text:
The following article was first published as
Becker, H. S. 1974. Photography and Sociology. Studies in the Anthropology of Visual Communication 1, 3-26.
It was subsequently republished in a collection of Howard Becker's articles:
Doing things together: selected papers 1986 Evanston: Northwestern University Press.
It was been made available in this form with the kind permission
of Howard Becker and with the assistance of staff at the Templeman Library, UKC.
For ease of reference the pagination of the original 1974 publication has been preserved.
No images have been digitised for copyright reasons.
David Zeitlyn August 2000
North western University
Photography and sociology have approximately the same birth date, if you count sociology's birth as the publication of Comte's work which gave it its name, and photography's birth as the date in 1839 when Daguerre made public his method for fixing an image on a metal plate 2. From the beginning, both worked on a variety of projects. Among these, for both, was the exploration of society.
While sociology has had other ends, moral and metaphysical, sociologists have always wanted to understand how society worked, to map its dimensions and then look into the big sectors and little crannies so mapped. They ordinarily wanted to find things out rigorously and scientifically, and to develop general theories. But some sociologists have made it their main business to describe what has not yet been described, in the style of the ethnographer, to tell the big news, in the style of the journalist, combining these (more or less) with the desire for rigor and general theory.
Sociologists' choice of theories, methods, and topics of research
usually reflect the interests and constraints of the intellectual and occupational
communities to which they are allied and attached. They often choose research methods,
for instance, that appear to have paid off for the natural sciences. They frequently
choose research topics which are public concerns of the moment, especially as those
are reflected in the allocation of research funds: poverty, drugs, immigration, campus
or ghetto disorder, and so on. These faddish tendencies are balanced by a continuing
attention to, and respect for, traditional topics and styles of work.
The efforts and projects of photographers have been much more various. In order to understand how photographers go about exploring society when they undertake that job, it will be useful to remember the melange of other jobs photography does. Think of a camera as a machine that records and communicates much as a typewriter does. People use typewriters to do a million different jobs: to write ad copy designed to sell goods, to write newspaper stories, short stories, instruction booklets, lyric poems, biographies and autobiographies, history, scientific papers, letters . . . . The neutral typewriter will do any of these things as well as the skill of its user permits. Because of the persistent myth that the camera simply records whatever is in front of it (about which I will say more below), people often fail to realize that the camera is equally at the disposal of a skilled practitioner and can do any of the above things, in its own way. Photographers have done all of the things suggested above, often in explicit analogue with the verbal model. Different kinds of photographers work in different institutional settings and occupational communities, which affect their product as the institutional settings in which sociologists work affect theirs (Rosenblum 1973).
Photographers have worked to produce advertising illustrations. They have made portraits of the rich and famous, and of ordinary people as well. They have produced pictures for newspapers and magazines. They have produced works of art for galleries, collectors and museums. The constraints of the settings in which they did their work (Becker 1974) affected how they went about it, their habits of seeing, the pictures they made and, when they looked at society, what they saw, what they made of it and the way they presented their results.
From its beginnings, photography has been used as a tool for the exploration of society, and photographers have taken that as one of their tasks. At first, some photographers used the camera to record far-off societies that their contemporaries would otherwise never see and, later, aspects of their own society their contemporaries had no wish to see. Sometimes they even conceived of what they were doing as sociology, especially around the turn of the century when sociologists and photographers agreed on the necessity of exposing the evils of society through words and pictures. Lewis Hine, for instance, was supported by the Russell Sage Foundation in connection with the early surveys of urban life (Gutman 1967). The American Journal of Sociology routinely ran photographs in connection with its muckraking reformist articles for at least the first fifteen years of its existence (Oberschall 1972:215).
Another kind of social exploration grew out of the use of photographs to report the news and to record important social events. Mathew Brady (Horan 1955) and his staff, which included Timothy H. O'Sullivan (Horan 1966) and Alexander Gardner (1959), photographed the Civil War, and Roger Fenton the Crimean War. But it was not until the 1920's that the development of the illustrated weekly in Europe produced a group of photographers who made the photoreportage or photoessay into an instrument of social analysis (Alfred Eisenstaedt and Erich Salomon are among the best-known graduates of these journals) (Gidal 1973). Later, the Picture Post in England and Time, Life, and Fortune in the United States provided outlets for serious photojournalists who worked with the photoessay form: Margaret Bourke-White, Walker Evans, W. Eugene Smith, Robert Capa.
The impulse to photographic social exploration found another expression in the work produced by the photographers Roy Stryker assembled for the photographic unit of the Farm Security Administration during the 1930's (Hurley 1972, 1973; Stryker and Wood 1973). Dorothea Lange, Walker Evans, Russell Lee, Arthur Rothstein, and others made it their business to record the poverty and hard times of Depression America, their work very much informed by social science theories of various kinds.
More recently, political involvement has had a hand in shaping the use of photography to explore society.
Photography and sociology 3
Page of images
Photography and sociology 4
Photographers participated actively in the civil rights movement
of the 1960's and brought back photographs which effectively stirred people just
as Hine's photographs of child laborers had. They then used those skills in somewhat
less immediately political kinds of essays-exploring communities, occupations, subcultures,
institutions-that have a sociological intent. These essays combine a journalistic
and ethnographic style with a self-conscious and deliberate artistic purpose.
Photography from the beginning strove toward art just as it did toward social exploration. To be sure, earlier photographers in this tradition understood that what they did had an artistic component. They worked hard to produce images that measured up as art. But the artistic element of photography was held at a substantial distance from photography carried on for more mundane purposes, including journalism. Such influential photographers as Edward Weston conceived of their work as something more like painting-they produced for galleries, museums, and private collectors as much as they could-and did very little that could be interpreted in any direct way as an exploration of society.
Art and social exploration describe two ways of working, not two kinds of photographers. Many photographers do both kinds of work in the course of their careers. And even this is an over-simplification since many photographs made by someone whose work is predominantly of one kind have strong overtones of the other. Paul Strand is clearly an art photographer; but his pictures of peasants around the world embody political ideas, and any number of socially concerned photographers do work that is personally expressive and aesthetically interesting quite apart from its subject matter - as, for instance, in Danny Lyon's The Destruction of
Photography and sociology 5
Lower Manhattan (1969) and Larry Clark's Tulsa (1971).
Photography has thus, like sociology, displayed a shifting variety of characteristic emphases, depending on the currents of interest in the worlds of art, commerce and journalism to which it has been attached. One continuing emphasis has been the exploration of society in ways more or less connected with somewhat similar explorations undertaken by academic sociologists. As sociology became more scientific and less openly political, photography became more personal, more artistic, and continued to be engaged politically. Not surprisingly, then, the two modes of social exploration have ceased to have very much to do with one another.
Sociologists today know little of the work of social documentary photographers and its relevance to what they do. They seldom use photographs as a way of gathering, recording, or presenting data and conclusions. I want to acquaint them with this tradition and show them how they can make use of the styles of work and techniques common in photography. Many social scientists have already been active photographically, and what I say will not be news to them (Barndt 1974). 3
Many photographers have undertaken projects which produce results that parallel those of sociology, and make claims that in some ways parallel the claims to truth and representativeness of sociology. Insofar as their work has this character, I intend to show them how a knowledge of some of the ideas and techniques of academic sociology can be of help to them.
I do not want to make photographers of social scientists or impose a social science imperialism on photographers (not that there is any chance such attempts would be successful). Many sociologists will find the work and methods I describe hopelessly unscientific, although I hope that this discussion will cause them to reconsider their own methods. Many photographers will find my suggestions academically arrogant; satisfied with the way they now work, they will see no advantage in alien ideas and procedures.
What I say is most directly addressed to those social scientists and photographers who are sufficiently dissatisfied with what they are doing to want to try something new, who find difficulties in their present procedures and are interested in seeing whether people in other fields know something that might help. Ideally, it is directed to the growing number of people, whatever their professional background, who are concerned with producing photographic explorations of society.
In addition, I have tried to show how even those sociologists who have no interest in photographic work can learn something from the light shed on conventional research methods by a comparison with photographic methods. Some generic problems of social exploration profit from the light the comparison generates.
I will not be concerned with every aspect of the use of visual materials in social science in this paper. Specifically, I will not consider three major areas of work to which social scientists have devoted themselves: (1) the use of film to preserve nonverbal data for later analysis, as in the analyses of gesture and body movement by such scholars as Birdwhistell, Ekman, Hall, and Lennard; (2) the analysis of the visual productions of "native seers" for their cultural and social meanings, as in the Worth-Adair (1972) study of Navaho filmmakers; (3) the use of photographs as historical documents, whether they have been taken by artless amateurs and preserved in family albums, as in Richard Chalfen's work, or by professional photographers, as in Lesy's Wisconsin Death Trip (1973). All three are interesting and important areas of work, but differ from the use of photographs to study organizations, institutions, and communities that I have in mind. There is considerable overlap, of course, and I do not insist on the distinction.
Anyone who gets into a new field must pay some dues. Photographers who want to pursue the matter further will have to read some social science prose, and many will probably find that too steep a price; some will find a viable solution in a working partnership with a social scientist (as in the fruitful collaboration of Euan Duff and Dennis Marsden in an as yet unpublished study of unemployed men and their families in Britain).
The price to social scientists is less painful. They must acquaint themselves with the extensive photographic literature; I have reproduced some examples here and will provide a brief guide to more. In addition, they will have to learn to look at photographs more attentively than they ordinarily do. Laymen learn to read photographs the way they do
headlines, skipping over them quickly to get the gist of what
is being said. Photographers, on the other hand, study them with the care and attention
to detail one might give to a difficult scientific paper or a complicated poem. Every
part of the photographic image carries some information that contributes to its total
statement; the viewer's responsibility is to see, in the most literal way,
everything that is there and respond to it. To put it another way, the statement
the image makes-not just what it shows you, but the mood, moral evaluation and causal
connections it suggests-is built up from those details. A proper "reading"
of a photograph sees and responds to them consciously.
Photographers learn to interpret photographs in that technical way because they want to understand and use that "language" themselves (just as musicians learn a more technical musical language than the layman needs). Social scientists who want to work with visual materials will have to learn to approach them in this more studious and time-consuming way. The following exercise, taught to me by Philip Perkis, is a way of seeing what is involved:
Take some genuinely good picture; the ones reproduced in this article will do. Using a watch with a second hand, look at the photograph intently for two minutes. Don't stare and thus stop looking; look actively. It will be hard to do, and you'll find it useful to take up the time by naming everything in the picture to yourself: this is a man, this is his arm, this is the finger on his hand, this is the shadow his hand makes, this is the cloth of his sleeve , and so on. Once you have done this for two minutes, build it up to five, following the naming of things with a period of fantasy, telling yourself a story about the people and things in the picture. The story needn't be true; it's just a device for externalizing and making clear to yourself the emotion and mood the picture has evoked, both part of its statement
When you have done this exercise many times, a more careful way of looking will become habitual. Two things result. You will realize that ordinarily you have not consciously seen most of what is in an image even though you have been responding to it You will also find that you can now remember the photographs you have studied much as you can remember a book you have taken careful notes on. They become part of a mental collection available for further work. (When you do this exercise a number of times you will acquire new habits of seeing and won't have to spend as much time looking at a new print).
I hope this does not sound mystical. Black and white still photographs use visual conventions that everyone brought up in a world of illustrated newspapers and magazines learns just as they learn to talk. We are not ordinarily aware of the grammar and syntax of these conventions, though we use them, just as we may not know the grammar and syntax of our verbal language though we speak and understand it. We can learn that language through study and analysis, just as we can learn to understand music and poetry by making technical analyses of harmony and counterpoint or of prosody. We don't have a large amount of such photographic analysis available, especially as it relates to the concerns of social scientists. But it is absolutely prerequisite to any analysis and discussion that you practice looking at photographs long and hard, so that you have something to analyze.
Photography and sociology 7
One reason sociologists should be interested in the work of social documentary photographers is that photographers have covered many of the subjects that are persistent foci of sociological concern. Some have done their work for the government, some on assignment, or speculatively, for magazines and newspapers, some supported by foundations, some as the "private" work they do between paying jobs, or as a hobby. Describing the variety of topics photographers share with sociologists will provide the opportunity to acquaint those unfamiliar with the photographic literature with some of the most interesting and important work.
In dealing with the topics they share with sociologists, photographers say what they have to say in many ways. Without giving many examples, or offering an extended description of the various forms of photographic statements, I'll simply suggest the following as among the possibilities now in use. A photographer may make his statement in the form of an aphorism or witticism, a photographic one-liner that may be no more than a joke (in the case of EIliot Erwitt 1972, for example) or may be of considerable depth (as in the work of André Kertész 1972). He may produce slogans. He may be saying "Look at that!" in wonder at some natural phenomenon (Ansel Adams' pictures of Yosemite seem to say that), or in revulsion from some disgusting work of man (McCullin 1973). He may tell a story or, finally, he may produce something that implicitly or explicitly offers an analysis of a person, an artifact, an activity or a society. It stretches ordinary usage to speak of these projects as "studies," as though they were sociological research projects; but the exaggeration emphasizes, as I want to, the continuity between the two kinds of work.
Both photographers and sociologists have described communities. There is nothing in photography quite like such major works of social science as Warner's Yankee City Series, Lynd 's Middletown and Middletown in Transistion , and Hughes' French Canada in Transition . Photographers have recently produced more modest efforts, such as Bill Owens' Suburbia (1973) and George Tice's Paterson (1972), both describing smaller communities through a hundred or so images of buildings, houses, natural features, public scenes and (in Owens' book) family life. A number of photographers have accumulated massive numbers of negatives of one city, as Eugéne Atget (Abbott 1964) did in his attempt to record all of Paris or Berenice Abbott (1973) or Weegee (1945), the great news photographer, did, each in their way, of New York; but only small selections from the larger body of work are available, and we usually see only a few of the images at a time.
Like sociologists, photographers have been interested in contemporary social problems: immigration, poverty, race social unrest. In that great photographic tradition, one typically describes in order to expose evils and call for action to correct them. Lewis Hine, who called himself a sociologist, put credo succinctly: "I want to photograph what needs to be appreciated; I want to photograph what needs to be corrected." His greatest project showed conditions of child labor in the United states in a way that is thought to have helped the passage of remedial legislation. Somewhat earlier, Jacob Riis (1971), a reporter, photographed the slums of New York and exhibited the results in How the Other Half Lives. I have already mentioned the photographs of rural poverty by the members of Stryker's FSA photographic unit and might add to that the collaboration of Bourke-White and Erskine Caldwell (1937) in You Have Seen Their Faces. Life in Black ghettoes has been photographed, from the inside, by men like James Van Der Zee (DeCock and MeGhee 1973) (among other things the official photographer for Marcus Garvey) and Roy de Carava (de Carava and Hughes 1967); from the outside, by Bruce Davidson (1970) and many others. Dramatic confrontations of the races make news, and many photographers have covered such stories (Hansberry 1964) and gone on to more extended explorations of the matter. W. Eugene Smith (1974) has recently published a major essay on pollution, its victims, and the politics surrounding it in Japan.
Other photographic work deals with less controversial problems, in the style of the sociological ethnography. Sociologists have studied occupations and the related institutions of work, and photographers have too: Smith (1969) did major essays on a country doctor and a Black midwife; Wendy Snyder (1970) has a book on Boston's produce market, and Geoff Winningham (1971) produced a book-length study of professional wrestling. Photographers have also investigated social movements, as in Paul Fusco's (1970) book on Cesar Chavez and the UFW, Marion Palfi's (1973) work on civil rights, or Smith's classic essay on the Ku Klux Klan (1969). They have shared with sociologists an interest in exotic subcultures: Danny Lyon's (1968) work on
Photographers present the results of their explorations of
society in a variety of ways, using varying quantities of images to make different
kinds of statements. One might, at one extreme, present a single image, capturing
in it all that needs to be shown about something from some point of view. Stieglitz'
"The Steerage," for instance, seems to make a self-sufficient statement
about the experience of European immigrants, showing both the masses Emma Lazarus
wrote about, crowded onto the deck of the ship, but also a brilliantly lit gangway
that seems to lead to better things. (lronically, the ship was actually headed east,
to Europe.)
Usually, however, photographers exploring society give us more than one striking image. They explore a topic more thoroughly, sometimes in one concentrated burst of attention and activity, sometimes (on a timetable more like that of the social scientist) over a period of a few years, sometimes as the preoccupation of a lifetime. The concentrated burst occurs when the conditions of work-a magazine assignment, for instance-make it unlikely that you will be able to return to the subject again 4. It may occur when circumstances make a brief visit possible to an ordinarily inaccessible place (Bourke-White's visit to Russia). Photographers can seldom get the support for more long-term projects, certainly not on a routine basis, so a great deal of important work has been done in this concentrated way and many prized photographic skills consist of doing good work despite the lack of sufficient time.
Probably because of the connection with magazine work, such photographic studies typically saw publication as a photoessay. The form, pioneered in Europe, reached maturity in Fortune and Life. Bourke-White, Smith, and others developed a form in which a few to as many as thirty photographs, spread with an accompanying text over four to
Photography and sociology 9
eight or ten pages, explored a subject in some detail, giving
more space and attention to a subject than a conventional journalistic treatment
allowed. Photoessays often, like good sociological studies, showed the great variety
of people and situations involved in the subject under study. Of course, magazine
editors played a decisive part in the selection and arrangement of the materials,
and photographers frequently objected to their interference. Gene Smith resigned
from Life over this issue.
When a photographer finds it possible to pursue a subject for a longer time-a year or more-he may accumulate sufficient material for a more extended presentation. Guggenheim grants and other fellowship and foundation funds have supported many such projects (Bruce Davidson's East 100th Street, many of Marion Palfi's studies, Smith's work on Pittsburgh). The government has supported others: the FSA projects, Hine's exposes of child labor. Or the project may be the photographer's private affair, supported by work of an entirely different kind.
In any event, photographers who work over a more extended period accumulate a large pool of images from which they can choose those that best express their understanding of their topic. Choices are made from that pool of images for specific uses, often in consultation with or entirely by others: editors, curators and the like. The selection so made may have more or less organization and coherence. The work of the FSA photographers, for instance, typically appears simply as a collection of variable size and made up of a variety of combinations from the entire body of work they produced.
Larger selections of work usually appear either as books, museum exhibits or both. They may contain anywhere from thirty to four or five hundred prints. Especially when they appear as books, the projects often take on a more organized and sequential format. Such formats allow, and almost require, a more analytic stance than a simple collection, and suggest statements that overlap considerably with those found in sociological ethnography.
The function of text in a photographic book is not clear. Photographic books may contain no text at all (e.g.,
Close study of the work of social documentary photographers provokes a double reaction. At first, you find that they call attention to a wealth of detail from which an interested sociologist could develop useful ideas about whose meaning he could spin interesting speculations. A collection of photographs on the same topic-a photographic essay or book-seems to explore the subject completely. Greater familiarity leads to a scaling down of admiration. While the photographs do have those virtues, they also tend to restrict themselves to a few reiterated simple statements. Rhetorically important as a strategy of proof, the repetition leads to work that is intellectually and analytically thin.
Many sociologists and photographers will find those judgments irrelevant. Some sociologists work with equally simple ideas; but those who are responsive to the tradition of ethnographic fieldwork will want photographic explorations to provide results as rich and interesting as their own descriptions. Some photographers are content to produce a few compelling images. But many of the book-length projects just described aspire to more than that, whether they make the aspiration explicit or not. Their authors are sensitive to the currents of thought and interest in the larger cultural community, and want to do work that is thought of as more than a beautiful illustration. Photographers and sociologists who don't share these traditions and sensitivities will find what follows of little use.
The problem, then, is why photographic exploration of society is so often intellectually thin. A subsidiary question of interest to photographers and to sociologists who may take a photographic approach to their work, is: what can be done to make that work intellectually denser?
The answer to these questions lies in understanding the role of theory in making photographs of social phenomena. Most sociologists accept the folk notion that the camera records objectively what is there for it to record, no matter what the ideas of the person who pushes the button. Laymen may believe this, but photographers know better. To be sure, something real has to emit light rays in order to produce an image on film or paper, and whatever is real that is emitting light rays where they can go through the lens will make some kind of image. That constraint exists, so that John Collier, Jr. (Friends of Photography 1972:49) is right to say that "The camera constantly trips up the artist by loyally going on being a recorder of reality."
Nevertheless, the photographer exerts enormous control over the final image and the information and message it contains. The choice of film, development and paper, of lens and camera, of exposure and framing, of moment and relation with subjects-all of these, directly under the photographer's control, shape the end product. The way he controls it-what he decides to make it into-depends in the first instance on professional traditions and conditions of work. The kind of photograph he has learned to value and the possibilities for making them provided by the institutions he works in influence his decisions in general. Thus, for example, the short time periods magazine editors allotted to projects meant that photographers could not produce pictures that require lengthy acquaintance with the subject. Newspaper photographers do not, as a rule, make pictures that contain large blurred areas, because editors prefer pictures sharp enough to look good in newspaper reproduction (Rosenblum 1973).
A second influence on the image the photographer produces is his theory about what he is looking at, his understanding of what he is investigating. Saul Warkov says: "The camera is a wonderful mechanism. It will reproduce, exactly, what is going on inside of your head." That is, it will make the picture (given a modicum of technique) look just the way the photographer thinks it should look. Think of it this way: as you look through the viewfinder you wait until what you see "looks right," until the composition and the moment make sense, until you see something that corresponds to your conception of what's going on. Similarly, when prior to making the exposure you choose a lens and film, an f-stop and a shutter speed, you do so with the same considerations in mind. If you make exposures that look some other way than what makes sense to you, you probably will not choose them for printing or exhibition. Thus, what you expect to see and what, even if you did not expect it, you can understand and make sense of-your theory-shape the images you finally produce.
Since the skilled photographer can make the image look as he wants it to, and knows he can, photographers should be aware of the social content of their photographs and be able to talk about it at length. As a rule, they are not. One of the foremost recorders of the urban scene, Lee Friedlander, asked to verbalize the explicit social criticism his pictures seem to make, answered by saying, "I was taught that one picture was worth a thousand words, weren't you?" (Friends of Photography 1972:10). (And the recorder of the exchange adds that the audience of photographers and photography buffs burst into applause.) It is as though the criticism is there, but the photographer doesn't want to verbalize it directly, preferring to rely on intuition. In my limited experience with photographers, I have found that Friedlander's attitude, while not universal, is very common.
If the above remarks are accurate, then when social documentary photography is not analytically dense the reason may be that photographers use theories that are overly simple. They do not acquire a deep, differentiated and sophisticated knowledge of the people and activities they investigate. Conversely, when their work gives a satisfyingly complex understanding of a subject, it is because they have acquired a sufficiently elaborate theory to alert them to the visual manifestations of that complexity. In short, the way to
Photography and sociology 11
change and improve photographic images lies less in technical
considerations than in improving your comprehension of what you are photographing
your theory. For photographic projects concerned with exploring society it means
learning to understand society better. Insofar as sociology possesses some understanding
of society (a very large if), then a knowledge of sociology, its theories, and the
way they can be applied to specific situations might improve the work of both photographers
and photographic sociologists.
A sociological theory, whether large scale abstract theory or a specific theory about some empirical phenomenon, is a set of ideas with which you can make sense of a situation while you photograph it. The theory tells you when an image contains information of value, when it communicates something worth communicating. It furnishes the criteria by which worthwhile data and statements can be separated from those that contain nothing of value, that do not increase our knowledge of society.
The work of social documentary photographers suffers then from its failure to use explicit theories, such as might be found in social science. This does not, of course, mean that their work embodies no theory at all. If they had no theory, they would have no basis on which to make the choices through which they produce their images. They have a theory, one which, because it is not explicit, is not available to them for conscious use, criticism, or development. Since they do not make explicit use of a theory designed to explore the phenomena they are interested in, they end up relying implicitly on some other kind of theory. The arguments that have attended the publication of some of the major works of obvious social import (e.g., Davidson's East 100th Street) indicate that the theories photographers rely on are, not surprisingly, lay theories, the commonplaces of everyday life in the intellectual and artistic circles they move in. Since photographers, for all their public inarticulateness, tend to be in touch (via their connections in journalism and art, and increasingly, through their location in academia), with contemporary cultural currents, they use the ideas and attitudes that are making the rounds in order to organize their own seeing.
That is probably overly harsh, since often enough photographers contribute images that help to shape those attitudes. Nevertheless, photographs of Harlem residents tend to revolve around such ideas as "Look how these people suffer" and "Look how noble these people are in the face of their suffering" (it might be argued that the latter was the twist Davidson relied on for the originality of his work). It is not that these things are incorrect or that for any reason they should not be said. But they are not sufficiently complex to sustain the weight of a real exploration of society, which will inevitably show that things are more complicated. In fact, the complications provide a great deal of the interest and points of active growth for social science thinking.
Training in social science, which presumably fills your head with social science theories, will not necessarily improve the social science content of your photographs. Knowledge does not automatically shape what you do, but works only when it is deliberately put to work, when it is consciously brought into play. Ruby (1972) argues that the pictures anthropologists take in the field are really vacation pictures, no different from the ones they take on any other vacation or that non-anthropologist vacationers take, focusing on what seems exotic and out of the way. Anthropological thinking does not affect the pictures. Photographic sophistication does. An unsophisticated photographer will produce a lot of isolated images while a sophisticated one will go after sequences of action.
Sociologists are probably like anthropologists. As they become more photographically sophisticated they will produce more interesting images, but not necessarily ones that have sociological content. Similarly, giving photographers a course in sociology or a list of suggested readings will not make their pictures sociologically more sophisticated. Learning some of what sociologists know will be necessary for improving the sociological content of their work, but it will not be sufficient.
How can sociological ideas and theory be brought to bear, in a practical way, on photographic explorations of society? The example of sociological fieldwork, as that has been described by a number of writers, (e.g., Lofland 1970; Schatzman and Strauss 1973), provides a useful model in the procedure of sequential analysis. I'm not referring to anything very esoteric, just to the procedure which allows you to make use of what you learn one day in your data-gathering the next day.
In some social science and photographic styles of work, you defer analysis until all the materials have been gathered. In a large-scale survey or experiment, the researcher can seldom change the way he gathers his data once he had begun; the inability to apply knowledge gained to the gaining of more knowledge is the price of standardized precision. (To be sure, one can apply the lessons of one survey or experiment to the next one, and workers in these styles usually do.) Photographers' failure to apply the lessons they learn at the beginning of a project to its later phases is more likely due to the photojournalistic emphasis on short intense trips to places one would not otherwise ordinarily be in, or getting the shooting done as rapidly as possible to cut down on expenses, and the great value placed on personal intuition, all of which have been elevated in some versions of photographic work to operating norms. (Like sociologists, photographers of course bring what they have learned in previous projects to bear on the next one.) Working in this style, photographers take advantage of their temporary presence in a situation to shoot a great deal, waiting until they have left the field to develop film, make contact sheets, and edit their results.
Fieldworkers work differently, in a way immediately adaptable to photographic projects. As they write up the descriptions and verbatim accounts that constitute their field notes, they simultaneously or shortly thereafter make preliminary analyses of that information (Lofland 1970; Schatzman and Strauss 1973). What is there in what they have recorded that they don't understand? How can they find out more about it? What ideas does it suggest about the organization they are studying and the people's experience in it? What patterns of interaction, of cause and effect, of interrelationship are suggested by what they now know? If the rest of what they observe is like this, what generalizations will they be able to make? Where should they look to find evidence that these preliminary ideas are wrong (or right)? In short, they develop tentative hypotheses about the object of
Photography and sociology 13
of the time. (Aside from the visual considerations, photographers doing this kind of research might want to use a wide-angle lens, perhaps 35mm, as standard equipment, because it will force them up close where they ought to be.)
The photographer can also get more data by showing people the pictures he has already taken. He probably will have no choice, because people will want to see what he's up to. This will give him the chance to use the photo elicitation technique Collier (1967) describes so well: showing the pictures to people who know the situations under study and letting them talk about them, answer questions, suggest other things that need to be photographed, and so on. 5
If the photographer has some sociological ideas available, he can apply them to these more or less commonsense questions and answers. Much of what I've described so far is only what any reasonable curious person might want to know. Nevertheless, basic sociological theory is involved, one compatible with most varieties of sociology in current use. Let me put it in the form of a list of questions to be answered in the field, cautioning that the answers don't come all at once, but through a process of progressive refinement and constant testing against new information. This formulation of the questions a sociological-photographic study could usefully orient itself to is not original; it has been heavily influenced by Everett Hughes (1971).
(1) What are the different kinds of people in the situation? They may or may not look different; they will certainly be called by different names.
(2) What expectations does each kind of person-members of each status group-have about how members of other groups ought to behave? What are the recurring situations around which such expectations grow up?
(3) What are the typical breaches of those expectations? What kinds of gripes and complaints do people have? (A complaint is a sign of a violated expectation; "He's supposed to do X and he hasn't.")
(4) What happens when expectations are violated? What can people do to those who do the violating? Is there a standard way of settling these conflicts?
These questions put in a commonsense way ideas integral to
almost any sociological analysis. (1) refers to what a sociologist might call status
groups; (2) to norms, rules, or common understandings; (3) to deviance or rule violations;
(4) to sanctions and conflict resolution. The advantage of the translation is that
these concepts are linked in such a way that if you identify something you have seen
as an instance of one of them you then know that you ought to look for other things
that will embody the ideas it is connected to in the theory. If, for instance, you
see someone reward or punish someone else, the theory directs you to look for the
expectations that have been violated in this case, and for the status groups to whom
those expectations apply. Anyone exploring society photographically can ask these
questions, both visually and verbally. Each day's data provide some provisional answers
and some new questions, both discovered by careful inspection and analysis of the
The photographic investigator can supplement his visual material with a running verbal record. Depending on his intentions, this might be a full set of field notes such as a sociologist doing a conventional field study would keep, complete with verbatim conversations, or a record of a few outstanding thoughts and remarks. Some photographers (e.g., Winningham and Lyon) have tape recorded interviews with the people they photograph. Some (e.g., Owens) have recorded the responses of people to their photographs.
As the work progresses the photographer will be alert for visual embodiments of his ideas, for images that contain and communicate the understanding he is developing. That doesn't mean that he will let his theories dominate his vision, especially at the moment of shooting, but rather that his theories will inform his vision and influence what he finds interesting and worth making pictures of. His theories will help him to photograph what he might otherwise have ignored. Simultaneously he will let what he finds in his photographs direct his theory-building, the pictures and ideas becoming closer and closer approximations of one another. Like the sociological fieldworker, who finds much of his later understanding latent in his early data (Geer 1964), he will probably find that his early contact sheets, as he looks back through them, contain the basic ideas that now need to be stated more precisely.
The photographer, like the sociologist who builds more and more comprehensive models of what he is studying (Diesing 1971), will arrange the visual material into the patterns and sequences that are the visual analogue of propositions and causal statements. He will consider the problems of convincing other people that his understanding is not idiosyncratic but rather represents a believable likeness of that aspect of the world he has chosen to explore, a reasonable answer to the questions he has asked about it
Whether they start as sociologists or photographers, anyone who undertakes the kind of project I have just described will run into certain problems, which are common both in being frequent and ubiquitous and in being shared by the two vocations. In some cases, sociologists have ways of dealing with problems that photographers might find useful; in others, the way photographers deal with those problems will throw a new light on sociologists' troubles.
Truth and Proof
Insofar as a photograph or group of them purports to be "true," the particular meaning of that ambiguous claim needs to be specified. Once we know the kind of truth a picture claims, we can assess how far we accept the claim and how much of the statement it makes we want to believe.
Photographs (barring those that have been obviously manipulated to produce multiple images and the like) minimally claim to be true in that what they show actually existed in front of the camera for at least the time necessary to make the exposure. Photographs in the social documentary style claim more than that, presenting themselves as pictures of something that was not done just for the photographer's benefit, but rather as something that occurs routinely as part of the ordinary course of events. Or the photograph suggests that what we see is, if not ordinary, characteristic in some deeper sense, portraying some essential
Photography and sociology 15
unanticipated and possibly exciting material (both sociologically and visually). Following some of these suggestions might produce a lot of dull pictures, but so do most procedures; exciting and informative photographs are always hard to come by.
Fieldworkers may use crude time-sampling devices: checking up on someone or someplace every half-hour, or on different days of the week, or different times of the year. Some avoid "leaving things out" by attaching themselves to one person at a time and following that person through his entire daily (and nightly) round. They may ask people under study who else they ought to talk to or observe. As they become aware of categories or situations that deserve special study, they can systematically choose some to observe or they can observe all of them. Fieldworkers follow the discipline of recording everything they see and hear while making these observations.
Photographers could do all of these things, but they would need to observe some discipline equivalent to incorporating everything into the field notes, for a photographer's data do not exist unless they expose some film. In following someone around for a day, they might for instance adopt some such convention as exposing at least one roll of film every hour or so, adapting the time period to the character of what they were observing. They would thus avoid waiting until "something interesting" happened, and increase the chance that things that don't as yet fit into the photographer's developing understanding would nevertheless get into the record. They might similarly photograph certain activities or places on some schedule that interferes with their tendency not to shoot what does not seem visually interesting. Any kind of theory of the kind discussed earlier would likewise direct the photographer to things his intuition and visual sense might not call to his attention. Remember that theory is itself a sampling device, specifying what must be incorporated into a full description.
Shooting what seems interesting usually satisfies the photographer's need for a method. However, they often realize, if they are sensitive to their own work, that they are producing essentially the same pictures in a variety of settings, because their notion of what is visually interesting has become divorced from the social reality they are working in. If they are not sensitive to that possibility, others might point it out. A technique that breaks up their established visual habits guards against this. In addition, photographers often find that they are slow to discover and shoot things they later realize they need for a more complete visual understanding. The same techniques of randomized and theoretically informed sampling may help. The object of all this is not to turn photographers into sociologists or enslave them in mad sociological rituals, but rather to suggest how sociological tricks might solve problems of photographic exploration.
Sociologists try to convince their readers that generalizations from findings are legitimate by indicating that they have used a conventionally approved technique. The scientific community has already inspected the logic of that technique, so it is sufficient to indicate that it has been appropriately used. Readers who accept that convention are automatically convinced.
No photographer uses such standardized devices, and I'm sure that none would be interested in pursuing such techniques as probability sampling. They have their own devices, however, worth exploring because these produce conviction in the viewers of photographic work similar to that produced by sampling designs in sociological readers. Since sociological procedures are, to quote Campbell again, "radically underjustified," it is worth considering photographers' methods, even though they may appear even more underjustified to sociological readers.
Photography and sociology 17
of this deserves further analysis, since it is convincing (there are other such devices which need to be described and analyzed).
The problem of the reactivity of data-gathering procedures
is very similar in ethnographic and photographic work. Does the sample of behavior
observed and recorded accurately reflect how people ordinarily act or is it largely
a response to the observer's presence and activities? Both sociologists and photographers
frequently deal with this by cultivating the art of being unobtrusive. Many people
know how to manipulate their bodies and expressions so that, in the absence of any
reason to pay special attention to them, the people they are observing ignore them;
how they actually do this is not explicitly known, and deserves investigation. It
is probably easier to be unobtrusive in public places where you are not known as
an investigator and it may or may not be easier if you are carrying a camera. In
many situations carrying a camera validates your right to be there; as a tourist,
as a member of the group recording the scene for their purposes, or as a representative
of the media. Under many circumstances, observing or photographing is commonplace
and expected; many other people are doing it. Your presence does not change anyone's
behavior since observers and photographers are part of the situation. You should,
of course, include their presence in your observations and photographs.
In many situations, the people being observed are engaged in activities of considerable importance to them and cannot change what they are doing for an observer's benefit even if they would like to. Reactivity depends on the freedom of those observed to respond to the observer's (or photographer's) presence. If they are enmeshed in the constraints of the social structure in which they carry on their normal activities, they will have to carry on as they ordinarily do for whatever reasons cause them to do that ordinarily (Becker 1970). They may be well aware that they are being observed or photographed, but not be free to change what they do. Photographers routinely make use of this possibility. I once watched Michael Alexander photograph a woman fighting with her small child in a playground. Alexander was practically on top of her, but the child was kicking and screaming and, though she had no idea who he was, she felt she had no choice but to deal with her child despite the unwelcome recording going on.
A third solution recognizes that the reactivity often reflects fears about what will be done with the information
Sociologists have increasingly worried about the conditions
under which they will be allowed to gather data and then make their research results
public. Science requires that data and operations be open to public inspection and
independent verification. Unconstrained, scientists would (and should) make all their
data public. But they are constrained by both legal and moral considerations from
doing so, and ordinarily take substantial precautions to avoid harming anyone by
revealing who furnished information for or are the subjects of research. They may
simply change the names of people, organizations, and places, or use elaborate coding
procedures to preserve the anonymity of survey respondents.
People sociologists write about seldom sue them (though my colleagues and I were once threatened with a libel action by the administrator of an organization we studied). Consequently, they worry more about ethical than legal problems. Though a substantial literature debating these problems has grown up, the situation is confused and sociologists do not agree on procedures or relevant ethical principles. They tend to agree on generalities-"We should not do harm to the subjects of our research"-but not on the application of such crucial terms as "harm." To take one example: Are organizations, and especially such public ones as governmental agencies or schools, entitled to the same privacy as individuals, or is not social science research part of the public review to which they are necessarily subject? Another: Where do you draw the line between inconvenience or embarrassment and substantial harm?
Photographers have been considerably more interested in legal problems. When they make simplified analyses of the problems they explore, they can take an equally simplified view of the ethical problems. Having no trouble telling the good guys from the bad guys, they have not had to worry so much about ethical questions. If their work hurts the bad guys on behalf of the good guys-well, that was the point. But they have had to worry about being sued for invasion of privacy, and libel. The law here seems to be as ambiguous as the ethical standards of sociologists. Photographers know they can be sued and often take the ritual precaution of having people sign standard release forms, though these may not be as useful as supposed. 6 They also try to maintain friendly relations with the people they photograph, in much the same spirit as the advice I heard given to medical students: if you are good friends with your patients they won't sue you for malpractice. Alternatively, they rely on this being a large, differentiated society in which it is relatively unlikely that anyone will see the picture of him you put in a book or exhibit.
Everett Hughes' (1971) idea of the research bargain provides the terms for a useful comparison. What bargain do
Photography and sociology 19
investigator and investigated make? In both photographic and sociological investigations, it is fair to say, the people investigated probably do not know what they are getting into. They may give their consent, but it is not an informed consent. From an ethical and perhaps a legal point of view, the bargain is not fully valid. Sociologists are generally very cautious about this, at least in public discussion, and I think they might consider seriously a view more common among photographers: people can and should take care of their own interests and once the investigator has honestly described his intentions he has fulfilled his obligations. I don't propose that we accept this view uncritically, but we might think hard about why we should not. Journalists have long operated with a different ethic and there is perhaps as much reason to adopt their practice as that of physicians, which has tended to be the one sociologists orient themselves to.
Photographers have probably taken a tougher line because they can't use some of the devices sociologists do. Unless you block out faces and other identifying marks, everyone in a photograph is identifiable and there is no possibility of preserving anonymity. That is the strength of the medium, and no one would sacrifice it for ethical considerations. The strength of photographic work may not depend on the people and organizations studied being identified specifically, since the implicit argument is that what you see is characteristic of a large class; so the people in the individual prints are in effect anonymous, though they might be known to some who see the pictures and others could conceivably find out who they are if it seemed important. (But see Alwyn Scott Turner's Photographs of the Detroit People, in which a great many people photographed are not only named but their approximate addresses are given, too.)
The other aspect of the photographer's situation that leads him not to worry so much about ethical considerations is that when he is not photographing anonymous people who will be made to stand for some more general aspect of the human condition he is usually photographing people who, because they are public figures, expect to be photographed and only complain when it is grotesquely overdone, as in the case of Jacqueline Onassis. These people epitomize the rationale I mentioned earlier: perfectly capable of defending their own interests, they accept their photographic burden as one of the costs of being a public figure, whether they like it or not.
Both these strategies offer possibilities for social researchers. Sociologists frequently disguise names of people and organizations without thinking why, and might often be able to identify them, particularly when what they have said or done is no more than ordinarily discreditable and when (as is inevitable in social research) a long time elapses between getting the information and putting it into print. Studs Terkel has done that in his books on Chicago and on the Depression to good effect and without doing anyone harm.
Similarly, we might treat public figures as just that, justifying our observations, interviews, and quotations on the grounds that we are entitled to them as citizens and need no special social science warrant for our actions. A good example appears in a study by a combined legal and social science research staff of public access to information (Northwestern University Law Review 1973). As part of an elaborate experiment, researchers visited a number of public offices in search of information to which their access was guaranteed by law. Information holders often refused them or evaded their requests with transparent devices; the researchers in providing evidence for their conclusions, described their encounters with public officials, identified by name and office. I see no reason why that device should not be used more often than it is.
Concepts and Indicators, or Ideas and Images
Sociologists tend to deal in large, abstract ideas and move from them (if they do) to specific observable phenomena that can be seen as embodiments, indicators, or indices of those ideas. Photographers, conversely, work with specific images and move from them (if they do) to somewhat larger ideas. Both movements involve the same operation of connecting an idea with something observable, but where you start makes a difference. Granting, and even insisting as I already have, on the conceptual element in photographs, it still is quite different to start with something immediately observed and try to bend ideas to fit it than to start with an idea and try to find or create something observable that embodies it. Sociologists have something to learn from photography's inextricable connection with specific imagery.
Many sociological concepts, whose meaning seems intuitively clear, would he very hard to portray visually. Consider the notion of status integration. Defined as a congruence (or lack of it) between two or more indicators of social rank (education and income, for instance), its human meaning seems obvious. A man who made $100,000 a year but had never finished grade school would, we can imagine, have troubles another man with the same income who had completed college would never know. Does it have a visual counterpart? Can we imagine what a person in either of those states would look like, what we might see him doing, what his possessions and environment would consist of? The answer, to both questions, is probably no.
We cannot imagine the visual counterpart of status integration, I think, because the concept has been defined by the rules for calculating a status integration score from numerical indicators of specific ranks. The human meaning of the concept has been left to be evoked intuitively from the label applied to the results of that operation. As a result, no one can be sure what an instance of status integration would look like and thus no one can photograph it.
Obviously, every sociological idea need not be connectable to a visual image to be valid or useful. On the other hand, consider this. Some sociologists describe a basic problem of empirical research as one of finding empirical indicators (things observable in real life) to measure a concept whose meaning they have already decided. A sizable literature discusses the logic by which the two can be defensibly connected. But, as the example of status integration suggests, a third element is involved: the basic imagery we intuitively supply to fill out the meaning of an abstract concept operationally defined. We seldom consider the logic by which we connect concepts and indicators to that basic imagery, or the procedures by which we can develop that imagery explicitly and connect it defensibly to concepts and indicators. While, to repeat, sociological ideas needn't evoke a clear visual image to be defensible, considering the
Photography and sociology 21
organization must do some particular thing (e.g., satisfy some particular need or requirement) if it is to survive. The statement is misleading unless we interpret it as shorthand for the cumbersome proposition that it will change from its present form of organization and level of performance in various ways if the particular need or requirement is met at some other level or in some other way than that specified. When we put it that way, we recognize that survival, which the simpler statement treats as a given, can be made problematic and variable. The political effect comes about when we take what we have defined, for scientific convenience, as unchanging, as in fact, unchangeable. We thus, implicitly or explicitly, suggest to those who think that some particular change is the way to solve a pressing problem, that their solution is utopian and unworkable. What we are really saying, in such a case, is that the phenomenon in question can only be affected by changing something so difficult to change that only extraordinary effort and power can accomplish the feat. The mobilization of effort and power might be accomplished, if only in a way that the analyst might think unlikely or distasteful (e.g., violent revolution).
Likewise, when sociologists fail to consider some people and some aspects of a situation and do not gather data about them, they forego the possibility of finding out that some things said by or about those people are not true, that their informants' descriptions of their own actions may be self-servingly misleading. For social scientists, this choice usually results in studying subordinate echelons in an organization or community, while taking the descriptions by superiors of their own activities as adequate and trustworthy and therefore not needing any investigation. This lack of scientific skepticism is a political choice and has political consequences (Becker 1967; Blumer 1967; Becker and Horowitz 1972).
Since photographers seldom produce explicit analyses of social problems, they are less likely to confront this problem directly. But their idea of who should be photographed and who should not may have the same consequence's as the sociologist's decision about who is to be studied, the photographer thereby giving us great informational detail about some people, and suggesting that others either do not exist or can be filled in from the viewer's imagination. How, for instance, would Hine's documentation of the problem of child labor have been affected had he included among his portraits of exploited children portraits of the men and women who owned the factories, profited from that exploited labor, and lived in extravagant luxury on the profits? It might have given a more damning indictment of the entire system, though it is questionable that his work would then have had greater effect. One could also argue that the machines and factory buildings present in his pictures convincingly evoke the owners and their power (though not the luxury of their lives), or that other photographers provided that material, e.g., Steichen's (1963:31) portrait of J. P. Morgan.
Another aspect of framing is that we can either include all of what we do show within the picture's frame, and thus indicate that it is self-contained, or include parts of things that extend beyond the frame and thus evoke the world into which they extend, or things that stand for and evoke worlds and situations which lie beyond. Portraits, for instance, can contain all of the person's body and thus indicate that it is not necessary to know more, or they can contain only parts and thus indicate that there are other parts the viewer must supply from his imagination. Likewise, a portrait can contain some chunk of the person's ordinary environment-an artist's studio, a scientist's laboratory which evokes a world of activity not pictured, but there. Or it may simply show some setting (home or whatever) in such a way as to suggest more about the person. André Kertész (1972:118-119), for instance, has a portrait of Mondrian that faces a picture of Mondrian's house, which arguably conveys a more Mondrianish spirit than the portrait of the artist himself.
In any event, photographers do understand and use what lies beyond the portion of reality they actually show. In this they differ from social scientists who prefer not to discuss explicitly what they cannot claim to have studied scientifically. In that sense, social scientists make themselves ignorant about matters that lie beyond their frame, ignoring even what they do know by casual observation or in some other informal way. Instead of building such partial knowledge into their analyses, they rely on time-honored verbal formulae (e.g., "all other things being equal") to limit and frame their analyses. These formulae, like legal formulae, have been revised and refined so as to say exactly what is meant, what is defensible, and no more. A large number of these conventions exist, part of the rhetoric of contemporary science.
In any event, when social Scientists fail to deal with the reality that lies beyond the frame they placed around their study, they do not get rid of it. The reader, as with photographs, fills in what is hinted at but not described with his own knowledge and stereotypes, attaching these to whatever cues he can find in the information given. Since readers will do this, whatever verbal formulae are used to attempt to evade the consequences, sociologists might as well understand the process and control it, rather than being its victims .
Personal Expression and Style
Sociologists like to think of science as impersonal. However, they recognize that people work differently, that some have easily recognizable styles of work, that some work has an elegance missing in other research. In short, they recognize a personally expressive component in sociological research and writing. They seldom discuss that component (I suppose because it contradicts the imagery of impersonal science). When they do discuss it, they usually describe it as a flaw. For instance, critics frequently complain of Erving Goffman's jaundiced view of the world, of modern society, and especially of personal relationships. They characterize that view as overly calculating, as cynical and even as paranoid. Similarly, some critics of so-called "labelling theory" criticize it for being overly skeptical about established organizations, their operations and records.
Both Goffman and labeling theorists have the elements these criticisms single out. So does every other theory and style of work. The critical analysis errs only in suggesting that some theories and studies have such components while others are properly impersonal, as befits scientific activity. But Blau and Duncan's (1967) study of the occupational
This paper is made up of notes from work in progress, and what I have said is necessarily preliminary and incomplete. The kind of work it intends to encourage barely exists as yet, though the common and converging interests of social scientists and photographers, often in the same person, suggest that we don't have long to wait. I hope the paper will provoke further discussion and work on the problems it proposes.
1Work on this paper has been supported
by the Russell Sage Foundation. A book-length version of the material is in preparation.
I am grateful to Marie Czach, Blanche Geer, Walter Klink, Alexander J. Morin, and
Clarice Stoll for their useful comments on an earlier version.
2I have found Newhall (1964) and Lyons (1966) useful background references.
3Alexander Blumenstiel now edits a journal called Videosociology.
4See, for instance, the quote from Bresson in Lyons (1966:41), and the descriptions of magazine work in Bourke-White (1972).
5Collier's book is a classic, and required reading for anyone interested in these problems.
6Boccioletti (1972) deals with a number of common photographic legal problems and refers to Photography and the Law by G. Chernoff and H. Sarbin (Amphoto: nd.d.), which I have not seen.
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text:
'Jasa campaigning for BN gross abuse of gov't funds'
MP SPEAKS Late last night, I tweeted: " Workers Party Lee Li Lan wins Punggol East by-election in Singapore with impressive 3182-vote majority against People's Action Party (PAP). Najib more nervous about GE13. "
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subset: commoncrawl


text:
I've only worked on the client side (kernel) code so far. I plan to use netlink to communicate requests from the client (kernel) to the server (user-space). The server will be responsible for coordinating cluster events, responding to client request, handling disk commits, and notifying the kernel of any log device related failures.
The server will listen to requests from the client (netlink) and send them to the rest of the cluster via OpenAIS. The results will be replicated on each machine (running the server) with the server that has the lowest cluster id responsible for committing the data to the log device.
There are 17 types of client functions - most of which will need some communication with the server. The input and output data varies. I don't want to create unique structures to pass between the client and server for each type of request, so right now I plan on passing generic data. The server will interpret the data based on the request type. The part I don't like about this plan is it requires both the client and server to be able to interpret the data correctly without the help of a header file... I can keep them in sync and check for version mismatches during the log creation phase easily enough, but perhaps there are better ideas.
Now that there are source files in-place, I'll try to submit patches to this list before committing them. When I start work on the server side, I'll probably do an initial commit and post patches thereafter (unless people would prefer I submit the opening files here first).
brassowFor those that don't know: Logging implementations are modular and use the APIs found in linux/drivers/md/dm-log.h. Primarily, the logging implementations are used by device-mapper mirroring. Right now, there are only single machine logging implementations in the kernel. Red Hat has a cluster logging implementation for RHEL4 (cvs co -r RHEL4 cluster/cmirror-kernel), but since the upstream cluster infrastructure is based on userspace CMAN/OpenAIS, that implementation will likely not live outside of RHEL4.


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- 05-13-2013, 03:49 AM Thread Author #1
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Cant take incoming calls, please help!
Hello all
I have a problem on my new Note 2.
I cannot answer *some incoming calls (NO RED AND GREEN ANSWER OR DECLINE ICONS APPEAR).
This happens in either the lock screen or on the desktop, makes no difference.
I say 'some' calls, I had 2 calls yesterday fro different locations that I know where from automated sources (like call centres).
I took a call from my other half sometime later with no problem.
Does the Note 2 know they're from dubious sources and not give you the option to answer them? I doubt it..
This is not just that I don't understand you have to swipe the answer icon, the icons never appeared.
The 2 numbers called about 3 or 4 times each, no option to answer them.
I have also enabled the 'answer with home key' feature and this din't answer the call either..
I'm a bit concerned that I'm going to miss a call I really need to take.
Very frustrated, can anyone help me please?
Many thanks.
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Re: Cant take incoming calls, please help!
I have the opposite problem. I can't hang up or get the screen to come alive to hang up a call or be able to type in numbers.
I think the proximity sensor or something is screwed up. I think this happened around the 4.1.2 upgrade, at least for me.
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Re: Cant take incoming calls, please help!
I am having that same problem right now, my screen does not come on when I remove the phone from ear, I had to take the battery out and reboot it
Sent from my SPH-L900 using AC Forums mobile app
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Poor health may not be the reason for Waqar Younis stepping down as Pakistan's cricket coach as speculation is rife that his exit was the result of a fallout with former PCB chairman Ijaz Butt.
Although the former Test captain said he was resigning for personal and health reasons, there are now media reports emerging that perhaps Waqar might have also rubbed Butt the wrong way.
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text: 000 FXUS63 KGRB 160910 AFDGRB Area Forecast Discussion National Weather Service Green Bay WI 310 AM CST Thu Feb 16 2017 Forecast discussion for routine morning forecast issuance .SYNOPSIS... Issued at 306 AM CST Thu Feb 16 2017 Quiet mid-winter weather expected. Seasonable temperatures today, then much above normal through at least the middle of next week. A positive upper height anomaly will shift east to the 80W-90W the next couple days, then remain in place for the remainder of the forecast period. That will result in split upper flow across central and eastern North America. The forecast area will be dominated by the northern branch of the split. No precipitation is expected through the weekend. The only opportunity for precipitation appears to be early next week when some moisture from the southern stream may get pulled into the region ahead of an approaching northern stream shortwave. A lingering polar air mass will result in seasonable temperatures today. After that, the forecast area will be dominated by mild air masses from the Pacific that have downsloped the Rockies to get here. The result will be a prolonged period of much above normal temperatures. && .SHORT TERM...Today...Tonight...and Friday Issued at 306 AM CST Thu Feb 16 2017 Very quiet for the middle of February. Cloud trends are a little tricky as cloud decks at various levels will continue to stream across the area as a strong baroclinic zone slowly shifts east through the region. A strengthening inversion could also result in some stratus formation overnight, especially across the north. Verification stats continue to show guidance running well on the low side for temperatures. The ECMWF and its derivative guidance products have been the warmest and generally been verifying best, so adjusted temperatures toward a blend of those products. One thing that could mess up the warmer temperatures on Friday is a stratus deck. A strengthening inversion will be developing across the area, which is favorable for stratus formation. On the other hand, low-levels look rather dry and there isn`t much snowpack to melt to the south of us anymore. Best guess now is that widespread stratus won`t form. But forecasting stratus is tricky and this will need to be watched closely. .LONG TERM...Friday Night Through Wednesday Issued at 306 AM CST Thu Feb 16 2017 No significant changes to the expected upper air pattern over the next week. Still primarily looking at split flow with above normal mid-level heights continuing through the middle of next week before a piece of the western conus trough arrives. Have a slight preference for the ecmwf. Friday night through Sunday night...Quiet and mild during this period thanks to a Pacific airmass in control. Will see a moisture starved trough work east across the area on Friday night, shifting winds from the south to the west. Winds should be a bit more breezy behind this trough on Saturday. Otherwise, should see mostly clear to partly cloudy conditions on Saturday and Sunday with areas of mid and high clouds overhead. Clouds should thicken on Sunday night, thanks to southerly winds bringing gulf moisture northward. Precip looks to hold off until Monday. Rest of the forecast...A shortwave trough will push a cold front across the region late Monday afternoon through early Tuesday, bringing the next chance for widespread precip. Temps look too warm for any frozen precip along the front and should remain mild behind the front since there wont be any real push of cold air. Still looking at the possibility of colder air arriving behind a more potent front Wednesday night into Thursday without much in the way of upper support for precip. There is potential for a large cyclone to move into the center of the country by the end of next week. && .AVIATION...for 12Z TAF Issuance Issued at 306 AM CST Thu Feb 16 2017 VFR conditions are expected through this evening. Strengthening inversion above the surface will limit mixing overnight, and could result in some MVFR fog late at night. Stratus is also possible, and will result in IFR or LIFR conditions if it forms. Although stratus is generally all (OVC) or nothing (doesn`t form--SKC), plan to hint at the possibility of stratus with a SCT low deck in the TAFs. Somewhat atypically, winds above the inversion will remain modest (at least initially), so do not anticipate LLWS. && .GRB WATCHES/WARNINGS/ADVISORIES... NONE. && $$ SYNOPSIS.......Skowronski SHORT TERM.....Skowronski LONG TERM......MPC AVIATION.......Skowronski


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Albert Camus: From the Absurd to RevoltBy: John Foley (author)Hardback
More than 4 weeks availability
DescriptionAdopting an interdisciplinary approach, encompassing philosophy, literature, politics and history, John Foley examines the full breadth of Camus' ideas to provide a comprehensive and rigorous study of his political and philosophical thought and a significant contribution to a range of debates current in Camus research. Foley argues that the coherence of Camus' thought can best be understood through a thorough understanding of the concepts of 'the absurd' and 'revolt' as well as the relation between them. This book includes a detailed discussion of Camus' writings for the newspaper "Combat", a systematic analysis of Camus' discussion of the moral legitimacy of political violence and terrorism, a reassessment of the prevailing postcolonial critique of Camus' humanism, and a sustained analysis of Camus' most important and frequently neglected work, "L'Homme revolte" (The Rebel).
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About AuthorJohn Foley is a postdoctoral fellow at NUI, Galway.
ContentsAcknowledgements Notes on the text and abbreviations Introduction 1. The Absurd 2. Camus and Combat 3. The Rebel 4. Camus and Political Violence 5. Camus and Sartre 6. Camus and Algeria Conclusion Notes Bibliography Index
Product Details
- publication date: 30/09/2008
- Format: Hardback
- Number Of Pages: 288
- weight: 528
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Lies, Damn Lies, and Statistics
To stat or not to stat. That is the question. When I started blogging in July last year I never for a second believed that anyone would read my ramblings, especially not by choice. I thought there would be at least a couple of pity reads from friends and family, but after week one they'd probably drop off and I'd be posting into the vacuum of space, and nobody can hear you sceam.
Blogging is kinda like standing naked in the middle of a crowded room. You bare a part of you that you normally keep hidden. That special internal dialogue is completely normal to you, but you realise that if it were to be exposed, the wider public may be inclined to call in the men with white suits and oversized butterfly nets to take me away. There are really only 3 possible reactions to your decision to go all Lady Godiva, and get naked in the blogosphere.
One: people will admire your stunning naked body and lust after you.
Two: people will laugh at your marshmallow thighs and pancake boobs that slap your knees.
Three: people will shake their heads and turn away from the naked freak in the middle of the room.
Personally I always thought three and I would be having our own private lovefest. Now nearly a year on I have found that people not related to me by blood and therefore not obligated to pity read, are in fact reading my blog and even more bizarrely coming back for more. As the little icons have grown on the side of the page I have come to the realisation that I should take this writing business a little bit more seriously. Not too seriously mind, that would require work, and I am inherently adverse to any form of effort. More a kind of token level of seriousness.
One way of pretending to take my blogging more seriously was to enter the world of Google Analytics (GA). GA is totally addictive, rather like a mathematical equivalent of meth, for amateur statisticians. Going down the blog stats road was a bit of a toss up for me. I've always primarily written for my own pleasure. Basically, blogging is a means of purging the crap swirling around in my noggin. I've found that tapping away on a keyboard and pushing that post button is quite cathartic. Once it's out there I can let it go, and move on to contemplating the big issues in life like, "is Miss Jay more feminine than Tyra" and "do people put plastic wrap down before letting Lindsay Lohan sit on their furniture"? Deciding to add a stats program therefore seemed like I actually believed that my blog was somewhat professional, and that's really a bit of a stretch. But I did. I added GA and now I find myself constantly chasing the homoscedasticitical dragon.
Adding GA raised all sorts of questions. What to focus on? There are multiple options relating to goal setting, trends and the like. To much work if you ask me. My goals tend to involve things like, finding a local café that does great coffee and cake, or finding a shop that delivers Green & Blacks to your door. So whilst I have the stats program on there I don't think I'm using it in the way the designers intended. So for anyone thinking about going the stats route I thought I'd give you an insight into how I use my Analytics. Here are the 3 sections I concentrate on.
- Mass psychosis: I don't get a bazillion comments. Most times probably between 5-10 comments, but not always. I look at someone like The Bloggess and think OMG!, 400+ comments on a post. Now that's impressive and way way way out of my league. I'll admit I love comments, and frankly anyone who says they don't is lying. For me it's one of the highlights of writing in this medium. The ability to interact with your readers, to form relationships is something I love. The immediacy of the feedback is not something you could get in traditional print mediums. Often the quality of the comments far outweigh the quality of my writing. There are some damn funny and gorgeous people out there. Whilst I get comments now, for months I was lucky to get 1 or 2 comments and often had a big fat zero, post after disheartening post. That can make the whole experience feel rather lonely. The reality is that not many people comment, but with a stats program you can see how many people read your ramblings, and how long they spend on your site. I was shocked how many people actually read my blog (there are obviously some seriously messed up people out there, but I love every last one of you). Even excluding the people who pop in for 2 secs look at your blog and think you're a loser and leave (bite me, you are the loser dude) I get almost 2,000 substantial views a month. Whoa. That does good things for this weird little Aussie bloggers heart.
- Where in the world is Carmen Sandiego?: I love looking at where my readers come from. Why would someone from Columbia or Poland want to read my blog? Even more puzzling is why would they come back for more? I love it. The internet and social media get slammed for all their evil ways, but there is also a lot of good out there. It makes the world a much smaller place and connects people who would never have met otherwise. It is also a great geography lesson and I have even had to look up some of the countries (sad to admit I know, but I blame countries that keep changing their names quicker than I can keep up). Why some guy in a little provence in Russia, would find something in my blog he can connect to, I'll never know, but it's that kind of thing that gives me a toasty warm feeling inside. Big cyber hugs to all my international readers.
- One + One = Purple Monkey Dishwasher: perhaps my favourite statistic is the list of keyword searches that have led people to my blog. I can waste a lot of hours going through this list, often peeing myself laughing. I don't know if it's the fact that a search for "Arab ladies big boobs" lead someone to my blog, or the fact that someone thought that was a great search topic, that makes me laugh more. There are a lot of freaks out there people, but they are all very very dear to my heart. In the last month there have people searching for "blogspot arse hairy", "don johnson sniffing cat urine", and "plague trolls public quest where is tainted food crates" who all ended up on my blog. What are you smoking people? And more importantly, can I get some?
Now I imagine that this is not what GA had in mind when they created their stats program, but for me this is how I use it. I like the stats that make you feel warm and fuzzy inside, or give you a good laugh. Life's too short to care if your stats have increased by a certain percentage or to identify popular topics to drone on about again and again and...... If you decide to go with a stats program find what works for you. If you see blogging as a business more power to you. Go out and use your stats program with mature abandon. But, if like me you find maturity over-rated, and your fun, fuzzy and outright freaky stats to be the most worthwhile , then grab a glass of mummies little helper, and rejoice in the fact that there are people in the world who spend their days looking up information about "hairy gnome balls".
In the words of the fabulous Talking Heads all I can say is:
"Qu'est-ce que c'est?
fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa better
Run run run run run run run away
Michelle :)
For all my fabulous if rather freaky, readers I give you one of my all time favourites, Psycho Killer, Talking Heads (1977)
Michelle Roger writes for Living With Bob (Dysautonomia)
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