & Benson, 1986). Working memory has been conceptualized differently by various researchers. Notwithstanding the conceptual differences, a general consensus holds that working memory refers to the ability to briefly hold information in mind (memory maintenance) while also performing mental operations on that information (e.g., Baddeley, 2007; Baddeley & Hitch, 1974; Cowan, 1995; Just & Carpenter, 1992; Petrides, 1994; Shah & Miyake, 1996; Smith & Jonides, 1999). In adults, memory maintenance appears to rely more heavily on ventrolateral (inferior) PFC (except at supra-span levels) and manipulation of its contents appears to rely more on dorsolateral PFC (D'Esposito, Postle, Ballard, Lease, 1999; D'Esposito, Postle, & Rypma, 2000; Rypma, Berger, & D'Esposito, 2002; Rypma & D'Esposito, 1999).
Inhibitory control refers to the ability to suppress inappropriate response or attentional tendencies in order to act appropriately (Carlson, Moses, Hix, 1998; Dempster, 1992; Diamond, 1989, 2006; Moutier, Plagne-Cayeux, Melot, Houdé, 2006; Nigg, 2000). It, too, relies on lateral PFC, albeit usually more posteriorly within lateral PFC (Casey et al., 1997; Durston et al., 2002; Leung & Cai, 2007; Xue, Aron, & Poldrack, 2008). When memory maintenance and inhibition are compared directly within the same study (e.g., Bunge, Ochsner, Desmond, Glover, & Gabrieli, 2001; McNab et al., 2008), both processes recruit several overlapping regions. However, within the circuitry, some regions are more critically involved in the resolution of interferences, whereas others are more involved in the resolution of an increase in maintenance load, supporting the notion that the two processes are distinct but interrelated. In this article, we focus on the information-maintenance aspect of working memory (henceforth termed "memory maintenance") and inhibitory control and investigate whether developmental differentiation occurs between these executive functions.
Empirical studies in the psychometric tradition have often investigated the developmental differentiation hypothesis with measures of intellectual abilities that do not map onto specific cognitive mechanisms such as working memory or inhibitory control. Evidence from this line of research is mixed. In a classical review of about 60 factor analytic studies, Reinert (1970) reported a trend toward increasing differentiation of abilities with age. However, in a more recent review, Carroll (1993) failed to find strong evidence in support of differentiation. Results from a handful of recent cross-sectional studies investigating this topic are consistent with Carroll's finding, as the proportion of variance accounted for by a general factor was found to remain unchanged across age groups (e.g., Bickley, Keith, & Wolfle, 1995; Deary et al., 1996; Juan-Espinosa, Cuevas, Escorial, & Garcia, 2006; Juan-Espinosa, Garcia, Colom, & Abad, 2000; Juan-Espinosa et al., 2002). An exception to this is a study conducted by Tideman and Gustafsson (2004). Employing multiple-group confirmatory factor-analytic techniques, the authors found that latent factors of verbal and non-verbal intelligence were less highly correlated in older age groups (6- to 7-year-olds) than in younger children (3- to 4-year-olds), consistent with the developmental differentiation hypothesis.
To date, there is a small but growing body of research that directly examines the functional organization of basic cognitive mechanisms (as opposed to intelligence constructs) across child development. Gathercole and colleagues (Gathercole, Pickering, Ambridge, Wearing, 2004; Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006) examined whether the structure of working memory (according to the Baddeley multi-component model) changes during child development. In general, the authors found that the basic structure of working memory components is largely in place by 4 years of age. However, the domain-specific visuospatial construct and the domain-general processing construct show stronger links in younger children (4–6 years old) compared to older children. In a recent lifespan study, Li et al. (2004) examined correlations among a variety of basic processes (ranging from visual search, response competition, long-term and short-term memory search, and choice reactions) and psychometric intelligence (i.e., fluid and crystallized intelligence) in a lifespan sample covering the ages of 6 to 89 years. It was found that correlations between fluid and crystallized intelligence and the constituent cognitive processes were stronger at either end of the lifespan than in young adulthood. These results support the longstanding theoretical conjecture (Baltes et al., 1980; Schaie, 1962) that intellectual abilities and cognitive processes are more undifferentiated in childhood, gradually become more specialized and reach a more differentiated state in adolescence and adulthood, and then undergo de-differentiation during old age. Given that higher-order intellectual functions are supported by basic cognitive mechanisms, we decided to examine whether increasing differentiation can be observed in the functional organization of two key components of executive functions: memory maintenance and inhibitory control.
Recent progress in understanding the neural bases of cognitive development and the emerging emphasis on cross-level integrations provide increasing opportunities for linking cognitive differentiation to neural changes (Churchland & Sejnowski, 1988; Li & Lindenberger, 1999; Li, Lindenberger, & Sikström, 2001; Lindenberger, Li, & Bäckman, 2006; Munakata, Casey, & Diamond, 2004; Nelson et al., 2002). Specifically, the development of memory maintenance and inhibitory control, the two mechanisms investigated here, appears to be closely linked to the development of PFC. Converging evidence from anatomical, neurochemical, and functional studies suggests that PFC and the functional circuits in which it participates undergo profound changes and reorganization over age well into adolescence and young adulthood (e.g., Bens, 2002; Casey, Galvan, & Hare, 2005; Diamond, 2002; Elbert, Heim, & Rockstroh, 2001; Giedd et al., 1999; Gogtay et al., 2004; Lenroot & Giedd, 2006; Paus, 2005; Sowell, Thompson, Holmes, Batth, et al., 1999; Sowell, Thompson, Holmes, Jernigan, & Toga, 1999).
At the functional level, neuroimaging studies suggest that cognitive development is accompanied by changes in patterns of brain activation, including enhanced activation in critical regions, attenuation in others, as well as shifts in lateralization (e.g., Bunge, Dudukovic, Thomason, Vaidya, & Gabrieli, 2002; de Haan, Pascalis, & Johnson, 2002; Durston et al., 2006; Johnson, 2000, 2001). These effects taken together usually result in more focal and less diffuse brain activation from childhood to adulthood. Also, the activation pattern seen during one type of cognitive task shows less overlap with the pattern of neural activation while performing a different task. Both of these patterns are consistent with a change from less differentiated neural mechanisms to more differentiated function. When differentiation first starts to occur, focal activation is quite intense, but with increasing efficiency the key neural region needs to work less hard. Accumulating evidence suggests that functional circuitry (within-region as well as between regions) and cortical dynamics are constantly undergoing reorganization in adapting to influences such as environmental stimulation, experience, brain development, and deterioration or damage (e.g., Li, 2003; Mueller, Brehmer, von Oertzen, Li, & Lindenberger, 2008; Mueller, Gruber, Klimesch, & Lindenberger, submitted; Theoret et al., 2005).
We postulate that the increasing specialization of PFC neural circuits over time, in conjunction with normative developmental experiences, promotes the differentiation of PFC-dependent cognitive functions. In early childhood, the operation and expression of basic cognitive mechanisms are assumed to depend strongly on system-general constraints. With maturation, these system-general constraints are relaxed through increased specification and specialization of neural circuits, which in turn support greater complexity in cognitive structure and diversity in the operations of cognitive mechanisms.
The analyses reported here are based on data originally reported by Davidson, Amso, Ander-son, and Diamond (2006). In contrast to that publication, which, for the most part, examined age differences separately for each of the different tasks, here we use multivariate statistical techniques to examine age differences in the relations among tasks. In the original study, 325 participants (from 4 to 13 years of age and young adults) were tested on a computerized battery of tests designed to independently manipulate (a) the maintenance and manipulation of information held in mind and (b) inhibitory control, to examine the development, interrelations, and possible independence of these two domains of function. Specifically, the battery included tasks designed to vary demands on retaining and processing information that is held in mind and/or inhibiting irrelevant information and/or prepotent responses, in single-task as well as in task-switching contexts (the latter requiring more cognitive flexibility). Although only behavioral data were presented in the Davidson et al. (2006) article, the battery of tasks was designed to be suitable for use in the MR scanner environment and those results have been presented elsewhere (Diamond, O'Craven, & Savoy, 1998).
Differences in the developmental trajectories of information maintenance and inhibitory control aspects of executive functions have been reported (Diamond, 2002; Huizinga, Dolan, & van der Molen, 2006; Luciana, Conklin, Hooper, & Yarger, 2005). In the original article, Davidson et al. (2006) found that 4-year-old children were already able to retain two conditional rules in mind, and that the relative increase in difficulty of holding more rules in mind did not change over age. Inhibitory control, on the other hand, was especially difficult for younger children as they showed (a) an inhibitory cost completely absent in adults (a cost in both speed and accuracy of exercising inhibition in single-task blocks of incongruent trials versus single-task blocks of congruent trials), (b) that inhibitory cost (the difference in performance on congruent and incongruent blocks) was greater for children of 4–9 years of age than was the differences in performance due to increasing the memory load from two to six items, and (c) the younger the child, the greater the spatial incompatibility effect in variants of the Simon task (reflecting the cost of inhibiting the pull to respond on the same side as the stimulus). The age difference in performance was greatest in the most difficult condition, in which inhibition and memory maintenance were taxed in a task-switching context (Davidson et al., 2006; see Kray, Eber, & Lindenberger, 2004; Kray & Lindenberger, 2000, for parallel findings in aging and across the lifespan). In addition to examining age differences in mean performance level, Davidson et al. examined raw correlations between the memory maintenance and inhibitory control measures. To their surprise, the correlations turned out to be high, despite their hypothesis that the two constructs would be independent.
By using statistical models separating specific variance from variance common to all indicators of a given construct, this study examines the hypothesis that inhibitory control and the maintenance aspect of working memory develop from a relatively unitary executive function construct at younger ages into distinct mechanisms at older ages. As discussed by Burgess (1997), interpretation of raw correlations among executive function tasks (as was done by Davidson et al., 2006) may be problematic due to issues associated with task impurity, low reliability, and measurement error. A multivariate latent variable approach (i.e., confirmatory factor analysis) that simultaneously accounts for measurement error and extracts common variance among the tasks provides better estimates of interrelations among postulated constructs (Horn & McArdle, 1992; Nesselroade & Thompson, 1995). Thus, the present analysis extends the original work of Davidson et al. (2006) by representing both the mean and covariance structures between memory maintenance and inhibitory control as two aspects of executive functions at the latent (error-free) level separately for three age groups, thereby allowing for a direct test of the developmental differentiation hypothesis.
In an early observation, Nesselroade (1970) postulated that "the universe of behavior is not constant for different age levels and therefore the manifest nature of the factor in behavioral measures will change" (pp. 199–200). According to this notion of differential manifestation, the same ability may manifest itself in different ways as development unfolds (see also, Kagan, 1980). The analytical strategies of structural equation modeling applied in child development and aging research are typically more appropriate for examining individual differences in amount (quantity) rather than in form (quality) (cf. Nesselroade, Gerstorf, Hardy, & Ram, 2007). In particular, invariant loading patterns across groups (i.e., invariance in form) are seen as prerequisites before factor comparisons across groups can be considered legitimate (see e.g., Meredith, 1993). This view on invariance assumes that the behavioral manifestations of unobserved abilities are necessarily the same across development and there can only be quantitative difference.
Here, we follow a relatively novel strategy for identifying and scaling latent variables that allows for different manifestations of latent factors in different age groups (for a similar application in aging research, see Tucker-Drob & Salthouse, 2008). The basic strategy was introduced by Little, Slegers, and Card (2006) and designated as the effects-coding method. The strategy entails constraining the set of indicator intercepts to sum to zero for each construct and the set of loadings for each construct to sum to the number of unique indicators. As a consequence, the estimated latent variances and latent means meaningfully reflect the observed metric of the indicators, optimally weighted by the degree to which each indicator represents the underlying latent construct. Little et al. (2006) noted that this strategy adheres to Nesselroade's (2007) idiographic method. Within the invariant configuration of construct-indicator mappings, differences in the relative pattern of factor loadings across groups capture the idiosyncratic manifestation of a construct while simultaneously yielding latent variable estimates for group comparison. In the context of the current study, decreases over age in the correlation between factors indicate increasing differentiation at the level of process interrelations with age.
We restrict the description of measures and procedures to variables that are of primary relevance to the analysis reported here (for more details of the original study see Davidson et al., 2006).
Adults in the original sample were excluded from the present analyses because of the small sample size (N = 20), which would have prevented use of confirmatory factor analysis. This left us with 263 participants with complete data, aged 4 to 14 years. For the multiple-group analysis, the sample was equally divided into three age groups: youngest (N = 90; Mage = 5.2 years; age range = 4.0–6.7 years), middle (N = 90; Mage = 8.05; age range = 6.8–9.45 years), and oldest (N = 83; Mage = 11.14; age range = 9.5–14.6 years). Having three age groups was based on theoretical considerations that it is important to keep the separation between the middle and oldest group as developmental difference in PFC integrity was found between pre-adolescent and adolescence periods (e.g., Giedd et al., 1999).
Participants completed six tasks designed to vary demands on memory load, inhibitory control, or both. All tasks were computer administered, including stimulus presentation and response recording. Participants were instructed to hold a button box with both hands and to respond with their thumbs. For each trial, one stimulus appeared either at the left, right, or middle of the screen. Depending on the conditional rules associated with the stimuli for each task (e.g., if stimulus A, press left; if stimulus B, press right), participants had to decide whether to press the left or right button. To adjust for the robust effect of age differences in processing speed, stimulus presentation time was 2,500 msec for the youngest age group, whereas stimulus presentation time was 750 msec for the middle and oldest age groups. Stimulus durations were established based on pilot testing. Differences in stimulus duration across the groups affected mean performance but not the correlations among tasks within each group and thus should not pose a concern for the present analyses. The current analysis focused on factor structure instead of mean performance, we refer the readers to the original publication (i.e., Davidson et al., 2006) for results of mean performance.
Each task began with instructions followed by a short practice block consisting of four or six trials. Achieving more than 75% correct performance on the practice trials and being able to verbally explain the conditional rules of the task to the experimenter were the criteria for indicating that a participant had obtained a good enough understanding of the task to proceed to testing. Participants were allowed to repeat the practice block if necessary to achieve that criterion. In the following sections, each of the six tasks is described.
This memory task consisted of two conditions that varied in set size, involving either two or six abstract shapes. At the beginning of each block, participants were taught a rule for each shape (i.e., whether they should press the left or right button when that abstract shape appeared). The stimuli were presented in the center of the screen so there should have been no preferential activation of the right or left hand. The Abstract Shapes task taxed memory maintenance but not inhibition. Participants first completed the two-shape condition, followed by the six-shape condition. There were two blocks of 20 trials for each of these two conditions. For each condition, the dependent measure was the proportion of correct responses over total responses.
Two types of dots (striped or solid) were used as stimuli for this task. In each trial, a stimulus appeared randomly on the left or right side of the screen. For half of the participants a solid dot indicated they should respond on the side opposite to the location of the dot (i.e., spatially incompatible trials). For a striped dot they were to respond on the same side as the dot. For the other half of participants, these instructions were reversed. All participants started with an initial block of 20 compatible trials (i.e., respond on the same side as the dot, called the Dots—Congruent condition). Since this condition placed little demand on either inhibition or working memory, it is not considered here. This condition was followed by a block of 20 incompatible trials (Dots—Incongruent). Participants had to inhibit the prepotent tendency to respond on the same side as the stimulus in order to respond correctly (Lu & Proctor, 1995; Georgopoulos, 1994; Georgopoulos, Lurito, Petrides, Schwartz, & Massey, 1989). The dependent measure was the proportion of correct responses in this block.
This condition was presented after the Dots—Congruent and Dots—Incongruent conditions. Here, both types of dots (striped and solid) were used as stimuli. Before the task started, participants were reminded again about the conditional rule associated with each of the two dots. Either a striped or solid dot appeared randomly on the left or right of the computer screen, yielding spatially compatible and incompatible trials. Participants had to hold in mind the two rules, mentally calculate whether same-side or opposite-side meant press left or press right on a given trial, inhibit the irrelevant rule, and (on spatially incompatible trials) inhibit the tendency to press the button on the same side as the stimulus. This task heavily taxed both inhibition and working memory. There were 20 trials. The dependent measure was the proportion of correct responses on spatially-incompatible trials in this block.
This inhibitory control task was a classic Simon task. A color picture of either a frog or butterfly was presented on the left or right of the computer screen. Participants were instructed to press the left button when they saw a butterfly, and to press the right button when they saw a frog. Stimuli were presented randomly on the left or right of the screen over the block of 20 trials, yielding spatially compatible and incompatible trials. To minimize the demands on memory, small pictures of the stimuli were attached next to the correct buttons on the response box. Thus, the Pictures task is seen as taxing inhibition on spatially incompatible trials, but not taxing memory. The dependent measure was the proportion of correct responses on spatially incompatible trials.
In this measure of inhibitory control, an arrow (either pointing straight down or toward the opposite side at a 45-degree angle) was presented randomly at the left or right of the computer screen. When an arrow pointing straight down appeared on the screen, participants were to press the button on the same side as the arrow (spatially compatible trials). When an arrow pointing diagonally toward the opposite side appeared, participants were to press the button on the side opposite the arrow (spatially incompatible trials). Twenty trials were administered. The Arrows task is seen as taxing inhibition of the tendency to respond on the same side as the stimulus for trials with a diagonal arrow, but it is not seen as taxing memory because no arbitrary, abstract association needed to be held in mind; all participants had to do was look at the stimulus and it indicated where to respond. The dependent measure was the proportion of correct responses on spatially incompatible trials.
Trials in which a response was given in less than 200 msec (anticipatory response) were considered too fast to be meaningful and thus were excluded from the analyses. The mean proportion of such non-valid responses ranged from 10–17% across tasks. Significant age-specific and task-specific effects on anticipatory responses were observed (see Davidson et al., 2006). This was resolved by taking proportional measures of accuracy. We focused on accuracy instead of reaction time because reaction time measures are known to reflect a strong processing speed factor (e.g., Fry & Hale, 1996; Li et al., 2004; Salthouse, 1996). The correlations between reaction time measures are high in all age groups and produce factors that are highly correlated, precluding the possibility of detecting age differences in differentiation, unless a wide lifespan age range is covered (e.g., Li et al., 2004).
For each measure, outliers were identified within each group as having a z-score of more than 3.29 (p < .001, two-tailed test). Only .01 percent of the data was considered as outliers (distributed equally across the groups) and extreme scores were replaced with the next most extreme score within the acceptable distribution. Descriptive data for all tasks are listed in Table 1. Most variables showed acceptable distributions in each age group (i.e., no extreme skewness or kurtosis). The reliability of each measure was examined with the Spearman-Brown reliability coefficient estimated from split-half reliabilities between odd- and even-numbered trials of the corresponding task. This procedure yielded satisfactory values for reliability for most tasks: .69 for Arrows, .74 for Dots—Incongruent, .70 for Dots—Mixed, .87 for 2-Abstract-Shape, .75 for 6-Abstract-Shape, and .55 for Pictures.
Structural equation modeling analyses were implemented in M-plus (Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2006). We first attempted to achieve a tenable multiple-group solution (Horn & McArdle, 1992; Vandenberg & Lance, 2000). A three-group model was fit, with the equality constraints mentioned above imposed. Having established a tenable two-factor model, a sequence of increasingly strict sets of equality constraints was imposed across age groups to examine the extent of measurement and factorial invariance. The latent factors were regressed onto age to control for potential group differences in the contribution of age-induced collinearities to the factor structure.
All structural models were computed using maximum likelihood estimation. Several indices of model fit were considered. Models were considered a good fit with χ2/df of less than 2, comparative fit index of more than .95 (CFI; Bentler, 1990), and a root-mean-square error of approximation of less than .08 including .05 with its 90% confidence interval (RMSEA; Browne & Cudeck, 1992; Steiger, 1990). Nested models were compared by testing the significance of the difference in χ2, with the degrees of freedom being equal to the difference in the number of free parameters between the two models. The threshold for statistical significance was specified at the .05 level.
Goodness-of-fit test results of the models are presented in Table 2. First, a one-factor model was simultaneously fit to the data of all age groups (Model 1). All tasks loaded on a general factor and parameters including factor loadings, factor variance, factor means, indicator intercepts, and unique variance (residuals) were estimated. As can be seen in Table 2, the fit of Model 1 was not acceptable, χ2 = 65.03, χ2/df =1.55, CFI = 0.89, and RMSEA = 0.08 (90% CI = .04 to .12). Thus, within the common metric space of all age groups, a single factor model did not adequately capture the complexity of the data.
Second, a model with two correlated factors was fit. We postulated two factors: (a) memory maintenance (as measured by 2-Abstract-Shapes and 6-Abstract-Shapes, assuming that the common variance between the two memory tasks reflects the ability to hold rules in mind) and (b) inhibitory control (as measured by Dots—Incongruent, Dots—Mixed, Pictures, and Arrows, assuming that the common variance among these four tasks reflects the ability to inhibit stimulus-congruent response tendencies). The loading patterns were fixed to be the same across all groups (configural invariance), while the factor loadings, factor variances, unique variance parameters (i.e., error variances), factor means, and intercepts of indicators were allowed to vary across the three age groups (see Figure 1). Model 2 provided a better fit to the data than Model 1, χ2 = 55.84, χ2/df = 1.55, CFI = .91, and RMSEA = .08 (90% CI = .03 to .12). The correlation estimated for the youngest group was .98, for the middle-aged group it was 0.81, and it was 0.32 for the oldest group. This model provides initial support to the hypothesis that memory maintenance and inhibitory control differentiate with increasing age.
We next proceeded from configural to metric measurement invariance by imposing equality constraints on the unstandardized factor loadings (Model 3). Model 3 was nested within Model 2, and a direct comparison showed that the assumption of equal factor loadings was not tenable, Δχ2 = 17.31, Δdf = 8, p = .03. In other words, constraining all factor loadings to be equal across age groups led to a significant decrement in fit. An examination of the factor loading pattern revealed that the inhibitory control factor manifested itself differently across the three age groups (see Figure 2 Panel A), whereas memory maintenance showed relatively similar loading patterns across age (see Figure 2 Panel B). Hence, we examined whether partial metric invariance across the three age groups was tenable (Models 3a and 3b). As expected, holding the factor loadings of the memory maintenance factor equal across groups but allowing factor loadings for inhibitory control to vary freely provided an acceptable representation of the data (but not vice versa). Therefore, the corresponding model (i.e., Model 3b in Table 2) was retained for subsequent analyses. The common variances of the two factors reliably differed from zero in all three age groups (for all six nested comparisons, p < .05), which is a precondition for testing hypotheses regarding their intercorrelations.
Finally, we examined group differences in factor interrelations, which are shown in Figure 2, Panel C, to address the main hypothesis of this study. First, we examined separately for each age group whether the correlation between memory maintenance and inhibitory control could be fixed to one (cf. van der Sluis, Dolan, & Stoel, 2005), indicating an undifferentiated general executive functioning factor instead of two distinct memory maintenance and inhibitory control factors. In the resulting models (Model 4a, 4b, 4c), the model fit was significantly worse only when the correlation of the oldest children group was fixed to one Δχ2 = 4.61, Δdf = 1, p < .05. In the last step of testing, we examined whether the correlations of the three age groups could be constrained to be equal. The resulting model (Model 4d) showed significantly worse fit Δχ2 =4.62, Δdf = 1, p < .05, indicating that the correlation between the two factors is significantly different across the age groups.
The goal of this study was to examine whether two components of executive functions, memory maintenance and inhibitory control, differentiate from childhood to early adolescence. Using multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis, we found: (a) that the correlation between memory maintenance and inhibitory control differs reliably from 1.0 in early adolescence, but not in younger children; (b) that the correlation between memory maintenance and inhibitory control is significantly lower in young teenagers than in younger children.
Our findings appear counter to some recent studies that failed to find support for developmental differentiation (e.g., Deary et al., 1996; e.g., Juan-Espinosa et al., 2006). The present study and those studies differ in several important ways, however. First, the main analytical strategies of the previous studies were either to examine the manifest (i.e., raw) correlations, or to compare the amount of variance extracted by the first unrotated factor in a principal component analysis. Neither of those methods separates unique variance from common variance. The confirmatory factor analysis utilized in the current study ensured that the constructs of interest were error-free (see also Alloway et al., 2006; Gathercole et al., 2004; Tideman & Gustafsson, 2004). In particular, the scaling method adapted from Little et al. (2006) is a suitable addition to the multivariate methodological toolbox of developmental psychology, as it allows the relative pattern of factor loadings, and hence the behavioral manifestation of cognitive abilities, to change with age (cf. Kagan, 1980; Nesselroade, 1970; Nesselroade et al., 2007). This nonarbitrary yet flexible scaling method provides valuable indications of the nature of the developmental change process. For example, we observed that the factor-loading pattern of memory maintenance remained relatively similar across the ages investigated, whereas the factor-loading pattern of inhibitory control differed by age. Furthermore, inhibitory control has been shown to be particularly poor in young children and undergo prolonged development across childhood compared to working memory maintenance as defined in this study (e.g., Davidson et al., 2006; Diamond 1995, 2002; but see Huizinga et al., 2006), indicating that age-related differences in covariance pattern of the ability structures occurs concomitantly with age-related changes in the mean pattern (i.e., performance level). Based on these findings, we suggest that the increasing differentiation of executive functions from childhood to early adolescence is driven by the protracted development of inhibitory control.
The second reason that our findings appear counter to other findings is that many previous studies made use of psychometric tests of intellectual abilities (e.g., Wechsler scale or Differential Aptitude Test), and predominantly assessed complex forms of cognition such as language, numerical ability, and reasoning, each of which requires multiple cognitive abilities. In the present study, tasks were designed from a cognitive neuroscience perspective with the explicit goal of assessing basic cognitive functions that are building blocks for more complex forms of cognition. Thus, the abilities measured by the current task battery may have been more sensitive to developmental differentiation than measures conceived within the psychometric research tradition.
Our findings are relevant to the debate over whether working memory and inhibitory control are essentially one function or represent separable cognitive mechanisms. Some researchers view holding information in mind and exercising inhibitory control as closely related but separate processes, both being components of executive function (e.g., Diamond, 2006; Gernsbacher & Faust, 1991; Levy & Anderson, 2002), or as two separate sub-processes of working memory (e.g., Conway & Engle, 1994; Hasher, Stoltzfuz, Zacks, & Rypma, 1991; Kane & Engle, 2002). According to an alternative view, often adopted in neural network modeling, there is no need for a separate inhibitory function beyond working memory (e.g., Cohen, Dunbar, & McClelland, 1990; Kimberg & Farah, 1993; Miller & Cohen, 2001; Munakata, 2001). The increasing differentiation between memory maintenance and inhibitory control observed here suggests the presence of two mechanisms after early childhood and that the specificity of these two mechanisms increases from childhood to adolescence.
The development of working memory and inhibitory control as key components of executive functions has been of great interest to developmental psychology and developmental cognitive neuroscience, as these mechanisms are considered cornerstones of adaptive self-regulation, higher-order cognition, and goal-directed behavior (Camos, 2008; Dempster, 1992; Harnishfeger & Bjorklund, 1993; Houdé & Tzourio-Mazoyer, 2003; St Clair-Thompson & Gathercole, 2006; Unsworth & Engle, 2007) important for success in school and in life (e.g., Diamond, Barnett, Thomas, Munro, 2007). A child's capacity to retain and work with information held in mind (i.e., working memory) and to suppress inappropriate attention or actions in favor of appropriate ones (i.e., inhibitory control) continues to develop across childhood and adolescence (see Diamond, 2006, for a review). The functioning and development of various aspects of working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility have been shown to depend closely on the structure, neuro-chemistry, and functional activity of PFC and its networks of functional connections (Arnstein & Robbins, 2002; Bunge & Wright, 2007; Casey et al., 1995; Crone, Donohue, Honomichl, Wendelken, & Bunge, 2006; Miller & Cohen, 2001; Perlstein, Dixit, Noll, & Cohen, 2003).
Based on a dataset with a wide age range spanning early childhood to adolescence, the results from our analysis indicate that the construct of executive functions is not differentiated in children before seven years of age. In parallel, functional changes in the neural basis for cognitive control and executive functioning appear to be characterized by an early lack of differentiation that gives way to increasingly focal activation later in childhood and then decreasingly intense activation of the focal regions during late adolescence as the key regions come to function more efficiently (e.g., Brown et al., 2005; Casey et al., 2005; Durston et al., 2006). Thus, we hypothesize that (a) the undifferentiated memory maintenance and inhibitory control observed in younger children in the present analyses corresponds to highly overlapping patterns of neural activation documented by others for tasks requiring different components or combinations of executive function in young children; (b) the increasing differentiation between memory maintenance and inhibitory control from early childhood to late childhood/early adolescence observed in the present analyses corresponds to increasingly focal and less overlapping neural activation patterns for the cognitive functions with age; and (c) further specialization and partial automatization of these cognitive processes in the course of later development and learning reported by others corresponds to decreasing neural activation of these focal regions and increasing recruitment of other regions of the brain that can subserve task performance more efficiently.
We would like to mention four limitations of the present study that are pertinent for future investigations. First, our analyses were based on age group as a categorical variable. There may be differences within each age group that a finer-scale analysis might reveal and/or any discontinuity between younger and older children might not exactly correspond to our age-group split (based on equal numbers of subjects per group). It would be desirable to examine age differences in latent construct correlations in a more continuous fashion, that is, as a function of years of age (or of other, more proximal indicators of development such as white matter growth). Sample size restrictions did not permit us to examine that here.
Second, the two Abstract-Shape measures of working memory assessed only memory maintenance, not the manipulation of contents held in mind. Future studies should examine the developmental differentiation of memory manipulation, memory maintenance, and inhibitory control (cf. Huizinga et al., 2006). Third, the number of trials for some of the tasks was relatively low (particularly the inhibitory control tasks). We proceeded with the analysis as there was no difference in the number of available trials across age groups, and the analysis method used in this study is suited for dealing with task impurity, low reliability, and measurement error. However, the limitation in number of trials in the tasks needs to be considered, especially for planning of future studies. Finally, our interpretation of results rests on the assumption that inter-individual differences in cross-sectional data approximate patterns of development at the within-person level. Clearly, however, developmental differentiation is a within-person phenomenon, and is best observed within individuals over time using longitudinal designs (Molenaar, Huizenga, & Nesselroade, 2003). Thus, it remains to be seen whether the present results represent a valid approximation to within-person changes in the organization of memory maintenance and inhibitory control. At this point, using confirmatory factor analysis, we found that the mechanisms of memory maintenance and inhibitory control, as assessed by inter-individual differences within different age groups, reliably become more differentiated from early childhood (beginning at around 5 years) to early adolescence (mean of 11 years). This appears to be driven by changes in inhibitory control with age. Future investigations should assess individual children longitudinally and investigate the neural bases for the cognitive changes investigated here.
Yee Lee Shing, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Center for Lifespan Psychology Berlin, Germany.
Ulman Lindenberger, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Center for Lifespan Psychology Berlin, Germany.
Adele Diamond, Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada and Division of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, BC Children's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada.
Shu-Chen Li, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Center for Lifespan Psychology Berlin, Germany.
Matthew C. Davidson, Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts.
PubMed Central Canada is a service of the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) working in partnership with the National Research Council's national science library in cooperation with the National Center for Biotechnology Information at the U.S. National Library of Medicine(NCBI/NLM). It includes content provided to the PubMed Central International archive by participating publishers.


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If you are fan of the Cinemax hit series Strike Back, we have some excited news for you.
This coming Friday October 12th 2012, TV Equals will host an unprecedented one-day-only event:"Strike Back Day."
What is "Strike Back Day"?
It is a unique online event that will turn TV Equals into a central hub for all things Strike Back.
Taking place on Friday, October 12th 2012, starting at 8am PST until 6pm PST, all the articles published will be related to the Cinemax series Strike Back.
Why Are You Doing This?
The short answer is that we really really really really really LOVE this show and we wanted to share that passion with our readers. Instead of just writing an article or two on it, we felt that only an entire day on just that series would truly do it justice. Furthermore, this Friday is also the series' season 2 finale so what better way to end this season? Read More...


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$6B Servicer Aames Is up for Auction
Los Angeles-Aames Financial, one of the nation's oldest subprime firms, is on the auction block and hopes to have new owners by the end of summer. A $6 billion subprime servicer, Aames reported a loss for the second quarter, disclosing that it is in negotiations with "several parties" regarding a sale.
Among subprime servicers, Aames ranks 29th with $6.1 billion in housing receivables. A publicly traded non-depository, the company said in a statement that while there is "no assurance" a deal might get done, "there is a significant probability" a definitive sale or merger agreement will be struck in the next month or two. Credit Suisse is acting as its investment banker.
As Mortgage Servicing News went to press this month, its shares were trading up slightly at $5.78, compared to a 52-week low of $4.97 and a high of $10.35. It posted a $6 million loss in the first quarter but is forecasting positive core earnings in the second.
For tax purposes, Aames is a real estate investment trust, which requires it to pay out a large percentage of its earnings each quarter to shareholders. The lender/servicer is in the process of eliminating its REIT status.
At least two other publicly traded nonconforming REITs are on the auction block, including Impac Mortgage Holdings, Newport Beach, Calif. An alt-A specialist, Impac services $28 billion in loans. At press time, Tania Jernigan, Impac's vice president for investor relations, could not be reached for comment.
The mortgage industry has been undergoing a correction of sorts the past six months and some publicly traded mortgage REITs have seen their share prices drop dramatically, Impac included.
(c) 2006 Mortgage Servicing News and SourceMedia, Inc. All Rights Reserved. http://www.mortgageservicingnews.com http://www.sourcemedia.com
Decisions, Default Rates, & Debt-To-Income The QM Rule's Impact


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The on-board graphic OLED matrix can display waveforms, measurements and menu systems. You can also connect it to your PC and use Gabotronics' XScopes software to control the device and view waveforms.
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When you think about a piece of equipment like a mixed signal oscilloscope you usually think of, well, a piece of equipment. What you probably don't imagine is a DIP package. The XMEGA Xprotolab is exactly that: The first ever mixed signal oscilloscope, logic analyzer and arbitrary waveform generator in a DIP module. At only 1 x 1.6 inches, this oscilloscope can be plugged directly into a breadboard.
The scope itself obviously allows simultaneous sampling of analog and digital signals but also has several advanced trigger modes, XY mode for plotting Lissajous patterns, phase differences or V/I curves, Spectrum Analyzer with different windowing options and even an arbitrary waveform generator with sweep on all parameters.
The awesome functionality-to-size ratio is due, in part, to the ATXMEGA32A4U microcontroller on board. We can hear you thinking, "This board has an ATXMEGA32A4U, an OLED display and USB interface? Scope or no scope, this would be a great development board!" Well Gabotronics had the same thought and installed a USB bootloader so there's no need for specialized programming tools!
Dimensions: 1.615" x 1.01"
ATXMEGA32A4U Development Board
Logic Analyzer
Mixed Signal Oscilloscope
Arbitrary Waveform Generator
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