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Rhizobia are Gram-negative bacteria than can elicit the formation of specialized organs, called root nodules, on leguminous host plants. Upon infection of the nodules, they differentiate into nitrogen-fixing bacteroids. An elaborate signal exchange precedes the symbiotic interaction. In general, both rhizobia and host plants exhibit narrow specificity. Rhizobial factors contributing to this specificity include Nod factors and surface polysaccharides. It is becoming increasingly clear that protein secretion is important in determining the outcome of the interaction as well. This paper discusses our current understanding of the symbiotic role played by rhizobial secreted proteins, transported both by secretion systems that are of general use, such as the type I secretion system, and by specialized, host-targeting secretion systems, such as the type III, type IV and type VI secretion systems.
Rhizobia are Gram-negative bacteria that comprise the genera Allorhizobium, Azorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, Mesorhizobium, Rhizobium and Sinorhizobium (Van Berkum & Eardly, 1998). They can trigger leguminous host plants to form root nodules, specialized organs that offer the bacteria an exclusive ecological niche in which they reduce atmospheric dinitrogen to ammonia. Ammonia is made available to the plant, which in turn provides carbon sources to the bacteria (Perret et al., 2000; Gage, 2004; Jones et al., 2007). The rhizobial symbiosis with legumes is generally a specialized affair, both partners having narrow host ranges. Exceptions include Rhizobium sp. NGR234, which nodulates over 110 genera of legumes (Pueppke & Broughton, 1999) and Phaseolus vulgaris L. or the common bean plant, which is nodulated by at least 20 species of rhizobia (Michiels et al., 1998). The outcome of the interaction is dependent on an elaborate signal exchange that continues throughout the entire symbiotic process and has been likened to matching locks and keys (Broughton et al., 2000), with only the correct combination giving rise to efficient symbiosis.
Bacteria in the rhizosphere are chemotactically attracted to host plants upon detection of compounds such as flavonoids, phenolics, sugars, dicarboxylic acids and amino acids, which are exuded by the plant roots (Brencic & Winans, 2005). Subsequently, rhizobia adhere to and colonize the root surface. Flavonoids, polycyclic aromatics released by the plant into the rhizosphere, induce expression of nodulation genes (nod, noe, nol and others). The resulting proteins synthesize and export a class of molecules called Nod factors or lipochito-oligosaccharides. They consist of a conserved backbone that is varyingly decorated with accessory groups. Only particular types and mixtures of Nod factors allow a strain to nodulate a certain legume host, thus giving rise to a first rhizobial determinant of host specificity (Spaink, 2000). Early responses to Nod factors include calcium spiking and root hair cytoskeleton modification. Curling of the root hairs occurs due to the localized presence of Nod factor molecules. Simultaneously, root cortex cells are stimulated to reinitiate mitosis, leading to the formation of nodule primordia (Gage, 2004).
Root hair curling results in the attached bacteria becoming entrapped within the deformation. Local lysis of the root hair cell wall is followed by invagination of the plant cell membrane. The rhizobia then enter this invaginated tube-like structure called the infection thread. The infection thread grows inwardly towards the base of the root hair and the dividing cells in the nodule primordium. During infection thread development, rhizobial surface polysaccharides (lipopolysaccharides, exopolysaccharides, capsular polysaccharides and cyclic glucans) interact with the host plant. Successful symbiosis is dependent on their correct composition, making them a second rhizobial determinant of host specificity (Perret et al., 2000; Gage, 2004).
The nodule primordium continues to divide and develops into a novel plant organ, the nodule. After the bacteria exit from the infection thread, they differentiate into bacteroids and are able to fix nitrogen in the microaerobic environment provided by the nodule interior.
In addition to the nonproteinaceous host specificity determinants described above (Nod factors and surface polysaccharides), a third class of rhizobial signals that affects symbiosis consists of secreted proteins. This Minireview focuses on the diverse roles they play in the symbiotic rhizobium–legume interaction.
Proteins secreted by secretion systems of general use
Cells from prokaryotes and eukaryotes alike must transport proteins across the membranes that envelop them (Economou & Dalbey, 2004). An inherent problem is the need for long macromolecules with hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions to cross a hydrophobic lipid membrane. In Gram-negative bacteria, the situation is even more complicated due to the presence of two such barriers, the inner and outer membrane (IM and OM). Nevertheless, multiple mechanisms have arisen over the course of evolution to cope with this challenge. Two main groups of secretion systems can be discerned, those that rely on the Sec machinery to cross the IM and those that do not (Papanikou et al., 2007). Substrates of the latter typically traverse both IM and OM in a single step, without the formation of stable periplasmic intermediates. This group includes type I, type III, type IV and type VI secretion systems (T1SS, T3SS, T4SS and T6SS, respectively). The chaperone/usher pathway and type II and type V secretion systems (T2SS and T5SS, respectively) make up the Sec-dependent group. While all these membrane transporters have previously been shown to mediate microbe–host interactions, not all of them do so exclusively. For example, T1SS, T2SS, T5SS and the chaperone/usher pathway have also been implicated in processes such as organelle biogenesis and nutrient acquisition (Economou & Dalbey, 2004; Gerlach & Hensel, 2007). Below, we discuss rhizobial proteins with a (proposed) symbiotic role that are transported by these general secretion systems. A schematic overview is given in Fig. 1.
The first secreted rhizobial protein for which a role in symbiosis could be shown was Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae NodO (de Maagd et al., 1989b). NodO was detected in spent medium of cultures grown in the presence of flavonoids and expression was found to be NodD-dependent (de Maagd et al., 1988). Vlassak (1998) reported a host-specific symbiotic phenotype for a Rhizobium sp. BR816 nodO mutant. The strain is affected in nodulation and nitrogen fixation on P. vulgaris, but not on Leucaena leucocephala. In R. leguminosarum bv. viciae, strains that fail to produce fully decorated Nod factors display a Nod− phenotype in the absence of a functional copy of nodO (Economou et al., 1994; Walker & Downie, 2000). This suggests that NodO can complement deficiencies in Nod factor signalling. In support of this, heterologous expression of Rhizobium sp. BR816 NodO suppresses mutation of R. leguminosarum bv. trifolii nodE, Rhizobium sp. NGR234 nodS and nodU, and Rhizobium tropici nodU (van Rhijn et al., 1996; Vlassak et al., 1998). Moreover, NodO expression confers the ability to nodulate L. leucocephala to Azorhizobium caulinodans, Rhizobium etli, R. leguminosarum bv. trifolii and Sinorhizobium meliloti. Based on these results, Walker & Downie (2000) suggested three possible roles for NodO. The protein may facilitate Nod factor uptake by the host, amplify the perceived Nod factor signal or bypass the host's Nod factor receptor altogether. Observations made by Sutton (1994) favour the amplification hypothesis. NodO was found to insert into liposomes and form cation-selective channels in lipid bilayers, and could therefore enhance the calcium spiking that is observed in root hairs upon Nod factor binding.
Because of the absence of a recognizable amino-terminal secretion signal peptide, a Sec-independent secretion pathway was proposed for NodO (de Maagd et al., 1989b; Economou et al., 1990). Subsequently, the protein was shown to be secreted by T1SS of Escherichia coli, Erwinia chrysanthemi and various rhizobia (Scheu et al., 1992). T1SS are a class of ATP-binding cassette transporters that recognize substrates with a carboxy-terminal, noncleavable signal sequence. Through analysis of in-frame deletions, a 24 amino acid carboxy-terminal secretion signal was identified in NodO (Sutton et al., 1996). Almost a decade after its secretion was first described, Finnie (1997) discovered the genes responsible for NodO transport: prsD and prsE. Unusual for a T1SS, these genes are unlinked to nodO. In addition, the PrsDE secretion system transports other substrates as well (Finnie et al., 1998; Russo et al., 2006; Krehenbrink & Downie, 2008). As nodO is only found in R. leguminosarum bv. viciae and Rhizobium sp. BR816 (de Maagd et al., 1989a; van Rhijn et al., 1996), and as the prsDE genes are more widely conserved among rhizobia (York & Walker, 1997), it seems likely that NodO exploits secretion through PrsDE rather than being its original cognate substrate.
Proteins affecting surface polysaccharide composition
Finnie (1997) noted that a R. leguminosarum bv. viciae prsDE mutant has a more severe symbiotic phenotype than a nodO mutant. The former displays alterations in colony morphology and elicits ineffective nodules upon inoculation of pea plants, suggesting a change in exopolysaccharide composition. Analysis of the extracellular protein profile showed that three additional proteins are secreted by PrsDE. At least one of these is required for nitrogen fixation. Subsequently, PlyA and PlyB were identified as polysaccharide lyases secreted by PrsDE (Finnie et al., 1998). Mutation of plyB affects exopolysaccharide processing. However, no role in symbiosis could be attributed. Recently, PlyB was shown to influence R. leguminosarum biofilm formation in vitro, although its involvement is probably indirect and additional PrsDE substrates are likely to be important as well (Russo et al., 2006). In R. etli, a plyB-like gene was shown to be important for swarming (Braeken et al., 2008). The symbiotic properties of the mutant strain appeared to be normal.
Sinorhizobium meliloti produces two types of exopolysaccharide: succinoglycan (exopolysaccharide I) and galactoglucan (exopolysaccharide II) (Glazebrook & Walker, 1989). Production of either type is sufficient for symbiosis with Medicago sativa. Exopolysaccharide I composition is affected by ExoK and ExsH (York & Walker, 1997, 1998). Both proteins were shown to be secreted and to specifically depolymerize nascent succinoglycan chains. ExsH is secreted by a T1SS. No role in symbiosis was yet proposed for either of the proteins, because single and double mutants did not have an altered symbiotic phenotype. ExpE1 is essential for exopolysaccharide II biosynthesis or secretion, as cultures of an expE1 mutant were devoid of exopolysaccharide II (Moreira et al., 2000). Secretion of ExpE1 is mediated by the ExpD1D2 T1SS.
Based on a phenotypic analysis of R. leguminosarum prsD, prsE and plyA plyB mutants, additional substrates of the PrsDE T1SS are thought to influence biofilm formation. Russo (2006) detected nine secreted proteins in total, three of which were previously determined to be NodO, PlyA and PlyB. Three newly identified proteins share similarity with Rhizobium-adhering proteins or Raps (Ausmees et al., 2001) and were named RapA1, RapA2 and RapC. It is as yet unclear what (if any) their role is in biofilm formation and/or symbiosis. RapA1 was previously characterized as a protein with features reminiscent of rhicadhesin and bacterial lectins (Ausmees et al., 2001). Both RapA1 and rhicadhesin bind calcium and agglutinate cells. They differ in size and occurrence, however, as RapA1 is larger (24 vs. 14 kDa) and rap genes are confined to R. leguminosarum and R. etli, whereas rhicadhesin is believed to be common to all rhizobia (Smit et al., 1992; Ausmees et al., 2001). Both RapA1 and Bradyrhizobium japonicum lectin BJ38 localize to a single cell pole after secretion (Loh et al., 1993; Ausmees et al., 2001). Purified BJ38 was shown to specifically bind certain carbohydrates (Ho et al., 1990). Mutants deficient in cell adhesion expressed less or no detectable BJ38 and failed to nodulate soybean roots (Ho et al., 1990, 1994). In a general model for rhizobial attachment to plant roots, rhicadhesin is proposed to function nonspecifically while lectin mediates specific binding (Rodríguez-Navarro et al., 2007). Ideally, the details of this model should be tested using genetically defined mutant strains. However, the unavailability of sequence information concerning both rhicadhesin and lectin BJ38 prevents this.
Other PrsDE-secreted proteins
Very recently, six additional PrsDE-secreted proteins were identified in R. leguminosarum bv. viciae strain 3841 by Krehenbrink & Downie (2008). Based on similarity searches, these could function as a metalloprotease, a glycosyl hydrolase, cadherins and a nucleoside diphosphate kinase. Strikingly, the prsD mutant did not exhibit a symbiotic phenotype, probably due to the use of a different wild-type strain in this study compared with previous reports.
Calcium is known to play an important role in the rhizobium–legume symbiosis (Verhaert et al., 2005). Correspondingly, many of the proteins discussed so far in this section have been found to bind or otherwise interact with Ca2+. This is also the case for CasA or calsymin, a secreted R. etli protein (Xi et al., 2000). Calsymin is a calmodulin-like, Ca2+-binding protein that is essential for normal bacteroid development. It is secreted without cleavage of an amino-terminal signal peptide, although the genes responsible for transport are unknown. As is the case for calmodulin, Ca2+-binding by calsymin depends on the presence of specific domains called EF-hands and induces a conformational change in the protein (Verhaert, 2005). Its precise role in symbiosis remains to be elucidated. Homologues of calsymin are also present in the genome of R. leguminosarum (Young et al., 2007).
Proteins secreted by specialized secretion systems
The secretion pathways that have been discussed thus far are important for processes unrelated to host interactions as well. In contrast, several secretion systems seem to have specialized in mediating such interactions, with the ability to translocate effector proteins into the host cell cytoplasm as a defining feature. These systems include the T3SS, T4SS and T6SS. For a schematic overview, see Fig. 1.
Type III secretion system and effector proteins
T3SS are complex macromolecular structures that span not only the IM and OM, but the host cellular membrane as well. They allow direct translocation of secretion substrates into the host cell cytoplasm. T3SS are structurally related to flagella. Few roles outside of bacteria–host interactions have been described for nonflagellar T3SS. The secretion signal is poorly defined and located in the amino-terminus of secretion substrates (Ghosh, 2004; He et al., 2004).
The first definite evidence of the involvement of a T3SS in the rhizobium–legume symbiosis was provided by Viprey (1998). Taking advantage of the published sequence of the Rhizobium sp. NGR234 symbiotic plasmid, a strain lacking a functional T3SS was constructed through site-directed mutagenesis. The mutation affected symbiosis in a host-specific way. On some hosts, the presence of the T3SS does not influence nodulation (Vigna unguiculata, L. leucocephala), on others the absence of a functional T3SS has a beneficial effect (Pachyrhizus tuberosus), while on a third group of hosts the T3SS is required for effective symbiosis (Tephrosia vogelii). T3SS genes were subsequently identified in B. japonicum USDA110, Sinorhizobium fredii strains HH103 and USDA257, Mesorhizobium loti MAFF303099 and R. etli CNPAF512 (Kaneko et al., 2000; Krause et al., 2002; Krishnan et al., 2003; Hubber et al., 2004; de Lyra et al., 2006; M. Fauvart, unpublished data). In each case, the T3SS affects symbiosis in a host-specific manner. Expression of rhizobial T3SS genes is induced by flavonoids and depends on NodD as well as on a more specific transcriptional regulator, TtsI (Marie et al., 2004). TtsI is believed to bind to conserved promoter elements termed tts boxes (Krause et al., 2002). These are also found in promoter regions of genes unrelated to T3SS, such as those involved in the biosynthesis of rhamnose-rich polysaccharides (Marie et al., 2004). This led to the discovery of a complex interplay between the T3SS and surface polysaccharides in the molecular dialogue of the rhizobium–host interaction (Broughton et al., 2006).
T3SS substrates come in two flavours: effectors and helper proteins. Effectors are translocated into eukaryotic host cells, while helper proteins assist in the translocation process. Proteins secreted through rhizobial T3SS are called nodulation outer proteins or Nops. Three helper proteins have been identified so far: NopA, NopB and NopX (Lorio et al., 2004; Deakin et al., 2005; Saad et al., 2005, 2008). NopA and NopB constitute major and minor components of the T3SS pilus, respectively. NopX is predicted to be involved in the formation of a pore-like translocon structure in the host cell membrane, thereby stimulating effector translocation into the host cell cytosol. Although Nop translocation has yet to be confirmed experimentally, three T3SS substrates stand out as candidate effectors: NopL, NopP and NopT. These proteins affect symbiosis in a host-specific manner without influencing the secretion of other Nops (Marie et al., 2003; Ausmees et al., 2004; Skorpil et al., 2005; Dai et al., 2008). Interestingly, NopL and NopP are phosphorylated by plant kinases (Bartsev et al., 2003; Skorpil et al., 2005). Although the biological relevance of this observation is unknown, it could point to a function in modulating host signalling pathways. Specifically for NopL, a role in the downregulation of host plant defences is proposed (Bartsev et al., 2004). NopT is a functional cysteine protease of the YopT family with a predicted myristoylation site (Dai et al., 2008). It is as yet unclear whether these properties are essential for its function in symbiosis.
Other candidate effectors include the S. fredii T3SS-secreted proteins NopD and NopM, which are similar to T3SS effector proteins XopD of Xanthomomas spp. and YopM of Yersinia spp., respectively (Rodrigues et al., 2007). XopD and YopM are targeted to host cell nuclei where they are thought to interfere with the regulation of host proteins during infection (Skrzypek et al., 1998; Hotson et al., 2003). The cysteine protease XopD achieves this through hydrolysis of small ubiquitin-like modifier-conjugated proteins (Hotson et al., 2003), while YopM probably acts as a scaffold for recruiting and stimulating other proteins (McDonald et al., 2003). Secretion of NopC, a protein of unknown function, and GunA2, an endoglucanase, was also shown to be T3SS-dependent (Deakin et al., 2005; Süβ, 2006). In addition, Rhizobium sp. NGR234 y4lO is predicted to encode a protein homologous to the Yersinia T3SS effector YopJ, a cysteine protease that inhibits mitogen-activated protein kinase signalling pathways (Freiberg et al., 1997; Orth, 2002). Furthermore, R. etli possesses hrpW and yha00035, genes expected to encode proteins homologous to Pseudomonas syringae T3SS substrates HrpW and HopG1 (González et al., 2006). HrpW was recently shown to promote T3SS effector translocation into plant leaves, making it a helper protein rather than a true effector (Kvitko et al., 2007). HopG1 suppresses basal resistance in tobacco (Oh & Collmer, 2005). These homology-based findings significantly expand the pool of potential rhizobial T3SS effectors.
Type IV secretion system
T4SS are functionally similar to T3SS, although the structural proteins that make up both systems do not share sequence similarity. Like T3SS, T4SS can translocate proteins directly into host cells, are related to a macromolecular structure of general use (in casu conjugation machineries) and are primarily implicated in bacteria–host interactions. Transport across the IM is independent of the Sec pathway, although Sec-dependent IM transport has been reported. T4SS substrates are characterized by a carboxy-terminal secretion signal, while an additional motif might be involved as well (Christie et al., 2005; Vergunst et al., 2005).
Comparative sequence analysis of the symbiosis islands of M. loti strains MAFF303099 and R7A showed that the latter encodes a T4SS whereas the former encodes a T3SS. Strikingly, the genes flanking the corresponding region are well conserved between the two strains (Sullivan et al., 2002). T3SS and T4SS mutants displayed similar, host-specific phenotypes, suggesting that both secretion systems are, at least in part, functionally interchangeable (Hubber et al., 2004). Two candidate effector proteins were identified. Msi059 shares similarity with VirF-related proteins from Agrobacterium spp., while Msi061, like NopD, is similar to the Xanthomonas T3SS effector XopD. Recently, expression of the M. loti T4SS genes was shown to be NodD- and VirA-dependent (Hubber et al., 2007). This is in agreement with the observed effect of the T4SS on symbiosis.
Type VI secretion system
T6SS have been discovered only recently (Pukatzki et al., 2006) and much of the information available is therefore still of a speculative nature. They form a third distinct pathway through which proteins are believed to traverse directly into host cells and affect bacteria–host interactions. No recognizable amino-terminal secretion signal was identified in secreted proteins (Bingle et al., 2008). Before its formal discovery and naming, Bladergroen et al. (2003) identified an R. leguminosarum T6SS locus (named imp, impaired in nodulation) as a determinant of host specificity on Pisum sativum. In vitro secretion was found to be temperature-dependent and a single secreted protein was identified as an RbsB-like protein. RbsB is an E. coli periplasmic ribose-binding protein, encoded by a locus that is involved in ribose transport into the cell (Park et al., 1999). Its relationship with the T6SS and its possible role in symbiosis are unclear.
Based on sequence analysis, Bingle (2008) recently reported the presence of T6SS in at least three genera of rhizobia. In addition to R. leguminosarum, conserved T6SS genes are also present in the sequenced genomes of B. japonicum and M. loti. Following the recent surge of interest in T6SS of pathogenic bacteria, this presents another opportunity to compare the functional conservation of secretion pathways in pathogenesis and symbiosis.
Conclusions and perspectives
Effective, nitrogen-fixing rhizobium–legume symbiosis requires an intricate molecular dialogue between the two interaction partners before and during invasion by the microsymbiont (Broughton et al., 2000; Perret et al., 2000). Host specificity is determined by several factors. From the bacterial side, the main signalling molecules are Nod factors, surface polysaccharides and secreted proteins. The importance of the latter is becoming increasingly clear, and judging by developments in the area of host–pathogen interactions, secretion pathways specialized in the direct delivery of effector proteins into the eukaryotic host's cell cytoplasm offer the most potential for exerting control over host responses. This is not only the case for bacterial pathogens, which appear to favour T3SS, but also for eukaryotic pathogens such as oomycetes and fungi, which transport proteins into host cells by means of a specialized structure called the haustorium (Ellis et al., 2007). It should therefore come as no surprise that rhizobia use the exact same secretion mechanisms as their pathogenic counterparts in trying to persuade prospective hosts to allow rhizobial invasion.
Sequence analysis suggests that pathogens and rhizobia share not only secretion pathways, but some effector proteins as well. This offers the enticing prospect of being able to extrapolate findings made in one domain to the other.
In spite of the many relevant lessons that may be gleaned from the analysis of pathogenic organisms, it is important to remember that there is still a long way to go. It is telling that formal evidence of the translocation of rhizobial effector proteins into leguminous root cells through any secretion system is still lacking, let alone the identification of the molecular targets of these effectors. Such fundamental issues need to be resolved before starting to extrapolate and speculate. From there, the daunting challenges that abound for scientists investigating the symbiotic role of rhizobial protein secretion can be taken one at a time.
The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful suggestions. M.F. is a recipient of a fellowship from the Institute for the Promotion of Innovation through Science and Technology in Flanders (IWT-Vlaanderen). This work was supported by grants from the Research Council of the K.U. Leuven (GOA/2003/09) and from the Fund for Scientific Research-Flanders (G.0108.01 and G.0287.04).


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It's that time of year again! No, not turkeys and Christmas trees…it's time to start thinking about our Mid-Year Close!!
We've had such great success over the past couple of years with our Mid-Year Close that we have simply added the calendar to our website. Many of you have experienced Mid-Year Close several times and probably feel like you have a handle on the way things work. To those we say, enjoy the calendar at your leisure and plan accordingly.
Some of you may be new to the University and have more questions. We are here to answer any questions you may have. Please contact us should you need assistance. Additionally, use the following contact information for assistance with questions related to these specific topics:
Friday, June 17th is the last day of FY16 to place orders in Deacon Depot. At 5:00 pm, the "Place Order" button will be removed. This is to ensure that orders placed in the system have a reasonable amount of time to be received by June 30th.
During this time, all other access to Deacon Depot will be available including:
Please remember to receive your orders in Deacon Depot as they arrive.
The "Place Order" button will be reinstated Friday, July 1st.
If you have any questions, please contact us on the UBUY Help Line at x8289, or via email at firstname.lastname@example.com, or firstname.lastname@example.com]]>
New for FY16 close this year! The key dates for information to be submitted or reviewed for the fiscal year end process have been added to the WFU Events calendar, and display on the calendar on the home page of the Finance website. The heading for each is "Fiscal Year End Close Key Date". Simply click on the title to see the key information for that date.]]>
Fiscal year-end closing training sessions will be held for Business Administrators, whether you are new to the University or just need a refresher:
Both sessions will be held in 401A Benson University Center. Use the links above to register through the PDC website. Any forms needed for fiscal year-end closing can be found in the forms section of this site.]]>
The North Carolina Department of Revenue has issued directives regarding sales and use tax charged by suppliers. Departments should expect to receive invoices that show sales tax on certain services that were not previously taxed. Please note that the amounts reflected on your Cognos reports will continue to be shown net of taxes charged.
Any departments who charge sales tax on goods or services provided to students or external parties, please contact Accounts Payable for direction on ensuring you are in compliance with the new regulations.]]>
Accounts Payable is excited to announce new functionality within WIN that will provide faculty, staff, and students access to view reimbursement and refund requests. All reimbursement and refund requests since July 1, 2005 are available for review. This Reimbursement and Refund Inquiry Quick Guide will assist in navigating the new application.]]>
Financial Services is pleased to announce that the newest phase of Cognos financial end user reports enhancements has been delivered!
Please read "What's New – January 2016" to learn more about all of the changes, some of which are:
You can download an updated instruction manual, quick reference guide and the new Excel macros release.
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Effective January 1, 2016, the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) updated the standard mileage rate for operating an automobile for business purposes. The IRS lowered the rate from 57.5 cents per mile to 54 cents per mile. The University is adopting this new rate effective immediately for all employee business related travel occurring on or after January 1, 2016. For any travel prior to January 1, 2016, the old rate of 57.5 cents per mile will be reimbursed to the employee.
An updated Travel and Entertainment Form will be published at http://finance.wfu.edu/ under the Forms Section. Please use the appropriate form that corresponds with your travel dates. Please use this email to communicate this change to faculty, staff, and students in your respective departments, as necessary.
If you have any questions, contact Accounts Payable at firstname.lastname@example.com.]]>
Dear Colleagues,
We wanted to communicate that Dawn Cadd has accepted a new opportunity on campus and will be leaving Financial Services effective today. In the interim, Eudora Struble will be assuming operational oversight of the day-to-day activities of WFU's University PCard program. Fortunately, Eudora has been serving as Dawn's back-up for several months and is familiar with the University PCard program administration. Eudora will be the main contact for all questions. Her contact information is:
Eudora Struble
(336) 758-2414
Or dial UBUY x8289 and select Option 2.
Please join us in welcoming Eudora to her new position and in congratulating Dawn as she begins her new position.]]>
Unfortunately we are once again being contacted about buying toner for departmental printers or the Xerox multifunctional devices (MFD). If you receive such a call please direct them to Eudora Struble at x2414. If they attempt to hang up please record the phone number and forward to Procurement Services at x8289. These companies are running a scam, hoping to find an unsuspecting person in an office that will agree to receive an order. These orders are often sent at inflated prices. They often will drop names of people who work at Wake Forest University into the conversation to sound legitimate.
If you have a Xerox MFD all supplies are included in the department cost per impression (CPI). There is never any need to buy supplies or parts. The following link includes all information related to WFU's Xerox program. WFU Xerox Program Information
The University recommends that all printer supplies be ordered through Deacon Depot.
The companies that are calling are named "toner phoners" and periodically become active, randomly calling university numbers until they find someone willing to talk to them. Recently we had "toner phoners" targeting our Xerox program. You can review additional information about 'Toner Phoners' here.
If you receive any calls from these "toner phoners" please contact Procurement Services immediately.]]>

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Determinants of trust in a racially homogeneous society
Using prefecture level data of Japan for the years 1979 and 1996, I explore the extent to which inequality, age heterogeneity, and social capital have an effect upon interpersonal trust. The major finding is that inequality is associated with low trust, while generational heterogeneity is associated with high trust. However, this tendency is not observed when the sample includes female respondents only. These results are not changed when I instrument for inequality using the relative size of the mature-aged cohort.
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Volume (Year): 26 (2008)
Issue (Month): 1 ()
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References listed on IDEAS
Please report citation or reference errors to , or , if you are the registered author of the cited work, log in to your RePEc Author Service profile, click on "citations" and make appropriate adjustments.:
- Berggren, Niclas & Jordahl, Henrik, 2005.
"Free to Trust? Economic Freedom and Social Capital,"
Ratio Working Papers
64, The Ratio Institute.
- Niclas Berggren & Henrik Jordahl, 2006. "Free to Trust: Economic Freedom and Social Capital," Kyklos, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 59(2), pages 141-169, 05.
- Berggren, Niclas & Jordahl, Henrik, 2005. "Free to Trust? Economic Freedom and Social Capital," Working Paper Series 2005:2, Uppsala University, Department of Economics.
- Leigh, Andrew, 2006.
"Does equality lead to fraternity?,"
Economics Letters,
Elsevier, vol. 93(1), pages 121-125, October.
- Andrew Leigh, 2006. "Does Equality Lead to Fraternity?," CEPR Discussion Papers 513, Centre for Economic Policy Research, Research School of Economics, Australian National University.
- Alberto Alesina & Eliana La Ferrara, 1999.
"Participation in Heterogeneous Communities,"
NBER Working Papers
7155, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
- Alberto Alesina & Eliana La Ferrara, "undated". "Participation in Heterogeneous Communities," Working Papers 151, IGIER (Innocenzo Gasparini Institute for Economic Research), Bocconi University.
- Andrew Leigh, 2006.
"Trust, Inequality, and Ethnic Heterogeneity,"
CEPR Discussion Papers
511, Centre for Economic Policy Research, Research School of Economics, Australian National University.
- Andrew Leigh, 2006. "Trust, Inequality and Ethnic Heterogeneity," The Economic Record, The Economic Society of Australia, vol. 82(258), pages 268-280, 09.
- Jacob L. Vigdor, 2004. "Community Composition and Collective Action: Analyzing Initial Mail Response to the 2000 Census," The Review of Economics and Statistics, MIT Press, vol. 86(1), pages 303-312, February.
- La Ferrara, Eliana & Alesina, Alberto, 2000. "Participation in Heterogeneous Communities," Scholarly Articles 4551796, Harvard University Department of Economics.
- Alesina, Alberto & La Ferrara, Eliana, 2002.
"Who trusts others?,"
Journal of Public Economics,
Elsevier, vol. 85(2), pages 207-234, August.
- Alesina, Alberto F & La Ferrara, Eliana, 2000. "Who Trusts Others?," CEPR Discussion Papers 2646, C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers.
- Alberto Alesina & Eliana La Ferrara, 2000. "Participation in Heterogeneous Communities," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Oxford University Press, vol. 115(3), pages 847-904.
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Your Source for Mattresses in the Lower Mainland
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- Reel Reviews: 2017 Oscar picks
- 'American Idiot' at EPAC
- Warwick grad producing 'Million Dollar Quartet' at Dutch Apple
- 'Somewhereville Station' revisits the 50s and 60s
- St. Patty's musical at Ephrata Main
- Dance, concert will benefit Jamaica missions
- Happy Anniver5ary, St. Boniface!
- Downtown diversity
- Travelogue will explore Colorado River this Saturday
Beatrice L. Parrish, 91, Ephrata Manor, Bell Telephone operator, Trinity Lutheran member
Beatrice L. Parrish, 91, of Lancaster, passed away Friday, June 27, 2014 at Ephrata Manor.
She was the loving wife of the late Samuel R. Parrish who passed away in 1999. Born in Lancaster, she was the daughter of the late Elvin C. and Indiana May (Wilson) Latschar.
After graduating from J.P. McCaskey High School in 1941 she began her career with Hamilton Watch where she worked during WWII. She then worked for Bell Telephone where she spent 20 years as an operator. Her most recent position was with Good & Plenty where she worked in the gift shop. In her spare time Bea enjoyed crafts, reading, and loved dancing. She was a member of Trinity Lutheran Church.
She is survived by her son: Craig Parrish (husband of Debra Hagmann) of Brownstown; and a daughter: Pamela Yohn (wife of the late Robert Yohn) of Lancaster; grandchildren: Elizabeth Snyder and Melissa Boagey; and great-grandchildren: Austin and Makena Snyder.
She was predeceased by a brother: Harry Latschar; sisters: Doris Myers and Pauline Coral; and a grandson: Joey Kemler.
Services were held July 2 at Kearney A. Snyder Funeral Home, Lancaster, with Rev. Timothy Mentzer officiating. Interment was in Riverview Burial Park.
In lieu of flowers, contributions may be made in her memory to The American Diabetes Association, 2040 Linglestown Road., Suite #106, Harrisburg, PA 17110-9568.
To leave an online condolence for the family visit KaSnyderFuneralHome.com. Arrangements entrusted to Kearney A. Snyder Funeral Home, Lancaster.


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More Videos...
2010 Toyota Corolla S Turbo 5Spd - Dyno Video
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2012 Corolla S - Magnaflow Catback Exhaust
I no longer own this car. Graduated to a Subaru WRX !
2009 Toyota Corolla Xrs Dyno
At JMS Racing for Dyno before turbo install. Mods: Weapon-R 4-2-1 Header, Injen CAI, Custom N1 Axleback Exhaust Numbers: 166whp 164tq


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Ascot Automotive has been serving the community of Flagstaff and the surrounding area since 1990. Over the years they have developed a loyal following of satisfied customers who enthusiastically described this shop to us as: "affordable", "honest", "friendly", and "fantastic". This location features a team of automotive professionals whose experience and commitment to ongoing training ranks with the best. An investment in tools and diagnostic equipment help make them capable of repairs ranging from tires and wheel alignment, to minor and major mechanical repairs, to check engine light diagnosis and repair, as well as your scheduled maintenance needs. Repairs are covered by a 12-month / 12,000-mile warranty for your peace of mind. Early bird drop off and a waiting area with wireless Internet are all available for your convenience.
Ascot Automotive
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Great character
education books (books about values) are a great way to teach kids many important values, like honesty, compassion, gratitude, and more. As teachers and
parents will attest, lectures are
much less effective than powerful stories and examples
that show the merits and consequences of the value or
Each of these character education books can help launch a meaningful discussion with kids! We think these books work best as subtle discussion starters (rather than direct 'lecturing' on these values). To make the value system stick, kids need to come to the conclusion themselves! So be sure to follow-up a read-aloud with some open ended questions.
To find a book on a given character education or values topic, simply click on the category in the list below. Happy browsing. :)
compassion / caring
books on being caring and
showing compassion and
concern for other people
creative thinking
books on being creative and inventive (artistically and in problem solving); the
benefits of thinking outside the box!
service / helping
books that teach children the
joys and rewards of sacrifice
and helping others
having courage
books for all ages that tell stories
of bravery and courage
in the face of difficulties
generosity / sharing
books on sharing and
giving, seeing needs of
others & responding
gratitude / thankful
books on being grateful
for what you have and
the help of others
books on truthfulness,
sincerity, and avoiding
being deceptive
book on appreciation
for the attributes that
make one unique
judging on appearances
the dangers of making
snap judgements based
on a person's appearance
great stories showing children and
grown ups demonstrating
persistence and 'sticking to it'
diversity & tolerance
books on celebrating diversity
in beliefs and ethnicity / stories about prejudism and racism
books that teach children to
have pride in who they
are and what you can do
Note: Many topics overlap, so check book lists for related categories. Also, our lists skew heavily toward young children. We'd love to have books for older kids. Know any? We'd love to hear from teachers who have either worked children's books into formal character education programs at their school or teachers who use them to create their own curriculum. :)
We LOVE getting likes! It makes us want to keep making these lists! :) Please press LIKE if you found this information helpful. And help
us spread the word by sharing the page.
Or Pin this page to your Pinterest board to share it and remember it for later. :)


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HomeTown Zen 15137K Polyresin Buddha White
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Short Description
* Color: White
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HomeTown offers the best in contemporary home furnitureA unique and first of its kind home improvement retail format in India, HomeTown, from Future Retail Limited is a part of the Future Group. Blending contemporary designs with traditional tastes and using a myriad of hues and fabrics, HomeTown provides consumers the largest choice and variety for their homes, under one roof.
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text:
Kobe can see himself in Andrew Bynum now
OAKLAND – I asked Kobe Bryant what he thought about Andrew Bynum launching that 3-pointer that got him benched by Lakers coach Mike Brown on Tuesday night.
"I think he was testing the limits of his game," Bryant said.
That spirit is one that Bryant will usually support, I said.
Bryant nodded.
He nodded because he has always hoped Bynum would become more of a go-getter like the young Kobe.
He nodded because Shaquille O'Neal never nodded in understanding and certainly not appreciation when the young Kobe was trying to turn his game up and indirectly win more championships.
He nodded because he knows far better than anyone how hard it was to be the young Kobe – pushing against authority, convention and, yes, the limits of his game.
As impenetrable as Bryant's force field of ambition appeared back then, he did feel the lack of faith and does remember the slights.
In this very same Golden State arena on Dec. 6, 2000 – the season after his and O'Neal's first NBA championship, when a 22-year-old Bryant came back looking to expand his game, much to O'Neal's disbelief – Bryant pushed his individual offense to the point that he scored 51 points on 51 percent shooting.
Bryant pushed O'Neal, who scored 25 points, to the point that he screamed at Bryant that night for not passing to him: "Drop it off!"
That's why Bryant smiled a little when I told him about Bynum's rebellious postgame comment about getting Brown's message not to take 3-pointers and in the next breath saying boldly: "But I'm going to take some more."
"It's somewhat amusing to me, because in some ways the edginess and the chippiness of him make it easy for me to relate to him – because I had some of that when I was young," Bryant, 33, said about Bynum, 24. "So, it's easy for me to see where he's coming from.
"I understand where he's coming from. And the first thing you want to do if you want to get the best out of somebody or the best out of your players is you have to understand what they're feeling; you have to understand where they're coming from and what they want to accomplish. That's why it's not that big a deal to me. You don't see me sitting here trippin' or sweatin' or anything like that. I've been there."
Bryant and Bynum have grown closer this season, particularly through traveling together via private jet to and from the All-Star Game in Orlando. Bryant hinted that Brown overreacted by immediately walking down the bench and pointing at Josh McRoberts to replace Bynum – then benching Bynum again early in the fourth quarter when he kept dominating the offense to little avail.
"They have a lot of youth," Bryant said about the Lakers' coaches, whose experience with a too-passive LeBron James apparently is easy compared to handling a headstrong Kobe and a self-absorbed Shaq.
"They're not used to dealing with players of Drew's ambition, I'm sure, at this stage of his career. I was in that position, and obviously I have a lot of experience in dealing with myself – and playing with Shaquille when Shaquille was young and being mentored by Phil (Jackson) and things like that. So nothing really rattles me."
Pau Gasol, who has inherited the co-captain title from Derek Fisher, was more by the book in his reaction, siding with the coaches when it comes to playing the right way. It's a side Gasol has taken before when it comes to accepting the not-so-young Kobe still pushing not-so-clear limits.
"We'll address it as a team, as a unit, to make sure everybody is on the same page," Gasol said. "And we need Andrew at his best for us to have a chance. So that's the only way we're going to get it done."
Asked if Bynum shooting 3's is him at his best, Gasol said: "That's not his game. But hopefully just one bad game is out of the way. ... We'll be fine. Andrew understands, is a good guy and will do the right thing."
The Lakers did win this game – barely – despite Bynum playing only five minutes of the second half. Part of it was Gasol going for 19 points and 17 rebounds. Part of it was a previously cold Bryant nailing the tying and go-ahead jumpers in the final minute, both high-risk propositions that required heightened focus and timing to be made against Golden State's double-team plans.
"The best player in the world hits two shots on us over great defense," Golden State's David Lee said. "It's unfortunate."
And it's imperative to note that Bryant needed to try those tough shots and miss at some time previously if he ever was to make them now.
"Those are shots that I practice," he said. "Those are shots that I work on time and time again."
Bryant didn't draw any comparison between those shots and Bynum needing to try 3-pointers, but it was implied from something else Bryant said about Bynum's game.
"To me, everybody kind of frowned when he was shooting that turnaround jumper in the post," Bryant said. "And now people aren't frowning anymore because he's making it. Obviously the coaching staff is not used to seeing Drew pull up at the top of the key and take a 3-pointer. I'm sure Drew won't take many of them. He just tried one tonight."
Bynum stayed on the bench most of the second half instead of getting up to encourage teammates or take part in strategic huddles, showing immaturity with his disappointment. But he wasn't angry after the game, remaining cheerful – not unlike how young Kobe often was in learning to make peace with others not understanding he simply had to push those limits to be true to himself.
"I don't know what was bench-worthy about the shot, to be honest with you," Bynum said. "I made one (with 1.2 seconds left in the last game, a loss to Memphis), and I wanted to make another one. I swear, that's it. I guess he took offense to it, so he put me on the bench."
No doubt, the impression of Bynum's daring and entitlement worries Brown.
For sure, Bynum cannot let expansion of his game interfere with his more important defensive responsibilities in the playoffs, the same way Bryant knew to rein it in and dump it in more to Shaq in the playoffs.
Indeed, there is more than one person from the Lakers' inner circle fearing that Bynum is selfish at the core and cares more about his scoring stats than winning another championship.
Let's just all be aware of the flip side, though.
Yes, yes and yes: The rest of the NBA should also be scared to death that Andrew Bynum is becoming more and more like Kobe Bryant.
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text:
The Swiss team only just one point adrift of ZouLou driven by Loick Peyron in sixth place. But five different race winners out of eight races on the second day, keeps the competition close.
On the short stadium courses, there was plenty of close racing and some boat to boat contact between the teams, which made for great online viewing from the multi-camera live race coverage that started today: 'Sailing inside the harbour is very tricky especially in the downwind starts,' said Roman Hagara, skipper, Red Bull Sailing Team.
'And the next days will be the same – it's easier with a little bit more breeze but we have to deal with the lights winds also.' In the final race of the day, led by Bertarelli from start to finish, Groupe Edmond de Rothschild were penalized for not giving room to The Wave, Muscat at the downwind gate which, ultimately, cost the French the chance to extend their lead over Oman Air going into the halfway stage of Act 1.
Although this is only the first Act out of eight international events this year, James Boyd's form guide reveals a more than close resemblance to the current form here in Muscat.
'For 2012 we feel there is one stand-out crew, but with little to choose between the remainder of the teams,' said Daily Sail editor James Boyd. 'Any of them are capable of getting on the podium this season. In short the fight for the podium is likely to be the tightest we have ever seen in the Extreme Sailing Series.'
Read Daily Sail's James Boyd 2012 Form Guide here.
Extreme Sailing Series 2012 Act 1, Muscat, Oman standings after Day 2, 14 races (29.2.12)
Position / Team / Points
1st Groupe Edmond de Rothschild (FRA) Pierre Pennec / Jean-Christophe Mourniac / Hervé Cunningham / Bernard Labro / Adeline Chatenet 85 points
2nd Oman Air (OMA) Morgan Larson / Will Howden / Charlie Ogletree, Nasser Al Mashari, Max Bulger 84 points
3rd The Wave, Muscat (OMA) Leigh McMillan, Ed Smyth, Pete Greenhalgh, Hashim Al Rashdi, Rachel Williamson 72 points
4th Red Bull Sailing Team (AUT) Roman Hagara, Hans Peter Steinacher, Matthew Adams, Graeme Spence, Pierre Le Clainche 65 points
5th GAC Pindar (GBR) Ian Williams / Mark Ivey / Mark Bulkeley, Adam Piggot / Andrew Walsh 62 points
6th ZouLou (FRA) Loick Peyron, Philippe Mourniac, Jean-Sébastien Ponce, Bruno Jeanjean, Antoine Joubert 51 points
7th Alinghi (SUI), Ernesto Bertarelli, Tanguy Cariou, Nils Frei, Yves Detrey, Pierre-Yves Jorand 150 points
8th Team Trifork (DEN) Jes Gram-Hansen, Rasmus Kostner, Pete Cumming, Simon Hiscocks, Jonas Hviid 35 points
Morgan Larson, skipper, Oman Air: 'We did a really nice job on the more traditional windward/leewards, then when the reaching starts came into play I didn't really have the timing to well and made a few errors that cost us a couple of points. But all in all the guys are doing a great job. It's a challenge, when you can't really see the wind and it comes and goes, to be consistent and do all the little things right. We would be really happy with a podium finish and that's our goal.'
Ernesto Bertarelli, skipper, Alinghi: 'I think everyone is going to win a race, I mean, the boats are fairly equal, everyone is quite good at what they do and the question is to be better than everyone else on average and we're not quite there yet. We're happy with the last race and winning it – it's a good way to go home - to be positive in the debrief and look forward to tomorrow.'
Roman Hagara, skipper, Red Bull Sailing Team: 'For sure, we were trying hard today but we also had a last place which is not so good. In the end we were quite happy with the second place in the last race so overall a pretty good day. Sailing inside the harbour is very tricky especially in the downwind starts and the next days will be the same – easier with a little bit more breeze but we have to deal with the lights winds also.'
Extreme Sailing Series website


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Minimizes visible distractions, speak naturally with easy to use tap-and-talk voice-interaction so you can play music, Tweet, talk, text, email, and update your Facebook more safely while driving.
Driver-Centric Interface
Simple and intuitive interface is designed exclusively for drivers for in-car use. Keeps drivers focused and in control when accessing communications, phone calls and entertainment while driving.
Social Network for Drivers
Share your location in real-time with your family and friends or see what they're up to.
Smart Burst Technology
The best in-car solution for texting. Enables drivers to send and receive text messages the way they would naturally talk.
Internet Radio
Access your favorite Internet radio stations naturally and quickly using easy to remember voice-tag nicknames.
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Navigate and play the music stored on your phone using your voice while staying connected to all other features and services.
User Testimonials from DriveSync's Infotainment Community
"I can't say there are a lot of apps out there I actually use, but this one definitely has some merit!"−
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Send and receive text messages and email, listen to Internet radio, and interact with social networks all by voice.
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You will be able to clearly navigate and see only important content on your phone's screen minimizing visible distraction, additionally you can use quick touch controls to access DriveSync connected car features as a backup to voice commands.
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Listen to the best internet radio stations from around the world right from your phone.
Search or browse various online radio stations or hand pick your favorite! With easy to remember voice-tag nicknames specifically designed for in-vehicle use, selecting your favorite station is now safer and quicker.
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US Stocks Open Lower As Financials Lead Declines
Just for the fun of it, let's take a look at a money news story. You know, since we ALL have such magnificent jobs and more money than we know what to do with. 🙄 US Stocks Open Lower As Financials … Continue reading


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Ghalanai: 7 militants held in Mohmand
GHALANAI: The security forces on Wednesday arrested seven militants in Karapa area of Pindyalai tehsil of Mohmand Agency. Security forces had received information that seven militants travelling in a Land Cruiser (B-2197) jeep were carrying out their activities on a roadside in Karapa area. The personnel of Mohmand Rifles rushed to the spot, laid a siege and arrested them without any resistance. The arrested militants included Muhammad Khalid, Khan Said, Rahim Khan, Abdul Haq and Shah Mehmood belonging to Afghanistan and Abdul Malik of Charsadda and Barkat Khan of Khyber Agency. Meanwhile, the security forces arrested a local militant, Imran, a resident of Lakaro, at Nahqi checkpoint and shifted him to an undisclosed location for interrogation.
The original article can be found at The News.


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Getac RX10 Rugged Tablet Designed for Field Service
The tablet, which includes an ergonomic handle, boasts a variety of security and connectivity features for protecting and sharing information.Rugged computing specialist Getac announced a portable, lightweight and feature-loaded rugged tablet, the RX10, designed for field service. The tablet, which includes an ergonomic handle, also boasts a variety of security and connectivity features for protecting and sharing confidential information. Its multifactor authentication includes password protection, radio-frequency identification (RFID), a fingerprint reader and a smartcard reader. In addition, Trusted Platform Module (TPM) 2.0 and Absolute DDS further enhance security to help keep confidential documents and information secure.
The RX10 provides operation in temperatures as low as 5.8 degrees below zero and as high as 131 degrees Fahrenheit, and is certified for MIL-STD-810G and IP65, meaning the unit is built to survive drops, vibration, water, dust and extreme temperatures.
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On the optimal supply of liquidity with borrowing constraints
We characterize policies for the supply of liquidity in an economy where agents have a precautionary savings motive due to random production opportunities and the presence of borrowing constraints. We show that a socially efficient provision of liquidity involves a trade-off between insurance and production incentives. Two scenarios are studied: if no aggregate information is available to the policy maker, constant flat expansions are socially beneficial if unproductive spells are sufficiently long. If some aggregate information is available, a socially beneficial state-dependent policy prescribes expanding the supply of liquidity in recessions and contracting it in expansions.
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|Date of creation:
|Mar 2012
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| Postal: Centre for Economic Policy Research, 77 Bastwick Street, London EC1V 3PZ.
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References listed on IDEAS
Please report citation or reference errors to , or , if you are the registered author of the cited work, log in to your RePEc Author Service profile, click on "citations" and make appropriate adjustments.:
- Timothy J. Kehoe & David K. Levine & Michael Woodford, 1990.
"The optimum quantity of money revisited,"
Working Papers
404, Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis.
- Timothy J. Kehoe & David K. Levine & Michael Woodford, 1992. "The Optimum Quantity of Money Revisited," Levine's Working Paper Archive 2035, David K. Levine.
- Veronica Guerrieri & Guido Lorenzoni, 2011.
"Credit Crises, Precautionary Savings, and the Liquidity Trap,"
NBER Working Papers
17583, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
- Guido Lorenzoni & Veronica Guerrieri, 2011. "Credit Crises, Precautionary Savings and the Liquidity Trap," 2011 Meeting Papers 1414, Society for Economic Dynamics.
- Fernandes, Ana & Phelan, Christopher, 2000.
"A Recursive Formulation for Repeated Agency with History Dependence,"
Journal of Economic Theory,
Elsevier, vol. 91(2), pages 223-247, April.
- Ana Fernandes & Christopher Phelan, 1999. "A recursive formulation for repeated agency with history dependence," Staff Report 259, Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis.
- Ricardo Lagos & Randall Wright, 2004.
"A unified framework for monetary theory and policy analysis,"
Staff Report
346, Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis.
- Ricardo Lagos & Randall Wright, 2005. "A Unified Framework for Monetary Theory and Policy Analysis," Journal of Political Economy, University of Chicago Press, vol. 113(3), pages 463-484, June.
- Ricardo Lagos & Randall Wright, 2002. "A unified framework for monetary theory and policy analysis," Working Paper 0211, Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland.
- Levine, David K., 1991.
"Asset trading mechanisms and expansionary policy,"
Journal of Economic Theory,
Elsevier, vol. 54(1), pages 148-164, June.
- David K. Levine, 1991. "Asset Trading Mechanisms and Expansionary Policy," Levine's Working Paper Archive 43, David K. Levine.
- Jonathan Chiu & Miguel Molico, 2007.
"Liquidity, Redistribution, and the Welfare Cost of Inflation,"
Staff Working Papers
07-39, Bank of Canada.
- Chiu, Jonathan & Molico, Miguel, 2010. "Liquidity, redistribution, and the welfare cost of inflation," Journal of Monetary Economics, Elsevier, vol. 57(4), pages 428-438, May.
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Warm start of a Lexus IS200 2.0ltr Powerflow Exhaust System Nice sound from the warm Powerflow Exhaust.


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Third Eye Installation Systems Ltd
installation, security systems, cctv
As an NSI Gold approved company Third Eye Installation Systems can install, upgrade and maintain your security system at home or in your business. We use highly reliable Grade II systems for all our alarms and also offer a maintenance contract. The alarm system is your property - not leased - and our annual maintenance contracts are highly competitive. We can set the system up to call you in the event of an alarm activation or you can be monitored 24 hours and you and/your chosen keyholders are always aware of any problems via text messages. We are also highly experienced in CCTV systems for both domestic and commercial and access control systems, door access, video/phone entry systems. We offer free phone - free survey - free quotes. We are flexible on times and can install at weekends. We have all relevant insurances and our engineers are highly trained and security vetted.
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