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Successful behavior demands motor learning to be transferable in some cases (e.g., adjusting walking patterns as we develop and age) and context specific in others (e.g., learning to walk in high heels). Here we investigated differences in motor learning transfer in people learning a new walking pattern on a split-belt treadmill, where the legs move at different speeds. We hypothesized that transfer of the newly acquired walking pattern on the treadmill to natural over ground walking might depend on the pattern of errors experienced during learning. Error patterns within a person's natural range might be experienced as endogenous (i.e., produced by the body), encouraging general adjustments that transfer across contexts. On the other hand, larger errors might be experienced as exogenous (i.e., produced by the environment), indicating unusual conditions requiring context-specific learning. To test this, we manipulated the distribution of errors experienced during learning to lie either within or outside the normal distribution of walking errors. We found that restriction of errors to the natural range produced transfer of the new walking pattern from the treadmill to natural walking off the treadmill, while larger errors prevented transfer. This result helps explain how transfer of motor learning is controlled, and it offers an important strategy for clinical rehabilitation, where transfer of motor learning to other contexts is essential.
- generalization
- human
- kinematics
- locomotion
- motor control
the nervous system has the ability to adapt movements to compensate for changes in the environment or the body. Many studies have demonstrated that robots and treadmills can be used to induce motor learning (i.e., adaptation) by creating new environmental demands (see, e.g., Deubel et al. 1986; Kagerer et al. 1997; Lackner and DiZio 1994; Reisman et al. 2005; Shadmehr and Mussa-Ivaldi 1994; Tremblay et al. 2003). Moreover, "device-induced" learning could be used to rehabilitate subjects with motor deficiencies (Bastian 2008), but it is critical that the learning transfers to "real-world" situations. Unfortunately, it has been demonstrated that a single session of "device-induced" learning only transfers partially and transiently to natural movements (Cothros et al. 2006; Reisman et al. 2009; Reynolds and Bronstein 2004). In walking, we recently demonstrated that removing visual context cues during split-belt walking adaptation partially improves the transfer of treadmill learning to over ground walking, since only the adaptation of temporal—but not of spatial—gait features is transferred (Torres-Oviedo and Bastian 2010). Here we ask whether errors during adaptation might have a more general effect in the specificity of device-induced learning in locomotion.
The notion of credit assignment, which we define as the ability to assign errors to the environment or the body, may be important for understanding transfer of learning (Berniker and Kording 2008). If the source of error that drives learning were estimated to be the environment, one would ideally adapt and apply the learning only to that particular situation. Conversely if the source of error were estimated to be our own faulty movements, one would ideally adapt and apply the learning to any other movement. Consistent with this idea, a promising study has demonstrated that learning induced by a robot transfers to unconstrained reaching movements when subjects experience small errors during gradual perturbations (Kluzik et al. 2008), possibly because small errors can be more easily attributed to subjects' own movements as opposed to the device.
Therefore, the history of errors normally experienced and their similarity to those experienced with the devices might determine the transfer of device-induced learning. Recent studies have demonstrated that the magnitude of errors (Körding and Wolpert 2004; Wei and Körding 2009) and their variability during training can affect the rate of learning (Burge et al. 2008; Korenberg and Ghahramani 2002; Wei and Körding 2010) or what we learn (i.e., a force to counteract a predictable perturbation vs. a force to counteract the average of variable perturbations experienced) (for review, see Davidson and Wolpert 2003). Here we ask whether the error size and variance affect the transfer of learning to movements without the device. To test this question, we manipulated the error that subjects experienced while learning a new walking pattern with a split-belt treadmill. We reasoned that errors out of the ordinary would be assigned to the device—leading to poor transfer—whereas errors usually experienced while walking would be assigned to subjects' natural movement—leading to larger transfer. Therefore we manipulated independently the error variability or size during locomotor adaptation and tested the transfer of learning from these adaptation conditions to natural over ground walking.
General Paradigm
Subjects adapted their walking pattern on a split-belt treadmill, and we tested the transfer of this learning to over ground walking (i.e., off the treadmill). Locomotor adaptation was achieved with a split-belt treadmill (Woodway USA, Waukesha, WI) that drove the speed of each leg independently. This paradigm has been demonstrated to induce the storage of a modified walking pattern that is expressed as an aftereffect in regular walking conditions and must be deadapted to return to normal walking (Reisman et al. 2005). The Institutional Review Board at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine approved the experimental protocol, and all subjects gave informed consent prior to testing.
In all experiments, we recoded the subjects' motor behavior during baseline, adaptation, and postadaptation periods off and on the treadmill (Fig. 1A). We collected a baseline period prior to adaptation in which subjects walked with the belts moving together (i.e., "tied") at three different speeds, a slow (0.75 m/s), a fast (1.5 m/s), and an intermediate (1.125 m/s) speed, for 1 min each. Subjects were then exposed for a total of 15 min to an adaptation period in which the belts on the treadmill were moving at different speeds (i.e., "split"). The belt speed asymmetry was different across experimental groups to alter the errors during adaptation (see experiment descriptions). After 10 min of split-belt adaptation, we collected a 10-s "catch" period during which both belts were moving together at the same speed as in the slow baseline period (0.75 m/s). The recordings during this catch period allowed us to assess storage of the adaptation effects (i.e., aftereffects) on the treadmill. Subjects then walked in the split-belt condition for an additional 5 min to readapt the walking pattern. The treadmill was stopped and restarted again at every speed transition. After the entire adaptation period, subjects were transported on a wheelchair from the treadmill to a 6-m walkway where the over ground transfer was tested. Subjects walked on the walkway for 10 back-and-forth passes to test for transfer to over ground walking of aftereffects due to the split-belt treadmill adaptation. Subjects were asked not to step when sitting in the wheelchair and when standing up in order to record as many of their initial steps after split-belt treadmill adaptation as possible. The self-selected walking speeds in all subjects ranged between 0.8 and 1.2 m/s. After over ground transfer was assessed, subjects returned to the treadmill and walked for 5 min in the tied-belts condition at 0.75 m/s. This last period allowed us to test for washout of the treadmill aftereffects due to over ground walking. We choose to assess aftereffects on the treadmill during catch and washout periods at the slow belt speed since it has been shown to induce the largest aftereffects (Vasudevan and Bastian 2010).
Experimental Design
To determine whether errors during adaptation can be manipulated to improve transfer of walking adaptation on a treadmill to natural walking, we designed three experiments. In experiment 1, error variability and magnitude during adaptation were kept small by perturbing subjects gradually (Fig. 1B). In experiment 2, error variability during adaptation was kept small, but error magnitude was increased by perturbing subjects abruptly (Fig. 1C). Finally, in experiment 3 error variability during adaptation was increased, but error magnitude was kept small by perturbing subjects gradually but with variable belt speeds (Fig. 1D).
Twenty-four healthy adults participated in this study. Eight subjects (3 men and 5 women; mean age 28.3 ± 7.9 yr) participated in experiment 1, eight subjects (3 men and 5 women; mean age 25.3 ± 4.5 yr) participated in experiment 2, and eight subjects (5 men and 3 women; mean age 25.2 ± 5.9 yr) participated in experiment 3. Since data recordings were noisy in one of the subjects in experiment 1, we excluded this subject from our data analysis.
Experiment 1: gradual adaptation.
Subjects were adapted gradually to keep their error size and error variability during adaptation small. During the first 10 min of adaptation, the belt under the left leg linearly decreased its speed from 1.125 m/s to 0.75 m/s and the belt under the right leg linearly increased its speed from 1.125 m/s to 1.5 m/s. After the catch period (when both belts moved at the same speed), the belts were maintained at a 2-to-1 ratio for an additional 5 min to readapt the walking pattern before testing the learning transfer to over ground walking (Fig. 1B, left: belt speed ratio, right: belt speed time course).
Experiment 2: abrupt adaptation.
Subjects were adapted with an abrupt perturbation to manipulate their error size during adaptation without changing their error variability. During the entire 15 min of the adaptation period belts were maintained at a 2-to-1 ratio (Fig. 1C, left). The belt under the left leg moved at 0.75 m/s, and the belt under the right leg moved at 1.5 m/s (Fig. 1C, right).
Experiment 3: gradual noisy adaptation.
Subjects were adapted with variable speeds on a mean gradual perturbation to manipulate their error variability without changing their error size. The belt speed ratio during the 15 min of adaptation was the same as in experiment 1 (Fig. 1D, right). The speed ratio was linearly increased from 1:1 to 2:1 during the first 10 min of adaptation and then maintained at 2:1 during the 5 min of readaptation. However, we added Gaussian white noise with a constant mean and variance (mean = 0, variance = 0.03) to the treadmill speeds while maintaining the same speed ratio. Speeds were changed every 3 s, and they ranged from 0.3 m/s to 1.8 m/s (Fig. 1D, left).
Adaptation, transfer, and washout of these three groups (i.e., gradual, abrupt, and noisy) were compared to determine the effect of error size and error variability in learning and generalization.
Data Collection
Kinematic data were collected at 100 Hz with Optotrak (Northern Digital). Infrared-emitting markers were placed bilaterally over the following joints: foot (fifth metatarsal head), ankle (lateral malleolus), knee (lateral femoral epicondyle), hip (greater trochanter), pelvis (iliac crest), and shoulder (acromion process). Marker location is indicated in Fig. 2A. The times of heel strike and toe-off (i.e., when the foot contacts and lifts off the ground) were recorded by foot switches placed on the bottom of the shoes or were estimated from the ankle kinematic data. In all experiments subjects were instructed to walk with their arms crossed to allow for data collection without occlusion of hip and pelvis markers.
Data Analysis
Learning, transfer, and washout indexes.
We quantified the magnitude of adaptation on the treadmill (TMlearning), its transfer to over ground walking (OGtransfer and %OGtransfer), and subsequent washout of the adaptation when returning to the treadmill (TMwashout and %TMwashout) in the following manner. TMlearning was defined as the size of the catch trial, corrected for any baseline biases (Eq. 1). OGtransfer and TMwashout were similarly corrected for baseline (Eqs. 2 and 3). %OGtransfer and %TMwashout were the OGtransfer and TMwashout values expressed as a percentage of TMlearning (Eqs. 4 and 5): (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) OGbaseline and TMbaseline are the mean of all strides in the over ground and treadmill baseline periods, respectively. TMcatch is the average aftereffect per step during the catch trial period. In other words, TMcatch is the sum of aftereffects divided by the total number of steps taken during the catch trial period. We chose this measure to assess the overall aftereffects experienced on the treadmill after adaptation. OGafter and TMafter are the mean aftereffect of the first three strides during postadaptation periods when subjects walked off and on the treadmill, respectively.
We quantified the learning (TMcatch), transfer (OGtransfer and %OGtransfer), and washout (TMwashout and %TMwashout) temporal and spatial gait features separately, because we have recently shown that the learning (Malone and Bastian 2010) and transfer (Torres-Oviedo and Bastian 2010) of these features can be modulated differently.
To quantify temporal gait features we used phase shift between the two legs. To this end, we computed the cross-correlation between limb angle trajectories during one full step cycle for each leg. Limb angle was defined as the angle between the vertical and the vector from hip to foot ankle on the x-y plane (Fig. 2A). Phase shift was the lag or lead time for a maximum correlation between limb angle trajectories (Fig. 2B). A phase shift value of 0.5 would indicate that legs are moving in antiphase. To correct for subjects' biases, we subtracted the phase shift during the baseline period from all other periods. Consequently, a value of 0 indicates that legs are moving in antiphase, positive phase shifts indicate that the fast leg is phase advanced relative to the slow leg, and negative phase shifts indicate that the fast leg is lagging the slow leg.
To quantify spatial gait features we used center of oscillation difference, which is defined as the difference between angles of oscillation of each leg (Fig. 2C). The angle of oscillation is defined as the angle between the vertical axis (0° axis in Fig. 2C) and the axis about which the leg is oscillating—illustrated by the black dashed and solid lines in Fig. 2C. A center of oscillation value of 0 would indicate that both legs are oscillating about the same axis, a positive value would indicate that the leg on the fast belt is oscillating about an axis that is forward to the one of the leg on the slow belt, and a negative value would indicate that the leg on the slow belt is oscillating about an axis that is forward to the one of the leg on the fast belt (Vasudevan et al. 2011).
We also quantified step length symmetry—defined as the difference between step lengths of the two legs [step length = distance between 2 ankle markers at time of foot contact (heel strike) of leading leg] (Fig. 2D). This difference was normalized by the step length sum to account for step length differences across subjects. A step length symmetry value of 0 would indicate that step lengths are equal, a positive value would indicate that the leg on the fast belt is taking longer steps, and a negative value would indicate that the leg on the slow belt is taking longer steps.
Error distribution analysis.
In all groups, we characterized the error during locomotor adaptation with step length symmetry. We chose step symmetry as a measure of error because it is a global parameter that characterizes temporal and spatial gait asymmetries (Malone and Bastian 2010). We have recently shown that subjects can combine the adaptation of phase shift and center of oscillation shift to equalize step lengths (Malone and Bastian 2010; also shown in Fig. 2, E and F). In other words, step symmetry values depend on when they place the foot on the ground and where they place it.
We used step symmetry values to quantify three error distribution features in every subject: 1) percentage of errors out of the normal range of walking, 2) error mean size, and 3) error variability.
To quantify the percentage of errors out of the normal range of walking (ErrorsOut), we first defined the normal range of errors by computing the 95% confidence interval (CI) of errors (i.e., ±2 × standard deviation of error values) during baseline walking on the treadmill. We did not use baseline values over ground since we did not have enough samples to assume normality. In addition, all subjects were naive to walking on a split-belt treadmill before adaptation, so we assumed that their steps on the treadmill during baseline were similar to those normally experienced over ground. ErrorsOut was computed by counting the number of errors during adaptation that were larger or smaller than the limits specified by CI. ErrorsOut was expressed as a percentage of the total number of errors experienced during adaptation (i.e., all step symmetry values during adaptation). We also calculated ErrorsOut during baseline walking over ground to verify that CI was a good representation of errors normally experienced.
To compute the mean of the error distribution during adaptation for each subject, we calculated the mean step symmetry error over the entire adaptation period. To compute the variance of the error distribution during adaptation for each subject, we calculated the variance around the step symmetry adaptation curve. To do so, we first removed the mean of the adaptation curve (e.g., see Fig. 3). Since the mean changed at a slow rate, we subtracted it by high-pass filtering the data at 0.05 strides/s with a 3rd-order Butterworth. After this filtering procedure the mean for all the groups was not significantly different from zero (all t-values >0.87, P = 0.39). Then we computed the sum of squared residuals and the variance from these data points with zero mean.
We also computed error size and variability normally experienced by using the step symmetry values during the baseline walking period on the treadmill. The error size was the mean step symmetry error over the entire baseline period. The variability was the variance of the step symmetry error after subtracting the overall mean during the baseline period (i.e., we assumed the mean at each point was constant). To validate our baseline variance values we also calculated the variance of errors during baseline as we did for the adaptation data using the high-pass filtering method described above. Error variance values were similar with both methods [F(1,44) = 0.9, P = 0.76].
Statistical Analysis
One-way ANOVA was used to compare error size, error variability, learning, transfer, and washout across experimental groups; post hoc analyses were performed with Fisher's least significant difference (LSD) test.
We also performed a stepwise multiple regression to test how transfer (%OGtransfer) was affected by three factors: experimental group (Gadapt), ErrorsOut, and magnitude of initial error (InitialE). InitialE was calculated as the average of the absolute step symmetry values during the first 10 steps. The categorical regressor Gadapt was set to 1 when subjects were trained gradually, 2 when subjects were trained abruptly, and 3 when subjects were trained with variable perturbations. The predicted transfer values were obtained as the linear combination of ErrorsOut, InitialE and Gadapt.
Stated formally: where We used P < 0.05 as a measure of significance for all statistical analyses, which were completed with Statistica (StatSoft, Tulsa, OK) software.
Error Size
We found that adaptation to abrupt perturbations leads to larger mean error size than adaptation to gradual perturbations. Figure 3A shows single-subject examples of step-by-step data during adaptation from the gradual, abrupt, and noisy groups for step symmetry. When subjects were adapted gradually, the error is maintained near zero for the entire adaptation. When subjects were adapted abruptly, we observed a larger initial error that is gradually decreased as subjects learn a new walking pattern. We observed differences in the absolute errors experienced during adaptation across groups [F(3,42) = 26.77, P < 0.001; Fig. 3B]. The mean error size that subjects experienced when adapted to abrupt perturbations was larger than when they were adapted to gradual perturbations (P < 0.001). On the other hand, subjects in the gradual and noisy groups experienced similar mean errors during adaptation (P = 0.64). Figure 3B also shows that mean error size experienced during adaptation is also significantly larger than during baseline walking before adaptation (P < 0.04).
Error Variability
We found that adaptation to variable perturbations leads to larger error variability than adaptation to perturbations at consistent speeds. Figure 3C shows single-subject examples of step-by-step data from the gradual, abrupt, and noisy groups for step symmetry after high-pass filtering (see methods). When subjects were adapted gradually but with variable speeds, the error variability—illustrated by the spread in errors (Fig. 3C)—is larger than when subjects were adapted gradually or abruptly. Consequently, the error variance that subjects experienced when adapted to variable perturbations is larger than when they were adapted to gradual or abrupt perturbations [F(3,42) = 11.45, P < 0.001; Fig. 3D]. Post hoc tests showed that subjects in the noisy group had greater error variance than the gradual (P < 0.001) and abrupt (P = 0.02) groups. Also, the variability in errors normally experienced during baseline walking was similar to that experienced in the gradual group (P = 0.97) but larger than in the abrupt (P = 0.01) and variable (P < 0.001) perturbations.
We next tested whether the responses to gradual perturbations, which had the lowest and least variable errors, fell within the normal baseline range more often than the responses to abrupt or noisy perturbations. Figure 4 shows that there is a significant effect of adaptation condition on the percentage of errors out of the normal range (ErrorsOut) [F(3,42) = 21.38, P < 0.001]. Subjects in the gradual group, who experienced during adaptation smaller and less variable errors than the other two groups, showed less ErrorsOut than the abrupt (P < 0.001) and noisy (P = 0.004) groups. In addition, the percentage of ErrorsOut in the gradual group was similar to errors made when walking over ground (P = 0.11).
Large or Variable Errors During Adaptation Increase Learning
We found that error size and error variability during adaptation modulate how much is learned during split-belt walking adaptation. Recall that learning was assessed with the magnitude of adaptation aftereffects on treadmill during catch trials. We observed differences in learning across groups. These differences are, for example, illustrated in Fig. 5A, showing single-subject examples of step-by-step data from the gradual, abrupt, and noisy groups. When subjects experienced larger errors during adaptation (abrupt group) or were more variable (noisy group), we observed larger aftereffects during catch trials on the treadmill than in the gradual group. We found a significant effect of condition on treadmill learning [F(2,20) = 3.73, P = 0.04; Fig. 5B]. Subjects in the gradual group, who experienced smaller and less variable errors than the other two groups, showed smaller treadmill learning (i.e., TMlearning) than the abrupt (P = 0.02) and noisy (P = 0.04) groups.
A similar trend was observed in the more specific parameters characterizing temporal and spatial gait features (Fig. 5, C and D). We found a significant effect of condition on timing adaptation {i.e., phase shift [F(2,20) = 4.78, P = 0.02]}, and a similar trend was found in the magnitude of spatial adaptation effects {i.e., center of oscillation [F(2,20) = 1.88, P = 0.1]}. For the temporal parameter, the gradual group showed smaller treadmill learning (i.e., TMlearning) than the noisy group (P = 0.006) and a similar trend was observed compared with the abrupt group (P = 0.08) (Fig. 5C). A similar trend was also observed for the spatial parameter (Fig. 5D).
Out-of-the-Ordinary Errors Reduce Transfer
Over ground transfer in the gradual group was larger than in the abrupt and noisy groups, as illustrated in the single-subject examples shown in Fig. 6A. Figure 6B shows group data for the absolute amount of transfer. We saw a significant effect of adaptation condition on the aftereffects when subjects walked over ground, with the gradual group showing much more transfer [F(2,20) = 4.64, P = 0.02]. Recall that subjects in the gradual group also learned slightly less on the treadmill (see Fig. 5), so Fig. 6C shows over ground transfer for all groups as a percentage of learning on the treadmill. Here again there was a significant effect of condition [F(2,20) = 7.53, P = 0.003], and the gradual group showed larger %OGtransfer values compared with the other two groups.
This was also true for the phase shift (temporal parameter) [F(2,20) = 8.38, P = 0.002; Fig. 7A] and center of oscillation (spatial parameter) [F(2,20) = 5.46, P = 0.01; Fig. 7B]. The gradual group had a significant larger transfer of temporal (P < 0.005) and spatial (P < 0.05) %OGtransfer values compared with the other groups. Similar results were observed in the absolute temporal [F(2,20) = 3.5, P = 0.049; Fig. 7C] and spatial [F(2,20) = 4.8, P = 0.02; Fig. 7D] OGtransfer values. Taken together, these results suggest that when subjects experience more ordinary errors, as in the gradual group, there is more temporal and spatial transfer of learning to natural movements.
Finally, we performed a stepwise regression analysis to determine whether the group assignment, ErrorsOut, or InitialE predicted the transfer to over ground walking. We found that ErrorsOut was a significant regressor (P = 0.004), while InitialE (P = 0.27) and condition (P = 0.12) were not. Figure 6D shows the predicted %OGtransfer as a function of ErrorsOut for each subject. This result indicates that transfer is not limited by experiencing sudden errors at the beginning of the adaptation or by the experimental group assignment. Transfer of treadmill aftereffects has to do with the extent of ErrorsOut.
Washout of Treadmill Adaptation
We found that error size and variability during adaptation did not affect the remaining aftereffects when subjects returned to the treadmill after walking over ground. Figure 8A shows single-subject examples of step-by-step data from the gradual, abrupt, and noisy groups for step symmetry values on the treadmill during postadaptation walking. We observed an overlap in the postadaptation curves of the subjects from the three groups (Fig. 8A). Therefore, the adaptation condition did not have a significant effect on the washout of treadmill learning after walking over ground [F(2,20) = 0.11, P = 0.89; Fig. 8B]. Similarly, there was not an effect of error size and variability on the normalized washout index, %TMwashout [F(2,20) = 2.42, P = 0.1; Fig. 8C], suggesting that the over ground experience had a similar effect on the treadmill-specific learning across groups.
This held true for temporal and spatial adaptation effects. There was no effect of adaptation condition in %TMwashout for phase shift [F(2,20) = 0.67, P = 0.52; Fig. 9A], and there was a trend for center of oscillation [F(2,20) = 3.19, P = 0.06; Fig. 9B]. The trend is likely due to the differences in the normalization factor (TMlearning) across groups (Fig. 6), since the remaining aftereffects TMwashout were similar across groups when washout values were not normalized [F(2,20) = 0.95, P = 0.4 for phase shift, F(2,20) = 0.47, P = 0.63 for center of oscillation; Fig. 9, C and D]. Therefore, these results suggest that error size and variability did not have an effect on the washout of treadmill-specific learning.
Our results demonstrate that the type of errors experienced during treadmill adaptation strongly affects the transfer to natural walking. Errors that fall within a subject's normal repertoire (Fig. 4) lead to an adapted walking pattern that transfers to natural over ground walking. In contrast, large errors that fall outside the normal range result in an adapted pattern that does not transfer, despite stronger learning on the treadmill. These results are important because our previous work has suggested that transfer is limited by the prevailing differences in contextual cues between the training and the testing settings (Torres-Oviedo and Bastian 2010). Instead, we may be able to facilitate transfer simply by changing how we introduce new perturbations or environments.
We also found that our manipulation of error did not modulate the washout of treadmill aftereffects following over ground walking. In other words, there is a component of the adapted pattern that remained even after natural walking, and is thus linked to the context of the split-belt treadmill. We therefore conclude that the similarity of errors during adaptation to those normally experienced during natural movements promotes the transfer of learning to natural movements, although there also remains a residual neural representation for the treadmill device.
These findings are an important step in our work to understand how motor learning can be made general versus context specific. We previously showed that reaching adaptation to gradual versus abrupt forces improves the transfer of a learned pattern to a similar reaching task (Kluzik et al. 2008). In that study, the context was nearly identical in the learning and transfer periods, and the reaching movement was not natural in either case (i.e., horizontal planar reaching to projected targets while holding a connected or disconnected robot handle; Kluzik et al. 2008). We were also unable to fully explain what element of the gradual adaptation was responsible for the transfer. Here we found that split-belt walking transferred to a much more natural movement (i.e., over ground walking) done in an entirely different context (i.e., off the treadmill in another room). Importantly, we have also found that learning from errors within a natural range is what predicts transfer of the adapted pattern to a more natural context. Finally, we have extended our studies of reaching to a whole body task like walking and find even clearer results of transfer. Again, this may be because we created situations where errors were more natural.
Error Magnitude or Error Variability During Adaptation Strengthens Learning
Subjects in the abrupt and noisy groups had larger aftereffects during the catch trial on the treadmill (i.e., more learning) than subjects in the gradual group. We suggest that these differences in learning may be due to 1) the magnitude of errors driving the adaptation, 2) the sensitivity to those errors, and 3) the adaptation dose.
The first interpretation is supported by the idea that trial-by-trial learning results from updating movement parameters at each trial to minimize the errors caused by self-generated or externally generated perturbations (Baddeley et al. 2003; Donchin et al. 2003; Fine and Thoroughman 2007). Thus, in a single trial, subjects in the abrupt group might have learned more than subjects in the gradual group because at each trial the former subjects experienced a larger perturbation and updated their movement parameters more to reduce the larger errors (Fig. 2). This proportional relationship between errors and motor learning when errors are not too large has been observed previously in the adaptation of upper body movements (Körding and Wolpert 2004; Wei and Körding 2009) and in locomotion (Green et al. 2010). Here we demonstrate that error magnitude has also an effect in the learning of new walking patterns upon split-belt adaptation.
Second, how much we learn from errors depends on the nervous system's sensitivity to errors during adaptation (Burge et al. 2008; Korenberg and Ghahramani 2002; Wei and Körding 2010). Consequently, we think that subjects in the noisy group learned more because the variable perturbations might have increased the sensitivity to their errors. Namely, the sensitivity of spindles, encoding errors for locomotor adaptation (Bunday and Bronstein 2009), increases when the attention to movements is higher (Hospod et al. 2007) during unstable walking (Prochazka et al. 1988)—as in the noisy group. Therefore, subjects in the noisy group might have learned more from their errors because their stepping was more variable. This is consistent with our previous study showing that learning increases when subjects are more variable during adaptation (Torres-Oviedo and Bastian 2010).
Finally, differences in magnitude of aftereffects may result from differences in the accumulation of trial-by-trial learning. One idea is that trial-by-trial learning is cumulative; therefore greater adaptation effects may result when subjects experience sustained perturbations for a longer versus a shorter period of time. Although all of our groups were exposed to the same period of adaptation, we think the abrupt group had effectively greater adaptation dosage, since subjects in this group experienced the sustained perturbation of 1:2 speed ratio for 15 min, whereas subjects in the other groups did not. Therefore, the adaptation effects of the abrupt group might have been greater than those in the gradual group because the former had a greater adaptation dose than the latter over the same period of time.
Errors During Adaptation Determine the Transfer of Learning
Our results demonstrate that the transfer of treadmill learning to natural walking increases when subjects are adapted gradually. Importantly, this finding is not determined by how much was learned to begin with—the gradual group showed the least adaptation on the treadmill yet the most transfer to walking off the treadmill. This was true for the absolute amount transferred and the percentage transferred. This is consistent with our recent reaching study showing greater transfer to movements without the device when subjects were adapted gradually versus abruptly (Kluzik et al. 2008). Thus adaptation to gradual perturbations facilitates the transfer of device-induced learning to natural movements for different behaviors. We think that this increase in transfer during gradual perturbations is due to the similarity of errors during gradual adaptation to those normally experienced. This explanation is supported by our regression analysis showing that the percentage of transfer is best explained by the amount of errors out of the normal range—the more ErrorsOut during adaptation, the less transfer of learning to natural movements. Therefore, we think that transfer is not limited by experiencing sudden errors at the beginning of the adaptation, such as in the abrupt group, but that errors out of the ordinary anytime during the adaptation would affect the transfer. A recent theoretical study proposed that the generalization of learning is mediated by the ability of the nervous system to assign errors to the environment or the body (i.e., credit assignment) (Berniker and Kording 2008). Here we suggest that out-of-the-ordinary errors are assigned to the environment (e.g., the treadmill), and consequently the acquired learning is linked to that particular context. On the other hand, errors falling within the natural variability of our movements are assigned to the body, and consequently the acquired learning is transferred across contexts. In conclusion, prior experience plays an important role in the generalization of learning (Krakauer et al. 2006). Although reaching and walking are very different behaviors, the similarity between our findings across studies suggests that the ability of the nervous system to classify errors and assign learning based on errors normally experienced is a general principle for motor learning.
Another possible explanation for our results is that different mechanisms are involved in gradual versus abrupt motor adaptation, as suggested by patient and behavioral studies. For example, we have found that cerebellar patients adapt much more normally to gradual perturbations than abrupt perturbations (Criscimagna-Hemminger et al. 2010). This might suggest that extracerebellar mechanisms are more involved in gradual adaptation. Other behavioral studies have shown differences in learning from small errors during gradual and consistent perturbations. For example, there have been demonstrations of longer-lasting aftereffects (Hatada et al. 2006; Kagerer et al. 1997) and better retention (Huang and Shadmehr 2009; Klassen et al. 2005) when subjects are adapted to gradual perturbations in prism and reaching tasks. Therefore, it is possible that more aftereffects are observed in over ground walking because treadmill adaptation to small errors is subserved by a different neural process and leads to more enduring aftereffects.
A Neural Representation for the Device Is Maintained Regardless of the Generalization of Learning
We expected the washout of treadmill aftereffects following natural walking to follow a pattern related to the amount that was transferred (i.e., greater transfer would result in greater washout), since we hypothesized that the extent of transfer and washout of adaptation effects reflects the overlap in the neural representations that are being used across contexts. However, the same aftereffects remained across groups when subjects returned to the device, indicating that although errors during adaptation had an effect on transfer they did not affect the washout of aftereffects specific to the treadmill. We think that when learning is encoded on the treadmill with contextual information specific to this environment there is retention of context-specific learning on the treadmill that is difficult to wash out. This is consistent with previous findings in saccades (Herman et al. 2009; Shelhamer et al. 2005; Shelhamer and Clendaniel 2002), wrist movements (Osu et al. 2004), reaching (Cothros et al. 2009; Gandolfo et al. 1996; Howard et al. 2010), and walking (Bunday and Bronstein 2008; Torres-Oviedo and Bastian 2010), showing that one can only wash out context-specific aftereffects when learning is acquired without contextual cues.
Clinical Implications
Our results suggest that transfer of device-induced learning to natural movements is strongly mediated by the similarity of errors experienced on the device to those normally experienced. Thus populations that normally make larger and more variable errors would tend to assign larger errors on the device more to themselves than to the environment, and consequently will generalize more than subjects who are more precise in their natural movements. This prediction is consistent with recent work demonstrating that split-belt treadmill aftereffects in stroke survivors transfer more to over ground walking than in healthy control subjects (Reisman et al. 2009). In that study, treadmill adaptation was induced with the use of an abrupt perturbation, and stroke survivors had larger and more variable stepping errors than control subjects. We expect that gradual perturbations may promote even better generalization in these patient populations. In addition, we showed improvement in the transfer of all aspects of gait (i.e., temporal and spatial gait features) that were adapted. This has significant relevance for rehabilitation, since our previous work suggested that the adaptation of spatial gait features was tightly linked to the device and could not be altered (Reisman et al. 2009; Torres-Oviedo and Bastian 2010). Our results indicate that small errors may encode learning that is general, which could help to improve gait in patients beyond the clinical setting.
This work was supported by National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Grant HD-048741.
No conflicts of interest, financial or otherwise, are declared by the author(s).
Author contributions: G.T.O and A.J.B. conception and design of research; G.T.O and A.J.B. interpreted results of experiments; G.T.O prepared figures; G.T.O. drafted manuscript; G.T.O and A.J.B. edited and revised manuscript; A.J.B. approved final version of manuscript.
The authors acknowledge N. H. Bhanpuri for insightful conversations during the preparation of this manuscript.
- Copyright © 2012 the American Physiological Society


text:
I've always loved running. I've been doing it ever since I was a schoolgirl.
My life was dictated by my athletics when I was a child. I ran the 800m and cross-country for club and county. As an adult, I really enjoying running for pure pleasure. All the pressure is off: if I want to walk, I walk; if I want to sprint, I sprint.
I'm more time-challenged these days, and there are no rules in my life. Recently, on holiday in Cornwall, I ran every day. It was great to explore the fields and cliffs. In London, I try to run once or twice a week, for three to five miles.
I climbed Kilimanjaro in February, and in the build-up to that I tried to run up a few more hills than usual. But in the end I don't think it was about fitness - it was about mental endurance and coping with the altitude. It felt amazing afterwards, but maybe not so amazing at the time!
I've never run a marathon. I've been tempted, but obviously not tempted enough. I had a bad back through my two pregnancies and I was advised against running a marathon in the future, but I still haven't ruled it out altogether.
My everyday life with the kids is very active. I bike everywhere and do a bit of Pilates, but I'm not an exercise fanatic.
I try to choose foods that make me as healthy and energetic as possible. I'm a strict vegetarian but I eat everything else, and I like a glass of wine. I'm certainly not preachy or perfect!
I've been lucky in that I've never had a serious injury that has stopped me running.
The best thing about running is the space and meditation in nature it allows. The runner leaves everything behind, for better or worse. To me, exercise is not a chore, it's a treat, especially now that I have children. Running in the park gives me useful thinking time - and non-BlackBerry time. I don't take that for granted any more.
I've always run alone. Running isn't a sociable thing for me.
I take more care when I'm running at night, but I'm more of a morning runner anyway.
I've always wanted running gadgets to measure how far and fast I've gone, but it's a miracle if I've even remembered to charge my iPod. I do it the old-fashioned way instead - by miles and how tired I am.
I love listening to music while I run, but I'm unbelievably indiscriminate. I just put the iPod on shuffle. Often it won't even be my iPod, I'll have borrowed my boyfriend's.
My running kit is Adidas by Stella [McCartney]. It's chic but practical; I love it. I've always worn Asics trainers. They're great for running.
I've always travelled for work, and it's comforting on my first day in a strange place to go out for a run and explore. I like not knowing where I'm going: just me and my trainers.
I've been running in some annoyingly glamorous locations, such as beaches in the Seychelles and the Maldives. But I don't run for the glamour! I don't mind running in the wind and rain.
I'd really like to do some more running in Africa. I'm travelling to Burkina Faso in November, and I'll definitely pack my trainers. After all, many of today's great distance runners come from Africa.
At school I was obsessed with Steve Cram, Steve Ovett and Seb Coe. I also worshipped Daley Thompson, who I later got to know through us both working for Barnado's. I love him, so sometimes it's good to meet your heroes.
If you want to get into running, take all the pressure off yourself. Just go for a short jog around the block. Build up really slowly, and make it fun, whether that means buying yourself a nice pair of trainers or putting some new music on your iPod.
I'm really against the idea of exercise as guilt. If running's really not your thing, find something else. Having said that, I have friends who could never understand why I ran, who suddenly took it up themselves in their 30s. So running really can be for everyone.
• Laura Bailey is supporting Velvet tissue's Campaign for Trees. For every tree used, Velvet grows three more. Vote now at velvettissue.com to nominate an area near you to receive some trees through the charity Trees for Cities.
Thanks to guardian.co.uk who have provided this article. View the original here.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Hickory Smoked Ham With Maple Mustard Sauce
|Cooked boneless ham
|5 Pound (1 In Number)
|Maple syrup
|3⁄4 Cup (12 tbs)
|Spicy brown mustard/Dijon mustard
|3⁄4 Cup (12 tbs)
Soak wood chunks or chips in water; drain.
If using a canned ham, scrape off any gelatin.
If using another type of fully cooked ham, such as a bone-in shank, trim most of the fat, leaving a 1/8-inch layer. (The thinner the fat layer, the better the glaze will adhere to the ham.)
Arrange low Kingsford briquets on each side of a rectangular metal or foil drip pan.
Pour in hot tap water to fill pan half full.
Add soaked wood (all the chunks; part of the chips) to the fire.
Oil hot grid to help prevent sticking.
Place ham on grid directly above drip pan.
Grill ham, on a covered grill, 20 to 30 minutes per pound, until a meat thermometer inserted in the thickest part registers 140°F.
If your grill has a thermometer, maintain a cooking temperature of about 200°F.
For best flavor, cook slowly over low coals, adding a few briquets to both sides of the fire every hour, or as necessary, to maintain a constant temperature.
Add more soaked hickory chips every 20 to 30 minutes.
Meanwhile, mix maple syrup and mustard in small bowl; set aside most of the syrup mixture to serve as a sauce.
Brush ham with remaining mixture several times during the last 45 minutes or so of cooking.
Let ham stand 10 minutes before slicing.
Slice and serve with maple-mustard sauce.
Recipe Summary
Rate It
Nutrition Rank
Nutrition Facts
Serving size
Calories 1088 Calories from Fat 391
% Daily Value*
Total Fat 43 g66.7%
Saturated Fat 9.7 g48.3%
Trans Fat 0 g
Cholesterol 413.9 mg138%
Sodium 7086.9 mg295.3%
Total Carbohydrates 57 g19.1%
Dietary Fiber 0 g
Sugars 44 g
Protein 107 g213.7%
Vitamin A Vitamin C 220.2%
Calcium 7.4% Iron 30.7%
*Based on a 2000 Calorie diet


text:
Category:Philadelphia Bourse
From Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository
The Philadelphia Bourse, located at 111 S. Independence Mall East in the Old City neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, was constructed in 1893-95 and was designed by G.W. & W.D. Hewitt in the Beaux-Arts style. It stopped functioning as a commodities echange ("bourse") in the 1960s, and is now used for tourist-oriented retail shops and offices.
Media in category "Philadelphia Bourse"
The following 14 files are in this category, out of 14 total.
- Philadelphia Bourse.jpg 120 KB
- PhiladelphiaBourseBuilding.jpg 1.47 MB
- The Bourse Building.JPG 4.02 MB
- High-rise office buildings in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- High-rises less than 50 meters in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Built in Pennsylvania in 1895
- Beaux-Arts architecture in Pennsylvania
- High-rises in the United States built in 1895
- 38-meter high-rises in the United States
- Red buildings
- 4th Street (Philadelphia)
- 5th Street (Philadelphia)
- Commodity exchange
- G. W. & W. D. Hewitt


text:
Just a day ago, while I was enjoying mini vacation during festival of Diwali I met one of the .NET developer who is big fan of Oracle. While discussing he suggested that he wished SQL Server should have feature where multiple variable can be declared in one statement. I requested him to not judge wonderful product like SQL Server with just one feature.
SQL Server is great product and it has many feature which are very unique to SQL Server. Regarding feature of SQL Server where multiple variable can be declared in one statement, it is absolutely possible to do.
Method 1: Multiple statements for declaring multiple variables
DECLARE @Var1 INT
DECLARE @Var2 INT
SET @Var1 = 1
SET @Var2 = 2
SELECT @Var1 'Var1', @Var2 'Var2'
Method 2: Single statements for declaring multiple variables
DECLARE @Var1 INT, @Var2 INT
SET @Var1 = 1
SET @Var2 = 2
SELECT @Var1 'Var1', @Var2 'Var2'
From above example it is clear that multiple variables can be declared in one statement. In SQL Server 2008 when variables are declared they can be assigned values as well. Please refer my previous article for the same SQL SERVER – 2008 – Two Convenient Features Inline Assignment – Inline Operations.
Reference : Pinal Dave (http://www.SQLAuthority.com)
29 comments. Leave new
Method 3: Single statements for declaring and defining multiple variables:
DECLARE @Var1 INT, @Var2 INT
SELECT @Var1 = 1, @Var2 = 2
SELECT @Var1 'Var1', @Var2 'Var2'
Same goes for assigning variables from a query
Select @Var1 = Col1, @Var2 = Col2 From Table …
Thanks for the tutorial.
I have a table like this:
TagKey TagID TagvALUE TagTimeStamp
I want to create this constraint:
"If the previous TagValue = current TagValue then do not update".
Can you help me, please?. Thanks.
Can we undeclare variables? We can deallocate CURSOR varilable, how can we deallocate or undeclare local variable?
There is no need and no way to do it
Use GO as a batch seperator so that variables would lose the scope
I want display like under from
select Name=lastname+' '+firstname from emp
but all firstname should be left align like under one column.
Probably you may need
select Name=lastname firstname from emp
SELECT firstname from emp
select lastname + ' ' firstname as Name from emp
Thanks for providing such useful information.
Thanks for the tutorial.Is it possible to deallocate local variable?
Can we declare and initialize variables in one line
Hi all,
Im using cursor in my procedure,Im getting the value from 1 table,that value is stored in local variable @var,that value is the column name of another table.I want to pass the @var in Cursor Select Statement.How i do that..the Below statements im using…
Set @var=(select field from table1)
Declare cursorname cursor for
Select @var from table2 where No=2 —>Getting Error
open cursorname
i want to use cursor but in sql server 2005 there is no %table-type%,we have to create individual field and set into
fetch statement and even we can not get field like cursorName.FieldName in sql server like orale.
Send Me Reply if you have any alternate to cursor.
Thanking You
Hemant Patel
What do you want to do with a cursor?
Greeting Dave and All.
Although an older post, this and many other posts still referenced frequently, so I wanted to add the following exception to the above.
From BOL, when declaring *table variables* specifically, those must be the only variable declared. A trivial limitation imho, but one to be aware of.
Carl Hager
Hi to all,
I wanted to ask, whether there is any difference between declaring multiple variables in 1 statment and declaring multiple variables in multiple statments (1 in each statement).
I mean, is there any noteworthy difference from the point of view of performance, etc. Is any one better than the other for any reason?
Is there any performance increase by using single declaration for multiple variables !
OPEN cur FOR @STRSQL
is there any way to compare these variable,
DECLARE @Var1 INT, @Var2 INT
SET @Var1 = 1
SET @Var2 = 2
SELECT @Var1 'Var1', @Var2 'Var2', @Var1 = @Var2 'Compare'
DECLARE @Var1 INT, @Var2 INT
SET @Var1 = 1
SET @Var2 = 2
if @Var1=@Var2
print 'these are equal'
print 'these are not equal'
how to assign variable in where condition
You cannot assign value to variables in where condition. You can only use it for comparison in the where clause
variable_name datatype [NOT NULL := value ];
select @l_path1=setting_value from settings where setting_id=215
select @l_path2=setting_value from settings where setting_id=216
Need both the value , through single select statement.
is this all relevant to DBA or for developers? pls confirm.
Can you tell me (if it is possible) how to define an array type variable?
An example would be…
I have a stored procedure in which want to filter on multiple codes (strings) but the qty of codes is variable (there may be 1,2,3 and so on).
Many thanks
hi pinal,
i have one problem with my query.it will work fine but i want suppose i will add some columns in table then the query will be automatically change means in this query i don't want use hard core values as i use.Is any way for that.
Thank you for this very simple article! Your articles always bring me back to simplicity to solve problems!


text:
客戶系統Pre-Sales Contact Us
If you are an existing customer, please submit a ticket by logging in to your account.
Please fill out the following form and we will reply to you as soon as possible.
Skype: Shakir_bilal1
Lines open 9am - 5pm GMT Monday - Friday.
Support: +44-ORBIT-IPTV-167
Lines open 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.
Sales: firstname.lastname@example.com
We aim to respond to sales enquiries within 24 hours.
Support: email@example.com
We aim to respond to support enquiries within 4 hours.
Giga Tick Limited
Office 10, Road Name, London, SW1 1AA, United Kingdom
In the area? Be sure to pop in and say hello!
Sheikh Usman Saleem |
Copyright © 2017 - ORBITIPTVPRO.COM - All Rights Reserved.


text:
In an effort to rival last month's viral video of Newcastle University students pouring milk over their heads, students at Durham university have upped the stakes by changing the liquid to port.
Durham's online student tabloid, The Tab, apparently described it as a "cracking effort from Durham's finest".
Durham students also said (non-pompously, of course):
"We figure if you're going to do something you might as well do it properly.
"Don't cry over spilt milk Newcastle – do it the Durham way #portingDurham"
Will this new fad take off?
- More about:
- County Durham
- Dairy Products
- Durham
- Newcastle
- Newcastle Upon Tyne


text:
I was originally booked to stay at the Centara Kata, however, due to overbooking, I was moved to this hotel. We were first moved to the Centara Karon for one night (see separate review on Centara Karon).
Having been upgraded, I was very grateful, however, for an advertised 5 star hotel, this place does not live up to its reputation. Here are some negatives:
1. Rooms are old, unpainted and stained.
2. There was no hot water on one occasion.
3. Cleaning staff do not replenish amenities and additional towels
4. Sand in the toilet was never cleaned from day 1
Some positives that you would expect from a 5 star resort:
1. Easy access the amazing beach, with beach chairs and umbrellas provided by the hotel
2. Excellent breakfast
3. Friendly pool and grounds staff
4. Slides and lazy river make you feel like you're at a water park
5. All rooms seem to have great views of the awesome Karon beach
Apparently the rooms here are very expensive (we were told that it can cost up to THB 18000 so for that price I don't think I will be booking at this resort anytime soon.
- Official Description (provided by the hotel):
- Centara Grand Beach Resort Phuket is a modern five-star luxury resort built directly on the foreshores of Karon Beach. Designed with distinct Phuket colonial Sino-Portuguese architecture, the luxury accommodation comprises of 262 guestrooms and villas. All guestrooms have a balcony and are ocean facing. Room types consist of spa suites, pool suites, deluxe suites and one and two bedroom villas. ... more less
- Reservation Options:
- TripAdvisor is proud to partner with Orbitz, Agoda, Booking.com, Expedia, Hotels.com, Fastbooking and Jetsetter so you can book your Centara Grand Beach Resort Phuket reservations with confidence. We help millions of travelers each month to find the perfect hotel for both vacation and business trips, always with the best discounts and special offers.
- Also Known As:
- Centara Grand Beach Resort Phuket Hotel Karon
- Centara Grand Beach Resort Phuket Karon


text:
Radioiodine (131 1) targets thyroid tissues and has been an effective and standard treatment for differentiated thyroid cancers for many years. However, the Na +/| symporter (NIS), which mediates active iodide uptake into thyroid follicular cells, is also abundantly expressed in salivary ductal cells. Accordingly, many I-treated thyroid cancer survivors suffer from life-long morbidity of l-induced salivary gland (SG) dysfunction, including recurrent sialadenitis, persistent xerostomia, and progressive susceptibility to dental caries and periodontal disease. In this proposal, we aim to explore novel approaches to prevent I-induced SG damage in thyroid cancer patients, and to identify protective saliva biomarkers for patients'susceptibility to progressive I-induced SG dysfunction.
Two specific aims are identified: (1) Transient silencing/inhibition of salivary NIS to eliminate salivary "^1 accumulation during radioiodine therapy;and (2) Identify protective saliva biomarkers and underlying pathobiology for I-induced SG dysfunction. Upon successful completion of the proposed studies, our novel prevention strategy promises to eliminate I-induced SG damage or at least dramatically reduce its occurrence among thyroid cancer survivors who will receive I therapy. We will be able to use quantifiable saliva biomarkers or SG anatomic changes to monitor the onset and progression of SG dysfunction induced by "^1 such that personalized intervention strategies can be applied to patients in a timely manner. We will determine whether saliva biomarkers detected in the early stage of salivary dysfunction induced by I are predictive of future progression to chronic disease. We may also distinguish patients who are more susceptible or resistant to develop life-long morbidity of I-induced SG dysfunction for differential clinical management.
Many thyroid cancer survivors treated with radioiodine suffer from life-long morbidity of 1-131 induced salivary gland dysfunction. The major goal of this proposal is to identify saliva biomarkers enabling personalized intervention of this adverse effect. In addition, we propose a novel prevention strategy with the hope to eliminate radioiodine induced salivary gland damage or at least dramatically reduce its occurrence among thyroid cancer patients treated with radioiodine.
|Wang, Yuliang; Jeong, Younkoo; Jhiang, Sissy M et al. (2014) Quantitative characterization of cell behaviors through cell cycle progression via automated cell tracking. PLoS One 9:e98762
|Wojcicka, A; de la Chapelle, A; Jazdzewski, K (2014) MicroRNA-related sequence variations in human cancers. Hum Genet 133:463-9
|Lakshmanan, Aparna; Scarberry, Daniel; Shen, Daniel H et al. (2014) Modulation of sodium iodide symporter in thyroid cancer. Horm Cancer 5:363-73


text:
Has anyone had experience with this virus? I have a 'Moon Shadow' that seems
to display the cream color speckling. I will have a pic as soon as I can.
Mike Groothuis
Playing Mantis
Johnny Lightning Package Design
(574) 256-0300 x.1142
To sign-off this list, send email to email@example.com with the
message text UNSUBSCRIBE HOSTA-OPEN


text:
Compare Wills attorneys near you. Read reviews, see Avvo Ratings, and contact them directly.
4.5 stars 9 reviews
Avvo Rating: 10
I provide sophisticated estate issue resolution to expedite or protect your inheritance distribution as I limit my practice to trust and estate law and assist many attorneys to better represent their clients by answering procedural and substantive...
Practice areas & skills: Wills & Living Wills, Estate Planning, Probate, Wrongful Death, Trusts
Not yet reviewed
Avvo Rating: 9.6
DAVID H. ALEXANDER is a partner with Gross, Shuman, Brizdle & Gilfillan, P. C., a law firm with offices in Buffalo, New York and a GTA office in Burlington, Ontario. Mr. Alexander is a graduate of the University of Pennsylvania (Wharton School ...
Practice areas & skills: Wills & Living Wills, Estate Planning, Trusts, Business, International Law
5.0 stars 18 reviews
Avvo Rating: 8.7
I am the Principal Attorney at the McGrath Law Firm, PLLC, located in Buffalo, New York. My firm prides its self on a four pillar approach and a fresh perspective on legal representation (review the firm's website to unserstand what this means: w...
Practice areas & skills: Wills & Living Wills, Real Estate, Landlord & Tenant, Family, Divorce & Separation
Fixed-fee services: Document review: Lease notice - $149, Create a parenting plan - $595, and more
4.5 stars 7 reviews
Avvo Rating: 8.6
Dennis C. Gaughan, Esq. is a native of Hamburg, NY, where he currently resides with his wife, Mary Rose, and his three children, Charles, Dennis Jr., and Joseph. He attended St. Francis High School, Syracuse...
Practice areas & skills: Wills & Living Wills, Criminal Defense, Real Estate, Bankruptcy & Debt, Estate Planning
4.0 stars 25 reviews
Avvo Rating: 7.3
Review: "Sheri jo Reich is an outstanding professional, we recently went through a very disgusting vile custody battle that got entirely way out of control, Sheri jo told us all along no matter what to stick to our guns and always...
Practice areas & skills: Wills & Living Wills, Family, Residential, Marriage & Prenuptials
5.0 stars 6 reviews
Avvo Rating: 6.7
My goal is to provide quality, affordable legal services. Communication is very important, and so I make sure to promtly reply to every phone call and email. I want my clients to feel that they are included and informed every step of the way.
Practice areas & skills: Wills & Living Wills, Corporate & Incorporation, Real Estate, Trademark Application, Contracts & Agreements
Get the legal help you need at a fixed price. No hidden fees or long-term commitment.
A written will lets you decide what happens to your money and property after you die, while a living will lets you decide whether or not you wish to be placed on a medical life support system if you become disabled or incapacitated. Wills attorneys and living wills attorneys know all of the language that must be included in your will documents so that things happen the way you want. Because it's impossible for anyone to explain a will after his or her death, it is very important that the will meets all legal requirements. A wills attorney will ensure it does.


text:
Flights to Gulfport
Flights to GulfportFlights to Gulfport (United States)
Fly to Gulfport (United States) with Destinia. We offer you flights at economical prices or in the class you choose. To select your flights Gulfport, type the name of the city you wish to depart from in the Departure box and write Gulfport in the Arrival field. Then select the departure and return dates. You can buy several airline tickets to Gulfport at the same time by indicating the number of adults, children and babies travelling. You can filter the type of flight if you are only interested in direct flights to Gulfport (United States), multiple destinations or flight stopovers.
Airports near Gulfport
Gulfport has one airport: Gulfport/Biloxi (GPT), located 5 km away from the city centre. The hotels in Gulfport closest to its airport are:
- Value Place Gulfport (GPT)
- Americas Best Value Inn (GPT)
Most popular flights
Selection of the airline routes that are most popular with users of Destinia.
Top destinations in United StatesBook your flights now from Gulfport (United States) to the most important cities in the world. The box below contains flights from Gulfport (United States) to the most important cities.
- Flights to Lafayette
- Flights to Lexington
- Flights to Hays
- Flights to Provincetown
- Flights to Hyannis
- Flights to Salina
- Flights to Owensboro
- Flights to Bar Harbor
- Flights to Detroit
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- Flights to Manhattan
- Flights to Portland
- Flights to Houma
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- Flights to Minneapolis
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- Flights to Lake Charles
- Flights to Seattle
- Flights to Topeka
In Gulfport we will have heavy intensity rain, nice temperatures probable throught the day.
- Wednesday
- Thursday


text:
Casting Interviews[Visit site]
They're out to make a good impression, of course that comes with the fact that nudity and naughtiness will be included in their presentation.
Be the first to write a comment
[v]Intro promises(3.5)
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Everyone needs to start somewhere, and for these legal ladies, they seemingly want to get the break into the porn world aspect of life, which means they have some self proving to offer, to show them theyre worthy of making men masturbate at the thought of being with them. Casting Interviews promises videos and pictures in nice quality, efficient support and network bonus sites.
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Inspector: Missy
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text:
With Instructables you can share what you make with the world, and tap into an ever-growing community of creative experts.
This is a Knex balisong that works exactly like a real one
You will need 3 orange connecters, 4 white pieces, 2 yellow pieces, 2 flexible orange pieces, 2 small wheel pieces, 3 purple connecters, 2 red pieces, 3 black ...
Put it together like this.
And then you are done with your Knex balisong. This balisong is meant to be held on the orange part of the handle. ENJOY!
knex balisongby instruct39
knex reverse balisongby Rockowallaby04
Knex Balisong (Butterfly Knife)by KnEx FrEaK 1
Join 2 million + to receive instant DIY inspiration in your inbox.
© 2016 Autodesk, Inc.


text:
Heritage's Response: Blueprint for a Sustainable and Strong Department of Defense
Yesterday, Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel gave his first major speech since he was confirmed for the job in February. "The Department must understand the… Read More
Yesterday, Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel gave his first major speech since he was confirmed for the job in February. "The Department must understand the… Read More
The Senate's failure last week to advance the nomination of former Senator Chuck Hagel to Secretary of Defense was the right result, but for the… Read More
Immigration reform made a brief appearance in President Obama's inauguration address, disappearing faster than the shadow of Punxsutawney Phil on Groundhog Day. "Our journey is… Read More
Zero dark thirty seemed like time the movie finally ended. The long-awaited film that chronicles how the CIA tracked down the mastermind of 9/11 opened… Read More
Yesterday, President Obama pretty much told the world what to expect from the White House for national security and foreign policy for the second term:… Read More
Quick—rush to Vegas and lay down a bet on this weekend's headlines. Here is a short list of what we all might be talking about… Read More
Today, the director of the Central Intelligence Agency resigned. There are few positions in government more vital than the head of the agency with primary… Read More
Seasoned counterterrorism reporter Catherine Herridge, part of a Fox News team that has been dogging the story of the September 11 attack on the U.S…. Read More
Will the United States military strike targets in Libya before the October 22 presidential debate, which, coincidentally, will focus on foreign policy and national security?… Read More
Washington is notorious for dropping news it doesn't want scrutinized too closely on the last day of the work week. So last Friday was a… Read More


text:
This is by far my best and most organized thrill park that I've made. I divided the park into three sections. Thrill park, water park, and fun land. How to get to the three sections? You have to go under water!
When I first thought about this new park, I imagined networks of under water paths.This is the first thing I designed. And then I did the water park,then the thrill park, and right at the beginning of funland, something happened. It got saved over, and I had to re-do funland!But, it did turn out better.
Now, I'll explain the material in all three sections.
THE THRILL PARK:three coasters- Creature Of The Hills(inverted), Stars(corkscrew),and American Alpine(wooden).Flat rides- Zipper, Peep Swatter,Octopus Whirl, Giant Slide, Thunder Bobs, and two claw rides.Shops,and ferry transport.And it also includes a nice Go-Kart track!
THE WATER PARK:Nine Slides,three pools,a diving pool, and a wave pool.Includes an Aqua Blaster,and outside the complex, there are Jet-Skies.You can take an elevator from under water, or take the stairs.
FUNLAND:The Juniors Paradise!!!This Place has around four flat-rides, and a mirror maze. It has two coasters. Pink Panda(junior coaster), And Flight To The Clouds(inverted by-plane).It also has a zoo, with four en closers including monkeys, kangaroos, panthers and leopards,and pandas.In the middle of the zoo, there is a building with shops, underground bathrooms, and two twin observation towers!


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It all started when San Francisco 49ers journeyman quarterback Colin Kaepernick decided to sit for the National Anthem. Then, other players started to join in, not only in football, but in other sports as well, such as soccer.
Last night, Brandon Marshall, linebacker for the Denver Broncos, protested during the singing of the anthem by taking a knee. He said that it was a sign of solidarity for Kaepernick, his former college teammate.
by Jim W. Miller
I am very familiar with questions of retirement, having made the decision to ride off gracefully into the sunset several years ago. For the youngsters out there, before you reach such a monumental decision, have a plan for what you are going to do. Watching FoxNews or CNN until the cocktail hour is not a plan. Which brings us to Peyton Manning, who wisely took the advice of this column and its multitude of readers and decided to retire from the NFL. So now the question is: "What's he going to do?"
by Jim W. Miller
I saw Saints GM Mickey Loomis at the driving range the day before he headed to Indianapolis for the NFL Combine. The league's annual exercise in poking, prodding, digging and jabbing the latest crop of surefire, can't miss pheee-noms ideally will turn every moribund franchise into winners. Loomis presides over the local chapter of moribundity, a team that has missed the playoffs three of the past four years.
The Super Bowl last Sunday once again drew a massive television audience, although slightly lower than record set for last year's game. For many non-football fans, the highlight of the telecast is the halftime show. After the controversy of Janet Jackson's "wardrobe malfunction" in 2004, the NFL started booking legendary rock performers like Paul McCartney to perform at halftime.
by Jim W. Miller
NFL teams are filled with stories, most of them about good and bad coaches, good and bad players, and general managers whose reputations are determined by how many of each they hire. But one guy whose head is usually just beneath the line of fire is the public relations director, or "PR" man.
The sports media has been in a tizzy covering the scandal known as "deflate gate." After it was discovered that 11 of the 12 footballs used by the New England Patriots in their playoff game against the Colts were deflated, the media speculation has been intense about whether the Patriots purposely altered the footballs in an attempt to gain an advantage. Their coach, Bill Belichick, and the team's quarterback, Tom Brady, have been peppered with questions. While they both have denied responsibility, the NFL and media investigation is continuing.
Random thoughts on the Saints' woeful start while wondering what is happening to the game I love?
It should not have taken a new elevator video for the NFL to indefinitely suspend running back Ray Rice. It should have happened after the first video was released of Rice dragging his unconscious girlfriend, Janay Palmer, from a casino elevator. At that time, it should have been apparent to everyone that Rice punched his girlfriend since she walked into the elevator, but was dragged out.
As another season of professional football excitement begins, it is becoming crystal clear that the NFL is beholden to a politically correct liberal agenda.


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IT Planner: 5 Steps to Continuous Data Protection - Page 4
In addition to ensuring business continuity, many CDP systems offer sophisticated search capability that allows com??ípanies to locate specific files quickly-a requirement for recent additions to the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure regarding digital data that went into effect Dec. 1, 2006. The new rules require com??ípanies to have policies in place regarding data storage and quick search and accessibility in case of litigation. A good CDP system will find digital evidence in a timely manner. Step 5: Test for Holes.Most CDP systems are equipped with self-testing tools. Gartner estimates that these kinds of tools are used only once a year on average. That's not nearly enough, according to Dunkelberger, who said that monthly-or at least quarterly-testing is preferred. "IT managers should be rigorous about making sure their CDP systems are always tuned and doing what they're supposed to be doing," he said. "Compliance is going to change, technology is going to change, data formats are going to change ... Do you think that anybody ever envisioned that you were going to be able to put the Library of Congress on a USB thumb drive someday? I don't think so." Consider Apple's iPhone, Dunkelberger said. "[The iPhone] is causing fits among IT security and business continuity professionals," he said. "It's not just a phone; it's a 60GB, multifunctional device with all kinds of processing power on it." Dunkelberger recommends that IT managers look at all devices in terms of their data storage capabilities and what that means for CDP planning-or the subversion thereof. "Look at the new devices for data storage," he said. "If you do not have a continuous, rigorous continuity strategy that involves the senior management business plan, you will find yourself in the lurch at some point, driven by the next new toy someone wants to bring into the environment." What does it take to persuade IT decision ??ímakers to plan ahead and look at a CDP strategy? The answer: pain. First of all, IT managers can pretty much count on at least one major outage per year, according to IDC and Forrester Research market studies.
Once the CDP system is up and running, test it frequently to make sure there are no holes in coverage.
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September 17, 2016
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Boots, Stallion, Cowboy Boots
Craftsmanship. Style. Attitude. At Pinto Ranch, the finest collection of handmade boots are displayed with inlaid leathers and embroidery to exotic skins such as alligator, crocodile, ostrich, and lizard. We carry only the best - with many styles found exclusively at Pinto Ranch. Our boot experts can fit just about anyone from over 4,500 boots in-stock. Walk a little taller or add some polish to your wardrobe with a pair of boots from the largest handmade inventory in the U.S. Brands include: Lucchese Handmade Classics, Old Gringo, Stallion, Rocketbuster, Rios of Mercedes, Liberty Boot Co., and more!
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Pinto Ranch offers the finest in ladies tops & tees, western shirts, jeans & pants, jackets & vests, skirts & dresses, and fashion accessories such as jewelry, handbags, scarves & shawls, and caps & footwear.
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Death is natural, but modern burial is definitely not: Every year, more than 90,000 tons of steel and 4 million acres of trees are used to build coffins in the U.S., and more than 750,000 gallons of formaldehyde is used in embalming, so bodies can't naturally decompose. Cremation requires a heavy dose of fossil fuels.
Even when we're dead, most Americans keep adding to our carbon footprints. Can the rituals around death be redesigned to become more sustainable?
With her Urban Death Project, designer Katrina Spade has been working on a greener alternative for the last three years. Along with the environmental issues, the design also considers the problem of space—cemeteries in the U.S. take up about a million acres of land, and as populations grow, even more space is needed. Spade wanted to find an answer that would allow people to be buried in cities.
The design uses composting to turn bodies into soil-building material for nearby farms and community gardens, so people literally become part of the city they once lived in. A four-story building, which Spade envisions being built in neighborhoods across a city, would serve both as composter and a place for ritual, where family members could see the deceased person for the last time. The composting process would take about thirty days.
Spade admits that the idea might not appeal to everyone, particularly those who want to follow a religious tradition. "Death is a very personal thing," she says. "However, there are many people who are aware that the current options are sorely lacking and who long for an urban solution that better connects us to our loved ones and to the earth."
Beyond wanting a more sustainable option, she says that many people are unhappy with the funeral industry in general. "I have had dozens of conversations with people who felt confused, pressured, and disrespected after an experience with the funeral industry. Whether or not everybody is ready to be composted, it is time for new options in the way people are treated after death . . . An $11 billion funeral industry is in charge of what should be a deeply personal experience."
Earlier this summer, Spade won an $80,000, two-year fellowship from Echoing Green to work on the project full time and build her first prototype in Seattle. Once she proves it there, she'll be looking for a location to launch a full-scale-version.
Ultimately, she hopes to create a toolkit so that other communities can build their own. "I like to compare it to a library system, with numerous branches in each city, all designed for the neighborhoods in which they reside, all tailored to the local population," she says.
Spade continues: "I definitely think that the system could be successful in almost any city worldwide, as long as there are people for whom the idea of turning back into soil after death is appealing."


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Vendor: Apple
Certifications: Apple Certified Pro
Exam Name: Logic Pro 9 Level One End User Exam
Exam Code: 9L0-837
Total Questions: 68 Q&As
Last Updated: Feb 17, 2017
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California's Brian Carroll has spent virtually all of his time in the public eye with his face behind a mask and his head in a bucket -- which is an extremely effective way of letting the world know he'd rather play his guitar semi-anonymously than seek personal aggrandizement. Nevertheless, his skills have generated a cult-sized following for his slew of solo albums and turned him into a gun for hire with an appropriately bizarre list of credits. In addition to working on albums by the likes of artist Julian Schnabel and actor/dreamboat Viggo Mortensen, Carroll spent four long years slashing away for Guns N' Roses before severing ties with Axl Rose -- and if Rose was too weird for him, that's all the rest of us need to know. These days, Carroll is keeping company with System of a Down's Serj Tankian, who produced and co-stars in Enter the Chicken, a new disc on his Serjical Strike imprint. Predictably, Chicken is unpredictable, with nearly every track veering off into a new direction, be it mellow or metallic. But if the disc's inconsistent, it's also a fine showcase for one of music's most freakish talents. Thank goodness he hasn't kicked the bucket.
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For nearly 150 years, it has been established that a patent holder ("patentee") ordinarily bears the burden of proving infringement. The U.S. Supreme Court's recent decision in Medtronic v. Mirowski Family Ventures, LLC, 571 U.S. ____ (Jan. 22, 2014) reversed the Federal Circuit Court of Appeals' attempt to shift the burden of proof to a licensee seeking a declaratory judgment that its products do not infringe the patentee's patents. The unanimous Supreme Court found little support for upsetting the balance of our "well-functioning patent system" or undermining the purposes of the Declaratory Judgment Act by changing the default rules. The Supreme Court cited to precedent dating back to 1869, including Agawam Co. v. Jordan, 7 Wall. 583, 609 (1869), which established that the patentee usually bears the burden of proof in an infringement action. That burden does not normally shift even when a patentee is a counterclaiming defendant in a declaratory judgment action. In this declaratory judgment action, however, the Federal Circuit reasoned that the burden of persuasion should shift to the plaintiff licensee because the defendant patentee was foreclosed from filing an infringement counterclaim due to the ongoing license agreement. The Supreme Court made it clear that a patentee cannot accuse a licensee of infringement and shift the burden of proving a negative (that the licensee is not infringing the patent) onto the licensee. The High Court grounded its reasoning in established legal principles, as well as practical considerations, which are highlighted below.
Medtronic designs, produces, and sells medical devices. Medtronic entered into an agreement with Mirowski under which Medtronic would pay royalties to Mirowksi for the right to practice some of Mirowski's patents. The agreement provided that if Mirowski notified Medtronic that a Medtronic product infringed a Mirowski patent, Medtronic could either (1) cure the nonpayment of royalties, or (2) pay the royalties into an escrow account and challenge the infringement assertion in a declaratory judgment action. If Medtronic failed to pay the royalties, Mirowski could terminate the license and bring an infringement action. After a notice from Mirowski alleging infringement, pursuant to the license agreement, Medtronic paid royalties into an escrow account and filed this declaratory judgment action seeking to establish that its products are non-infringing and that it does not owe royalties to Mirowski. The District Court held that the defendant Mirowski, "as the part[y] asserting infringement," had the burden of proving infringement. The Federal Circuit ruled to the contrary, because Mirowski was unable to file an infringement counterclaim due to the ongoing license with plaintiff Medtronic.
Contrary to the Federal Circuit, the Supreme Court unanimously held that "the burden of persuasion is with the patentee, just as it would be had the patentee brought an infringement suit," based on "simple legal logic, resting upon settled case law" and "practical considerations." The three legal principles the Supreme Court relied upon, citing cases ranging from the 1800s and early 1900s to present day:
The Court reasoned that "[t]aken together these three legal propositions indicate that, in a licensee's declaratory judgment action, the burden of proving infringement should remain with the patentee." The Court also noted several practical considerations that support its position, including:
The Supreme Court was unambiguous in its declaration that patentees will not find solace in forcing licensees into filing declaratory judgments actions to ward off assertions of infringement. Despite the arguments raised by the Federal Circuit, the Supreme Court declared: "Indeed, it was Mirowski that set the present dispute in motion by accusing Medtronic of infringement. And in such an instance, we see no convincing reason why burden of proof law should favor the patentee." The status quo will remain.
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DISCLAIMER: Because of the generality of this update, the information provided herein may not be applicable in all situations and should not be acted upon without specific legal advice based on particular situations.
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Reminiscences of an ex-Confederate soldier : or, Forty years on crutches
Description: A narrative of a soldier's experiences in the Civil War. T.H. Bowman was a soldier in Company A, William Wirt Adams's regiment of Mississippi Cavalry. He fought in Kentucky and Tennessee, and later settled in Texas.
Date: 1904
Creator: Bowman, T. H.
Item Type: Book


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Lot 143: Warne, William The Bureau of Reclamation Signed DJ 1973
Rare Books, Watercolors, Drawings & Prints
by Global Auctions Company
06 November 2016
Gardena, CA, USALive Auction
Past Lot
Looking for the realised and estimated price?
Description: Warne, William E. 'The Bureau of Reclamation' Praeger Publishers, New York 1973. Hardcover w DJ signed. Hardcover with blue cloth boards and silver lettering. Attached letter signed by the artist to the paste down. Various photographs to the center of the book. Comes with dust jacket. 271 pages. Weight Approx., 1lb. 5.75 x 8.6 x 1.15 thick
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LSI Howa Hogue Ranchland Package, Bolt Action, .223 Remington, Centerfire, Nikko 3.5-10x44 LRX Scope, 5 Round Capacity
Item # WX2-640949
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- Model: HGK36108R
LSI Howa Hogue® Ranchland .223 Remington Bolt Action Centerfire Rifle Package with Nikko StirlingTM Gameking 3.5-10x44 LRX Scope.
Trust Howa Rifles to perform when it counts. Built for versatility, the Howa Hogue® Ranchland Bolt Action Rifle is the ideal take-along "truck gun" and is ready to swing on target at a moment's notice. The Hogue overmolded stock provides a nicely cobblestoned texture so your grip won't falter, even in the most undesirable weather conditions. Topped off with a Nikko StirlingTM Gameking Rifle Scope and featuring the H.A.C.T. trigger system, you'll have premium performance on your side when you've got game in your sights!
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The Valeant Pharmaceuticals CaseJanuary 5th, 2017
By Yucheng Lu
This case study is about Valeant Pharmaceuticals, a Canadian-based multinational pharmaceutical company. The ...
SPI works with agencies, departments, and functional areas at all levels of government that are engaged in financial activities. These groups may include:
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text: Martha Stewart Ain't Afraid Of No Horse ShitJennifer10/17/07 6:30pmFiled to: ClipsMartha Stewarthorse shit20EditPromoteShare to KinjaToggle Conversation toolsGo to permalink Martha Stewart opened her show a la Tyra today — standing in the audience! This is because she had some very, very special guests coming out: Show horses! The horses trotted. Martha cooed. And then one of the pretty ponies (okay, so they were actually stallions, whatever) took a shit on the stage. Of course, Martha kept on smiling.Reply20 repliesLeave a reply