text:
IAS 2017 batch for 'General studies and Public Administration ' is in progress.Admission open
IAS foundation course 2017 is in progress.Next IAS foundation course will begin on 16th Jan 2017
Ras 2017 Foundation course is slated to begin 18 Jan 2017.
Ras 2017 Pre cum mains batch is slated to begin on 18th Jan 2017 (exclusive English medium)
IAS/RAS Foundation course 2017 is slated to begin on 20 Jan 2017
IAS/RAS foundation course is in process .join now
RAS Mains 2017- New batch ( Exclusive Eng.medium) is in process.
IAS 2017 Next batch for 'General Studies' and 'Public Administration' is slated to begin on 16th Jan and 20th Jan 2017 .Admission open!
Indian Institute of IAS Aspirants
One of the best institutions in the country providing comprehensive guidance and coaching for IAS examination is IIIASA which is located in the Pinkcity of Jaipur. Established by Mr. Sajjan Pratap Singh who is also the 'founder director' of institute, IIIASA enjoys a rare 'distinction' of having trained successfully not only the Civil Services aspirants but also the serving Government officials for various promotional examinations. Thanks to its 'mission-driven' approach in an increasingly 'commercializing' world, the institute has developed a 'distinct identity' of its own in terms of harmonizing core'traditional values' with modern technological paraphernalia so as to bring out the best in the students.
It is to be noted that in the past few years the nature and pattern of Civil Services Examination has undergone significant changes with increasing focus on 'environmental dynamism' and current affairs. The examination today is designed to evaluate not only the candidate's ability to keep in touch with developments taking place in socio-economic, political and cultural sphere of life but also to comment on the same. Yet, the basic principles of learning remains largely unchanged in IAS Examination. If you are not clear in terms of basic concept and principles related to polity, economy, geography ,science, etc. you would not be able to appreciate and comment on the developments taking place around. Therefore, we at IIIASA have accordingly designed the course for IAS examination which as a part of carefully drawn strategy begins with the very basics of the subject and gradually the level of 'Intellectual discourse' is elevated to the level required for the IAS examination. As for example, in the sphere of economy it may begin with what, how and why of the economy and the economics, basic concepts like GDP, GNP, HDI, growth and development, etc. and gradually in the final stage it enters the realm of more substantive issues like State v/s Market debate, Global recession, Financial sector reforms, Fiscal and Monetary policy, Balance of payments, recession and anti- development thesis etc….
This tour will change your life. So if you are serious about IAS then spend some time here. Afterall its your life's question.
Artificial intelligence (like other technological paraphernalia), is a double edged sword which if not wielded skillfully runs the risk of bringing an undesirable mechanization in all spheres of life which may be dangerously hidden behind the all pervasive advantages accruing from it in the form of speed,economy,accuracy,objectivity and many more.
IIIASA , not just an ordinary institute but a platform which raises your intellectual understanding of any subject matter exponentially.
Sajjan sir, a true mentor with dynamic teaching skills. I owe my success to him , it is his motivation and his positive approach towards life that made me achieve my goal.
Thank you sir
The foundation on which the edifice of intellectual prowess stands needs to be damn strong to fight and succeed in civil services. This task is well accomplished by Sajjan Sir. His approach to teaching rathar communicating is so vibrant and appropriate that the things and situations come to materialise in front of the eyes of the students. The biggest relevance of his teaching style is that it directly strikes at the root of the issue under consideration making them crystal clear. It prevades through all streams, be it public administration or polity, science, geography, history, current affairs, international relations and across the wide spectrum of knowledge. He explains the things in a very subtle manner drawing practical examples along the scale of space and time. My writing skills and vocabulary and ability to find the gist of issues are admired, thanks to his inspiring guidance and support.
Bhawana Sharma
Assistant Collector and Executive Magistrate, Tonk (under training)
I joined IIIASA in Sept 2015 for gs. Faculty here is very good . All the topics of gs are very well discussed in a comprehensive and broad manner. There is no race to finish the syllabus superficially like many other institutes do. Teachers are very easily accessible in case of any doubts. Training a person for this noble job is not an easy task. IIIASA is like a temple where Sajjan sir is the preacher instilling values among the students along with teaching
When it comes to landing a job, it's all about your interviewing skills and Sajjan Sir is best at helping you overcoming your interview fears, providing you the guidance and tips for tackling even the hardest interview questions.
IIIASI se jo sikha hai wo yahi ki :: Lagataar ho rahi asafaltaoon (unsuccess) se niraash nahi hona chahiye. Kyuki gucche ki aakri Chaabi (Key) bhi lock khol sakti hai.
Sir, your support & guidance will always be remembered, fondly in good times, & as encouragement in bad.. No words can express,no act of gratitude can relay,no gift can represent what your support & guidance have meant to me… Thank u so much sir from being with me from 2011 to till now…
A teacher, coach, mentor and friend; all-in-one. He goes extra mile every time, beyond the realm and boundaries of Public Administration, for his students. Attending his classes helped in developing clear concepts which seem so complex from outside. Also, one cannot remain uninfluenced from his energy and it energises the listener too for forthcoming challenges.
Your role as a leader is even more important than you might imagine.You have the power to help people become winners
We celebrate each moment at iiiasa. See our memorable moments at iiiasa campus celebrating festivals, birthdays and other occasions...Check out Photo & Video Gallery
At IIIASA we help people who really have a desire to become administrative officers, but due to some limitations they are unable to join iiiasa in full time course. Our online learning module and test series ll help you.Know & enroll our online courses
All the things like Whitepapers, Articles, course material, special notes and other external resources you need as a reference ! You get here....Check out the resources for you
We live only on hope and hope comes and grows with inspiration. To grow high you need the association of highly motivated and inspired people. Get all the stuff you need to inspire about this great lifetime opportunity i.e. Administrative Services...Check out whats new today


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Teens drowsy during mid-afternoon are 4.5 times more likely to commit crimes in adulthoodUpdated: Feb 24, 2017 06:15 IST
Washington D.C. [US], Feb. 24 (ANI): Parents, please take note! A study warns teenagers who self-report feeling drowsy during mid-afternoon, are 4.5 times more likely to commit violent crimes a decade and a half later.Full Story >>
Fathers beware! Doing cocaine while planning family may affect your son's memoryUpdated: Feb 24, 2017 06:14 IST
Washington D.C. [USA], Feb. 24 (ANI): A team of US researchers warn, fathers, who do cocaine at the time of conceiving a child, may be putting their son at risk of learning disabilities and memory loss.Full Story >>
Fish with higher levels of mercury may may put you at risk!Updated: Feb 24, 2017 06:12 IST
Washington D.C. [USA], Feb. 24 (ANI): Waring for all the sea food lovers! Consuming fish, rich in mercury may double the risk of developing motor neurone disease.Full Story >>
Union Minister Rupala lauds S.P.Mukherjee College for Women students for "Mock Parliament" showUpdated: Feb 23, 2017 14:57 IST
New Delhi [India], Feb. 23 (ANI): A two- day annual fest "POLITIA" was organised by political science department of Shyama Prasad Mukherjee college for Women, University of Delhi, on February 20 and 21.Full Story >>
Legalising same-sex marriage may reduce suicide in teensUpdated: Feb 23, 2017 06:24 IST
Washington D.C. [USA], Feb. 23 (ANI): The implementation of state laws for legalising same-sex marriage can significantly reduce the rate of suicide attempts among teenagers, reveals a study.Full Story >>
Beware! Food-borne bacterium may cause miscarriage threat early in pregnancyUpdated: Feb 22, 2017 05:34 IST
Washington D.C. [USA], Feb. 22 (ANI): Beware to-be mothers! Listeria, a common food-borne bacterium, may pose a greater risk of miscarriage in the early stages of pregnancy than appreciated, warns a study.Full Story >>
21 year old to perform 'Striptease', a marathi monologue this Friday!Updated: Feb 22, 2017 05:33 IST
New Delhi [India], Feb. 22 (ANI): Theatre is poetry! It's an amalgamation of music, dance and body language which takes the process of emoting to its peak. With the boom of visual digital media, theater had taken a backseat in terms of popularity.Full Story >>
Real questions to ask if you are getting married!Updated: Feb 22, 2017 05:28 IST
New Delhi [India], Feb. 22 (ANI): In the day and age of months, sometimes years being spent planning the perfect wedding, reality is often a rude shock when the wedding is over and the marriage begins! This is because no one thinks of asking the questions that really matter!Full Story >>
Yo-Yo dieting might not be such a bad thing after all!Updated: Feb 21, 2017 07:02 IST
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Products students should have in their house as they prepare for examsUpdated: Feb 21, 2017 06:00 IST
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Carl's Jr. on an expansion spree; opens new outlet at 'One Horizon Centre' in GurugramUpdated: Feb 20, 2017 16:29 IST
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Ever heard of tech savy parenting? Find out here!Updated: Feb 20, 2017 14:57 IST
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Woah! Here's a t-shirt that can help you stay fitUpdated: Feb 19, 2017 14:46 IST
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By Somdatta SahaFull Story >>

subset: commoncrawl


text:
- Cape businessman known for starting NARS dies at 49 (2/23/17)9
- Apparent punch at girls basketball game propels lawmaker into action (2/21/17)4
- Business notebook: Owners ready to roll out the Barrel 131 (2/20/17)7
- Japanese restaurant up and running; owner surprised by fondness of sushi here (2/24/17)1
- SoutheastHEALTH, Washington University School of Medicine announce collaboration (2/24/17)21
- Missouri bill would limit transgender school bathroom access (2/22/17)48
- City issues precautionary boil order near Arena Park (2/23/17)
- Former KFVS12 reporter talks about recovery from eating disorder (2/23/17)11
- $22M bond issue would alter Jackson schools (2/22/17)13
- Two men crack market with local cage-free eggs (2/26/17)11
Speak Out 7/18/07
Elitist Congress
GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS wanted to solve the immigration problem. The president, Republicans and Democrats compromised on a solution. They never asked us for our ideas. It was an elite society thinking for the underling class. We disagreed, and federal legislators, wanting to be re-elected, were forced to pander to the ignorant masses. Instead of asking and listening to our ideas on how to solve this problem, they proved themselves to be members of the same private government club who's model is "It's our way or the highway." I believe it's time for the worker bees to overthrow the self-proclaimed royalty and offer their jobs to honest, hardworking leaders in our communities and states.
Noisy concerts
CAPE GIRARDEAU picks and chooses who follows the law and who doesn't. A shining example is the regularly scheduled music concerts on Patricia Street where noise and parking are always problems. This is a quiet residential neighborhood, not zoned commercial. On several occasions I have contacted city officials. Nothing has ever been done. I wonder if these concert promoters on Patricia are doing the proper sales-tax and income-tax filings for this business operation.
Excellent job
MIKE DUMEY and Robyn Hosp do an excellent job, but you've got to see Mike Dumey's presentation, "Sing, America, Sing" with all those young kids. They're doing big-band sounds for the older group. They're doing music for all the baby boomers, and they do Broadway tunes. What he does with kids is amazing. Mike Dumey rocks.
Location proposal
I JUST come through town and I was looking at Freedom Corner. It would be wonderful if the proposed war memorial could be located at the other end of Capaha Park right across from Southeast Missouri Hospital. When people are sitting in that surgery waiting room they could look out on it, plus all the people coming to the park would be able to see it and it would make that end of the park look nice.
Action, not words
ISN'T IT wonderful to watch Congress? The Republicans maligned the Democrats for utilizing the filibuster during the last Congress. Now they use it at every turn. The American people need to call every day and tell our federal legislators we want action, not rhetoric.
Vacationing Iraqis
PRESIDENT BUSH says wait for the September report to see if the Iraqi government can make a turnaround. Only one problem: The Iraqi government said it is still going to take August off. If one American soldier, sailor or airman is killed while the Iraqi government is on vacation, this is tantamount to murder. Call the White House and demand a withdrawal of our troops if the Iraqi government goes on vacation.
Disappearing hydrants
I THINK the fire hydrants along County Road 205/Bloomfield Road need flags on top of them so firefighters can find them. Weeds have completely hidden them from view. A great alternative would be to mow the weeds.
Resurfacing roads
THANK YOU, Cape Girardeau County Special Road District. You are doing a great job resurfacing county roads, especially County Road 318 and County Road 319. They have needed resurfacing for years. Keep up the good work.
Reasonable fees
I DON'T have a problem with the increases fees at the pool. That is still pretty inexpensive for a person to go to the pool.
Plenty of room
I AGREE that the veteran memorials should be placed somewhere in Cape County Park, not the Courthouse Park in Cape Girardeau. There is not enough room at Courthouse Park, and there is plenty at Cape County Park.
Use Freedom Corner
THE PLACING of war memorials at Courthouse Park is too much. It makes sense to leave the two Civil War memorials there, because it is in keeping with the historical nature of the courthouse. But the other memorials overwhelm the tiny park. It makes sense to put them around the monuments at Freedom Corner. I'd also be for moving the Vietnam memorial to Freedom Corner.
PC coaching
AS ONE could infer from a recent Speak Out comment, those like coach Leon Brinkopf, recently profiled in the pages of the Southeast Missourian, wouldn't survive in today's environment of delicate sensibilities and political correctness. As a result, student-athletes are the worse for it.
Motoring menace
I GET so tired of hearing about drivers on their cell phones. I admit that I talk on my cell phone a lot while driving, but I still use my blinker and look in all directions and pay attention to the road. It never fails that someone who seems to have nothing distracting him almost hits me because he thinks he is too good to follow the law or is just plain rude.
Time to tickle
A RECENT comment stated that we Cape Girardeauianastos (it's new) need to smile at one another more often. That person is right. However, for some of us smiling is harder than for others. I offer myself as an example. I am unemployed and not really good at anything. Most employers nowadays require a degree, and thanks to algebra and some attitude problems I have since remedied, eighth grade proved insurmountable. So here I am, dirt poor, no prospects, uninsured and somewhat toothless, and here comes Chuckie Chuckles grinning up a storm in my general direction. It isn't always easy to reciprocate. But there is one thing that always gets me to that cherished happy land: tickling. Who doesn't want maniacal fingers gyrating in his or her underarms or other sensitive areas? So let's get together. We want to smile. Well, take the initiative. We need to come together and tickle. For some of us, it's the only way.
Racing trumps funeral
THIS IS to all elderly people. Watch out whom you put in charge to take care of things after you pass away. My mother passed away July 12. All of us girls wanted Mom to be put to rest on Saturday, but her granddaughter was left in charge. So Mom couldn't be put to rest until Sunday because the one in charge had other plans: opening the racetrack. My mother said so many times that she did not want to be put to rest on a Sunday. All I can say is I am so very sorry. We all tried, but we were not in charge.
Pathetic critics
BEFORE JUMPING on the National Council for Teacher Quality bandwagon, I urge readers to visit the NCTQ Web site. There you'll find page after page of news releases slamming state education departments and local board control. Faced with documented evidence of teaching success in the classroom, the only thing left for NCTQ is to criticize educators before they even make it to the classroom. Pathetic.
Strong influences
OVERT OR implicit criticism of the late Central High School legend Leon Brinkopf should fall on deaf ears. Coach Brink and predecessors like the equally iconic Lou Muegge were old-school coaches who did far more than most to help make men out of boys. The general feminization of coaching that has taken place since their day (with some exceptions and largely forced upon them by society) may have merit, but if you talk to those who played for Brinkopf and Muegge you'll likely find virtual unanimity of opinion that these men exemplified a rare and special quality whose positive lessons for life have served so many for so long and whose influence will hopefully never end.
Loud motorcycles
I HAVE nothing against motorcycles, but I do have something against riders who fail to comply with the loud exhaust laws of the city and state. How long do you think it would take for you to get stopped if you ran open pipes on your car or truck? Not long. Why don't our officers enforce the loud exhaust laws regarding these straight-pipe motorcycles? All motorcycles should have proper exhausts on them within the guidelines of the laws.


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Briar Rose
created by: Vegan Buns
A cozy, comforting tea that will leave you with the sweetest of dreams.
click & drag the tin to rotate
blended with black tea, orange peels, natural hazelnut flavor, natural creme flavor, blue cornflowers, natural vanilla flavor, natural bergamot flavor
teas: earl grey moonlight, hazelnut, cream
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steep at 212° for 3 mins
This tea contains a high level of caffeine
this tea is part of the Dinsey Princesses fandom
Love Briar Rose? This is just one of 11 teas in this fandom. Check out the whole series.
2 additional blends by Vegan Buns
by Vegan Buns
masala chai, spiced apple chai, blackberry


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It looks like you're new here. If you want to get involved, click one of these buttons!
Gametribe has announced the addition of brand new content to Dream of Mirror Online with the introduction of the new BigBeam region.
Gametribe.com, the premier destination for Free-to-Play games is offering brand new contents to the DOMO fans on April 22nd.Journey through the new BigBeam region and discover BigBeam city! Fabulous adventures are waiting for you! Reach this new region from Eversun North and enjoy these city quests:
Wu Hai's Love Letter (lvl 30): help Wu Hai to win Mei Xiang's love.
Selling-Flower Sister and her brother (lvl 30): help flower seller A Ro and find her lost brother.
Brothers' Argue (lvl 40): help BibBeam city's inhabitants to drive out bandits from the surroundings of the city.
The soul-lost Boy (lvl 55). Help mother Zhang rescue her sick son Xizo Bao by getting all necessary materials to Comfort Witch who is able to prepare the needed treatment.
The lost Herbal Wine (lvl 55). A girl stole the Herb Wine from the shop assistant. Bring the Herb Wine back to the assistant.
Blood Sucking Orchid (lvl 55). Help Yuan Bo and get a medicine to heal her beloved Meng Xue.
Read more here.
I don't get what's wrong with Aeria Games.
From the first time, i had a precise guess " Whoah, DOMO it's so cool " and i played it for like one year;
Aeria games so far in this 3 years that domo's out, added just useless quests and a lot of Item Mall Cloths ( most of them are seriously ugly) and there is nothing wrong, since everyone need to eat, in this world, but the thing that makes me really pissed off, it's that, " Why the hell you add Mall Stuff if you haven't yet completed the game systems?" you will say, which systems does they need to complete? of course i am gonna tell you that, in first, they lack of any kind of Guild War, Or Maze, there are some maps that let player think something will come, but wait today wait tomorr, nothing has been came yet (making you even more pissed off) but the wrost thing here, it's that they don't even done the Customization System at 100%, yeah because the game even after 3 years, still lack of Reaction Skills; there is not even one RS that u can learn in all jobs, so i ask to myself, WTF they're doing? It's currect that they just guess about theyr own ways go gather as much money as possible, or they should be supposed to " do both, Item mall Items and Game Systems Updates" ? Before you think, i don't have anything against Item mall, i am a maller " LoL" but it's pissing off that ALL they do, it's even about Item Mall, All they add new, it's something for Item Mall... Whatever i suppose i have to give up on DOMO, after all it's a "SOCIAL GAME" ????? hem.. lol? In wich way DOMO it's supposed to be a SOCIAL GAME?! This so far, it's the most idiot, stupid, noob, thing they could address domo With! If Domo lacks in something, i ASSURE it's social part of the game; every player will lvl up alone till lvl 55 for sure, since exp it's way bigger alone then in party ( Wtf exp in party is very annoyng, also " weirdly " to get more exp from party u have to get an item from mall! look how much it's funny, and even if you do it exp still sux, so this won't help " the social " part of the grinding system ) so all pros like sto grind alone till they are able to, in the end even if there would have been better pk and pvp places, the Skills are really really unbelanced there are class that own and class that are useless, in pvp... but with all i want who read this post to get, it's n ot that i am pissed off, it's that i want to know why Shaiya ( wich is Aeria Game ) it's made perfect while domo aint complete and belanced yet...
Do they don't care about DOMO Anymore?
Do they just want to eat more money as possible from domo not-care about what's wrong with it?
Do they don't want to waste money to end the game systems since they are greedy?
Do they think addingending systems will not woth enough money to payback?
Do they are ********?
All i can answer, for now it's the last question.
Manuel Massimo Mazzei
Maximusplus, on MMORPGs


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text: Hi,I'm doing get_slice on huge rows (3 million columns) and even though I am doing it iteratively I keep getting TimeoutExceptions. I've tried to change the number of columns fetched but it did not work.I have a 5 machine cluster, each with 4GB of which 3 are dedicated to cassandra's heap, but still the all consume all of the memory and get huge IO wait due to the amout of reads.I am running tests with 100 clients all performing multiple operations mostly get_slice, get and multi_get, but the timeouts only occur in the get_slice.Does this have anything to do with cassandra's ability (or lack thereof) to keep the rows in memory? Or am I doing anything wrong? Any tips?Cumpliments,Luís Ferreira


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Dear Ms Crossley=Holland, I didn't Oink at you yesterday but I do admitt I did oink it was a private joke between me and Billie. Know I do Admitt I should not of been making noises so I am sorry for making noises but yeah as I said I am only sorry for making noises. From Chantelle. When Oenone Crossley-Holland started teaching at an inner city school in London, she had no idea what to expect. She just knew that there was no going back. She would have one of the most challenging and overwhelming years of her life, in which she would get involved in the lives of some wonderfully (and sometimes horrifyingly) exuberant students, and find herself tested to the limit. In this colourful and moving account, Oenone tells of the lows and unexpected highs of the sharper end of teaching. Will she make it through the year? Will she make it through another day? HANDS UP! is for anyone who's ever worked in a school or thought about teaching. It also gives a very clear answer to those who still believe that those who can't, teach.
After finishing university Oenone Crossley-Holland wanted a job she could really care about. She became a teacher with the Teach First scheme, a charity founded to encourage graduates to work for at least two years in challenging secondary schools. She has written a column for the Guardian on her teaching experiences.
More books by Oenone Crossley-Holland
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Read an extract from Lucinda Hawksley's The Writer Abroad
Magdalena from our Birmingham branch has a selection of books for all you budding film makers out there.
Matthew's writing looks at the ways technology is changing our experience of the world – and of each other. Yet in spite of his fascination with tech, he still prefers reading on paper. Here's why.


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In Copenhagen, even the Queen cycles. In fact, in the land of Borgen and The Killing, cycling runs in the royal family. When the Nazis invaded Denmark, legend has it that Prince Frederick and his wife Ingrid took to the streets on their bikes to show solidarity and to prove they weren't collaborating. How a few laps of the capital on two wheels articulated any kind of political preference isn't clear, but the bicycle emerged as the symbol of the people.
Soon afterwards, the rise of the motor car meant that cycles stayed in sheds and the addiction to petrol began. But today, Copenhagen is again the City of Cyclists. More than a third of its residents go by bike to work or school every day and an impressive 80 per cent cycle once a week.
So why has Copenhagen, unlike other European cities, gone back to the bike? Yes, it is flat. But so are parts of Texas; so, for that matter, is much of southeast England. It takes more than geography to get people cycling.
The man behind much of Copenhagen's success is Andreas Rohl, its bicycle director. Tall and slim, Rohl grins as he serves cups of tea on placemats decorated with cycle routes. "This is the coolest bike project in the world right now," he says, pointing to a map showing a planned series of futuristic cycle bridges across his city.
Each one is several metres high, costs about £4 million to build and allows tens of thousands of bikes a day to dart uninterrupted through the air above the busy streets. Three have been built, one more is confirmed and eight are being drawn up. "They're big and they're beautiful," Rohl says.
Over the past decade, Copenhagen has had a £77 million cycling makeover. Another £28 million has already been earmarked for upcoming projects. As more Danes get on their bikes, more money can be spent on cycle lanes; thus more Danes get on their bikes. Cycling begets cycling. And what keeps the bikes on the roads is Rohl's "coherent net" theory.
The idea is that you need a continuous, safe cycle route. When you have multiple safe routes, you patch them together. "From A to B there has to be quality before you can expect people to get on a bike. If you want to make cycling mainstream you have to separate bikes from cars and buses. It's essential," says Rohl. The net has to be continuous. "You would never say to car drivers 'after 100 metres you have to get out and push'."
When asked how you create a cycle lane on an already crowded street, Rohl says: "You take something from somebody. We rarely take from pedestrians. We mainly take space from cars — either parking or lanes."
Even in Copenhagen, where so many voters are cyclists, the politics of getting space is difficult. "We had one meeting that lasted five hours, just to discuss why we altered one road," says Ayfer Baykal, Copenhagen's Environmental Mayor. "The hunt for centimetres really begins and if you want it, you have to say it very loudly."
Baykal is a keen cyclist herself, but when her Turkish parents first visited her, they looked around in horror asking why everyone was so poor. Baykal had to explain that the swarm of bikes in the city was not because the Danes could not afford cars, but because they were trying to avoid them.
The city has made a series of changes to make life safe for cyclists.Rubbish lorries don't get city contracts unless they have extra-large windows that help them to spot cyclists. Bikes have their own traffic lights. Cars park between cycle lanes and the main road to shield cyclists from the traffic.
Some argue that the gas-guzzling, repairs, designer wheels and big roads of the car industry boost the economy. The Danes think otherwise. They have worked out that purely in terms of health, the equivalent of 60p is earned for every kilometre cycled, when you take into account the reduced cost of sick days and hospital treatment.
The Danes manufacture bicycles, export them and keep the money in the country. They estimate that bikes generate £1.3 billion a year in business. Small companies have flourished: the "cargo bike" (a sturdy three-wheeler that can carry children), which is owned by a quarter of all four-person families, costs about £1,500– and investment that many are willing to make.
So why can't Britons just get on their bikes and start reaping the benefits of a green economy? One reason might be that you are more than twice as likely to die in Britain while cycling as you are in Denmark. With safe cycle lanes in urban areas, that would not be the case — but the political will is needed first.
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Internet Marketing/ Advertising in Mexico & South America
This project received 23 bids from talented freelancers with an average bid price of $182 USD.Get free quotes for a project like this
Project Budget$30 - $250 USD
Total Bids23
Project Description
Need freelancer to start a internet marketing campaign in MEXICO and SOUTH AMERICA ( Spanish & Portugese language )
You may suggest Adwords,Google Ads, banners, SEO, SEM or what ever but all this must be done in LEGAL ways, NO BLACK HAT!!
You will need to suggest to us what is the best way to expose our products to consumer, distributors, online stores & Importers,
Our aim is to attract distributors and importers to buy from us, NOT consumer.
It will be on going for a year if price is right.
Target : B2B
Do not write to me some standard template services as i do not have time to read this insincere bidding.
Only hardworking freelancer with confidence need to bid.
We will need a project proposal if we start discussing the project.
Budget price is just an indicative price. We are open to anything possible
Thank you!
Skills Required
Looking to make some money?
- Set your budget and the timeframe
- Outline your proposal
- Get paid for your work
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- Tri-Band 3G Connectivity
- Plug-N-Play installation
- Compatible with Mac/PC
love it 11/28/2010
This review is from: AT&T 3G PCMCIA Ultra Unlocked GSM Data/Air Card
it works and its fast. i have the basic data plan on my phone and when i put my sim card in this thing i get almost 4meg/second download and more then a meg upload.
more then worth every Penney not only will i suggest it to my friend but i may buy it as a gift for some of them with ATT cell service.
its pcmcia. i am testing it now with an old laptop but i'll have to buy a converter to use it with my new laptop. i think ill buy the Quatech PCD-X/U142-E from another site (newegg doesn't have anything like it that i can find).
Also it came in an opened case with broken warranty void stickers not a big deal for me because the card is in perfect condition, but still bad presentation
the last con was DHL shipping. it took way to long to get here and the tracking tells me it was less then an hours drive from me for 5 days at the delivery terminal or something.
Other Thoughts:
you have to set up the connnection.
service type: packet
Diled number: 8998881#
access point: wap.cingular
username: email@example.com
password: CINGULAR1
Did you find this review helpful? Yes / No Thanks for the valuable feedback you provided!


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Grey Contrast Big T Stitch Wide Leg Mens Sweatpant
Relax with true style in our signature Big T sweatpant. This active piece is detailed with our iconic contrast stitch detailing for the perfect amount of statement-making style. Men's sweatpant. Straight leg. 34" inseam. Elastic waist with drawstring closure. Side slash pockets. 89% cotton, 11% polyester. Imported. Color: grey


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Free DHL Express shipping on all orders
99€Read more
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LCDVF turns your video enabled DSLR LCD screen into a huge electronic viewfinder for precise image evaluation.
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798€ incl. VAT 20%Read more
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Electronic Viewfinder
LCDVFe is an universal production style electronic viewfinder with Retina-like display, superior ergonomics...
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Practilite 602
The Practilite 602 is the world's first and smallest bi-color, variable beam smartphone controlled LED light.
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948€incl. VAT 20%Read more


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Orbital debris, more commonly known as space junk, is an unavoidable byproduct of human space exploration. Not only do we rubbish our earthly environment with all sorts of crap, but since the dawn of orbital spaceflight in the 1950s, humans have been littering the skies above as well.
On September 14 this year, astronauts of the space shuttle Atlantis contributed a few bolts to Earth's orbit while completing installation of new solar arrays for the International Space Station. These days NASA tries to tether everything used during a spacewalk — but accidents do happen. NASA and the US Air Force track all space-faring garbage larger than ten centimetres and the addition of these few tidbits in September brought the count to 9,925.
Orbital debris consists of a wide menagerie of hazardous items, detrimental to astronauts, spacecraft, and expensive satellite equipment. Newer spacecraft, such as the International Space Station, are reinforced against orbital debris hazards but there are still many more at risk.
1996 is recorded as the first confirmed occurrence of a collision between cataloged space junk and Cerise – a French military reconnaissance satellite. The impact tore away some 4.2 metres of gravity gradient stabilisation boom from the craft. It is interesting to note that there are lawyers who track orbital debris — yes, there are expensive legal responsibilities resulting from your space junk damaging someone else's satellite.
There are believed to be over 100,000 manmade objects zipping around the Earth at a speed of around 28,000 km/h, and the smaller items can be just as troublesome as larger ones — they're just harder to track. Where NASA can warn astronauts and shuttle pilots to move out of the way of an impact with some of the larger pieces, it is almost impossible to avoid collisions with smaller debris. Fragments such as paint flakes can dent a craft or scratch the shuttle windshield, while clouds of smaller particles which can cause sandblasting.
Dumping waste from the space shuttle has urine, toothpaste, and shaving cream floating in the skies above us. After an Indonesian satellite was struck with urine and fecal matter, NASA decided that discarding human waste in space is probably not the greatest idea. Other hazards include trash thrown from the Russian space station Mir, rubble from explosions, spent booster rockets from launches since 1958, equipment discarded while repairing the Hubble Telescope, and some 2000 satellites no longer in use.
Not all space junk stays in orbit, with some returning to Earth or burning up on re-entry. To date, Lottie Williams is the only person to have been hit by space waste – a six inch metal shard from the fuel tank of a Delta II rocket from a 1996 US Air Force satellite launch. Hit in the shoulder while walking through an Oklahoma park on January 22, 1997, she was very lucky not to have been injured.
A $2700 spatula lost by spacewalker Piers Sellers in July this year was nicknamed "Spatsat" and is expected to return to Earth in a fireball some time this month. A stray spatula in space is a curiousity, but there have been all manner of unusual bits and pieces soaring about in the heavens above.
Ed White lost a glove on the first American spacewalk in 1965, cosmonaut Michael Collins misplaced his camera near the Gemini 10 spacecraft in 1966, while other astronauts are missing a toothbrush and a ham sandwich. In early February 2006, the crew of the International Space Station stuffed an old Russian spacesuit with clothes, attached a radio transmitter, and deliberately pushed it out into space. Known as Suitsat-1, the radio signal weakened unexpectedly after orbiting the Earth twice, and finally burned up in the atmosphere on September 2.Powered by Sidelines


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Lot 412: CHINESE FLAMBE POTTERY UMBRELLA STAND, unmarked.
Fall Premiere Estate & Collection Auction
by O'Gallerie
October 25, 2016
Portland, OR, USALive Auction
Looking for the realized and estimated price?
Description: CHINESE FLAMBE POTTERY UMBRELLA STAND, unmarked. Height 20.5 inches.
Condition Report: 412: The umbrella stand presents well with no visible chips, cracks or repairs, the foot rim is very roughly hewn.
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Texas Heritage Builders, home builder, listed under "Home Builders" category, is located at 24123 Boerne Stage Rd San Antonio TX, 78255 and can be reached by 2106986930 phone number. Texas Heritage Builders has currently 0 reviews.This business profile is not yet claimed, and if you are the owner, claim your business profile for free. If you are not the owner you can invite this business to join by email or by phone.Browse all Home Builders in San Antonio TX. Discover census data for San Antonio, TX.
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Greetings Guest!!Dismiss Notice
In order to combat SPAM on the forums, all users are required to have a minimum of 2 posts before they can submit links in any post or thread.
[EQ2 News] Double Experience in EverQuest II: Friday, April 6, 2012 to Sunday, April 8, 2012!
Discussion in 'The Wayward Tavern' started by Taylor, Apr 6, 2012.


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The purpose of this study was to clarify the neurogenesis of thalamically evoked gamma frequency (∼40 Hz) oscillations in auditory cortex by comparing simultaneously recorded extracellular and intracellular responses elicited with electrical stimulation of the posterior intralaminar nucleus of the thalamus (PIL). The focus of evoked gamma activity was located between primary and secondary auditory cortex using a 64-channel epipial electrode array, and all subsequent intracellular recordings and single-electrode field potential recordings were made at this location. These data indicate that PIL stimulation evokes gamma oscillations in auditory cortex by tonically depolarizing pyramidal cells in the supra- and infragranular layers. No cells revealed endogenous membrane properties capable of producing activity in the gamma frequency band when depolarized individually with injected current, but all displayed both sub- and supra-threshold responses time-locked to extracellular fast oscillations when the population was depolarized by PIL stimulation. We propose that cortical gamma oscillations may be produced and propagated intracortically by network interactions among large groups of neurons when mutually excited by modulatory input from the intralaminar thalamus and that these oscillations do not require specialized pacemaker cells for their neurogenesis.
Brain activation, as registered in the extracranial electroencephalogram (EEG), is typically regarded as a state in which the electrical activity of large neural networks is desynchronized compared with higher-amplitude rhythmic EEG patterns thought to characterize the cerebral cortex when not actively engaged in information processing. However, these conclusions have been recently challenged by results obtained from intracranial measurements, indicating the presence of locally synchronous oscillations in the gamma frequency band (∼40 Hz) associated with vigilant states (Franken et al. 1994; Hamada et al. 1999;Jones and Barth 1997) and with sensory stimulation (Basar and Bullock 1992; Eckhorn et al. 1988; Franowicz and Barth 1995; Freeman 1978; Jones and Barth 1997; MacDonald and Barth 1995; Singer and Gray 1995). Fast rhythms appear as a substantial part of the background intracranial EEG and are synchronized in both intracortical and thalamocortical networks during activation induced by stimulation of the mesopontine cholinergic nuclei or by behavioral tasks in chronic experiments (Bouyer et al. 1981; Canu et al. 1994; Steriade et al. 1993b, 1996a,b).
While gamma oscillations appear to reflect transient synchronization of neural populations during information processing, their cellular mechanisms are still being elucidated. Several recent reports have implicated specific subtypes of cortical neurons with endogenous membrane properties that may produce sub- and suprathreshold activity in the gamma frequency band when sufficiently depolarized (Gray and McCormick 1996; Llinás et al. 1991;Silva et al. 1991; Steriade et al. 1998), suggesting that dedicated cells may serve as the neural generators or pacemakers of gamma oscillations in sensory cortex. However, both computer modeling (Lumer et al. 1997; Lytton and Sejnowski 1991; Traub et al. 1999) and in vitro physiological investigations (Buhl et al. 1998;Plenz and Kitai 1996; Whittington et al. 1995) have demonstrated that gamma oscillations may also appear as an emergent property within networks of mutually connected and tonically excited inhibitory and excitatory neurons without the requirement of specialized cells for gamma neurogenesis.
In vivo studies of the rodent reveal gamma oscillations in a focal region of ventrotemporal cortex, overlapping primary and secondary auditory zones, that occur spontaneously (Brett and Barth 1996; Franowicz and Barth 1995; MacDonald and Barth 1995; MacDonald et al. 1996) and in response to sensory stimulation (Franowicz and Barth 1995; MacDonald and Barth 1995). These oscillations may also be reliably evoked by electrical stimulation of the posterior intralaminar nucleus of the thalamus (PIL) (Barth and MacDonald 1996; Brett and Barth 1997;Sukov and Barth 1998). While these studies were conducted in ketamine anesthetized animals, where both spontaneous and evoked gamma oscillations may be enhanced, we have used PIL stimulation in this preparation to study the spatiotemporal organization of gamma oscillations in large neuronal networks at the extracellular level, recording from high spatial resolution multi-electrode arrays placed on the cortical surface (Barth and MacDonald 1996;Brett and Barth 1997) and linear electrode arrays spanning the cortical laminae (Sukov and Barth 1998). The present study used PIL stimulation to investigate the cellular mechanisms of thalamically evoked gamma oscillations in auditory cortex by relating measurements of extracellular field potentials to simultaneously recorded intracellular responses in the ketamine anesthetized rat. Our specific objectives were to identify cells in specific cortical laminae that participate in evoked gamma oscillations, to characterize participating cells using depolarizing current injection to determine if they define a specific cell class displaying endogenous membrane properties conducive to oscillations in the gamma frequency range, and to determine the influence PIL inputs have on cortical neurons that gives rise to the evoked gamma response.
Surgical preparation
All procedures were performed in accordance with University of Colorado Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee guidelines for the humane use of laboratory animals in biological research. Male Sprague-Dawley rats (250–350 g) were anesthetized to surgical levels using intramuscular injections of ketamine HCl (100 mg/kg) and xylazine (25 mg/kg) and secured in a stereotaxic frame. A unilateral craniotomy extending from bregma to lambda and lateral to the temporal bone was performed over the right hemisphere, exposing a wide region of parietotemporal cortex from which the dura was reflected. The exposed cortical surface was regularly bathed with physiological saline and body temperature maintained using a regulated heating pad. Additional ketamine and xylazine were administered as required to maintain a level of anesthesia such that the corneal reflex could barely be elicited. Animals were killed without regaining consciousness by anesthesia overdose at the conclusion of the experiment.
Auditory click stimuli were presented using a high-frequency piezo-electric speaker placed ∼15 cm lateral to the contralateral ear. Clicks were generated by computer-controlled monophasic square-wave pulses (0.3 ms), which were shown in previous studies to activate most of auditory cortex in the rat. Subcortical electrical stimulation consisted of 500-ms trains of current pulses (10–15 μA; 0.5-ms pulse-width; 1,000 Hz) delivered with a stainless steel bipolar electrode positioned in the PIL (4.8 mm posterior to bregma, 3.0 mm lateral to midline, 6.4 mm ventral to the cortical surface).
Field potential recording
Epipial maps of the auditory evoked potential (AEP) complex were recorded using a flat multi-channel electrode array consisting of 64 silver wires arranged in a 8 × 8 grid (tip diameter: 100 μm; inter-electrode spacing: 500 μm) covering a 3.5 × 3.5 mm area of the cortical surface in a single placement (see Fig.1 A). Click stimulation resulted in a highly repeatable averaged surface response (n = 100) whose spatial distribution was used to consistently position the electrode array across animals. Epipial potentials were referenced to a silver ball electrode secured over the contralateral frontal bone and were simultaneously amplified (×1,000), analog filtered (band-pass cutoff = −6 dB at 0.001–5000 Hz, roll-off = 5 dB/octave) and digitized at 10 kHz. Following AEP mapping, the surface response during electrical stimulation of the PIL was recorded to determine the locus of maximum-evoked gamma oscillations. The electrode array was then removed, and a small Plexiglas stabilizing plate was brought in contact with the pia that contained a 0.5-mm access hole centered over the region of PIL-evoked gamma oscillations for subsequent intracellular recording. A single silver-wire electrode was mounted in the immediate periphery of the access hole to simultaneously monitor evoked responses at the cortical surface.
Intracellular recording
Intracellular recordings were obtained using glass micropipettes pulled from thin-walled (1.0 mm) aluminosilicate glass (tip diameter = 0.05 μm). In most penetrations, electrodes were filled with 2.0 M K+-acetate so that both action potentials (APs) and postsynaptic potentials (PSPs) could be recorded. In some penetrations, electrodes were filled with 100 mM lidocaine andN-ethyl bromide quaternary salt (QX-314; Research Biochemicals, Natick, MA) in 2.0 M K+-acetate that was iontophoretically ejected into the cell by applying 100-ms depolarizing pulses of 2.0 nA at 2.0 Hz until all APs were blocked (Connors and Prince 1982). The in vivo impedance of electrodes ranged from 110 to 140 MΩ. Recording and current injection was performed using an Axoclamp 2-A amplifier (Axon Instruments) equipped with a 0.1 gain head-stage (Axon Instruments Model HS-2A). Micropipettes were advanced perpendicularly into the cortex in 0.5-μm increments (100 mm/s) using a piezo translator compensated with a motor drive (Märzhäuser PM-10) equipped with a micrometer which indicated the depth of the electrode tip. Criteria for an acceptable cell impalement were a resting membrane potential of at least −60 mV maintained for ≥30 min required to collect single trial data and obtain satisfactory characterization of the cell using depolarizing current pulses (McCormick et al. 1985) and action potential heights of ≥70 mV and half-amplitude action potential widths of no more than 2.0 Ms. In cells receiving QX-314, characterization was performed immediately on penetration prior to AP blockade. In cells not receiving QX-314, characterization was performed after all other responses had been recorded. Hyperpolarizing currents up to −0.5 nA were applied on initial cell penetration and were maintained for ∼5 min, until the membrane potential stabilized. All subsequent recordings were performed with no hyperpolarizing holding currents. When a stable cell impalement was obtained, 1-s trials (n = 50–100) were recorded during PIL stimulation (250-ms baseline followed by 500-ms stimulus train). Intracellular and surface records were low-pass filtered at 3 kHz (−6 dB at 3 kHz, roll-off = 5 dB/octave), digitized at 10 kHz, and stored for subsequent analysis.
Figure 1 depicts methods for mapping the AEP complex at the cortical surface to determine the locations of primary (area 41) and secondary (areas 36 and 20) (Krieg 1946) auditory cortex prior to intracellular recording (Fig. 1 A). The AEP in all animals began with a positive/negative fast wave (Fig. 1 C; P1/N1) that was of largest amplitude and shortest poststimulus latency over area 41 (Fig. 1 C, solid trace; Fig.1 B), and smaller amplitude with a delay of ∼5 ms over area 36 (Fig. 1 C, dashed trace; Fig. 1 B). This spatial and temporal pattern was similar to previous studies (Barth and Di 1990) and permitted consistent alignment of the electrode array across animals.
Similar to the AEP, electrical stimulation of the PIL also produced an initial biphasic response at the cortical surface. However, this was followed by large-amplitude (∼0.5 mV) oscillations in the gamma frequency band [37.9 ± 0.16 (SE) Hz, n = 15] that lasted the duration of the 0.5-s stimulus train (Fig. 1,D and E). As reported in previous studies (Barth and MacDonald 1996; Brett and Barth 1997; Sukov and Barth 1998), gamma oscillations evoked by PIL stimulation were typically superimposed on a negative offset [−0.2 ± 0.08 (SE) mV, n = 15] compared with the prestimulus baseline (Fig. 1 E). While evoked gamma oscillations were evident in all areas of auditory cortex, they were of largest amplitude in a region straddling the border of areas 41 and 20 (Fig. 1 D, dashed box), slightly caudal to the locus of the maximum amplitude of the AEP. Following surface mapping, the array was removed and the location of maximum evoked gamma oscillations stereotaxically targeted for subsequent single channel intra- and extracellular recording.
Stable intracellular recordings were obtained from 46 cells in 21 animals. Most of these cells (n = 45) characterized as regular spiking (RS). A cell was classified as RS if in response to the injection of a depolarizing current pulse (0.5–1.0 nA; 500 ms), it fired a train of APs exhibiting strong spike frequency adaptation with half-amplitude AP width >0.5 ms [average half-amplitude spike width was 1.2 ± 0.2 (SD) ms; average spike height was 78 ± 12 (SD) mV] (Connors and Gutnick 1990; McCormick et al. 1985). One cell was classified as a fast spiking (FS) neuron. This classification was based on its distinctly narrow APs (<0.5-ms half-amplitude width) (Connors and Gutnick 1990; McCormick et al. 1985; Simons 1978; Simons and Woolsey 1979) and capacity for very high-frequency spontaneous and evoked AP discharge (>200 Hz) (Jones et al. 2000; Simons 1978;Simons and Woolsey 1979). No cells displayed firing patterns typical of intrinsic bursting (IB) cells during current injection. However, while all cells receiving QX-314 characterized as RS cells, their identity cannot be established with absolute certainty due to possible subtle effects of QX-314 immediately on penetration. RS cells were distributed uniformly throughout the supra (n = 21)- and infragranular (n = 24) layers. The FS cell was located at a depth of 550 μm below the cortical surface.
All RS cells responded to PIL stimulation with a steady depolarization [+13.3 ± 1.8 (SE) mV] from resting membrane potential (Fig.2 B). This began abruptly at stimulus onset, remained approximately flat for the 500-ms stimulus duration, and usually required 50–200 ms to return to baseline following the stimulus. Of the 26 RS cells not receiving QX-314, 22 displayed multiple APs [6.2 ± 0.98 (SE)] per trial during PIL-evoked depolarization (the first 50 ms following stimulus onset, associated with the extracellular P1/N1 wave, were excluded from analysis). Visual examination of individual trials suggested that the APs of a given cell maintained a consistent phase relationship with the evoked gamma oscillations recorded at the cortical surface (Fig.2 A). This relationship was examined by computing cumulative time histograms (CTH) of AP latency time-locked to successive gamma waves in the surface record. The positive amplitude peaks of surface gamma waves were determined automatically using a peak-seeking algorithm (Barth and MacDonald 1996; Sukov and Barth 1998) and used as a reference for computing time-locked average extracellular gamma oscillations and associated CTH. To limit noise, only gamma waves exceeding 1 SD from the mean, computed across all single trials for a given animal, were included (Fig.2 A; ↓). Figure 2 C depicts a single cycle of time-locked gamma oscillation averaged in this way (n = 1,059 gamma waves) and superimposed on the associated CTH (n = 992 APs) for an RS cell located at a depth of 950 μm below the cortical surface. The averaged extracellular gamma oscillation is displayed as a solid trace peaking at 0.0 ms, and again as a dashed trace, shifted to align with peaks of the CTH for comparison. The CTH indicated that APs were tightly time-locked to the surface oscillations with a similar periodicity. The cross-correlation function between the averaged gamma oscillation and CTH (Fig.2 D) revealed a dominant period of 24 ms (42 Hz), APs delayed by 8 ms relative to the positive amplitude peak of the surface response, and a maximum cross-correlation coefficient (ρxy) of 0.96 (P < 0.01; based on the Fisher z transform of ρxy referred to a normal distribution) (Otnes and Enochson 1978). Figure 2,E–H, shows results for two additional cells at depths of 110 and 800 μm, respectively, indicating similar periodicity and phase-locking between the surface and intracellular records and suggesting no laminar specificity to this relationship. In all, 17 of the 22 RS cells that produced APs in response to stimulation of the PIL did so in a periodic fashion that was significantly correlated with extracellular gamma oscillations (ρxy = 0.51–0.96;P < 0.01; Table 1). The laminar distribution of correlated cells was uniform with no apparent predominance in either the supragranular or infragranular layers. Time lags between the CTH and averaged gamma oscillations were generally earlier in the supragranular (−4 ms) compared with the infragranular layers (+1.1 ms) layers, but this difference was not significant (P > 0.05).
Figure 3 depicts FS cell responses during PIL stimulation. Similar to RS cells, the FS cell responded with a steady depolarization but of lower amplitude (∼6.0 mV) and building slowly throughout the stimulation period. Superimposed on the steady depolarization were trains of thin (<0.5 ms) APs that were far more numerous per trial than those observed in RS cells (Fig.3 B). While observation of raw records suggested that APs were equally probable at all phases of the averaged surface gamma oscillations (Fig. 3, A and B), the CTH indicated a distinct periodicity that was time-locked to the averaged surface gamma oscillation (Fig. 3 C) with a significant correlation (ρxy = 0.64; P < 0.01) at a lag of −7 ms.
During most trials, depolarizing steady potentials in RS cells during PIL stimulation were also accompanied by smaller-amplitude (∼5–10 mV) deflections, suggestive of synchronized postsynaptic potentials (PSP) recordable at the soma (Fig.4 A; dashed box). To examine the relationship between these subthreshold potentials (STP) and extracellular gamma oscillations, each trace was median-filtered (Fig.4 B) and digitally smoothed (Fig. 4 C). Median-filtering is a nonlinear digital technique that was used in the present context to truncate APs, leaving an approximation of the depolarizing potentials that trigger them (Gray and McCormick 1996). This method has little effect on the morphology of STPs and permits combined averaging without distortion due to APs. STPs, derived in this way, appeared phase-locked to surface gamma oscillations in the raw record (Fig. 4 D). This was confirmed by computing averaged STPs, time-locked to the peaks of surface gamma waves (Fig. 4 E). The data shown in Fig. 4 are from the same cell (c950) depicted in Fig. 2, A–D. The averaged STP (Fig. 4 E; dark trace) maintained an 8-ms delay in relationship to the averaged gamma oscillation (Fig.4 E; light trace) with a cross-correlation function (Fig. 4 F; solid trace) that was nearly identical to that computed for the CTH alone in this cell (Fig.4 F; dashed trace). The averaged STPs of 24 cells were significantly correlated with averaged extracellular gamma oscillations (ρxy = 0.51–0.96; P < 0.01; Table 1). Seventeen of these cells also had CTHs that were significantly correlated with extracellular gamma oscillations (Table1). Similar to the CTH, time lags between the averaged STPs and averaged gamma oscillations were earlier in the supragranular (−1.27 ms) compared with the infragranular layers (+2.38 ms) layers; but, again, this difference was not significant (P > 0.05). However, phase lags of the CTH and averaged STPs in these cells were significantly correlated (rxy = 0.96;P < 0.01).
The previous analysis averaged true STPs with those derived from suprathreshold events by median-filtering. The necessary inclusion of derived STPs in the analysis no doubt influenced the similarity between temporal characteristics of these averages and previously computed CTHs in the same cells. However, two cells (Table 1; c70 andc460) produced no APs during PIL stimulation. Yet they still displayed averaged STPs that were significantly correlated with surface gamma oscillations, suggesting that STPs are produced by synchronized postsynaptic currents and are not dependent on AP discharge in a given cell. To further explore this possibility, 19 additional cells were injected with QX-314 to block APs during recording. Figure5 shows a particularly interesting example because in this cell the QX-314 took effect gradually, making it possible to study both APs and subsequent STPs during evoked gamma oscillations in the same cell. Within ∼30 s after cell penetration, APs were already of reduced amplitude (Fig. 5 B). Their peaks appeared to be aligned with the troughs of gamma oscillations in the surface record, observable on individual trials (Fig. 5 A), and in the CTH (Fig. 5 C) and cross-correlation function (Fig. 5 D). After ∼10 min, the QX-314 had completely suppressed all APs. STPs were still clear in the raw record (Fig.5 F) and appeared time-locked to the evoked gamma oscillations at the surface (Fig. 5 E). Time-locked averaging (Fig. 5 G) and cross-correlation (Fig. 5 H) indicated a common periodicity and timing between STPs and extracellular gamma oscillations that was nearly identical to that of APs before their suppression. Analysis of the remaining 18 cells with QX-314 was performed after complete AP blockade. All responded to PIL stimulation with depolarizing shifts [14.2 ± 2.1 (SE) mV] and 17 had averaged STPs significantly correlated with surface gamma oscillations (ρxy = 0.56–0.95; P < 0.01; Table 2).
While PIL stimulation consistently produced steady depolarizing intracellular potentials accompanied by both APs and STPs time-locked to extracellular gamma oscillations, the injection of intracellular current did not produce noticeable sub- or suprathreshold activity in the gamma frequency range. RS cells generated trains of APs with frequencies <100 Hz at large (1.0 nA) levels of current injection and with marked frequency adaptation occurring within the first 100 ms of current onset (Fig. 6 A). AP frequency varied with the level of depolarizing current and showed no apparent preference for gamma frequencies, but this was not systematically studied. However, PIL stimulation during smaller current injections (0.75 nA) typically produced an increase in AP frequency with concurrent time-locking of the AP to surface-evoked gamma oscillations and little further depolarization beyond that produced by the injected current (Fig. 6 B). When APs were blocked with QX-314, current injections produced equivalent depolarizations but without consistent STPs (Fig. 6 C). The occurrence of STPs in these cells invariably coincided with spontaneous surface extracellular gamma oscillations or with PIL-evoked gamma oscillations, suggesting that they were not produced by endogenous oscillatory properties of the depolarized membrane but were instead exogenously derived PSPs, accentuated by movement of the membrane potential away from resting levels during current injection.
The PIL is part of a system of intralaminar and midline thalamic nuclei that provide what have been considered to be nonspecific projections to the cortex (Herkenham 1986; Jones 1985), a designation inspired by their widespread afferent input and cortical projection fields (Macchi and Bentivoglio 1986). However, improved tracing methods have revealed that the projection fields of certain intralaminar nuclei in the rodent, including the PIL, are far more specific than previously thought (Berendse and Groenewegen 1991; Linke 1999). The PIL may be considered to be a distinct part of the ascending auditory pathway in the rat, receiving its major afferent input from the inferior colliculus (Arnault and Roger 1987; Ledoux et al. 1987) and sharing reciprocal connections with the ventrotemporal cortex (Arnault and Roger 1987, 1990; Linke 1999). Maps of the epipial response to electrical stimulation of the PIL presented here replicate earlier findings (Barth and MacDonald 1996; Brett and Barth 1997; Sukov and Barth 1998) and provide functional evidence for a localized evoked response in register with these anatomically defined recipient zones for PIL projections to primary and secondary auditory cortex.
Despite the specificity of cortical projections from the PIL, its apparent influence on cortical excitability remains consistent with the earliest views of the intralaminar nuclei as modulatory (Lorente de Nó 1949), a view based on anatomical evidence for termination of nonspecific thalamocortical projections in the supragranular cortical laminae (Berendse and Groenewegen 1991; Cunningham and Levay 1986;Herkenham 1980; Linke 1999) and on functional evidence for their activating influence as measured in the electroencephalogram (Dempsey and Morison 1942). Prolonged stimulation of the PIL produces a steady and focal increase in the excitability of cells within auditory cortex. The increased excitability is apparent as a steady depolarization recorded intracellularly in all cells of the present study as well as a steady negative potential shift recorded extracellularly at the cortical surface. Extracellular recordings, performed with laminar electrodes, demonstrate that the PIL-evoked surface negative shift reverses polarity in the depth (Sukov and Barth 1998), a pattern expected from an equivalent current dipole oriented perpendicular to the cortical surface. This dipolar pattern indicates that the shift is produced intracortically, as opposed to reflecting volume conducted potentials from subcortical structures, and that it is produced by synchronized PSPs in the parallel apical dendrites of large populations of cortical pyramidal cells (Barth et al. 1989;Mitzdorf 1985; Sukov and Barth 1998). Combined with the present demonstration that PIL stimulation results in prolonged intracellular depolarization, it is likely that the extracellular surface negativity reflects summed excitatory PSPs imposed on the distal ends of apical dendrites, an observation that is consistent with the predominant synaptic termination of PIL fibers in layer I of temporal cortex (Linke 1999).
It is interesting that infragranular RS cells display PIL-evoked depolarization as consistently as those in the supragranular layers despite the fact that, at least in primary auditory cortex of the rat, the apical dendrites of RS cells are shorter than those of electrophysiologically identified IB cells that have extensive arborizations in layer I (Hefti and Smith 2000). There are perhaps three factors contributing to this result. First, infragranular apical dendrites can reach layer I even though their arborizations are far less extensive than IB cells. Second, it is notable that our focus of maximum PIL-evoked gamma activity is not directly within primary auditory cortex but is instead at the caudal and lateral border, a region that may contain infragranular RS cells with more extensive dendritic projections to layer I and a region that may receive distinct PIL projections to both layer I and layers III/IV (Linke 1999). Finally, as noted earlier, while all cells receiving injections of QX-314 characterized as putative RS cells during depolarizing current injection, their identity cannot be established with absolute certainty due to possible subtle effects of QX-314 immediately on penetration. Thus some IB cells may have been included in this group.
Accompanying the steady depolarization evoked in auditory cortex by PIL stimulation are oscillations of extracellular membrane potential in the gamma frequency band that suggest a role for the thalamus in their neurogenesis. There is now abundant evidence that gamma-band oscillatory rhythms are not a unique property of cortex and may be found in the lateral geniculate nucleus (Ghose and Freeman 1992; however, also see Gray et al. 1989), the ventroposterior and ventrolateral nuclei (Steriade et al. 1996b), the thalamic reticular nucleus (Pinault and Deschênes 1992; Steriade et al. 1996b), as well as the centrolateral nucleus of the intralaminar group (Steriade et al. 1993). More importantly, synchronization of gamma oscillations has been reported in thalamocortical networks during anesthesia, resting sleep, and during behavioral arousal (Steriade et al. 1996b). Yet while thalamocortical and reciprocal corticothalamic circuits can become synchronized during gamma oscillations, this synchronization is not required for gamma neurogenesis in cortex. Spontaneous gamma oscillations persist in auditory cortex after total destruction of the PIL (MacDonald et al. 1998) and following widespread lesioning of the acoustic thalamus capable of completely eliminating the AEP complex (Brett and Barth 1996). Similarly, gamma oscillations in rat auditory cortex have been observed in vitro following electrical stimulation of the superior thalamic radiation in thin slices (400 μm) with no intact thalamocortical link (Metherate and Cruikshank 1999), in slices of rat cortex with more limited portions of cortical circuits intact (Chagnac-Amitai and Connors 1989; Whittington et al. 1995), and in cortical cultures with no extrinsic inputs (Plenz and Kitai 1996). Thus it is not likely that the PIL serves as a pacemaker for cortical gamma oscillations but instead plays a modulatory role, providing a source of excitation that activates intrinsic cortical oscillatory mechanisms.
There have been several recent reports that have proposed putative cellular generators of gamma oscillations in the cortex (Gray and McCormick 1996; Silva et al. 1991;Steriade et al. 1998; for a review see Traub et al. 1999). Each has identified a unique pyramidal cell type that possesses intrinsic membrane properties producing AP bursts with periodicity in the gamma frequency band. A distinct class of cells in the supragranular layers of cat visual cortex, termed "chattering cells" (CH), intrinsically generate 20- to 70-Hz repetitive burst firing in response to depolarizing current injection and exhibit similar burst firing associated with membrane oscillations during visual stimulation (Gray and McCormick 1996). Fast-rhythmic bursting (FRB) cells, discovered in the supra- and infragranular layers of cat motor and association cortex, display dynamic responses to depolarizing current injection, ranging from rhythmic bursting (30–40 Hz) during moderate levels of stimulation to higher-frequency tonic firing with increased current levels (Steriade et al. 1998). FRB cells were identified as both pyramidal as well as sparsy spiny interneurons. A separate group of layer V pyramidal neurons have also been identified in rat sensorimotor cortex that display intrinsic rhythmicity near gamma frequencies when sufficiently depolarized (Silva et al. 1991). Putative inhibitory interneurons have also been identified with intrinsic oscillatory properties in the gamma frequency range (Llinás et al. 1991).
Yet while each of these distinct cell types clearly participates in cortical gamma oscillations, none have been shown to represent an essential intracortical generator across species or sensory modalities. CH and FRB cells have not been observed in in vivo studies of rat sensory cortex (Jones et al. 2000; Zhu and Connors 1999). The present results indicate no cells in any of the cortical layers that respond to depolarizing current injection with phasic gamma frequency AP bursts suggestive of intrinsic oscillatory properties. This, despite the fact that these recordings were performed in a highly active generator of evoked and spontaneous gamma oscillations in the rodent cortex (Barth and MacDonald 1996; Brett and Barth 1996, 1997;Franowicz and Barth 1995; MacDonald and Barth 1995; MacDonald et al. 1996). Furthermore when APs in cells of the supra- and infragranular layers were blocked with QX-314, none revealed endogenous membrane oscillations during depolarizing current injection even at quite large (∼2.0 nA) levels of excitation (Fig. 6 C). However, CH cells require suprathreshold activation to exhibit intrinsic oscillations (Gray and McCormick 1996) and therefore would not be detected with QX-314.
It is possible that our failure to identify any cells with endogenous membrane properties producing AP bursts in the gamma frequency range can be explained by sampling error. However, this seems unlikely for three reasons. First, given the percentage of FRB (28%), CH (34%), and intrinsically bursting layer V cells (59% in deep layer V) reported previously, we should have encountered a similar percentage here that belonged to one or more of these classes, if they exist in rat auditory cortex in same ratio. Second, CH, FRB, and layer V bursting cells have been described as morphologically similar to RS pyramidal cells with large soma that should present little challenge to penetration with sharp electrodes used here. Finally, in a previous study (Jones et al. 2000), we used similar methods to examine rodent vibrissa/barrel cortex, also a very active generator of stimulus-evoked and spontaneous gamma oscillations in the anesthetized (MacDonald and Barth 1995; MacDonald et al. 1996) and unanesthetized animal (Jones and Barth 1997). Stable in vivo recordings were obtained from RS (n = 58), FS (n = 4), and IB (n = 5) cells, none of which produced intrinsic gamma oscillations or AP bursts in response to a range of depolarizing currents. However, it should be noted that the subset of FRB cells that are sparsy spiny (Steriade et al. 1998), and thus probably interneurons, and intrinsically oscillatory interneurons (Llinás et al. 1991), may have been undersampled by our present recordings given that we were able to capture only a single FS cell, which has a similarly small soma.
While none of the cells in the present study produced independent gamma oscillations when depolarized artificially, nearly all displayed APs and subthreshold PSPs time-locked to epipial gamma oscillations when the entire population was tonically depolarized by stimulation of the PIL. The simplest explanation for this result is that gamma oscillations are an emergent property of circuit interactions between cortical cells when mutually excited and do not require an intrinsic pacemaker for their neurogenesis. This conclusion is consistent with computer models of large-scale neural systems that emphasize the importance of network interactions in the generation of fast oscillations (Lumer et al. 1997). Neural modeling demonstrates that while gamma oscillations may persist in the absence of cortico-thalamic projections, they are markedly suppressed by removing either back-projections from supra- to infragranular layers or forward projections from the infragranular layers to the granular and supragranular layers. These interlaminar loops provide a mechanism of high-gain amplification capable of driving local cortical networks into fast oscillations. The predicted influence of reciprocal excitatory connections between supra- and infragranular pyramidal cells in the genesis of gamma oscillations is in agreement with the present demonstration of APs and PSPs in both laminae that are tightly time-locked to the population response. It is also in agreement with previous laminar analysis of PIL-evoked gamma oscillations in auditory cortex, indicating fast rhythmic interactions between supra- and infragranular pyramidal cell groups. These appear to be a repetition of the biphasic P1/N1 wave that characterizes the sensory evoked potential complex, with an average 6 ms time lag between gamma waves in the supra- and infragranular layers, producing a 90° phase shift at 40 Hz that is optimal for resonance if the coupled circuits approximate a driven oscillator (Sukov and Barth 1998).
Our results also suggest that inhibitory cells participate in the generation of cortical gamma oscillations. The FS cell we were able to study during PIL stimulation displayed high-frequency APs, both spontaneously and during all phases of evoked surface gamma oscillations. However, CTH and cross-correlation analysis revealed a periodic fluctuation in AP probability that was time-locked to the averaged population gamma wave. FS cells in neocortex have been identified as sparsely-spiny or smooth GABAergic inhibitory interneurons (Kawaguchi 1993; McCormick et al. 1985). Since these cells receive input from both supra- and infragranular pyramidal cells, it is not surprising that their APs are time-locked to the evoked gamma response, a result that does not necessarily imply direct involvement in its neurogenesis. While our data include only a single FS cell and are therefore inconclusive on their own, they are in agreement with in vitro evidence obtained from slices of rat hippocampus (Whittington et al. 1995), guinea pig frontal cortex (Llinás 1992;Llinás et al. 1991), mouse somatosensory cortex (Buhl et al. 1998), and in cortical cultures (Plenz and Kitai 1996), indicating an important role for inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) in phasing the suprathreshold activity of pyramidal cells during gamma oscillations. Of particular interest are the results from somatosensory cortex, which demonstrate that GABAergic IPSPs phase, rather than evoke, APs in pyramidal cells (Buhl et al. 1998); tonic depolarization of the pyramidal cell population close to threshold is required before gamma oscillations can be produced. Whereas in vitro, tonic depolarization must be established artificially, using kainate or elevated K+, in vivo, the PIL may serve as a key source of tonic depolarization, inducing reciprocal excitatory and inhibitory neural networks to rhythmic firing.
The putative cortical circuit responsible for gamma oscillations indicated by the present results, and the findings of our previous laminar analysis of PIL-evoked gamma oscillations, is shown in Fig.7. Prolonged stimulation of the PIL results in tonic depolarization of the distal apical dendrites of both supra- and infragranular pyramidal cells (Fig. 7 A). This produces an extracellular current sink near the cortical surface, recorded as a steady negative potential shift in the epipial population response, accompanied by steady depolarization of both populations of pyramidal cells. As the pyramidal cells begin to fire APs, two reciprocal circuits are engaged to phase these discharges at the gamma frequency. The first involves intralaminar negative feedback between the pyramidal cells and respective inhibitory interneurons (Fig.7 B), producing excitatory/inhibitory interactions that may serve as a pacemaker for gamma oscillations. The second involves reciprocal excitatory interlaminar interactions between the two pyramidal cell populations (Fig. 7 C). This may serve as a pacemaker by itself but may also establish spatial and temporal patterns of oscillatory interactions along the vertical cortical axis with outputs capable of synchronizing more distal cell populations in cortex (Fig. 7 D) and thalamus (Fig. 7 E).
This model fits the present results using constituent circuit elements and connections that are not specific to auditory cortex or to the rodent. If the neural interactions responsible for cortical gamma oscillations are indeed a repetitive realization of interactions giving rise to middle latency components of the classic evoked potential complex (Basar et al. 1987; Sukov and Barth 1998), it may be assumed that they possess the same inter-areal and -species similarities as the archetypal transient evoked response (Steriade 1984). However, unlike the transient evoked response, gamma oscillations require a prolonged source of excitatory drive to the principle neurons. The source of mutual excitation may be regional, such as that provided by PIL stimulation, serving the function of selective arousal of auditory cortex and consistent with a view of the intralaminar thalamus as focal and probably modality specific modulator of cortical excitability. Mutual excitation may also be far more specific, such as that produced when the cells of functionally related cortical columns are concurrently excited by a common preferred stimulus, producing locally synchronized gamma oscillations (Singer and Gray 1995). This model does not rule out the participation of cells with specialized membrane properties favoring synaptic drive in the gamma frequency range. Cells with endogenous oscillatory characteristics may be seen not as essential generators of cortical gamma oscillations but as preferentially tuned recipients, responding to and perhaps enhancing patterned and transient synchronization of activity in subpopulations of cells within sensory cortex during information processing.
We thank M. Jones and B. Brett-Green for critical comments on the manuscript.
This research was supported by Whitehall Foundation Grant S-97-06 and National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke Grant 1 R01 NS-36981.
Address for reprint requests: D. S. Barth, Dept. of Psychology, University of Colorado, Campus Box 345, Boulder, CO 80309-0345 (E-mail:dbarth{at}psych.colorado.edu).
- Copyright © 2001 The American Physiological Society


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