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We report the discovery of Juchilestes liaoningensis, a new genus and species of eutriconodont mammal from the Lujiatun Site of the Lower Cretaceous Yixian Formation (123.2 ± 1.0 Ma; Lower Aptian). The holotype preserves a partial skull and full dentition. Among eutriconodonts, its lower dentition is similar to taxa formerly assigned to the paraphyletic group of 'amphilestids'. Some have considered 'amphilestid' molars to represent the structural intermediate between the lower molars of the 'triconodont' pattern of cusps in alignment and the fully triangulate and more derived therian molars. However, 'amphilestid' taxa were previously represented only by the lower dentition. Our study reveals, for the first time, the upper dentition and skull structure of an 'amphilestid', and shows that at least some eutriconodonts have an obtuse-angled cusp pattern on molars in middle positions of the long molar series. Its petrosal is similar to those of other eutriconodonts and spalacotheroid 'symmetrodonts'. Our phylogenetic analyses suggest that (i) Juchilestes is most closely related to the Early Cretaceous Hakusanodon from Japan, in the same Eastern Asiatic geographic region; (ii) 'amphilestids' are not monophyletic; and (iii) eutriconodonts might not be a monophyletic group, although this hypothesis must be further tested.
1. Introduction
In the last twenty years, the study of early mammalian evolution has undergone a renaissance thanks to discoveries of remarkably complete fossils and the use of high-resolution imaging technology to interpret these fossils (e.g. Jenkins & Schaff 1988; Ji et al. 1999; Meng et al. 2006; Luo et al. 2007a,b). The new cranial and postcranial data have broadened our anatomic, taxonomic and palaeoecological views of Mesozoic mammals and led to major revisions of traditional hypotheses on phylogenetic relationships and morphological transformations, which previously hinged on fragmentary jaws and isolated teeth (e.g. Kielan-Jaworowska et al. 2004; Luo 2007).
A persisting problem concerns 'amphilestid'-like eutriconodont mammals, a group that was previously regarded by some to be crucial to Mesozoic mammal dental evolution. 'Triconodont' mammals possess a molar pattern of three main cusps in a mesiodistal line on a laterally compressed crown, a primitive arrangement also found in some non-mammalian cynodonts (Hopson 1994; Kemp 2005). Before the 1940s, 'triconodont' mammals were known from only the Middle to Late Jurassic (e.g. Simpson 1928, 1929). Since then, mammaliaforms with 'triconodont'-like teeth have been discovered in the Late Triassic, Early Jurassic and Cretaceous (e.g. Parrington 1941; Jenkins & Crompton 1979). With these discoveries, it has become clear that mammaliaforms with 'triconodont'-like teeth do not belong within a monophyletic unit (Kermack et al. 1973). The Late Triassic–Early Jurassic taxa were thus grouped in a new suborder of basal mammals (or mammaliaforms), the Morganucodonta, and the more advanced 'triconodonts' from the Middle Jurassic–Late Cretaceous, most of which are members of the classic group of Triconodonta (e.g. Simpson 1928, 1929), were resurrected as the Eutriconodonta and nested within crown Mammalia.
Among eutriconodonts, the amphilestids and triconodontids are the two main groups represented in the historical literature (Simpson 1928; Jenkins & Crompton 1979). They have mainly been distinguished by postcanine characteristics. The Amphilestidae have molars with one dominant central cusp, and two smaller subequal cusps on either side; molars that occlude at the embrasure of opposing molars; lower molars that lack a tongue-in-groove interlock; and premolars that tend to be symmetrical (Simpson 1928; Ji et al. 1999). They are known from the Middle Jurassic of Europe, the Late Jurassic of Asia, Africa and North America, the Early Cretaceous of Asia, and possibly the Early–Middle Jurassic of India and Middle Jurassic of South America (Kielan-Jaworowska et al. 2004; Averianov et al. 2005; Rougier et al. 2007a,b). In contrast, the Triconodontidae, from the Early Cretaceous of Europe and the Late Jurassic–Late Cretaceous of North America, have molars with three main cusps of subequal height. Two other families, the Gobiconodontidae and Jeholodentidae, have molars that are generally similar to amphilestids but are more robust in overall form. Gobiconodontids are known from the Early Cretaceous of Europe, Asia and North America (Kielan-Jaworowska et al. 2004), and jeholodentids are only known from the Early Cretaceous of Asia (Ji et al. 1999; Luo et al. 2007a).
Phylogenetic analyses that include eutriconodonts tend to show only weak support for the group and a labile position among Mesozoic mammals (Ji et al. 1999; Luo et al. 2002; Meng et al. 2003). As a result, the composition and arrangement of the Eutriconodonta have largely been considered provisional. In particular, the monophyly of the triconodontid and gobiconodontid families has been strongly supported, but taxa formerly assigned to the Amphilestidae have been scattered in different and even conflicting phylogenetic positions in recent analyses (Ji et al. 1999; Luo et al. 2002; Meng et al. 2006; Rougier et al. 2007b). Thus, the Amphilestidae, hereafter placed in quotation marks, is not considered a natural grouping and is probably a major source of the phylogenetic confusion. On the one hand 'amphilestids' have been proposed as a paraphyletic structural grade of basal eutriconodonts, and on the other hand as a composite group consisting of basal eutriconodonts and other taxa that are more closely related to more advanced mammals (e.g. spalacotheroid 'symmetrodonts') than to other eutriconodonts (Mills 1971; Rougier et al. 2007b).
A major gap in our knowledge of 'amphilestids' is that taxa formerly assigned to the group were known only by lower teeth, although Paikasigudodon, based on upper molariforms from the Early–Middle Jurassic of India, may be an 'amphilestid' (Prasad & Manhas 2002; Kielan-Jaworowska et al. 2004); the upper dentition and skull of 'amphilestids' are otherwise unknown. Here, we (i) describe, from the Lower Cretaceous Yixian Formation of northeastern China, a new eutriconodont skull that possesses 'amphilestid'-like lower postcanines and, importantly, offers information on the upper dentition and parts of the skull; (ii) present two phylogenetic analyses, one emphasizing a more thorough sampling of nearly all eutriconodonts by their mandibular and dental characters, and the other placing a few eutriconodonts among the broader mammaliaform phylogeny with a broader sampling of anatomical data outside jaws and teeth; and (iii) discuss the morphological and palaeobiogeographical implications of this new 'amphilestid'-like mammal.
2. Material and methods
The holotype specimen, D2607, was scanned on the OMNI-X Universal HD600 Scanner at the Center of Quantitative Imaging (CQI), Energy Institute, Pennsylvania State University, in State College, Pennsylvania, USA. Images have a 1024-pixel resolution of 0.04 × 0.04 × 0.046 mm3. Stacks of digital images were used to produce virtual renderings of the skull and dental morphology (figures 1 and 2), by the manual segmentation function of the Amira 4.1 software. Linear measurements were taken directly with ImageJ 1.41o® software. Phylogenetic analyses were performed with PAUP* 4.0b10 software.
3. Systematic palaeontology
Mammalia Linnaeus 1758
Order indeterminate
Family indeterminate
Juchilestes liaoningensis gen. et sp. nov.
(a) Etymology
Ju chi from the Chinese for sawtooth, in reference to the 'triconodont' postcanine pattern; lestes from the Greek word for robber, a common suffix for mammalian fossil taxa; liaoning in reference to the province in China where the specimen was discovered.
(b) Holotype
D2607 (Dalian Museum of Natural History, Dalian, Liaoning Province, China) is a crushed and somewhat distorted, three-dimensionally preserved skull with mandibles and cranium in articulation and associated hyoid elements affixed to a siltstone slab, ventral side up (figures 1 and 2). A few teeth, particularly from the left side of the skull, are missing or heavily damaged, as are aspects of the cranial roof and rostrum. The computed tomography (CT) scans detected no trace of unerupted teeth or replacement dental lamina in either the upper or lower jaws. By a number of morphological features indicative of ontogenetic growth, we interpret that D2607 represents a fully grown adult.
(c) Locality and horizon
The specimen was recovered in 2004 from the Lujiatun Site of the Yixian Formation Beipiao, western Liaoning Province, China. The Lujiatun Site is considered lower Aptian in age (Gradstein et al. 2004) and contains a tuff with a weighted-mean 40Ar/39Ar age of 123.2 ± 1.0 Ma (He et al. 2006).
(d) Diagnosis
Dentition I4, C1, P3, M5; i4, c1, p3, m6. Among all known eutriconodonts, Juchilestes liaoningensis is most similar to Hakusanodon archaeus from the Early Cretaceous of Japan (Rougier et al. 2007b) in having only three premolariforms, a conspicuous gradient of size decrease in the more posterior molars and almost identical profiles of molar cusps in lingual and buccal views. Juchilestes and Hakusanodon differ in that the ultimate premolar cusp b is taller than cusp c in the former, but c is taller than b in the latter; the main cusp a of the ultimate premolar is vertical in the former, but reclined posteriorly in the latter. The m2–4 of Juchilestes has a more pronounced (albeit still low and obtuse) triangulation of cusps than in Hakusanodon. Each of the postcanines is 16 to 20 per cent smaller in Hakusanodon than in Juchilestes. Autapomorphies of Juchilestes include columnar and high crowned canines, a raised and arcuate alveolar margin of the lower incisors, lanceolate posterior incisors and a distinctive para-maxillary crest (for M. buccinator) on the facial part of the maxilla parallel to the alveolar margin of the upper postcanines. Juchilestes differs from triconodontids and jeholodentids in that the upper posterior molars are not implanted on the zygomatic root of the maxilla, and in the embrasure occlusion of the upper and lower molars. Juchilestes differs from tinodontids with obtuse-angled molars in having a single-rooted, columnar and erect lower canine, instead of a two-rooted canine with a lower and conical profile of the latter.
4. Descriptions and comparisons
The mandibles, basicranium and right maxilla, exposed on the surface of the specimen slab, are in good condition; the remainder of the cranium is largely crushed, but some anatomical details are discernible. Here, we provide a detailed description of the mandibles, maxillae and dentition, and a preliminary description of other cranial elements. A more complete description of the latter will be published separately.
(a) Cranium
The cranium suffered post-mortem compression laterally and minor sideways distortion (figure 1a,b). The rostrum is short, about 25 per cent of the 41 mm total skull length. The premaxillae, nasals and septomaxillae on the dorsal and lateral surfaces of the anterior rostrum are indistinguishable as a multitude of tiny fragments. The fractured right maxilla preserves the entire alveolar margin, much of the facial portion and the orbital floor. Two large anterior infraorbital foramina are present at the level of the P3 and M2, respectively (figure 1a). The posterior infraorbital foramen appears to be positioned between the maxilla and the palatine in the orbit. Just above the alveolar margin of the maxilla, a prominent para-maxillary crest is present. This autapomorphic feature is interpreted as the site of attachment for the buccinator muscle and extends from the level of the M1 posterior to the anterior root of the zygoma. A slight longitudinal concavity is seen above this crest along the length of the maxilla. The anterior margin of the orbit is level with the M2. The zygomatic root of the maxilla contacts the anterior end of the jugal. The ventral border of this contact includes a prominent boss, which is also seen in the skulls of large gobiconodontids (e.g. Repenomamus; Meng et al. 2003). The right jugal is associated, probably in situ, with the zygomatic root of the maxilla, and continues posterodorsally as a thin, plate-like bone. In its intact position, the posterior part of the left jugal would have been dorsally overlapped by the squamosal zygoma. On the left side of the cranium, the zygomatic part of the squamosal shows the ventrally directed glenoid fossa with a constricted neck between the glenoid and the cranial moiety of the squamosal. The glenoid fossa is in articulation with a mediolaterally compressed dentary condyle. The two oval palatal fenestrae extend the length from P3 to M2 (figure 1e); this contrasts with the single merged vacuity of the triconodontid Priacodon (Simpson 1929). The posterior section of the maxilla–palatine suture is parallel to M2–M5, and then curves medially to end in the large palatal fenestra. The ventral margin of the internal choana recedes anteriorly so that the secondary bony palate margin is concave; its anterior-most point is level with M4, and its lateral parts extend laterally to the level of the M5. The palatal subtemporal margin between the internal choana and M5 is straight and obliquely oriented, and different from the much broader and deeper invaginations of the palatal margins lateral to the internal choanae of Priacodon. The condition of the subtemporal margin in Juchilestes is plesiomorphic, as it is also present in many mammaliaforms (Kermack et al. 1981; Crompton & Luo 1993). Priacodon is more derived, as are other 'non-amphilestid' triconodontids by extrapolation. The maxillary part of the bony palate lacks the occlusal pits for the tips of the lower molars that are seen in gobiconodontids.
(b) Petrosal
By both the virtual three-dimensional rendering of the petrosal (figure 1e) and the CT scan slices (not shown), the pars cochlearis can be seen to contain a straight and tubular cochlear canal that extends 80 per cent of the length of the promontorium. The interior space of the cochlear canal has no primary or secondary bony laminae. The internal acoustic foramen has a simple opening for the cochlear nerve, without a bony cribriform floor. Although the right promontorium has a breached surface, there is no doubt that it has a cylindrical and finger-like form. The broad lateral trough has a vertical medial wall formed by the promontorium, and a vertical lateral ridge. The floor of the lateral trough is completed anteriorly, to the pole of the promontorium. This suggests that the ventral floor for the cavum epiptericum (for the trigeminal nerve ganglion) would be very small or non-existent, as in triconodontids (e.g. Crompton & Luo 1993; Rougier et al. 1996). Within the floor of the lateral trough, the prootic canal opening is present, but the opening for the hiatus fallopi is not clearly discernible and is probably obscured by the minor fractures. We interpret that the channel for the superior ramus of the stapedial artery is incompletely preserved and represented by a notch. On the medial side, the foramen cochleare is present, but its relationship to the perilymphatic channel (or foramen) is not clear. The anterior lamina of the petrosal is partially preserved and forms a part of the lateral wall of the braincase. There are two foraminae for the mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve. At least one of these is completely encircled by the anterior lamina.
(c) Mandible
The dentary is robust. In lateral view (figure 2a,c), the ventral margin of the body is gently and uniformly convex, and has its maximum depth below m3–4. Anterior to the canine, the incisor alveolar margin of the symphyseal region of the dentary rises precipitously from the postcanine diastema (approx. 30° from horizontal). On the medial side (figure 2b,d), the symphyseal part of the mandible has a roughened surface that extends posteriorly to the level of the lower canine. More posteriorly, on the medial surface, a broad groove that housed Meckel's cartilage is evident just above the ventral margin of the body. It extends, in parallel to the ventral margin of the mandible, from the level of the mesial root of p3 to the pterygoid fossa. The posterior foramen of the mandibular canal is at the anterior margin of the poorly defined pterygoid fossa just dorsal to the Meckelian groove. Laterally, the body of the dentary preserves at least four mental foraminae: two small foraminae below the canine, one below the p2 and one below the p3 (figure 2a,c). The masseteric fossa is well excavated. Its anteroventral margin gently grades into the body of the dentary, without a distinctive boundary. The masseteric fossa does not extend anteriorly and below the tooth row. More dorsally, the anterior margin of the masseteric fossa is a thin, distinctive and vertical ridge along the anterior margin of the coronoid process. The ventral margin of the masseteric fossa also has a distinct ridge that flares laterally. On the left dentary, it appears that the posteroventral margin gently curves dorsally towards a mediolaterally compressed condyle, which lies in articulation with the glenoid fossa of the squamosal. Despite the fracture of the mandible, it appears that the dentary condyle is raised above the imaginary line of the alveoli. The coronoid process is tall with a pointed and recumbent dorsal angle. The anterior margin of the coronoid process forms an angle of approximately 123° with the tooth row at its junction with the body of mandible. Its posterior margin is concave, continuing ventrally as the supracondylar notch.
(d) Dentition
The dental formula of Juchilestes is 188.8.131.52/22.214.171.124. Dental measurements are presented in table S1 in the electronic supplementary material. Because D2607 is probably a fully grown adult (or nearly so), the CT scans detected no trace of unerupted teeth or replacement dental lamina in either the upper or lower jaws on both sides of the skull. Without ontogenetic replacement under the premolar(s) (Butler & Clemens 2001), a boundary between premolars and molars is determined by the contact between upper and lower postcanines, related wear patterns and root structure (see the electronic supplementary material).
Both right and left lower dentitions show four incisor loci, all incisor alveoli elevated above that of the canine (figure 2a,b). Three of four right lower incisors are preserved. All are slightly procumbent; the first two are small and pencillate; the third, represented by an alveolus, was probably similar in size; and the fourth is tall and lanceolate. The single-rooted canine has a tall, robust, vertically projecting and columnar crown. This morphology of the anterior dentition is seen in the 'amphilestid' Phascolotherium, but differs from the enlarged incisors and the reduced and procumbent canines of gobiconodontids (Kielan-Jaworowska et al. 2004). The lower canine is large but conical in the Triconodontidae (Simpson 1929; Kielan-Jaworowska et al. 2004) and conical, procumbent and small in the Jeholodentidae (Ji et al. 1999; Luo et al. 2007a).
The canine is separated from the postcanine dentition by a shallow, concave diastema (figure 2). CT data reveal that the diastema was produced by 'plugging' of alveoli of two roots of a single premolar (or two single-rooted premolars) via bone ingrowth. This condition has also been found in the 'amphilestids' Hakusanodon and Phascolotherium (Rougier et al. 2007b), as well as basal mammaliaforms (e.g. Sinoconodon; Crompton & Luo 1993).
Simpson (1928, 1929) recognized that the Triconodontinae (sensu stricto) have a more asymmetrical primary cusp a on premolars, in contrast to his Amphilestinae (sensu stricto), which have a more symmetrical primary cusp a on premolars. In addition, molars of 'amphilestids' are more symmetrical, with a taller primary cusp a than cusps b and c, in contrast to those of triconodontids with all three main cusps nearly equal in height. Molars of the 'amphilestid' pattern have embrasure occlusion in which the upper primary cusp A occludes between the two adjacent lower molars (Ji et al. 1999), whereas in the triconodontid pattern, the upper primary cusp A occludes between lower cusps b and a (Crompton 1974).
These 'amphilestid'-like features are plesiomorphic because they are also shared by the mammaliaform Kuehneotherium and the tinodontid 'symmetrodonts'. Nonetheless, the postcanines of Juchilestes exhibit many 'amphilestid'-like characters. The p2, supported by two cylindrical and slightly splayed roots (figure 2h), is situated on a gentle incline posterior to the diastema and lower than p3 and the molariforms. Its crown is laterally compressed and dominated by a main cusp (cusp a) that is slightly mesial to the midpoint of the crown (figure 2e,f). Cusps b and c are small and indistinct. Buccal and lingual cingulids are absent. The p3 is emplaced above p2 (on the same alveolar level as the molariforms) and separated from p2 by a small gap (figure 2a). The p3 is taller, longer and wider than p2; cusp b is distinctive from cusp a; cusp c is small and little more than an undulation on the distal ridge of cusp a; p3 possesses a faint, discontinuous lingual cingulid with incipient mesial and distal cusps e and d. Juchilestes is similar to Hakusanodon in having only three premolariforms, but Hakusanodon differs in that its ultimate premolariform cusp a is taller and posteriorly recumbent, and its cusp c is larger than cusp b.
The m1 differs from the preceding premolariform (p3) in its larger size (see table S1 in the electronic supplementary material), in that both roots are vertical (not splayed; figure 2h), and cusps b and c have distinct distal and mesial ridges, respectively (figure 2a,g). Of the main cusps of m1, cusp a is the tallest, followed by cusp b and then a slightly shorter cusp c. Cusps b and c are almost equally distant (therefore symmetrical) to cusp a, an arrangement previously considered a key 'amphilestid'-like feature (e.g. Simpson 1929; Jenkins & Crompton 1979). The height ratio of cusps b and c is otherwise only found in molariforms of Hakusanodon (Rougier et al. 2007b), the Late Jurassic Comodon from North America, and an unnamed 'amphilestid' from the Early Cretaceous of western Siberia (Averianov et al. 2005). In most eutriconodonts, cusps b and c are subequal in height. These cusps are also in a slightly lingual position relative to cusp a. This arrangement is accentuated by the buccally bulging base of cusp a. The buccal face of the crown thus appears convex, whereas the lingual face is vertical or slightly concave (figure 2e–g). An undulating cingulid extends along the lingual base of the crown terminating mesially with a small cusp e and distally with a small cusp d. There is no mesiobuccal cusp f. This distinguishes Juchilestes from the mammaliaform Kuehneotherium with cusp f. Contact between successive lower molars thus does not occur via a tongue-in-groove joint common among some triconodontids, jeholodentids and gobiconodontids, but seems to occur in an 'echelon' fashion that is also found in Hakusanodon (Rougier et al. 2007b), Phascolotherium and Amphilestes. The lingual face of cusp d on m1 overlaps the buccal face of the mesiolingual cusp e on m2. Cusp b on m1 shows heavier wear than those on the preceding p3 and the succeeding m2. Also, m1 shows more overall crown wear than m2. This indicates that m1 has had a longer functional life than either the adjacent premolariform (p3) or molariform (m2). By inference, m1 erupted earlier than p3 and m2. This is a typical pattern of mammalian diphyodont replacements, and perhaps the most reliable evidence for inferring the position of the first lower molariform, short of a direct detection of replacing dental lamina at the locus of the ultimate premolar in the nearly adult growth stage.
The m 2–5 is largely similar to m1, though some cusps have been blunted by breakage (figure 2e–g). The m1 and m2 are the two largest (longest) teeth, and the size of molariforms decreases slightly from m2 to m4 and more sharply from m4 to m6 (see table S1 in the electronic supplementary material). The m6 has a simplified morphology with three low main cusps, barely discernible accessory cusps d and e, and a faint and discontinuous lingual cingulid. The m6 is aligned with the mid-line of the coronoid process and is partially wedged into the front of the coronoid process, similar to Phascolotherium, Amphilestes and gobiconodontids in which the ultimate lower molar is in alignment with the coronoid process. However, in triconodontids and jeholodentids, the ultimate lower molar erupts medial to the anterior margin of the coronoid process.
The four upper incisor loci can be identified by their partial crowns or alveoli on the right premaxilla (figure 1c,e). The fragmentary first and second incisors are small and pencillate, and the intact third and fourth are taller and lanceolate. Posterior to the fourth incisor and on the lateral wall of the premaxilla is a vertical surface groove to accommodate the lower canine during occlusion. The upper canine is single-rooted and has a robust, laterally compressed crown that is slightly recurved along the length of its anterior margin. Its apex projects to near the ventral margin of the dentary. The canine root length is more than three-quarters of the crown height.
The upper postcanine row has three premolariforms and five molariforms (figure 1c,e). Among the few other eutriconodonts known from complete upper dentitions, the triconodontid Triconodon shares the same high number of postcanines, whereas other taxa, including Jeholodens, Yanoconodon, and the triconodontids Trioracodon and Priacodon, have fewer upper postcanines (Kielan-Jaworowska et al. 2004). In gobiconodontids, the postcanine row has more loci over the lifetime, but at any given stage of life there are fewer upper molariforms because of their highly unique mode of molariform replacement (Jenkins & Schaff 1988). A small, double-rooted P1 lies immediately posterior to the upper canine. The laterally compressed P1 crown has a blunted main cusp A just mesial to the midpoint; cusps B and C are not evident. The right P2 is about twice the length of P1. Its crown is laterally compressed with the low and centrally placed cusp A. The mesial ridge of cusp A is sloping dorsally to the cingular level where there is an undulation of the ridge at the cusp B position but without a distinctive cusp. The distal ridge of cusp A is raised halfway between cusp A and distal cingulum, and this bears some resemblance to cusp C. On P3, cusps B and C remain indistinct as little more than risings on the mesial and distal ridges from cusp A, but they are in a buccal position relative to cusp A. P3 and M1 show a trend toward an increasing lingual expansion at the base of cusp A and an obtuse triangulation of the mesial and distal ridges of cusp A.
On M1, the ridge between cusp A and cusp B and the ridge between cusp A and cusp C are slightly triangulate (figure 1d); this arrangement is also found to a lesser degree in the upper molariforms of the possible 'amphilestid' Paikasigudodon (Prasad & Manhas 2002). Cusp B is heavily worn down to a slight swelling, but cusp C remains distinctive: it is separated from cusp A by a valley and has a lingually expanded base. M1 has a continuous buccal cingulum that rises ventrally at its mesial and distal ends to slight swellings that represent cusps E and D, respectively. Owing to the development of the labial and lingual cingula, M1 is significantly wider than P2–3. The lingual cingulum has a pronounced point of convexity medio-anterior to cusp A, and a less pronounced point of convexity medial to cusp C. The two points of convexity correspond to the wide anterior and posterior roots below the crown. The buccal outline of M1 crown is slightly concave.
M2–3 have a much taller and more pronounced cusp B than M1, as well as a more distinctive and conical cusp C (figure 1d). At the two wide points corresponding to the anterior and the posterior roots, the cingular outline is progressively more convex on the lingual margin and concave on the buccal margin. This makes the ectoflexus opposite cusp A more prominent in the middle positions of the upper molar series. The buccal cingulum carries cusp E. M4 and M5 are in a slightly more internal position and rotated clockwise relative to the preceding molariforms. The crown of M4 has a simplified morphology relative to M2–3; cusp A is low, cusp B is closely approximated to cusp A, cusp C is barely discernible and the buccal margin is less concave. The M5 is further reduced; it is only half the length of the previous molars, and has an oval occlusal outline; cusp A is low, and cusps B and C are indistinct.
For the postcanine series as a whole, Juchilestes has embrasure occlusion in which the main cusp A of each upper molariform occludes between cusp c of the opposing lower molariform and cusp b of the succeeding lower molariform (figure 2h). Each molariform has two main shearing surfaces: the anterior facet (Crompton facet 1) supported by cusps A–B on the upper (cusps a–c on the lower), and the posterior facet (Crompton facet 2) supported by cusps A–C on the upper (cusps a–b on the lower; Crompton 1974). This two-to-one pattern of postcanine occlusion in Juchilestes is present in 'amphilestids', gobiconodontids and obtuse-angled 'symmetrodonts' (Crompton 1974; Kielan-Jaworowska et al. 2004; Luo et al. 2007a), but is very different from the one-to-one relationship seen in triconodontids, jeholodentids and morganucodonts (Crompton 1974; Luo et al. 2007a).
5. Phylogenetic analysis
We performed two phylogenetic analyses of Juchilestes. Analysis 1 emphasized taxonomic sampling among eutriconodonts and sampling of mandibular and dental characters; this analysis used a data matrix modified from Rougier et al. (2007b) and Montellano et al. (2008) and three new characters of our own. The matrix consists of 67 characters scored for 30 taxa. Analysis 2 sampled a broader range of Mesozoic mammaliaforms and a broader range of cranial and skeletal characters; this analysis used the data matrix of Luo et al. (2007a) consisting of 436 characters scored for 103 taxa (see the electronic supplementary material).
The first analysis generated 18 most parsimonious trees with a tree length of 186 steps, a consistency index of 0.4839, and a retention index of 0.7506. Figure 3 shows the strict consensus of the shortest trees with decay indices for each node. The arrangement of basal mammaliaforms and crown mammals on our strict consensus tree is identical to the most parsimonious tree of Rougier et al. (2007b) in that eutriconodonts are paraphyletic and the 'amphilestid' taxa are split between two groups: (i) a clade of 'amphilestids' (Aploconodon (Amphidon (Comodon, Hakusanodon, Juchilestes))); (ii) a clade composed of 'amphilestids' (Phascolotherium, Amphilestes) as outgroups to Tinodon and trechnotherians (see fig. S1a in the electronic supplementary material). However, in our consensus tree, the entirely 'amphilestid' clade is placed in a basal trichotomy among crown mammals whereas Phascolotherium and Amphilestes are deeply nested, resulting in a polyphyletic 'Amphilestidae'. In contrast, Rougier et al. (2007b) recovered a paraphyletic 'Amphilestidae', whereas triconodontids occupy the basal position among crown mammals. Our analysis also found strong support for jeholodentids as a sister group to triconodontids rather than as a sister group to a clade composed of 'amphilestids', Tinodon and trechnotherians, as in Rougier et al. (2007b).
The second analysis generated 10 160 most parsimonious trees with a tree length of 2134 steps, a consistency index of 0.3482, and a retention index of 0.8011. The strict consensus of the shortest trees is available in the electronic supplementary material (appendix B and fig. S1b). The parts of the tree relevant to this study are largely consistent with those produced from the dental and mandibular matrix of the first analysis. The main difference is that in the second analysis the Eutriconodonta is monophyletic, not paraphyletic. This is probably due to differences in taxonomic sampling of the two analyses. Most other recent analyses that have sampled multituberculates have also yielded trees that place them as sister group to trechnotherians and place eutriconodonts in a more basal position on the strength of postcranial and cranial characters (e.g. Luo et al. 2002; Meng et al. 2006). Thus, the issue of monophyly or paraphyly of the 'Eutriconodonta' is in part dependent on sampling in a broader taxonomic context. Another consideration is that in those analyses that have recovered a monophyletic Eutriconodonta (Luo et al. 2002, 2007a,b), jeholodentids and gobiconodontids are the only eutriconodonts represented by postcrania. Accordingly, it remains to be tested whether the monophyly of eutriconodonts is a by-product of long-branch attraction of jeholodentids and gobiconodontids.
6. Discussion
(a) Morphology
The 'amphilestid'-like molar pattern has long been considered plesiomorphic for eutriconodonts. These slightly triangulate molariforms with embrasure occlusion are supposed to be structurally intermediate between the fully triangulate therian molariforms and the triconodont-like molariforms with straight alignment of three main cusps. With its complete upper and lower dentition, Juchilestes shows systematic distribution of several dental morphological features with functional implications.
In the entire upper postcanine series, the only two fully developed and flat wear surfaces can be seen on the distolingual side of P3 and on the mesiolingual side of M1, presumably because the lower m1 and upper M1 are the first molariforms to erupt and function (figure 1d,e). The succeeding molariforms have yet to develop the complete wear facets, presumably because they had erupted later than M1. This is consistent with a common pattern of many mammaliaforms, in which the complete flat wear surfaces are developed by bevelling the contact surfaces, that is, wear facets are not present at eruption and only developed later (Crompton 1974; Mills 1984; Crompton & Luo 1993). This suggests that at least some 'amphilestid'-like eutriconodonts retained the primitive mammaliaform mode of molariform wear facet development.
In Juchilestes, molariforms in the upper series have slightly more pronounced triangulation of the main cusps than their respective lower molariforms (figures 1d and 2g). This has been observed in some mammaliaforms (Crompton & Luo 1993) and has recently been documented for the tinodontids Yermackia and Gobiotheriodon (Averianov 2002; Lopatin et al. 2005; Averianov & Lopatin 2008). It was hypothesized that this difference in the orientation of wear facets in upper and lower molariforms can be accommodated by rotation of the lower jaw and its teeth during occlusion (Crompton & Luo 1993), especially in those taxa with embrasure occlusion. We posit that this is also the case for Juchilestes. This is consistent with the loosely attached, and presumably mobile, mandibular symphysis in our specimen.
Perhaps the most important morphological implication of the new data from Juchilestes is that the obtuse-angled molar cusp pattern is homoplastic in basal mammalian evolution. The issue of homoplasy of molar cusp triangulation first arose with the placement of kuehneotheriids in the mammaliaform phylogeny (reviewed in Luo et al. 2002). Kuehneotheriids have obtuse-angled molariforms and represent the first appearance of such molar structure in mammaliaform evolution. Because kuehneotheriids were placed outside crown Mammalia and not related to other 'symmetrodonts' with triangular cusp pattern in crown Mammalia (e.g. tinodontids, spalacotheroids), the obtuse-angled molar pattern has a homoplastic distribution within this phylogeny (Rowe 1993; Rougier et al. 1996; Luo et al. 2002). Juchilestes also has an obtuse-angled molar cusp pattern. On our phylogenies by two different taxonomic and character samplings, it is placed among other eutriconodonts, but separate from tinodontids and spalacotheroids (figure 3; see fig. S1b in the electronic supplementary material). Thus, the similar molar cusp patterns of Juchilestes and tinodontids should be regarded as convergent. Alternatively, if the obtuse-angled molar patterns of Juchilestes and tinodontids were a priori considered homologous, then it would follow that the ancestral molar pattern of eutriconodonts would be obtuse-angled and the straight-aligned molar pattern of triconodontids (sensu stricto) would be a secondary evolutionary reversal to the morganucodont condition. The latter scenario is unlikely, given the upper molars of some tinodontids are now known (Rougier et al. 2003; Kielan-Jaworowska et al. 2004; Averianov & Lopatin 2008) and they are very different from the upper molars of Juchilestes (figure 1d). On the consensus of recent comprehensive phylogenies and on the strength of all characters, we conclude that the obtuse-angled molar pattern of 'amphilestids', as seen in Juchilestes, is homoplastic with regard to those in kuehneotheriids and tinodontids.
(b) Palaeobiogeography
The geographical distribution of Early Cretaceous mammals from East Asia has expanded in the last 20 years with new findings from Russia (Averianov et al. 2005; Lopatin et al. 2005), Japan (e.g. Tsubamoto et al. 2004; Kusuhashi 2008), Korea and China (e.g. Ji et al. 1999; Luo et al. 2007a). These new data have led to suggestions that the Eastern Asiatic region during the Early Cretaceous was (i) the centre of origin for major groups, including eutherian and spalacotheriid 'symmetrodonts' (Manabe et al. 2000; Zhou et al. 2003; Tsubamoto et al. 2004); (ii) a refugium for Jurassic relicts, such as 'symmetrodonts', eutriconodonts and tritylodontids (Luo 1999; Tatarinov & Maschenko 1999; Manabe et al. 2000); and/or (iii) an area that was developing a cosmopolitan biotic character as geographic barriers to exchange were waning (Zhou et al. 2003).
Juchilestes is one of many new fossils from Liaoning Province of northeastern China that offer new data for reflection on these palaeobiogeographic hypotheses. Our phylogeny (analysis 1 of §5; figure 3) shows a clade consisting of Juchilestes from the early Aptian of China, Hakusanodon from the Early Cretaceous of Japan and Comodon from the Late Jurassic of North America, to the exclusion of two other 'amphilestids' (Aploconodon, Amphidon) from the Late Jurassic of North America. This close relationship between Hakusanodon and Juchilestes implies a cohesive East Asian biogeographic region during the Early Cretaceous, a pattern supported by a number of other taxa (e.g. gobiconodontids, psittacosaurid ceratopsians) that either have a high diversity in the region or are endemic to the region. That Hakusanodon and Juchilestes are nested together to the exclusion of more ancient 'amphilestid' taxa is also consistent with the hypothesis that East Asia was a refugium for late surviving taxa. 'Amphilestids' that persisted into the Early Cretaceous are otherwise only known by an indeterminate 'amphilestid' taxon from western Siberia (Averianov et al. 2005). Intriguingly, its lower molar cusp pattern is similar to that of Juchilestes and Hakusanodon in having cusp b higher than c (Averianov et al. 2005). Clearly, however, East Asia had a complex palaeogeographic history that included prolonged isolation and intermittent connections, of which the exact timing and pattern is still uncertain (Enkin et al. 1992; Haggart et al. 2006).
Research was funded by the Dalian Museum of Natural History, Denver Museum of Nature & Science (DMNS), University of Washington, Carnegie Museum of Natural History, US National Science Foundation grants and a National Natural Science Foundation of China grant (Z.-X.L.). Sincere thanks go to J. Englehorn of the DMNS for skilful preparation of the specimen, to T. Ryan of Pennsylvania State University for CT scanning and initial image-processing of the CT data and to two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on the manuscript.
One contribution to a Special Issue 'Recent advances in Chinese palaeontology'.
- Received June 26, 2009.
- Accepted August 13, 2009.
- © 2009 The Royal Society


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by James Baldwin
About this title: At once a powerful evocation of his childhood in Harlem and a disturbing examination of the consequences of racial injustice, The Fire Next Time, which galvanized the nation in the early days of the Civil Rights movement, stands as one of the essential works of our literature. (Vintage)February
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Neo-Prog • United Kingdom
From Progarchives.com, the ultimate progressive rock music website
Despite being a Neo Prog band, the history of these British musicians goes back to 1971 when Tim BIRRELL (guitar) and Jim MURDOCH (bass) were members of the Scottish band ARMAGEDDON, but as they say in their site, none of them were able to play decently until a couple years later, but discouraged because of the lack of success, the band split soon. In 1977 the two musicians decided to embrace music again, but there was a long path to go through; after some time the talented keyboardist and lyricist Mick STOVOLD joins them and is followed by Paul CLARK (drums) and even before they had chosen a name, Mark COLTON (vocals) joins the band.
In 1992 they have their first gig in Alderton under the name AD HOC; it's only in 1993 when they release their first demos, that the name CREDO is adopted by the musicians. In 1994 the band releases their debut album called ''Field of Vision'', which has some success in UK, the sound of the band is influenced by the usual suspects like MARILLION, GENESIS, a bit of YES, but with a brighter, even when lighter, sound.
They have extensive tours but four days before a concert supporting Paul YOUNG, Mick STOVOLD decides to leave the band and is replaced by Mike VARTY and later Paul CLARKE is replaced by Martin MEADS. It takes the band 11 years, but at last ''Rhetoric'' is released in 2005; despite the changes in the band the style remains similar, even though they sound much better and the album is much more solid than the debut, this time you can even listen some David GILMOUR influence.
Really good band that deserves to be listened, just hope that it doesn't take them another decade to release their third album.
Iv�n Melgar Morey
In 2009, CREDO release the live DVD ''This is What We Do'', recorded in Poland and containing mostly material from ''Rhetoric''. In 2011, their third album ''Against Reason'' is released, including the hit 'Staring at the Sun' that received airplay and praise in Europe and the band do headline tours in UK and Europe. In April 2012, Martin MEADS leaves the band due to other commitments and in July Gerald ('Mully') MULLIGAN fills in the drums position. Several shows follow in 2012 and 2013 and the band is preparing for the release of their fourth album.
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2.34 | 25 ratings
Field Of Vision 1994 |
3.95 | 108 ratings
Rhetoric 2005 |
3.85 | 242 ratings
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4.50 | 2 ratings
This is What We Do (Live in Poland) 2009 |
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3.72 | 16 ratings
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Credo Neo-Prog
Review by
Special Collaborator Prog Metal and Heavy Prog Teams
For those familiar with "Against Reason", "Rhetoric" follows more or less the same pattern, with long, but pretty accessible and far from complex, compositions, dominated by mellow passages with the occasional injection of classic rock attitude. With Marillion (Fish-era) being at the heart of this album as an influence, here we also find a touch of Gilmour's style and some more raw 80's neo-prog in the vein of Pallas. Mike Varty injects some pure keyboard energy but also handles well the more mellow moments. Solid compositions, well-worked and carefully laid out form the spine of "Rhetoric", which shows another common characteristic with its successor: it comes out as rather long as a listening experience, as simple arrangements drag on for more than required, with the fear of sounding repetitive. No bad songwriting on this album, just not enough "creative" weight to support the length that would turn this into a masterpiece.
I find myself enjoying the more up-tempo, elaborate compositions, with the signature keyboard and story-telling of "Skintrade" leading the way, the majestic and passionate "Too Late..." (just listen to that refrain) and the neo-prog trademark "...To the Grave" with the powerful bass line that makes it ideal for playing live. This is what, I think, Credo do better so I will be looking forward to more of these elements in the future releases. 3.5 hearty stars.
Personal thanks go to Mark for providing this CD.
Credo Neo-Prog
Review by
Special Collaborator Prog Metal and Heavy Prog Teams
Credo's ''Against Reason'' is a good album indeed, it sounds like neo-prog (surprise!) and I warmly recommend it - but this is does not satisfy me fully so here I go: eight tracks and 70 minutes of music is quite a challenge. Throughout the album the neo-prog character is quite distinct with melody and strong lyrics being at the forefront of everything Credo do. The influence of Fish-era Marillion (Cardinal Sin) and a general aura of Arena are defining the band's sound, which - nevertheless - does not fall into the trap of copy/paste.
The ''street-rock'' feeling (Staring at the Sun, Conspiracy (MCF)) the melodies of Intimate Strangers (watch for that ending solo) and the raw power of the anti-war, keyboard-lush Insane (the heaviest, most creative and possibly best composition) stand out in a generally consistent album. What else? Tight performance from all band members, dynamic emotional singing and polished sound also tick the box. Compositions are not particularly complex and rather long - this combination along with a couple of short indifferent tracks just take away a bit of the solid work that has been put together for this album. Especially towards the end, the compositions sound somewhat "elongated" which spoils the magic that reached its peak with Insane.
So, against reason, I assign 3.5 stars to this album, with a small regret that it could have been kept somewhat shorter. Warmly recommended to all neo-prog and modern prog fans that are in for the melody.
Best moments: Staring at the Sun, Insane
Credo Neo-Prog
Review by
Special Collaborator Honorary Collaborator
The flat, uninspired and fairly accesible sound of Credo's debut was a thing of the past.''Rhetoric'' sounds very simlar to the darkest side of MARILLION, especially from the ''Fugazi'' sessions, and the short, unimaginative rockers of the debut have been replaced by long, deep and bombastic arrangements with strong nods to 80's British Prog, maybe a bit like ARENA, if you also add some slight FLOYD-ian and CAMEL-esque touches.While the music has not actually something trully new to offer, the grandiose parts, the excellent vocals of Mark Colton and the powerful passages are something the listener will be unable to overcome.''Rhetoric'' is based on the best Neo Prog tradition, featuring lots of soaring synthesizers, passionate lyrical adventures, punchy bass and drum lines and well-worked guitar on rhythms and solos.Varty is also responsible for one of the better productions you will find in a Neo Prog album.Smooth, contemporary symphonic orientations and more laid-back waves of atmospheric music are present as well in an album that keeps overall a great balance.Maybe the biggest advantage of new Credo was their ability to finally create deep, extremely dramatic and highly emotional parts through their music, both from a lyrical and an instrumental point of view.
''Rhetoric'' could have stood next to the best Neo Prog releases of the 00's, if somekind of originality was added in the album.Even this way the sensitive, atmospheric and well-crafted arrangements of the band along with the mass of bombastic textures offer a really great listening, if you are into groups like MARILLION, PENDRAGON, ARENA or PALLAS.Strongly recommended...3.5 stars.
Credo Neo-Prog
Review by
Second Life Syndrome
Prog Reviewer
Inspiration is rather absent on this release. I was really disappointed because the opening track begins with a great synth intro, and the first track is even very good. However, after that, we get cookie cutter tracks by the tray-full. And, just when you think the album is over, they start another track. It just seems so, um, pretentious at times. I almost get----I'm going to say it--- "bored" by the album. Little happens besides the standard neo-prog fare.
Like I said, though, this album is certainly solid. It is well-played and the production is great, but the composition just seems so dull and repetitive. Besides that, the topic is about global warming and conspiracy theories and such, but I didn't like the approach. I tend to like global warming apocalypse settings, but have a hard time with highly politicized perspectives. I feel they went for the latter. In general, though, this is good background music that may find a audience somewhat. Me? There are too many other bands that are pushing the boundaries out there for me to waste my time on standard fare like this.
Credo Neo-Prog
Review by Progrussia
Most proper songs extend beyond the 10 minute mark. But they are not necessarily very progressive, just long songs. Sometimes artificially so, with choruses - albeit very catchy ones - are repeated way too many times.
Credo Neo-Prog
Review by
Prog Reviewer
Credo Neo-Prog
Review by
Prog Reviewer
"Against Reason", although not being consistent all the way through, has some charming and wonderful moments worth returning to.
Credo is just one of the many incarnations of this small gathering of musicians that have been almost all active since 1971. However, they attributed to themselves the name Credo only in 1993, and ever since, they have released a total of three albums, the first one being "Field Of Vision" and second one being the more recognized "Rhetoric". "Against Reason" though is the most popular of their releases so far, and the one that guaranteed the band a small place among the greats of the newer wave of Neo Prog.
Like on previous albums, Credo aren't afraid to show their influences, from bands such as Marillion and IQ. Mark Colton's vocals are theatrical, passionate, and reminiscent of Eighties Prog Rock, just like all the different synth sounds and the soloing electric guitars, influenced by David Gilmour's playing more than anyone else's. Credo however develop a more unique sound, compared to the more stereotypical feel "Rhetoric" had. The songwriting has noticeably improved, a lot of the songs present on this new release are much more memorable and original at the same time, giving a pretty big impact on the listener. The tracks are also longer than an average Neo-Prog song, even though the structures of the songs aren't as puzzling and ambitious as the lengths would suggest.
Rarely Credo go towards dark themes, and prefer sounding cheerful or haunting for most of the time. There is however some sort of social awareness behind the lines, and sadly their take on trying to be a little aware is a bit cheesy in the lyrics, some moments more than others. At times, what Mark Colton sings is very banal and could make one cringe pretty easily. However, besides the lyrics, the world "Against Reason" portrays with it's music has a certain charm to it.
This album reaches almost the seventy minute mark, but overall the time seems to pass pretty quickly, especially in the first part of the album, definitely the better side: from the positive vibrations of "Staring Of The Sun", ending after more than ten minutes, that are very well constructed and executed, follows the best song of the album, "Cardinal Sin"; in many parts epic, the beautiful echoing guitars, the soothing keyboards are a delight to hear and will guarantee any Neo Prog fan an eargasm. Most of the melodies in this track are extremely full of passion, whether it be frustration or melancholy. The album doesn't quite reach those levels, however there are still moments to enjoy greatly like the subtly mysterious title track. The rest of the songs have interesting moments, others are very generic and not at all memorable. "Ghosts Of Yesterday" is unfortunately the track that has the most of these parts: it gets very tiring in many spots, and the fact that it is the last song of the album makes it even worse. "Conspiracy (MCF)" is also a bit forgettable, the melodies not being that focused and the performances by the musicians not being really unique.
Credo with "Against Reason" have definitely improved songwriting-wise, but they still haven't made an album consistent all the way through, because of some forgettable and practically time wasting moments. However, some songs truly shine with emotion and beauty, hopefully next time they will manage to do so for the entire album. Only then will I be completely satisfied with this band.
Credo Neo-Prog
Review by
Prog Reviewer
Credo Neo-Prog
Review by
Special Collaborator Crossover Team
So here is the recipe: Tim Birell on guitars, right out of the Rothery school but with occasional forays into other styles, Mike Varty supplies the keys that not only decorate but also paint a few slippery streaks on the musical canvas, the firm bass held down by Jim Murdoch keeps everyone in check while the Martin Meads drums are ruthless and yet seductive. All that is left is a vocalist that does wink at the 2 neo giants mentioned above but Marc Colton has his own style. A major plus is the crystalline production that provides a wide sonic berth that quickly envelops the listener. Theses prog vets then decide to put together a human theme that proves that we are not in the presence of random poppy tracks. They ain't poppy and there is a story for each song based on a famous quote. The musical story starts out in the finest Fish-era Marillion style on "Skintrade", a passionate voice that occasionally yelps in pain (like on Assassins) "technically obscene", swirling synth solos veering into the ether searching for "release" , pastoral acoustic guitar arpeggios that shimmer in the aural ecstasy and a clear sense of drama. The violent "Turn the Gun" is more rambunctious, as its title would imply, complete with an eerie middle section that hides between the two massively different bookends. The next 3 tracks form a sort of a mini-suite and is the undeniable heart of the recording , as both From the Cradle , To The Grave and the splendid The Letter combine to exalt, titillate and explode in a proggy paroxysm that is simply put stunning. "She cried herself to sleep last night" is just the opening seconds of a wondrous anthem, where music, lyrics and delivery are so attuned with each other that the emotion can seep through undiluted. The grandiose 2 part chorus is to expiate over just let the stupendous "Like bird in a gilded cage?. And she knows, she shows she can't let go?" flow over you and feel the angst. The subsequent axe solo evokes the deep pain brilliantly, finely chiseled and yet restrained, as if unbearable. The second stanza repeats the same feelings but with different words. Clever! "To the Grave" is the instrumental blow-out that divulges this band's capacity to adorn their craft with some interesting twists and turns, choir-mellotron aiding in the crime. "What gives you the right to rampage through my dreams", hmmmm back in early Marillion mood, not a bad thing that, especially when done this well. The extended jam is quite exceptional. The killer track remains the ballad "The Letter" a poignant eruption of melancholia, beautifully sung and expertly played. This is a bluesy, romantic dirge, exuding a sense of class that makes it timeless , not at all a pop song, but closer to PF than anything (some prog purists swear that Floyd is pop anyway!) . The brooding gets progressively intense (did I just use the P word?) and ratchets the "after all the hell I have been through" up quite a few notches, a Tim Birell fretjob adding to the slashes. Then things get outright angry and Colton really shows off his lungs and it hits home as I am dealing with a broken relationship right now. I will mail her the song and the lyrics soon. Not that it would change anything but a romantic is a romantic to the bitter end. "The Game" barrels forward all cylinders piercing the night air, another acerbic essay on infidelity and fluid relationships that find no anchor to weigh, just deep pain and disbelief. The brilliant 2 part mini-epic "Too Late" and "To Say Goodbye" is another stunner, the very essence of sad, melancholic prog done to the hilt, lyrically extremely vivid and disturbing. This time the theme is the futility of war "The eyes of exhaustion and those of the dead" . The finale "Seems Like Yesterday" puts this bleeding heart story to rest, proggy blues at its finest, healing words though painful they may be.
Granted, its not RIO or Avant-post-math-space but it's still definitely entertaining. Fans of Arena, IQ, Pendragon and Marillion will gobble this up but a wide array of prog fans will enjoy this for its melodic content and expert execution, perhaps some even shedding their silly misconception that Neo-prog sucks! Hey, the current media-music sucks, remember!!!! This is a very enjoyable hour of epic and uplifting music.
4.5 stylish doctrines
Credo Neo-Prog
Review by
Special Collaborator Eclectic Prog Team
"Staring at the Sun" A thick synthesizer run opens the album. The main riff seems to borrow heavily from the Rush tune "Xanadu" (the section beginning about two-and-a-half minutes in). My tongue even instinctively clicks Neil Peart's percussion bit in between each part. The vocals occur over light clean guitar and deep, plodding bass. I would say that this is the most memorable and brilliant of the tracks, but perhaps that is because of the obvious influences present.
"Cardinal Sin" There's a slight Marillion vibe to this tune, particularly with respect to the vocals. The piano passage and lead guitar work midway through are elegant. The second half of the song begins with a thin synthesizer riff in a 1980s rock context before launching into a well-performed organ solo. The piece is a hodgepodge of musical ideas that, while not quite cohesive, is generally enjoyable.
"Intimate Strangers" With a verse in 5/4 and plenty of synthesizer and guitar tones, this song remains surprisingly consistent even if it may not be especially memorable. For this fairly straightforward song, I would draw comparisons to IQ.
"Against Reason" Airy dark tones set the stage for a mournful, siren-like lead guitar.
"Insane" Again working over five beats, this song I think exemplifies Credo's penchant for unusual and sudden shifts in rhythm.
"Reason to Live" "Reason to Live" is one of the weaker and more forgettable tracks- just a quick bit of lyrics over uninspired music.
"Conspiracy (MCF)" The high frequency tone in the introduction of this track hurt my ears the first time I heard it- not cool. Is there any reason to include something like that in the beginning of a song that has no ostensive relationship to the composition? The listener is hereby warned to turn his speakers down or off during the first few seconds. The song proper involves a variety of synthesizer tones in various roles (the whiny one midway through isn't one of the better ones), and while the music displays their usual assortment of rhythms and penchant for stringing multiple musical sections together, this song has always failed to grab me. Oh, and did the listener miss that painful tone in the beginning? No worries- it ends the song too.
"The Ghosts of Yesterday" Acoustic guitar and synthetic strings provide a bed for soft vocals to awake in. This final track is the most powerful and anthem-like of all the songs on the album, even if overall it feels somewhat generic.


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BioCurious Message Board › Suggested Meetup: Carpool to East Bay Mini Maker Faire
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The East Bay Mini Maker Faire is in Oakland on October 16, 2011.
http://events.sfgate.... I'd love to go with a group; even if we end up splitting up once we get there, we could carpool (or carpool to Fremont and take BART to MacArthur BART and walk half a mile) and get together for lunch &/or dinner. This might be nice to do in conjunction with the Geek Club. http://www.meetup.com... --Kathryn |
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Season Five Episodes
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This category lists all Season Five episodes of ABC's Once Upon a Time.
Season Five Episodes | |||||||
No. | Title | Directed by | Written by | Original air date | U.S. viewers
(million) | ||
1 | "The Dark Swan" | Ron Underwood | Edward Kitsis & Adam Horowitz | September 27, 2015 | 5.93[1] | ||
Immediately after becoming the Dark One, Emma disappears and the heroes must band together to save her, but first they have to find her, which will require the help of an unlikely ally. Meanwhile, in the Enchanted Forest, Emma struggles to resist her dark urges as she searches for Merlin in the hope that he can stop her transformation. Along the way to Camelot, she gets help from the plucky and brave warrior princess Merida, as well as King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table. | |||||||
2 | "The Price" | Romeo Tirone | Andrew Chambliss & Dana Horgan | October 4, 2015 | 5.38[2] | ||
In an effort to protect Emma, Regina steps up in a surprising way that will test her mettle as a force for good. King Arthur and Queen Guinevere throw a royal ball to welcome the heroes to Camelot, but when the celebration takes a deadly turn, David and Robin must leap into action or lose a crucial asset in the fight to save Emma. Back in Storybrooke, Hook deploys a tried-and-true technique in hopes of bringing Emma back to the light while the heroes discover that some unexpected baggage has followed them home from Camelot. | |||||||
3 | "Siege Perilous" | Ralph Hemecker | Jane Espenson | October 11, 2015 | 5.28[3] | ||
In Camelot, the heroes feverishly work to free Merlin. Determined to help Emma, David embarks on a quest to retrieve a magical relic that Regina could use to communicate with the imprisoned sorcerer, but, when David leaves, Arthur insists on joining him because the dangers ahead are greater than he can imagine. Meanwhile, Mary Margaret discovers the fate of her old friend Lancelot. Back in Storybrooke, Arthur seeks David's help to catch a thief who threatens the safety of the citizens of Camelot. Across town, Emma reaches out to a conflicted Hook as she sets about her plan to draw Excalibur from the stone. | |||||||
4 | "The Broken Kingdom" | Alrick Riley | David H. Goodman & Jerome Schwartz | October 18, 2015 | 4.92[4] | ||
After receiving a cryptic warning from Lancelot about Arthur's intentions, Mary Margaret realizes Arthur may be the heroes' biggest threat, but when she is unable to convince David of the danger, she takes matters into her own hands. Meanwhile, Hook's unwavering love for Emma provides a glimmer of hope in her struggle against the unrelenting voice of Rumplestiltskin. In a Camelot flashback, Guinevere senses that Arthur is losing his way, consumed by his obsession with making Excalibur whole, so she sets out with Lancelot on her own quest into the heart of darkness. In Storybrooke, Dark Emma unleashes a secret weapon in the next phase of her plan to find the brave soul she needs to draw Excalibur from the stone. | |||||||
5 | "Dreamcatcher" | Romeo Tirone | Edward Kitsis & Adam Horowitz | October 25, 2015 | 5.12[5] | ||
In Camelot, as Mary Margaret and David attempt to retrieve the Dark One dagger, Emma uses a Dreamcatcher to look into the past to see how Merlin was transformed into a tree. Together, Emma and Regina figure out the critical ingredient they must acquire to free Merlin, but it's a race against Arthur, who does not want Merlin released. Meanwhile, with encouragement from his moms, Henry musters up the courage to ask Violet on a date. Back in Storybrooke, the heroes break into Emma's house hoping to locate Gold, but what they find will give them a glimpse of Emma's end game. Far from prying eyes, Merida sets about the mission Emma has tasked her with and begins molding Gold into the hero they need to draw Excalibur. | |||||||
6 | "The Bear and the Bow" | Ralph Hemecker | Andrew Chambliss & Tze Chun | November 1, 2015 | 4.83[6] | ||
In a Camelot flashback, a chance encounter with Merlin, David, Hook and Belle gives Merida new hope in her quest to save her brothers from the usurping clans of DunBroch. Unwilling to leave anything up to fate, Merida brings Belle along on a dangerous journey that culminates with an invaluable lesson in bravery. In Storybrooke, Regina, Mary Margaret and David discover the spell that would allow one of Merlin's chosen to communicate with him, but when Arthur fails to reach the missing sorcerer the heroes grow suspicious. Meanwhile, Emma commands Merida to kill Belle in hopes of forcing Mr. Gold's heroic transformation. With Merida unable to disobey Emma's orders, Gold must find the courage to fight for Belle's life or risk losing her forever. | |||||||
7 | "Nimue" | Romeo Tirone | Jane Espenson | November 8, 2015 | 4.88[7] | ||
In Camelot, Merlin spearheads a mission to reunite the dagger with Excalibur so he can use the weapon to save Emma from the darkness threatening her soul. With Zelena in tow, Hook, Mary Margaret, David, Regina and Robin steal into Arthur's castle to take the broken sword from the maniacal king. Meanwhile, Merlin brings Emma along on a journey to confront his ancient nemesis and retrieve the sacred spark he'll need to reforge Excalibur. Both parties are tested, but one suffers a blow that could derail the entire operation. In a flashback to long before the Age of Arthur, young Merlin finds purpose after he is blessed with magic and immortality, but when he falls in love with a young refugee named Nimue, everything changes for Merlin, as their romance starts a chain of events that touches every one of our present day heroes. | |||||||
8 | "Birth" | Eagle Egilsson | David H. Goodman & Jerome Schwartz | November 15, 2015 | 4.85[8] | ||
Tensions in Camelot come to a head when Merlin, now under Arthur's control, delivers an ultimatum to Emma: hand over the Dark One dagger and the Promethean spark or he will kill her entire family. Refusing to give in, Emma and our heroes face off against Arthur, Merlin and Zelena in an epic battle of magic and will. Just when the end is in sight, Emma is forced to make a gut-wrenching choice that no one saw coming. Back in Storybrooke, Zelena's pregnancy mysteriously accelerates and Hook goes to new and desperate lengths to get answers from the Dark Swan. | |||||||
9 | "The Bear King" | Geofrey Hildrew | Andrew Chambliss | November 15, 2015 | 4.85[9] | ||
Zelena and Arthur journey to DunBroch on a mission to retrieve an enchanted relic that will provide the advantage they need to vanquish Emma and our heroes. Their path will cross with Merida's, who is on a journey of her own to pay a debt that her father, King Fergus, owed to the Witch when he died. Merida enlists the help of two friends, Mulan and Ruby, but, in order to satisfy the Witch and save DunBroch, she first must discover the identity of the knight who killed her father. In flashbacks, Merida learns about bravery and honor as she trains for combat and rides alongside Fergus into the infamous battle that claims his life. | |||||||
10 | "Broken Heart" | Romeo Tirone | Dana Horgan & Tze Chun | November 29, 2015 | 4.38[10] | ||
In a Camelot flashback, Hook becomes a Dark One and his lust for revenge against Rumplestiltskin is reignited. When Emma and Hook disagree about their best course of action, the final pieces of the puzzle are revealed as events in Camelot catch up to the present and we witness a charged confrontation between the forces of light and dark that sends our heroes on a collision course with destiny. Meanwhile, in Storybrooke, Hook's centuries old lust for revenge against Gold puts both of their fates in jeopardy while Emma's love faces the ultimate test as she tries to convince Hook to turn away from the darkness before she, Mary Margaret, David and Regina embark on a new mission as an unsuspected evil is released. | |||||||
11 | "Swan Song" | Gwyneth Horder-Payton | Edward Kitsis & Adam Horowitz | December 6, 2015 | 4.56[11] | ||
The dark siege of Storybrooke is underway as all of the resurrected Dark Ones target a living soul for sacrifice so that they can return to the realm of the living. With doom imminent, Gold advises Mary Margaret, David and the rest of the heroes to spend their last fleeting moments enjoying the company of their loved ones. Emma, however, refuses to give up, knowing that she is responsible for righting all the poor choices she made as Dark One - there's only one problem, Dark Hook. When they face-off with the fate of Storybrooke at stake, Hook's actions will devastate Emma in a way no one saw coming. In a Fairy Tale Land flashback, the Evil Queen tests Hook's mettle by forcing him to confront a demon from his past before contracting him to dispatch one from hers. | |||||||
12 | "Souls of the Departed" | Ralph Hemecker | Edward Kitsis & Adam Horowitz | March 6, 2016 | 4.01[12] | ||
Emma, Regina, Mary Margaret, David, Robin, Henry and Gold arrive in the Underworld, on a mission to rescue Hook, only to discover that their search will be more difficult than they had anticipated. The inhabitants of the Underworld—all souls with unfinished business and many with quite personal vendettas—hound our heroes at every turn. Meanwhile, in an Enchanted Forest flashback, a familiar face from the Evil Queen's past returns to present Regina with the perfect birthday gift. | |||||||
13 | "Labor of Love" | Billy Gierhart | Andrew Chambliss & Dana Horgan | March 13, 2016 | 4.31[13] | ||
In the Underworld, an escapee from Hades' prison informs the heroes that Hook is being held captive. But before the heroes can rescue Hook, they must face a terrifying beast that guards the prison. Mary Margaret searches for an old childhood friend who knows how to defeat the monster. However, once reunited, she discovers that her friend is no longer the hero he once was. Meanwhile, in an Enchanted Forest flashback, a young Snow White struggles to preserve peace in her kingdom and must learn how to be a true hero if she wants to one day become queen. | |||||||
14 | "Devil's Due" | Alrick Riley | Jane Espenson | March 20, 2016 | 3.54[14] | ||
Hook's captivity takes a dark turn when Hades threatens to condemn him to the River of Lost Souls after Hook refuses to choose which three of his friends will have to remain in the Underworld. Meanwhile, Gold is suddenly eager to help Emma, Snow, David, Regina, Robin and Henry find Hook so he can return home to Belle; but in order to do so, he must find his ex-wife Milah in the Underworld and ask for her help. In Fairy Tale Land flashbacks, Rumple and Milah face a life-or-death crisis concerning their son, Baelfire, that forces Rumple to make a deal that will haunt him. | |||||||
15 | "The Brothers Jones" | Eagle Egilsson | Jerome Schwartz & David H. Goodman | March 27, 2016 | 3.51[15] | ||
Finally reunited, Hook and Emma must find a way to defeat Hades so that they can return to Storybrooke with Snow, David, Regina, Robin, Henry and Gold. A surprise visit from Hook's departed brother Liam just might provide the lead they were looking for—others who have tried to overthrow Hades spoke of a book that contained the key to his downfall. Tired of watching from the sidelines, Henry secretly takes matters into his own hands while the others search for the book. Meanwhile, Hades redoubles his efforts to trap the heroes in the Underworld by playing them against one another. In flashbacks, the bond between the two young Jones brothers is tested and strengthened on a merchant ship heading into a dangerous storm. | |||||||
16 | "Our Decay" | Steve Pearlman | Tze Chun & Dana Horgan | April 3, 2016 | 3.78[16] | ||
Emma, Snow, David, Regina, Robin, Henry and Hook continue to search for a way to free everyone from the Underworld. At the mercy of Hades, Gold creates a portal to Storybrooke, which transports Belle, Zelena and Baby Hood to the Underworld. While Zelena and Regina get into a sibling squabble, Belle is reunited with Rumple only to learn some tremendously shocking news that will change her life forever. Meanwhile, Snow and David hopelessly attempt to send a message from the Underworld to their son, Neal. In flashbacks, Hades learns about Zelena's very special spell and pays her a visit in Oz with the intention of striking an alliance, but finds himself with more than just a partner in crime. | |||||||
17 | "Her Handsome Hero" | Romeo Tirone | Jerome Schwartz | April 10, 2016 | 3.75[17] | ||
Belle turns to Rumplestiltskin with hope of finding a way to protect their child from Hades. However, they disagree over whether to use dark magic, as Belle forbids Rumplestiltskin from using his powers for evil. Meanwhile, Hades secretly meets with Gaston in the Underworld and encourages him to seek revenge on Rumplestiltskin. As the heroes try to find a way to defeat Hades, Emma has a terrifying nightmare that she realizes is beginning to come true. And in flashbacks, Belle and Gaston meet for the first time, but their blossoming romance comes to a halt on the eve of the Ogre wars. | |||||||
18 | "Ruby Slippers" | Eriq La Salle | Andrew Chambliss & Bill Wolkoff | April 17, 2016 | 3.76[18] | ||
In flashbacks, Ruby and Mulan find themselves in Oz, where they meet Dorothy. After the three witness Zelena's return to Oz, they look for a way to defeat her once and for all. However, Dorothy mysteriously disappears, and Ruby's search for her new friend lands her in the Underworld. Reunited with the heroes, Ruby teams up with Emma, Regina and Snow to continue looking for Dorothy. Meanwhile, Snow and David struggle with not being able to be with their son, Neal, and devise a plan so that one of them can escape the Underworld. | |||||||
19 | "Sisters" | Romeo Tirone | David H. Goodman & Brigitte Hales | April 24, 2016 | 3.85[19] | ||
Now that Hades and Zelena are reunited, Hades tells Zelena that he wants a future with her outside of the Underworld. All she needs to do is heal his heart with True Love's Kiss so they can leave the Underworld and trap the heroes there for eternity. When Regina overhears of this plan, she enlists Cora's help to find a way to separate Zelena from Hades. However, Cora reveals a family secret that could change Regina and Zelena's lives forever. Meanwhile, David finally meets James, only to realize that his twin is determined to seek revenge on him for stealing the life he could have had. | |||||||
20 | "Firebird" | Ron Underwood | Jane Espenson | May 1, 2016 | 3.77[20] | ||
Hades turns to the heroes to ask for help with getting Zelena back from Rumplestiltskin and Peter Pan. In return, he offers to take all their names off their tombstones. However, when Hook is still unable to leave, he and Emma must journey into the depths of the Underworld. Meanwhile, Cruella De Vil is determined to keep the heroes trapped in the Underworld. In flashbacks, Emma searches for answers about her family and makes an unexpected friendship. | |||||||
21 | "Last Rites" | Craig Powell | Jerome Schwartz | May 8, 2016 | 3.75[21] | ||
Emma, David, Regina, Robin and Henry are finally back home in Storybrooke and reunited with Snow, but, unfortunately, they still have to contend with Hades, who continues to deceive Zelena as he lays out his plan to use the all-powerful Olympian Crystal to take over the town. The heroes desperately search for a way to defeat Hades while Hook does the same in the Underworld, looking for those missing storybook pages. Regina and Robin take a more direct approach, which culminates in an epic showdown that will leave our heroes forever changed. | |||||||
22 | "Only You" | Romeo Tirone | David H. Goodman & Andrew Chambliss | May 15, 2016 | TBD | ||
Regina reels from the death of Robin Hood, and everyone tries to give her room to grieve, but when the heroes discover Gold has stolen Hades' Olympian Crystal and tethered all of Storybrooke's magic to it, they set out to stop him. Henry decides he no longer can stand all the pain magic has caused his family, so he goes rogue, with Violet in tow, to destroy magic once and for all. Meanwhile, Zelena, Snow, David and Hook attempt to open a portal that will return Merida and the other Storybrooke guests to their homes, but things go awry, and the group winds up in a deranged new world. | |||||||
23 | "An Untold Story" | Dean White | Edward Kitsis & Adam Horowitz | May 15, 2016 | TBD | ||
With the possibility of magic being destroyed and the fate of Storybrooke hanging in the balance, it's a race for Emma and Regina to track down Henry before Gold can find him first. Regina continues to struggle with her frustrations over her former evil-self and, elsewhere, Snow, David, Hook and Zelena are imprisoned and must contend with very two very disturbed individuals that may give Gold a run for his money. |


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January 14, 2009
DALE OWEN DUSTIN, PLAINTIFF,v.TOM FELKER, ET AL., DEFENDANTS.
Plaintiff is a state prisoner proceeding without counsel in an action brought under 42 U.S.C. § 1983. He requests an extension of time to file his trust account statement. See Fed. R. Civ. P. 6(b).
Plaintiff's December 31, 2008 motion is granted and plaintiff has 30 days from the date this order is served to file his trust account statement.
So ordered.
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bachman1961 Advanced Member 2263 Posts [Mentor] colorado springs, co USA Honda CB750 NightHawk
greywolf Moderator 1492 Posts [Mentor] Evanston, IL USA Suzuki DL650AL2
quote:Originally posted by bachman1961performance/economy.
capozzir Senior Member 303 Posts Leesburg, VA USA Honda GL1800B
quote:Originally posted by bachman1961I have a family member (a few states away) who has 2012 Road Glide Ultra and is looking into a Power Commander add-on for enhanced performance/economy. It sounds like some mods he needs or wants to do will be related to intake air flow and less restrictive pipes.Just looking for anyone who may have experience with or recommendations for aftermarket exhaust that are not loud. He's not a willing participant of the loud pipes idea, yet it appears he wants to go aftermarket. Any specifics on brand, model # or even approx cost and source if handy, would be greatly appreciated.~brian
HaveBikeWillTravel New Member 16 Posts Santa Maria, CA. USA Harley-Davidson Softail Custom
SkootchNC Advanced Member 1063 Posts [Mentor] raleigh, north carolina USA Harley-Davidson road glide
Lightyear68 Starting Member 7 Posts Bel Air, MD USA Harley-Davidson Fat Boy