text:
A Celebration of Our History
April 22 -- October 29, 2000
Baby Boomers Expand the Boundaries
Click on the photo to see an enlarged view
These four decades roughly coincide with the "baby boom" generation. Women were nurtured in the 1950s, rebelled against authority in the 1960s, asserted their rights in the 1970s, and took on new leadership responsibilities in the 1980s.
By 1950, millions of WWII veterans had married their sweethearts, returned to college, and settled down in suburbia. Women were expected to stay at home and take care of the kids, while the hubby earned enough money to support the family.
But the 1960s saw many women object to this limited role. Increasingly, women sought college degrees and careers. They gained greater control over their bodies through the birth control pill, and joined in youthful protest that often included sex, drugs, and rock 'n' roll.
The 1970s became a decade of empowerment for women, many of whom moved into traditionally male professions such as medicine, law and business. Congress passed an Equal Rights Amendment--although it was never ratified by the states. The Supreme Court upheld a woman's right to have an abortion, even though this decision continues to be controversial.
The 1980s were a decade of "firsts" as American women hurtled into space and were appointed to the Supreme Court. A record number were elected to Congress and to the boards of major corporations. Women had not yet achieved equality, but received well-deserved recognition for their contributions to American life.
American Women!
Mamie Eisenhower, Army Wife and First Lady
Grace Kelly and Katharine Hepburn, Hollywood Legends
Lucille Ball, Comedienne
Grandma Moses, Painter
Ethel Rosenberg, Convicted Spy
Jackie Cochran, Aviator
Rosa Parks, Civil Rights Activist
Margaret Chase Smith, Conscience of the Senate
Rachel Carson, Ecologist
Barbara Jordan and Lady Bird Johnson, Politics and the Environment
Pat Nixon and Katharine Graham, Watergate
Joan Baez and Janis Joplin, Folksinger and Rock Star
Ayn Rand and Dorothy Day, Writers and Philosophers
Helen Gurley Brown, Writer and Editor
Margaret Mead, Anthropologist
Shirley Chisholm, Congresswoman
Betty Ford and Rosalynn Carter, Popular First Ladies
Nancy Reagan, First Lady and Caregiver
Grace Hopper, Professor, Computer Pioneer, and Admiral
Sally Ride, Astronaut
the story--NEXT... ."Into the 21st Century, 1990 onward"
or visit:"
|From Colony to Country, 1600-1800
|"From Prairie to Polls, 1870-1920"
|From Growth to Civil War, 1800-1870
|"From Jazz to War 1920-1950"
|View an alphabetical list of all 106 women included in American Women! with links to photos and biographies for selected women
|View a Thank You to over 100 lenders to American Women!
|Return to American Women! index page
|Return to Hoover Library-Museum virtual exhibits page
|Return to Hoover Library-Museum main index page


text:
DEVORE - Artists at the Paid Dues Independent Hip-Hop festival gave interviews early in the day Saturday to media and expressed a variety of viewpoints on topics from the festival lineup to Inland Empire hip-hop.
Moreno Valley artist Stevie Crooks described the Inland Empire as "Europe" in the hip-hop landscape.
"We have all these different cities," Crooks said. "Everyone is so different. And Moreno Valley is at the end of everything."
Crooks added he doesn't feel like he represents Moreno Valley but instead hip-hop in general.
"I do it for hip-hop. I've never put my city on my back."
Meanwhile, California hip-hop group First Dirt member 60 East of Ontario said he tattooed "Paid Dues" on his neck two weeks after the group was given approval to perform.
"It represents the independent hustle to the fullest," said 60 East, real name Joey Atilano, 22, of Ontario.
Los Angeles hip-hop artist WC said it was not weird that he had a song in 1989 titled "Pay Ya Dues" and he was performing at the Paid Dues Festival.
"I'm a fan of the festival," WC said. He added that festival founder Murs told him the festival title came from his song's name and "Murs is a good dude."
WC also said his multi-platinum Westside Connection group that features him, Ice Cube and Mack 10 are not retired.
"Never say never," WC said with a grin about the group's future.
Artist Immortal Technique said the current state of hip-hop, like always, was "you either like it or you don't."
"At the same time, my only real problem with it is a lack of diversity," Technique said in reference to songs and artists on the radio sounding similar but "I don't hate anybody."
Immortal Technique said he would like to see more female emcees at the festival in the future.
Hip-hop artist Jean Grae "is the only female on the bill," Technique said.
firstname.lastname@example.com 909-483-8549

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Product Reference: 44814
This textured finish stand case keeps your HTC One M8 secure and enclosed, featuring a suction cup closing system to hold your phone nicely in the case.
Opens and closes with a suction cup, for ease of use
The suction cup on the case will ensure that once closed, your M8 will stay safely protected within the case and will prevent it from coming loose. The suction cup on the inside of the front flap sticks to the surface of your HTC One M8 nicely, yet is also easy to open again.
Textured pattern finishing, making this case look more attractive
The case features attractive textured finishing across the surfaces of the case, which not only create a cool look, but also makes it easier to grip and less likely to slip from your grasp.
Built-in viewing stand function
Not only is the stand case incredibly slender, but the back cover is designed to allow the HTC One M8 to fold on to itself horizontally. This creates the perfect viewing stand for watching movies, listening to music or even web browsing.
Protection for the HTC One M8
The case has been specially designed for the HTC One M8, so you are given the best possible fit. Underneath the sturdy casing is a strong plastic frame that will keep your handset safe and protected.
Apertures for use within the case
Want to use your HTC One M8 in the case? Of course!
It comes with apertures for all essential ports and functions. You can use your front and rear cameras, charging connections, headphones and anything else you wish.


text:
The Dive Rite Cold Water Z-Knife is the Preference of Cold-Water Divers Wearing Gloves. The Handle is Large-and-Easy to Grip when Thick-Gloves are used. Sharper than a Standard Dive Knife, the Cold Water Z-Knife is preferred for Cutting thru Monofilament and Braided Line. With a User-Replaceable Blade, the Cold Water Z-Knife includes 2- Replacement Blades.
Coordinating with Dive Rite's New-Line of Harness Pockets is Dive Rite's unique Cutting Device Sheaths that Snap into Dive Rite's Pocket Daisy-Chain Loops Using Heavy-Duty Annex Clips that Slip-through-Daisy Chain Loops and Snap-into-Place. These Clips are Rugged and won't come Unclasped Underwater. To remove, you must Pinch-the-Ends Slightly to get the Clip to Release-Easy enough, but not so easy that it comes undone all on its own The Sheath Clip will also Close-Around Regulator Hose Retainers, Wrist Straps, Gaiters or a Chest Strap If desired, the Annex Clips can be removed and the Sheath worn on a standard 2" (5 cm) Waist Belt Webbing. A Quick-Release hook and loop Lanyard keeps the Z-Knife Firmly-in-Place.
The 440-Grade Stainless Steel Knife Blade can be replaced with any Utility Knife Blade. The Pouch is made from Durable Nylon Fabric with Taped and Sewn Edges for added Strength. The Pouch measures (L x W) 7" x 3" (17 x 7.6 cm) and the Knife is 8" (20 cm) in Length. The Knife with Pouch weighs 4.4 oz (125 g). The Pouch is Bright Red in color, Quick-Release Lanyard is equipped with a Utility D-Ring and the product is covered by a 12 month limited warranty.
This product has a limited warranty of 12 months.


text:
o I am a Christian...What now. 5/10/2008
When I write, I empty my mind and heart. That way there is no garbage or as the Bible might say, thoughts of the flesh to interfere. I let God then fill my mind. I know this sounds too easy. Well befo
2 Comments, 15 Views, 2 Votes ,5.20 Score
Communicating.... 4/29/2008
This is a reprint from my blog I thought later would make a good article too. Hope all like it and read some of my other blog posts. Comments always welcome.
Blessings, Michael[/C
1 Comments, 12 Views, 2 Votes ,5.20 Score
The Love-Hate List 4/20/2008
Several months ago, at a couple's retreat, we had the men and women separated. I had the men make 2 lists. First ones of things they wish they hadn't done or do, and then a list of thing
1 Comments, 26 Views, 2 Votes ,3.81 Score
Did you hear about.... 4/19/2008
I read a poll that was taken a few years ago around 2000. The poll was taken of 2000 married couples that had been united over 50 years. Remarkably 71 percent said after the first meerting they could
3 Comments, 52 Views, 8 Votes ,4.41 Score
Why do women... 4/19/2008
Ok, we have all read profiles before. I call the webpages with profiles on them book covers. Saying that, I think most have been taught to not judge a book bt its cover. Yet it seems most do. For myse
8 Comments, 74 Views, 13 Votes ,3.81 Score
Bad Women 4/19/2008
After my divorce 6 years ago, the first 5 of 6 ladies I went out with, and these were church going respectable ladies, all wanted to sleep with me on the first date. Talk about role reversal. Worse or
8 Comments, 74 Views, 10 Votes ,4.38 Score
Politics makes strange bedfellows. 4/19/2008
With this being an election year, and let me say I do a dance of joy when they are over every 4 years, it can easily bring out the worst in everyone.
Our country is the biggest corporation in
0 Comments, 7 Views, 1 Votes ,5.00 Score


text:
Each serves 1.
Line cookie sheet with parchment paper. Make cookies following recipe instructions; let cool on parchment paper.
Melt cocoa Candy Melts in bowl; dip cooled macaroons in melted candy and let set on parchment paper.
Melt pink Candy Melts; place in parchment bag; drizzle over tops of macaroons.
*Brand confectionery coating.


text:
I have the alfa 500 MW and use the default drivers provided by bt2 and bt3.
Drop wirelessassistant and use the command line.
Here are the commands I use.
Code:1. Go to /etc/dhcpc ...and inside this folder DELETE EVERYTHING! 2. Ifconfig wlan0 down 3. iwconfig wlan0 essid "Xploitz Network" key c6e679d9a2 4. Ifconfig wlan0 up 5. dhcpcd wlan0
That should do the trick to get you internet connection.
If you want to use airodump and enable monitor mode.....
Code:1. airmon-ng start wlan0 6 (for channel 6, put your channel of your AP here) 2. airodump-ng -c 6 wlan0 (again, my AP is on channel 6 so I used -c 6..put your AP's channel here)
Hope this helps!


text:
Music Home
Dance Home
Theater Dept. Season
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Student/Faculty Info & Forms
Jazz Studies Program
SCHEDULE Your Recital/Class
Special Events
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Giving Opportunities
Meet our Sponsors
To Receive Concert Updates
March 13 Tuesday 8pm Bezanson Recital Hall
FACULTY RECITAL Buy Tickets Online
Ayano Kataoka, percussion
Works by Stuart S. Smith: Castine for marimba & amplified off-stage voice, Alejandro Viñao: Book of Grooves, Vincent Calianno: The Light elusive & others
With guest artists: Sharif Mamoun & Joshua Perry, percussion, Kivie Cahn-Lipman, cello & Jerry Noble, piano
$3 UMass students; $5 other students, children, seniors; $10 general public; free for UMass music majors & minors Buy Tickets Online
March 14 Wednesday 8pm Fine Arts Center Concert Hall
WIND ENSEMBLE Buy Tickets Online
Justin Falvo, graduate conductor & James Patrick Miller, artistic directorPercy Grainger, Edvard Grieg, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Jeffrey Brooks & more
$3 UMass students; $5 other students, children, seniors; $10 general public; free for UMass music majors & minors Buy Tickets Online
Master's Degree Recital
Rebecca Fielder, saxophone
Sunday, March 11, 1:00 pm
Bezanson Recital Hall
Senior Recital
Jeff Soffer, saxophone
Sunday, March 11, 4:00 pm
Junior Recital
Coreen Cahill, vocal jazz
Sunday, March 11, 7:30 PM
Jon Gardner, jazz
Tuesday, March 13, 7:30 PM
Rm. 44, Fine Arts Center
Zach Scudlark, jazz
Wednesday, March 14, 8:00 PM
Amherst Unitarian Society
Alive With Dance presents Sunday Dance Series! Come out and join us for a day full of dancing. Featuring the Ballroom Dance Team, Belly Dance Club, and Hip Hop Organization! Only $6 a class! Or take all 7 classes for $36 and get one free! ... All proceeds benefit the Alive With Dance senior concert in April!Location: Totman Gym, Studio 13 10:00-11:00 ChaCha-- Ballroom Dance Team 11:00-11:45 Contemporary-- Sarah Elaz 12:00-1:00 Belly Dance-- Belly Dance Club 1:00-1:45 Tap-- Jeff Gugliotti 1:45-2:30 Lunch Break 2:30-3:30 Break Dance-- Hip Hop Organization 3:30-4:15 Jazz-- Justine Picarello 4:30-5:30 Hip Hop-- Christen Vanyurhttp://youtu.be/EWF_zxhTqa8 https://twitter.com/#!/UMassDance https://www.facebook.com/events/338112422898666/
Monday, March 12, 2012 4:30-6:30pm Bezanson Recital Hall
Guest artist: Rita Porfiris, Assistant Professor at the Hartt School, University of Hartford
No charge to observe
Home |
Overview |
Music Programs & Degrees: Undergraduate |
Music Programs & Degrees: Graduate
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This site is maintained by the Department of Music and Dance.
© 2008 University of Massachusetts Amherst • Site Policies


text: ...we see Han Solo (Harrison Ford) calling Jabba the Hutt out as a ?slimy piece of worm-eating filth? (a slight variation on the ?worm-ridden filth? line from the film) while Luke Skywalker (Mark Hamill) warns the Hutt to ?free us or die? as crew members look on. Reading Jabba?s lines are none other than ROTJ director Richard Marquand, who also shouts out orders to stuntman Dicky Beer, who plays Jabba?s skiff guard Barada. The scene ends with everyone ? cast and crew ? looking off and marveling at something in the distance while Harrison Ford informs a woman on the crew of his character?s current post-hibernation vision status: ?George said I can see now. It?s blurry, but I can see.?


text:
I know this has been discussed at length previously, but I need to vent a little about my concerns on a TV program I watched this week (It was NOT Best of the West). It was elk hunting in Wyoming by a young teen with his Dad who is the show host. This was the boy's first elk hunt. He shot a nice bull at 1473 +/- yards. I think this really sets a bad example for other young/novice hunters. My Dad spent years teaching me the basics of big game hunting. He taught me about ethics, stalking skills and yes he stressed still hunting (ya hear this Old Hunter). Not every novice hunter has the luxury of a VERY expensive rifle, optics and ammunition used in this program. IMHO this type of a program that stresses ultra long range shooting encourages real problems with hunter ethics. I can visualize wounded and lost animals that these shows don't show or even mention.
Sorry about my rant, but this just makes me wonder where our passion for hunting is going. I used to watch and comment on a long range forum, but just got tired of all the junk I saw on it. Sure we have equipment that enables us to shoot at this range, but is it right. Sure ain't for me!!!


text:
Antibes Round Dining Table
$715 Final Sale
$572 Member
Impeccably made outdoor furniture rendered in rustproof cast aluminum captures the relaxed elegance of the French Mediterranean.
Show Details +
- Dining Table: 38" diam., 31"H
- Armchair: seat, 16"H; arm, 25"H; 25"W x 26"D x 38"H overall
- Side Chair: seat, 16"H; 22"W x 26"D x 38"H overall
Product Not Available
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Please continue browsing.


text:
LONG BEACH - A Long Beach city councilwoman said today that the city auditor has found that $18 million worth of uncollected parking tickets are owed to the city, up from $11 million the last time the topic was analyzed in 2009.
"Two weeks ago, I met with City Auditor Laura Doud," said City Councilwoman Gerrie Schipske in a a statement. "Laura told me that she was getting ready to release her audit, which again found that the city is not collecting owed parking citations. In fact, currently the city is owed $18 million in uncollected parking citations."
Schipske recommended that the city contract out for billing and collection services for parking citations, ambulance and paramedic services.
"The city might want to consider selling some of this uncollected revenue to a `factoring agency' (that) can pay the city a percentage of the amounts owed," she said.
Schipske said the problem of uncollected parking ticket was "disturbing" for various reasons:
-- The city auditor told the City Council in 2009 that $11 million in outstanding parking citations had not been collected. A pilot program to use parking boots was approved, and the council asked for updates on the program and on how improvements were to be made in the collection system. "Didn't happen," she said.
-- Problems in a collection system means that there are problems in the billing system.
-- There have been serious cuts to core city serviced made to balance the city budget and very little effort to make certain that the city is receiving every dollar it is entitled to receive from citations, fees and contracts.
"Citizens should not be penalized with cuts in city services while the city fails to do its job collecting revenue it is owed," Schipske said.


text:
This message was edited Aug 13, 2006 4:38 PM
Tole Painting
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text:
With 22 affordable homeowner and rental units built, this $20 million project has been a great success. The building offers residents amenities like job training and community recreation activities. The project is in its final phase, with its homeownership units still underway.
Follow this link for more information.
Document Download


text:
Police Officer
Under general supervision, performs routine police officer duties enforcing state, county and municipal laws, rules and regulations for the protection and security of people and property. Carries firearms, communicates effectively, operates a law enforcement vehicle, effects arrests, performs rescue functions and engages in law enforcement patrol functions.
State Requirements: A high school diploma and certification by the Department of Public Safety in accordance with § 23-23-40 of the Code of Laws of South Carolina 1976.
FMU Preferences: High school graduate, with experience in first aid, firefighting and pistol marksmanship. Required to participate and successfully complete SCCJA (SC Police Academy) training if not currently Class 1 police officer certified. One year's experience in law enforcement or military police would be helpful. Knowledge of Bloodborne Pathogen Policy and compliance with policy required. Must be 21 years of age or older, have a satisfactory credit report, a valid SC driver's license, and pass an extensive background investigation.
State Classification: Law Enforcement Officer I
Band/Level, Position: 4/1
Salary: $25,627
Normal Working Hours: Rotating Shifts
Materials Needed: 1) Letter of interest (referencing #13-13); 2) completed FMU staff application; 3) resume; 4) copies of all transcripts (official transcripts will be required of the successful candidate); 5) valid SC driver's license (copy); 6) 10-Year Motor Vehicle Record from SC Highway Department (original);7) Social Security Card (copy); 8) DD214 for Military Services – if applicable (copy); 9) Police Officer Certification, if applicable (copy); and 10) Satisfactory Credit Report (for interviewees only).
Application Procedure: Interested applicants may: 1) Come by the Human Resources Office to complete the application process or call 843-661-1140 to have an application mailed; or 2) Download the application from our website at www.fmarion.edu/about/hr and either FAX (843-661-1202) or mail the requested application referencing Position Number #13-13 to: Dr. Charlene Wages, Vice President for Administration, PO Box 100547, Florence, SC 29502-0547.
Screening of applicants will begin immediately and will continue until the position is filled.
Minorities and Women are strongly encouraged to apply.
Click link to download an FMU application.
Click here (http://www.fmarion.edu/about/hrlinks) to obtain information about the State of South Carolina and other support services for state employees.
An Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution


text:
City of Sausalito Sewer Standards
The latest Sausalito-Marin City Sanitary Permits, Standards & Specifications are available in individual components or as a complete download for your convenience.
Please click here.
For the City of Sausalito Sewer Construction Standards & Resolution click here
Free viewers are required for some of the attached documents.
They can be downloaded by clicking on the icons below.
Copyright © 2003- 2013 City of Sausalito
420 Litho Street, Sausalito, CA 94965
(415) 289-4100
Website Created by Vision Internet
Contact Us
Sausalito Chamber of Commerce


text: Stephen Baldwin owes $350K in unpaid taxes to the State Of New York. Yesterday, the actor was arrested and charged with failing to pay three years of state income taxes. If he is convicted, Stephen faces four years in prison. Unlike in California where four years means about 45 minutes, this would be a very long sentence if nothing is agreed to before hand. Baldwin was not even bothering to file returns. He is next due in court in February. On the bright side, he does take a good mug shot. Need some money? Celebrity Mole. That is all I am saying.


text:
Hazel is a shy,insecure girl but Jai gets to know her...
Beautiful Connections. (SEASON 1)
- by Chantelle_Jai_Luke
- Rating:
- Published: 30 Oct 2014
- Updated: 30 Oct 2014
- Status: In Progress
So..Whats happening when Poppy Meadows a shy girl with no confidence type of girl transforms into something completely opposite.Who or what changes her for the better? Do you really wanna know? If you do I suggest you keep reading...
Join MovellasFind out what all the buzz is about. Join now to start sharing your creativity and passion
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text:
Anne - from Bristol, UK, UK
Cutting a tall layer cake can be difficult! If you're uncomfortable cutting a tall, thin slice of cake, some people prefer cutting a wider slice just halfway through the cake. If that doesn't work for me, I'll present the whole cake to my guests, then take the cake into the kitchen to cut and serve without as many eyes watching!


text:
Swing it
Amsterdam Lindy Club
Friday, January 18, 2013 at 7:45 AM (CET)
Who's Going
Loading your connections...
3 of your friends are going. Share it to get more people on board! Share
Sara Haughty
San Francisco, California
San Francisco, California
Luke Picard
London, United Kingdom
London, United Kingdom
Rick Vespucio
Florence, Italy
Florence, Italy
Event Details
Swing it with Julien Stoehr and Crystel Poetiray
New in Amsterdam is Swing it!
Swing it is a small weekend event with international teacher couple and parties.
We will invite different teachers from abroad to bring new ideas and moves to your dancing.
This time we have Julien Stoehr (FR) and Crystel Poetiray (NL).
There emphasis will be on musicality and rhythmical variations.
SOLO 1: start at 19.45 - 20.45 Jan 18, 2013.
SOLO 2: start at 21.00-22.00 Jan 18, 2013.
Have questions about Swing it ? Contact Amsterdam Lindy Club
When & Where
Spuistraat 239
1012 VP Amsterdam
Friday, January 18, 2013 at 7:45 AM (CET)
Add to my calendar
Amsterdam Lindy Club
Swing it
Things to do in Amsterdam


text:
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Bee Educated
Our wooden frames are cut automatically with high-speed carbide cutters and the resulting product has smoother cuts and more precise joints. The ends are 3/8" thick and are pre-bored for use with support pins or wiring. Our assembled frames are both glued and nailed and an extra staple put at each end of the frame to make them the strongest and most durable frames. Our plastic frames and foundation are mold in the U.S from food grade plastic and are coated with a thin layer of beeswax.


text:
Being the earliest tetrapods to adapt to a terrestrial existence, primitive amphibians are regarded as intermediary life-forms between fishes and reptiles. Modern amphibians are not, however, strictly transitional in their morphology; during their successful radiation throughout the world, they have achieved a variety of modifications that do not exemplify this intermediate status but are specific adaptations to their environment. One such example is the skin, which is kept moist by mucus-secreting glands and is involved in respiration and maintenance of water balance.
Members of the three extant orders of amphibians, Anura (frogs and toads), Caudata (salamanders and newts), and Apoda (or Gymnophiona of some authors; caecilians), Nearly 6,200 species of living amphibians are known. First appearing about 340 million years ago during the Upper Mississippian Epoch, they were one of the earliest groups to diverge from ancestral fish-tetrapod stock during the evolution of animals from strictly aquatic forms to terrestrial types. Today, amphibians are represented by frogs and toads (order Anura), newts and salamanders (order Caudata), and caecilians (order Gymnophiona). These three orders of living amphibians are thought to derive from a single radiation of ancient amphibians, and although strikingly different in body form, they are probably the closest relatives to one another. As a group, the three orders make up subclass Lissamphibia. Neither the lissamphibians nor any of the extinct groups of amphibians were the ancestors of the group of tetrapods that gave rise to reptiles. Though some aspects of the biology and anatomy of the various amphibian groups might demonstrate features possessed by reptilian ancestors, amphibians are not the intermediate step in the evolution of reptiles from fishes.
Modern amphibians are united by several unique traits. They typically have a moist skin and rely heavily on cutaneous (skin-surface) respiration. They possess a double-channeled hearing system, green rods in their retinas to discriminate hues, and pedicellate (two-part) teeth. Some of these traits may have also existed in extinct groups.
Members of the three extant orders differ markedly in their structural appearance. Frogs and toads (anurans) are tailless , and somewhat squat amphibians with long, powerful hindlimbs hind limbs modified for leaping. In contrast, caecilians are limbless, wormlike, and highly adapted for a burrowing existence. Salamanders and newts have tails and two pairs of limbs of roughly the same size and have less-specialized structures ; however, they are somewhat less specialized in body form than the other two orders. Caecilians are limbless, wormlike, and highly adapted for a burrowing existence.
Traditionally, these orders have been united in one class by the feature unique to them among all tetrapods, the anamniotic egg. Other general defining characteristics include glandular skin that lacks epidermal structures such as hair or feathers, two lungs, a three-chambered heart, and a biphasic lifestyle common to most groups in which aquatic larvae metamorphose into adult formsMany amphibians are obligate breeders in standing water. Eggs are laid in water, and the developing larvae are essentially free-living embryos; they must find their own food, escape predators, and perform other life functions while they continue to develop. As the larvae complete their embryonic development, they adopt an adult body plan that allows them to leave aquatic habitats for terrestrial ones. Even though this metamorphosis from aquatic to terrestrial life occurs in members of all three amphibian groups, there are many variants, and some taxa bear their young alive. Indeed, the roughly 6,200 living species of amphibians display more evolutionary experiments in reproductive mode than any other vertebrate group. Some taxa have aquatic eggs and larvae, whereas others embed their eggs in the skin on the back of the female; these eggs hatch as tadpoles or miniature frogs. In other groups, the young develop within the oviduct, with the embryos feeding on the wall of the oviduct. In some species, eggs develop within the female's stomach.
The three living groups orders of amphibians vary greatly in size and structure. Long tails The presence of a long tail and two pairs of limbs of about equal size distinguish the salamanderdistinguishes newts and salamanders (order Caudata) from other amphibians, although members of the eel-like family Sirenidae have no hindlimbs. Their total length varies greatly; a diminutive terrestrial species in Mexico measures 27 millimetres (1.06 inches) long, and the giant aquatic salamander in China hind limbs. Newts and salamanders vary greatly in length; members of the Mexican genus Thorius measure 25 to 30 mm (1 to 1.2 inches), whereas Andrias, a genus of giant aquatic salamanders endemic to China and Japan, reaches a length of more than 1.5 metres (5 feet). Frogs and toads (anurans) have long hindlimbs and large eyes by which they can be easily identified. They lack tails and order Anura) are easily identified by their long hind limbs and the absence of a tail. They have only five to nine presacral vertebrae. The West African goliath frog, which is 300 millimetres can reach 30 cm (12 inches) from snout to vent and weighs weigh up to 3.3 kilograms kg (7.28 3 pounds), is the largest anuran; . Some of the smallest is the Brazilian brachycephalid, which reaches a anurans include the South American brachycephalids, which have an adult snout-to-vent length of only 9.8 millimetres. mm (0.4 inch), and some microhylids, which grow to 9 to 12 mm (0.4 to 0.5 inch) as adults. The long, slender, limbless caecilian is a burrowing animal. Adaptations for this lifestyle include caecilians (order Gymnophiona) are animals that have adapted to fossorial (burrowing) lifestyles by evolving a body segmented by annular grooves and a short and pointed tail that is usually present, blunt tail. Caecilians can attain lengths of more than one metre—Caecilia thompsoni grow to more than 1 metre (3 feet) long. The largest species, Caecilia thompsoni, reaches a length of 1,520 millimetres; .5 metres (5 feet), whereas the smallest species, Grandisonia brevis Idiocranium russeli, is only 112 millimetres.Distribution and abundance
Found in almost every type of environment except the high latitudes in the Arctic, Antarctica, various 90 to 114 mm (3.5 to 5 inches) long.
Amphibians occur widely throughout the world, even edging north of the Arctic circle in Eurasia; they are absent only in Antarctica, most remote oceanic islands, and some extremely xeric (dry) deserts, frogs . Frogs and toads show the greatest diversity in humid tropical environments. Salamanders primarily inhabit the Northern Hemisphere and are most abundant in cool, moist, montane forests; however, members of the family Plethodontidae (see red salamander video) , the lungless salamanders, are diverse in the humid tropical areas montane forests of Mexico, Central America, and northwestern South America. Caecilians are found spottily throughout the tropics except for MadagascarAfrican, American, and Asian wet tropics.
For many years, habitat destruction has had a severe impact on the distribution and abundance of numerous amphibian species. Since the 1980s, a severe decline in the population populations of many frog species of frog has been observed. Although acid rain, global warming, and ozone depletion may be are contributing factors to these reductions, the reasons for their decline have not been fully determined.a full explanation of the disappearance in diverse environment remains uncertain. A parasitic fungus, the so-called amphibian chytrid (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis), however, appears to be a major cause of substantial frog die-offs in parts of Australia and southern Central America and milder events in North America and Europe.
Amphibians, especially anurans, are economically useful in reducing the number of insects that destroy crops or transmit diseases. Frogs are commercially exploited as food, notably by Europeans; the French are the principal consumers, and they import both for local consumption and commercially for export, with thousands of tons of frog legs harvested annually. The skin secretions of various tropical anurans are known to have hallucinogenic effects as well as and effects on the central nervous and respiratory systems in humans. Some secretions have been found to contain magainin, a substance that provides a natural antibiotic effect. Other skin secretions, especially toxins, have potential use as anesthetics and painkillers. Biochemists are currently investigating these substances for possible uses.
Most amphibians have a biphasic life cycle involving aquatic eggs and larvae that metamorphose into terrestrial adults. They deposit large numbers of eggs in water; clutches may exceed 5,000 eggs in the tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum) and 45,000 eggs in large bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana). Egg size and water temperature influence the length of time required by embryos to develop in the egg before hatching; many anuran eggs laid in warm water require only one or two days to develop, whereas eggs deposited in cold mountain lakes or streams may not hatch for 30 to 40 days. Development of salamander eggs usually requires more time, with hatching occurring 20 to 270 days after fertilization.
medicinal use.
The three living groups of amphibians have distinct evolutionary lineages and exhibit a diverse range of life strategieshistories. The breeding behaviour of each order will be discussed in its individual section group is outlined below. One similar tendency among amphibians has been the evolution in some species of direct development of young in terrestrial eggs, thus eliminating , in which the aquatic egg and larval stage. The majority of species of free-swimming larval stages are eliminated. Development occurs fully within the egg capsule, and juveniles hatch as miniatures of the adult body form. Most species of lungless salamanders (family Plethodontidae), the largest salamander family (Plethodontidae), some caecilians, and many species of anurans deposit eggs on land; these eggs develop directly and hatch as miniature adults. Numerous have direct development. In addition, numerous caecilians and a few species of anurans and salamanders are viviparous; i.e., they give birth to live young (viviparity).
Anurans present display a gamut wide variety of life history variationshistories. Centrolenids and phyllomedusine hylids deposit eggs on vegetation above streams or ponds, from which hatchling ; upon hatching, the tadpoles (anuran larvae) drop into the water where they continue to develop throughout their larval stage. Some species from the families Leptodactylidae and Rhacophoridae create foam nests for their eggs in aquatic, terrestrial, or arboreal habitats; after hatching, tadpoles of these families usually develop in water. Dendrobatids and other anurans deposit their eggs on land and transport them to water. Female hylid marsupial frogs are so called because they carry their eggs in a pouch on their backs; they are sometimes not transported within the pouch but . A few species lack a pouch and the tadpoles are exposed on the back. In ; in some species when tadpoles emerge, the female places them deposits her tadpoles in a pond as soon as they emerge.
Within Inside the egg, the embryo is enclosed in a series of semipermeable gelatinous capsules enclose the embryo and suspended in fluid surrounding perivitelline fluid, a fluid that also surrounds the yolk (perivitelline fluid). These capsules can be eventually digested by hatching enzymes that are produced by frontal . The hatching larvae dissolve these capsules with enzymes secreted from glands on the tips of their snouts of embryos. All . The original yolk mass of the egg provides all nutrients necessary for egg development within the ovary are supplied by the yolk in the egg capsule, but various development; however, various developmental stages utilize different nutrients. In early development, fats are the necessary major energy source. During gastrulation, followed by an increasing reliance on carbohydrates during gastrulation ( early developmental stage in which the embryo consists of two cell layers), there is an increasing reliance on carbohydrates. After gastrulation, a return to fat utilization occurs. During the latter later developmental stages, when morphological structures form, proteins are the primary energy source. By the neurula stage (, an embryonic stage in which nervous tissue develops), cilia appear on the embryo. The fluid , and the graceful movement of these hairlike structures rotates the embryo within the perivitelline fluid. CaeciliansThe larvae of direct developing and live-bearing caecilians, salamanders, and some anurans have external gills that press against the inner wall of the egg capsule, permitting which permits an exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) with the outside air or with maternal tissues. Ammonia During development, ammonia is the principal form of nitrogenous waste, and it is diluted by a constant diffusion of water in the perivitelline fluid.
The development of limbs in the embryos of aquatic salamanders develop limbs in an anteroposterior wavebegins in the head region and proceeds in a wave down the body, and digits appear sequentially on both sets of limbs. Salamanders that deposit their eggs in streams produce embryos that develop both sets of limbs before they hatch, but salamanders that deposit their eggs in still water have embryos that develop only forelimbs before hatching. (In contrast, the limbs of anurans do not appear until after hatching.) Soon after the appearance of forelimbs, most pond-dwelling salamanders develop an ectodermal projection known as a balancer on each side of the head. These rodlike structures arise from the mandibular arch, contain nerves and capillaries, and produce a sticky secretion. They keep newly hatched larvae from sinking into the sediment and aid the salamander in maintaining its balance before its forelimbs develop. After the forelimbs appear, the balancers degenerate.
Paired During the embryonic and early larval stages in anurans, paired adhesive organs arise from the hyoid arch, located at the base of the tongue, during the embryonic and early larval stages in anurans. The sticky mucus they secrete can form a threadlike attachment between a newly hatched tadpole and the egg capsule or vegetation. Thus Consequently, the tadpole that is still developing can remain in a stable position until it is capable of swimming and feeding on its own, after which the adhesive organs degenerate.
The amphibian larva represents a morphologically distinct stage between the embryo and adult. Most aquatic larvae depend on the environment for their food supplyThe larva is a free-living embryo. It must find food, avoid predators, and participate in all other aspects of free-living existence while it completes its embryonic development and growth. Salamander and caecilian larvae remain are carnivorous, and they have a morphology more like their respective adults in structure, function, and nutritional requirements adult forms than do anuran larvae. Not long after emerging from their shellsegg capsules, larval salamanders, which have four fully developed limbs, start to feed on small aquatic invertebrates. The salamander larvae are smaller versions of adults, from which although they differ from their adult counterparts by the presence of external gills, a tail fintailfin, distinctive larval dentition, and a rudimentary tongue as well as by , and the absence of eyelids. Larval caecilians, also smaller models of adults, have thin skin, external gills, and a lateral-line system (a group of epidermal sense organs located over the head and along the side of the body). Anuran larvae resemble fish , and a thin skin.
In anurans, tadpoles are fishlike when they hatch. They have short, generally ovoid bodies and long, laterally compressed tails that are composed of a central axis of musculature with dorsal and ventral fins. Their mouths, The mouth is located terminally (recessed), are ringed with fringing an oral disk that is often fringed by papillae and have bears many rows of keratinized (i.e., infused with a tough, horny material: keratin) denticles on the lips as well as horny jawsdenticles made of keratin. Tadpoles often have horny beaks. Their gills are internal , and water and covered by an operculum. Water taken in through the mouth passes over them the gills and is expelled through one or more spiracular openings on the side of the head. Salamander and caecilian an opercular chamber. Anuran larvae are carnivorous and have digestive systems similar to those of adult forms, but the herbivorous anuran larvae have long coiled intestines and no actual stomachs.Larvae of salamanders microphagous and thus feed largely on bacteria and algae that coat aquatic plants and debris.
Salamander larvae usually reach full size within two or three to four months, although some they may remain larvae for two to three years before metamorphosis occurs. Some large aquatic species, such as the hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis) and the mud puppy (Necturus maculosus) require up to five years to mature, never fully metamorphose and retain larval characteristics as adults (see below heterochrony). Tadpole development varies in length between species. Some anuran species living in xeric (dry) habitats, in which ephemeral ponds may exist for only a few weeks are fully developed in two weeks. Most species, however, need at least a month, and species , develop and metamorphose within two to three weeks; however, most species require at least two months. Species living in cold mountain streams or lakes often require much more time—such as the time. For example, the development of the tailed frog (Ascaphus truei) , whose development takes three years to complete.
Metamorphosis entails an abrupt and thorough change in an animal's physiology and biochemistry, with concomitant structural and behavioral modifications. These changes mark the transformation from hatchling embryo to adult, the most obvious of which are the development of completely new structures and functions. Other changes include modification of larval structures and regression of structures and functions useful only to the larvae. juvenile and the completion of development. Hormones ultimately control all events of larval growth and metamorphosis. Changes that occur in the caecilian—closure of the gill slit, degeneration of the caudal fin, and development of a tentacle and skin glands—are minor, and in many instances, development is accompanied by a shift from a fully aquatic life to a semiaquatic or fully terrestrial one.
Although salamanders undergo many structural modifications, these changes are not dramatic. The skin thickens as dermal glands develop and the caudal fin is resorbed. Gills are also resorbed and gill slits close as lungs develop and branchial (gill) circulation is modified. Eyelids, tongue, and a maxillary bone are formed, and teeth develop on the maxillary and parasphenoid bones. Tadpoles make an abrupt and radical transition to their adult formChanges that occur in caecilians—the closure of the gill slit, the degeneration of the caudal fin, and the development of a tentacle and skin glands—are also minor.
Skeletal changes are much more dramatic in anurans than they are in salamanders and caecilians. Their hindlimbs mature and forelimbs form in the branchial chambers from which they emerge late because tadpoles make an abrupt and radical transition to their adult form. Limbs complete their development, and the forelimbs break through the opercular wall, early in metamorphosis. The tail shrinks as it is resorbed ; by the body, dermal glands develop, and the skin becomes thicker. As lungs and pulmonary ventilation develop, internal gills and their associated blood vessels degenerate. The adult circulation disappear. Adult mouthparts replace the their degenerating larval mouthpartsequivalents, and hyolaryngeal structures develop. All anurans except pipids (family Pipidae) develop a tongue. In the newly differentiated digestive tract, the intestine is shortened. The eyes become larger and are structurally altered; eyelids appear. These extreme changes that the of anuran undergoes metamorphosis clearly demarcate the shift from an aquatic to a terrestrial mode of life. Other less obvious , yet nonetheless radical modifications of the larval skull and hyobranchial apparatus (that is, the part of the skeleton that serves as base for the tongue on the floor of the mouth) occur to make room for newly developed sense organs and also to allow . These modifications also facilitate the transition to be made from larval modes of feeding and respiration modes to those of the adult.
During metamorphosis, the urogenital system of all amphibians is also modified. An opisthonephric or mesonephric kidney replaces the A mesonephric or opisthonephric kidney—which uses nephrons located either in the middle or at the end of the nephric ridge in the developing embryo—replaces the degenerating rudimentary pronephric kidney; this . This transition is linked to the shift from production of a large volume of dilute ammonia to a small amount of concentrated urea. Gonads and associated ducts also appear and begin their maturation.
Neoteny entails the maturation of a larva's reproductive capabilities without the concomitant development of its external morphological features; this phenomenon occurs in some aquatic salamanders and is due to delayed somatic development. Different patterns of partial metamorphosis, ranging from a lack of development in jaw and cranial elements to a retention of larval skin structure, are exhibited by all four families of salamanders in which neoteny is a necessary developmental stage (i.e., the obligate neotenes). These families—Amphiumidae, Cryptobranchidae, Proteidae, and Sirenidae)—consist of 15 species. Five species of Ambystoma and nine species of hemidactyline plethodontids also are obligate neotenes, and 15 species of four families are facultative neotenes (i.e., able to adopt a neotenic strategy when expedient). The most renowned neotenic salamander is the Mexican axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum). Investigations of this species have shown that embryonic development and metamorphosis are under endocrine control, especially by the hormone thyroxine.
Neoteny, once a widely used label for the condition of sexually mature larvae, has been discontinued by biologists and replaced by the concept of heterochrony. Heterochrony refers to the change in the timing and rate of developmental events, and it is a widespread feature in amphibian evolution, particularly in salamanders. During development, a structure can begin to develop sooner (predisplacement) or later (postdisplacement) in an organism than it occurred in the ancestral species or parents. Also, a structure may continue to develop beyond the previous embryological sequence (hypermorphosis) or the developmental sequence can stop earlier than normal (progenesis or hypomorphosis). Each of these heterochronic events can produce a structurally or functionally different organism.
The classical "neotenic" salamander, the axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum), is a paedomorphic species (that is, a species that retains aspects of its juvenile form during its adult phase); it retains its larval gills. In the mole salamander (Ambystoma talpoideum), some populations also display hypomorphic development in which the development of several larval traits to the adult condition is delayed. Since the gonads mature, a population of sexually mature salamanders with a larval morphology is produced. Heterochrony also explains the presence of larval traits in adults of the salamander families Cryptobranchidae (hellbenders) and Proteidae (olms and mud puppies).
Heterochrony is not confined to salamanders. The different sized eardrums in the American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) are examples of hypermorphism in male bullfrogs. The development of the eardrums in the male extends beyond that of the female.
Many amphibians have a biphasic life cycle involving aquatic eggs and larvae that metamorphose into terrestrial or semiaquatic juveniles and adults. Commonly, they deposit large numbers of eggs in water; clutches of the tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum) may exceed 5,000 eggs, and large bullfrogs (R. catesbeiana) may produce clutches of 45,000 eggs. Egg size and water temperature are important factors that influence an embryo's development time. Eggs of many anuran species laid in warm water require only one or two days to develop, whereas eggs deposited in cold mountain lakes or streams may not hatch for 30 to 40 days. The development of salamander eggs often requires more time, with hatching occurring 20 to 270 days after fertilization.
Adult amphibians consume a wide variety of foods. Earthworms are the main diet of burrowing caecilians, whereas anurans and salamanders feed primarily on insects and other arthropods, and large . Large salamanders and some large anurans eat small vertebrates, including birds and mammals. Most anurans and salamanders locate prey by sight, although some use their sense of smell. The majority of salamanders and diurnal (i.e.that is, active during daylight) terrestrial anurans are active foragers, but most many other anurans employ a sit-and-wait technique. Caecilians locate their underground prey with a chemosensory tentacle and capture their quarry with a powerful bite (see chemoreception). Aquatic salamanders lunge at their prey with an open mouth and appear to suck the victim in by expanding their buccal (oral) cavity. The terrestrial lunged terrestrial salamander extends its sticky tongue, which is attached anteriorly to the floor of the mouth, to ensnare a meal. In lungless salamanders, the hyobranchial apparatus does not function in buccal respiration, and the hyobranchium is not part of the process of buccal respiration; this apparatus is modified so that it can project the tongue from the mouth. Prey can be captured with the sticky The end of the projectile tongue tongue is sticky to adhere to prey, and prey can be captured at distances of ranging from 40 to 80 percent of the salamander's body length.
Primitive anurans have feeding mechanisms that resemble those of the typical terrestrial salamanders. More advanced anurans employ a lingual "lingual flip," in which the posterodorsal surfaces of the retracted tongue invert to become the anteroventral surface of the are twisted and inverted in the fully extended tongue. The pipids, which are completely aquatic, uniquely lack tongues and therefore have to are unique among anurans; they lack a tongue and thus must essentially suck food and water into their mouthsmouth.
Although the structure of the muscular, skeletal, nervous, digestive, and urogenital systems of amphibians are intermediate between fishes and reptiles, but those of other other anatomical systems are specifically modified for each group, amphibians . The integument (skin) and are often set apart from other groups of animals by their characteristic skin, or integument, and evolutionary advances in vision and hearing.
The circulatory and respiratory systems exemplify these adaptations and act together work with the integument to provide cutaneous respiration. A broad network of cutaneous capillaries facilitates gas exchange and the diffusion of water and ions between the animal and the environment. Several species of salamanders and at least one species of frog (Barbourula kalimantanensis) are lungless. Amphibians also employ various combinations of branchial , pulmonary, and cutaneous respirationand pulmonary strategies to breathe. The buccal pump mechanism is a unique feature of the pulmonary respiration system. Water and ion diffusion as well as gas exchange are facilitated by a myriad of cutaneous capillaries. The integument is involved , which involves the pushing of air between the lungs and the closed mouth, is present in amphibians and some groups of fishes.
In addition to its roles in respiration and maintaining water balance. It also , the integument of amphibians contains poison glands that release toxins. Specific toxins are found only in amphibians : these toxic substances provide defense and are used to defend against predators.Adaptations
The amphibian eye eye of the modern amphibian (or lissamphibian) has a lid, associated glands, and ducts, and . It also has muscles that allow accommodation as well as its accommodation within or on top of the head, depth perception, and true colour vision. These adaptations are regarded as the first evolutionary improvements in vertebrate terrestrial vision. Green rods in the retina, which permit the perception of a wide range of wavelengths, are found only in amphibianslissamphibians.
The amphibian auditory system is also specially adapted. One modification is the papilla amphibiorum, which is a patch of neuroepithelium that can receive external stimulisensory tissues that is sensitive to low-frequency sound. Also unique to amphibians lissamphibians is the columella-opercular complex, a pair of elements associated with the auditory capsule that transmit airborne (columella) or seismic (operculum) signals.
The environment helps to mold the morphology of an organism. The markedly different morphologies structural forms of the three living orders of amphibians suggest demonstrate that each group has had a long, separate evolutionary history.
Salamanders have less-specialized morphologies than do the other two orders. They have small heads
and long slender bodies
made up of four limbs
and a tail
. Although the skulls of most terrestrial salamanders consist of more individual pieces than do those of either caecilians or anurans, they are arched
, narrow, and not well
These skulls have an extra set of articulations with the vertebral column, a characteristic that may have been an evolutionary strategy for stabilizing the head on the axial skeleton (vertebral column) in terrestrial salamanders; other amphibians developed a specialized trunk musculature to meet this challenge.
The hyoid apparatus in the floor of the mouth enables salamanders to capture prey by projecting their fleshy tongues from the buccal cavity, although most are only able to roll their tongues forward over their lower jaws to snare their dinner. Food is held and manipulated in the buccal cavity by the teeth and tongue. This mechanism does not require adaptations
to the mandibular and jaw muscles or sturdy, specialized teeth—features that most salamanders lack. Well-developed eyes and nasal organs, however, are needed to locate prey. Because salamanders do not depend on their vocal abilities, their auditory apparatus is less specialized than that of anurans.
Most salamander species have a generalized mode of locomotion, which is reflected by a lack of specialization in the musculoskeletal system.
Salamanders walk methodically and move the limbs in the standard diagonal-sequence gait of quadrupeds. Aquatic salamanders show the greatest divergence from this generalized morphological pattern. Because they are kept afloat by their aquatic environment, they are often larger, devoid of limbs, and
swim via the lateral undulation of the trunk and tail.
Of the three living amphibian orders,
caecilians show the least divergence in structure and form. All caecilians, except for a few aquatic species, lead subterranean existences and thus have similar specialized morphologies. They have a wormlike appearance, with compact and bony heads in which the centres of ossification have fused to provide a strong, spadelike braincase. While useful in tunneling through the soil, this compact cranium does not allow much room for the jaw muscles to develop. Thus, the lower jaw is attached to the main adductor muscle of the jaw by a retroarticular process outside the cranium
, and the caecilian cannot extend its tongue from the buccal cavity.
Vision, of little importance in the
caecilian's environment, is not acute; however,
the nasal organs are well developed, and chemosensory perception is greatly enhanced by the existence of a tentacle (see chemoreception).
The sense of hearing is probably less sensitive than that of salamanders or anurans. If the operculum (a feature analogous to auditory stapes) is present, it is incorporated into the columella (the rod made of bone or cartilage connecting the tympanic membrane with the internal ear).
Subterranean movement and feeding are aided by alterations of the axial musculoskeletal system. The overlying skin is
attached to the axial muscles, and this creates a tough sheath that encases the long,
muscular body and covers the posterior part of the skull.
Caecilians move through soil by a process called concertina locomotion, in which the body alternately folds and extends itself along its entire length, often occurring within the envelope of skin as well as by flexures of the entire body.
Anurans are more widespread, diverse, and numerous than either salamanders or caecilians.
Anurans display a broader range of specialization in locomotion, feeding, and reproduction
in their adaptation to many different environments and lifestyles. In general, anurans have a broad, flat
head—which is almost as wide as
their body—and a short trunk that, aside from the sacral area, is relatively inflexible. Long, powerful
hind limbs propel the fused head and trunk in a forward trajectory
. These leaping movements require more complex pectoral and pelvic girdles than that of salamanders
. The pectoral girdle is designed to absorb the shock of the anuran as it lands on its forelimbs; an elastic, muscular suspension connecting the pectoral girdle to the skull and vertebral column provides this ability. The pelvic girdle horizontally flanks the coccyx, the bony rod at the posterior end of the vertebral column
. Muscles and ligaments attach the pelvic girdle to the coccyx, sacrum, presacral vertebrae, and proximal part of the
hind limb. Thus, when the animal jumps, the pelvic girdle lies in the same plane as the axial column, and, when the animal sits, the posterior end of the girdle is deflected ventrally.
In addition to the specializations for leaping, many anurans have developed structures that allow them to burrow or climb trees
. These structures primarily
involve modifications in limb proportions and iliosacral articulation. Arboreal (
tree-dwelling) anurans have long limbs and digits with large, terminal, adhesive pads; anurans that burrow have short
sturdy limbs and large
spatulate tubercles made of keratin on their feet. The pipids, specialized for their aquatic environment, have little flexibility in their axial skeletons and instead propel their flat, fused bodies through the water with powerful
hind limbs and large, fully webbed feet.
Anurans depend on their visual acumen for feeding and locomotion, and hence
the eyes of most species are large and well developed. Because vocalizing is part of their mating and territorial behaviour, their ears are
also well developed. Most species have an external tympanum (eardrum), a structure that is absent in salamanders and caecilians
The many morphological adaptations of anurans have permitted them to explore a variety of lifestyles, which undergirds the success of this order and may account for their greater numbers as compared with salamanders and caecilians. All modern amphibians, however, have exhibited amazing evolutionary diversity. This has occurred in spite of the physiological limitations, such as dependence on water, that shackle the amphibian to its environment.
Amphibians are generally thought to be intermediate between aquatic fishes, whose eggs lack a shell and protective membranes, and terrestrial amniotes (reptiles, birds, and mammals), which have cleidoic (self-contained) eggs with membranes that function in respiration, feeding, and waste disposal. Amniotes and amphibians form the group of four-legged vertebrates called the tetrapods.
The first tetrapods evolved from their aquatic ancestors, undergoing many structural and functional modifications. Movement to land necessitated aerial respiration—a feature requiring nares, nasal tubes, and lungs. Bony fishes had already developed these structures early in their evolution, but the ventilation mechanism was modified from a passive pump in fishes to a force pump in tetrapods. Limbs developed from lobe fins presumably to allow terrestrial locomotion, and this involved bone lengthening and musculature modification. The pelvic and pectoral girdles, to which the limbs were attached, were strengthened to support the weight of the body with connections to the axial skeleton. Some species developed mucous and granular glands in their skin, while others developed bony plates. Tetrapods developed snouts, long jaws, tongues, and a movable skull in response to the need for a different method of foraging. The sense organs were modified for aerial perception, which involved the formation of a middle ear and accommodation in the eye lens. The lack of an impervious skin in primitive tetrapods, however, probably limited their range to humid or aquatic environments. Reproduction remained similar to that of fishes, with external fertilization, aquatic eggs encased in gelatinous capsules, and free-living larvae with gills. The adaptive strategy of metamorphosis developed uniquely in primitive amphibians.
During the latter part of the Paleozoic (i.e., the Carboniferous [360 to 286 million years ago] and the Permian [286 to 245 million years ago]) and the early Mesozoic (the Triassic [245 to 208 million years ago]), primitive amphibians spread into terrestrial habitats hospitable to their physiology. Moisture was then, as now, a necessary element for amphibian life. While inhabiting an aquatic environment, amphibians vied with a wide variety of freshwater and marine fishes for food; as amphibians moved away from their aquatic lifestyle, reptiles, which appeared midway into the Carboniferous, most likely become their primary terrestrial competitors. All primitive amphibians are believed to have preyed on various animals such as fishes (both freshwater and marine), other amphibians, and aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates.
Two groups of bony fishes, the crossopterygians and dipnoans, have been identified as the possible closest relatives of tetrapods. Crossopterygians, or lobe-fin fishes of which Eusthenopteran is best known, inhabited marine and freshwater environments during the Devonian Period (408 to 360 million years ago) and Carboniferous; no record of them exists beyond the Early Permian (286 to 258 million years ago). Morphological features included one pair of narial openings that perforated the palate, a pair of external nares on the dorsal aspect of the snout, and two pairs of short lateral fins with a robust, fleshy base. Crossopterygians also are believed to have had a spiracle (accessory opening for the intake of water), lungs, and gills.
Dipnoans, or lungfishes, inhabited marine environments in the Early Devonian (408 to 387 million years ago). Five living species survive from the diverse array that exists in the fossil record. These slender fishes are round in cross section and have two pairs of lateral fins. In two genera these fins are thin, long, fleshy structures with slightly webbed margins, but in the genus Neoceratodus they are broader and fleshier. Two pairs of narial openings (one through which water entered, the other through which it exited) are associated with the interior of the mouth, and external nares are not present. Dipnoans have lungs and gills but lack a spiracle.
Ichthyostega, the earliest known tetrapod, was found in the Upper Devonian (i.e., in rocks deposited from about 374 to 360 million years ago) of Greenland. Measuring 65 centimetres in length, this primitive tetrapod had broad ribs, well-developed, pentadactyl limbs, and a massive pectoral girdle that was independent of the skull. A bony rod was formed by the fusion of the most posterior vertebrae. Unlike other labyrinthodonts, Ichthyostega had dermal fin rays and a dorsomedial tail fin supported by endoskeletal elements. Many features of its skull are more rudimentary than those of other primitive tetrapods, which supports evidence that Ichthyostega is the earliest labyrinthodont. Additional factors, however, such as proportional differences between skull sizes of Ichthyostega and crossopterygian fishes, lack of data about soft anatomy, and anomalous characters have raised questions about the phylogenetic relationships among primitive tetrapods. A reinvestigation of the matter suggests that lungfishes are the closest tetrapod relatives, but controversy still exists.
The earliest tetrapods, the labyrinthodont amphibians, are from the Upper Devonian to the Triassic; these fossils include Ichthyostega. Two subclasses—Labyrinthodontia and Lepospondyli—are traditionally distinguished based on the arch vertebrae in the former and the husk vertebrae in the latter. The Labyrinthodontia are further broken down into the orders Anthracosauria and Temnospondyli. The dominant amphibians into the Permian were the anthracosaurs, which became extinct after this period. Various types of anthracosaur existed, such as the small, slender, limbless aistopod, which was no longer than 70 centimetres, and the large, aquatic embolomere, which had a skull like a crocodile and could reach a length of 4 metres.
Living amphibians belong to the subclass Lissamphibia. Lissamphibians are thought to be most closely related to the temnospondyls of the family Branchiosauridae and less closely related to the Micromelerpetonidae, Dissorophidae, and Trematopidae. These families existed between 305 and 240 million years ago (from the Late Carboniferous, or Middle Pennsylvanian, to the Early Triassic) and were all small, primarily quadrupedal, terrestrial animals with a primitive amphibian biphasic life cycle.
Lissamphibians are descended from one ancestor (monophyly) and are defined by 14 shared-derived characters that are based on osteological data. Seven of these features are unique to this group and involve the lack of elements. The retention of many cranial elements that other orders have lost characterizes the primitive status of the superorder Gymnophiona (caecilians). Many derived features are associated with the semifossorial or fossorial (adapted to digging) way of life that distinguishes all caecilians except the secondarily aquatic typhlonectids. Six of the seven shared-derived features that define this clade include cranial modifications of fossil and living species. Only living caecilians (order Apoda) and not the entire Gymnophiona are marked by the seventh character, loss of limbs—a fossil caecilian from the Jurassic Period (208 to 144 million years ago) had appendages.
The morphotype of most adult salamanders—attenuate bodies, tails, and (generally) forelimbs and hindlimbs of equal size—is not specialized, unlike that of caecilians and anurans. This permits a generalized terrestrial existence. Salamanders (order Caudata) are categorized in the superorder Urodela with the Jurassic salamander Karaurus. The features diagnostic of this group are a four-faceted articulation between the skull and vertebral column and an incomplete maxillary arcade that lacks bony connections with the neurocranium and palatoquadrate.
The superorder Salienta consists of the frogs and toads (order Anura) and the primitive froglike Triadobatrachus. Fused centres of ossification of the frontal and parietal bones, an elongated ilium that is anteriorly orientated, and a lack of a lacrimal bone are distinguishing characteristics. The structures involved in saltatorial locomotion are more specialized in anurans than in Triadobatrachus; the hindlimbs are elongated, discrete caudal vertebrae are fused to form a urostyle, the radius and ulna are partially or completely fused, fewer presacral vertebrae are present, and the sacrum is modified.
Amphibians were not the first tetrapods, but as a group they diverged from the stock that would soon, in a paleontological sense, become the amniotes and the ancestors of modern reptiles and amphibians. Tetrapods are descendants from a group of sarcopterygian (lobe-finned) fishes. Precisely which group of sarcopterygians is still debated, although the consensus has shifted from the lungfishes (order Dipnoi) to an ancestor within a group of related fishes: family Panderichthyidae of order Osteolepiformes or fishes of the order Porolepiformes. The interrelationships of this group of sarcopterygian fishes have various interpretations, although their monophyly (derivation from a common ancestor) is highly probable. This aspect means that they all share a similar morphology and possess traits that served as structural predecessors for the evolution of terrestrial adaptations.
The first tetrapods were not terrestrial animals. Instead, they were likely fully aquatic and probably lived in shallow water and dense vegetation. It is unknown what evolutionary forces drove the transition from fins to limbs, although one hypothesis suggests that limblike appendages were more effective for helping a stalking predator move through dense vegetation. One alternative hypothesis proposes that fin-limbs were used by early terrestrial vertebrates to move from drying pool to drying pool; this hypothesis is largely discounted because of other terrestrial adaptations required to survive an arduous and desiccating journey. The transformation of vertebrates from an aquatic lifestyle to a terrestrial one extended over more than 80 million years from the Early Devonian into the Early Pennsylvanian Epoch.
The sarcopterygian ancestor possessed two traits necessary for the evolution of a limbed terrestrial animal: lungs, which provide the ability to breathe air, and appendages with internal skeletal support extending beyond the muscle mass of the trunk. Lungs appeared in bony fishes well before the fish-tetrapod transition. They existed in the ancestors of both the ray-finned fishes (Actinopterygii) and fleshy-finned fishes (Sarcopterygii). In the former, the lungs or air sacs became swim bladders for buoyancy regulation, and in the latter, the lungs were used for aerial respiration.
Aerial respiration requires a cycle of airflow in and out of the lung. This flow refreshes the air and provides a steep diffusion gradient for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide across the tissue interface separating air and blood. Respiration (that is, ventilation) in fishes uses water pressure, with the fish rising to the surface and gulping air. Closing its mouth, the fish dives; because the head is lower than the air sac, the water pressure on the bottom of the mouth forces the air rearward into the "lungs." The process is reversed as the fish rises to the surface, expelling the air from the lungs prior to breaking the surface for another gulp of air. From this passive buccal (mouth-cavity) ventilation, the early tetrapods developed a muscle-driven buccal pump mechanism. The buccal pump remains functional in living amphibians.
The transition from fins to limbs began in the water and was probably completed in a largely aquatic animal. Because of the buoyancy of water, the evolving limb structure emphasized flexibility (the development of joints that bend at an angle rather than curving) over support. The limbs did not have to support the entire body mass, rather a fraction of the total. Instead of support, the limbs would simply push the fish-tetrapod forward, presumably as the fish walked along the bottom of a body of water. The limb movement sequence would have been the standard diagonal sequence used widely by quadrupedal animals. Presumably, the first changes involved the development of knee, elbow, ankle, and wrist joints. Concurrently, the fin-ray section of the fin would decline in size. Eventually, it would be lost and replaced by skeletal elements. As the animal spent more time out of water, the limbs were required to support the total body weight for longer periods, so natural selection would favour a stronger and tightly linked skeleton.
This strengthening required the firm anchoring of the pelvic girdle to the axial skeleton (vertebral column) because hind limbs must support the body while providing the main propulsive force in tetrapod locomotion. The pectoral girdle attaches to the skull in fishes; however, as the forelimbs became the main steering force in tetrapod locomotion, the animal required a flexible neck, and the pectoral girdle lost its attachment to the skull. Selection also favoured a more rigid vertebral column to counter the full effect of gravity during terrestrial locomotion. The support between the vertebrae paralleled the development of sliding and overlapping processes that firmly link adjacent vertebrae. These processes provided vertical rigidity and permitted lateral flexibility. Changes in the musculature promoted limb extension and flexion, and strongly linked adjacent sets of vertebrae and their girdles to the vertebral column.
Other anatomical changes associated with a transition to a terrestrial lifestyle included modifications to feeding structures, skin, and sense organs. Feeding on land required more head mobility to move the mouth to food, and the tongue developed to promote the manipulation of food once in the mouth. Through the development of keratinous tissues, the skin became somewhat more resistant to desiccation (dehydration) and better equipped to resist the increased frictional abrasion from the air and particulates (such as sand and dust) of the terrestrial environment. To fit this new environment, natural selection favoured adjustments to sense organs. The lateral-line system disappeared, and the eyes were adapted for vision through an aerial medium. Sound reception became more important, and auditory elements appeared. The nasal chamber became a dual channel: one channel allowed the passage of air for respiration, whereas the other allowed the intake of odours (olfaction).
In shape and habitat, the fish ancestral types such as Eusthenopteron or Panderichthys were somewhat different from the earliest tetrapods, Ichthyostega or Acanthostega. Both groups had heavy fusiform bodies (about 1 metre [3 feet] long); heavy, bluntly pointed heads with large mouths; short robust appendages; and thick, finned tails. This transition from fish to tetrapods occurred during the Devonian Period, and the Ichthyostegalia, a group of amphibian-like tetrapods that included Ichthyostega, persisted throughout much of the Late Devonian Epoch. Thereafter, there is a gap in the fossil record. When tetrapods reappear in the Late Mississippian Epoch, the new tetrapods are both amphibians and anthracosaurs, a group of tetrapods with some reptile traits. Dozens of amphibians and anthracosaurs lived from Late Mississippian and Pennsylvanian times. The true amphibians included edopoids, eryopoids, colosteids, trimerorhachoids, and microsaurs. The representatives of the anthracosaurs included the embolomers, baphetids, and limnoscelids. Nectrideans and aistopods are often identified as amphibians, but they might be better grouped with the anthracosaurs or listed separately.
The amphibians showed the greatest diversity in structure and lifestyle. The colosteids were small elongated aquatic animals with well-developed limbs. The eel-like aistopods were delicate limbless creatures; all were less than 100 cm (about 39 inches) long and presumably either aquatic or semiaquatic; their fragile skulls probably precluded a burrowing existence. The microsaurs, as the name implies, were small lizardlike (or salamander-like) amphibians, less than 15 cm (6 inches) in total length. All microsaurs had well-developed limbs, although they were sometimes small relative to the body and tail. Their appearance and diversity suggest a varied lifestyle similar to that of modern salamanders.
Although most of the amphibians of the Carboniferous Period (359 million years to 299 million years ago) were relatively small and predominately aquatic, some eryopoids—such as Eryops—were strong-limbed, stout-bodied, large (to 2 metres [about 7 feet]) terrestrial animals. Many of the Carboniferous amphibians and anthracosaur groups persisted into the early part of the Permian Period (299 million years to 251 million years ago). The Permian climate became increasing arid, and this change seemed to favour the amniotes, which became progressively more abundant and diverse during this era. As a result of these changing climatic conditions, the ancient amphibian groups largely disappeared by the end of the Permian Period.
The Triassic Period (251 million years to 200 million years ago) reveals few amphibian fossils, although one—Triadobatrachus massinoti, from the Early Triassic—is especially important. Though this amphibian has many froglike traits, it is not a true frog. It has the long legs, shortened trunk, and broad head of the typical frog body form. Caudal vertebrae were unfused, not yet forming the rodlike urostyle, but they did lie within the arch formed by elongated ilia. Thereafter, froglike tetrapods disappear from the fossil record until Middle Jurassic times. Frogs from the middle of the Jurassic Period (200 million to 145 million years ago) and thereafter possess the general morphology of extant frogs. This group includes one family, Discoglossidae, which has living species. Most other frog families do not occur in the fossil record until the Paleocene or Eocene epochs between 65 million and 34 million years ago.
The salamander-like albanerpetontids appeared contemporaneously with the Jurassic frogs. They persisted throughout the remainder of the Mesozoic Era (251 million to 65 million years ago) and into the early part of the Neogene Period (23 million years ago to the present), but they did not seem to radiate beyond a few species. While they appear salamander-like, the albanerpetontids are at best the sister group of the order Caudata. One group of salamanders, the Batrachosauroididae, appeared in the Late Jurassic and persisted until the Early Pliocene Period. Most modern salamander families did not appear until the early part of the Cenozoic Era (65 million years ago to the present).
In contrast, a single caecilian is known from the Early Jurassic Period, and a few caecilian vertebrae have been found in rock layers dating to near the end of the Cretaceous Period (145 to 65 million years ago). Only a scattering of fossil remains has been found in more recent rock layers.
The following classification derives from Zug, Vitt, and Caldwell (2001), who presented a composite phylogeny from several studies of different ancient amphibian groups. It emphasizes the lineages leading to the living amphibians and does not include all the fossil taxa; a realistic . As a result of the continued uncertainty of the relationships of many groups of amphibians and the improving, but still incomplete, knowledge of the anatomy in some fossil groups, a definitive phylogenetic classification of the class Amphibia is not attainable at the present time, because the relationships of many groups of amphibians are unknown. The characters of the fossil groups are discussed in the preceding section on evolution, and the characters of the orders of the living groups are given in the following sections on caecilians, salamanders, and anurans. In addition, many biologists are abandoning the use of group titles (such as class, order, and superfamily). The new preference is to use an indented hierarchical scheme to reflect the phylogenetic branching pattern; however, this arrangement continues to emerge, and a combined structure is used below. In this classification, Adelospondyli, Aistopoda, Microsauria, and Nectridea are listed as extinct orders within the superorder Lepospondyli, and Temnospondylia and Lissamphibia are listed as separate subclasses. Groups indicated by a dagger (†) are known only from fossils.CLASS AMPHIBIAEarly Devonian to Recent; worldwide.†Subclass LepospondyliCarboniferous; Europe and North America.†Subclass LabyrinthodontiaEarly Devonian to Triassic; North America, Europe, and Greenland.†Superfamily LoxommatoideaCarboniferous; Europe and North America.†Order TemnospondyliEarly Carboniferous (360–320 million years ago) to Late Triassic (230–208 million years ago); Europe and North America.†Suborder RhachitomiEarly Carboniferous to Early Triassic; worldwide distribution.†Superfamily incertae sedis (i.e., classification uncertain)Carboniferous; Europe and North America.†Superfamily EdopoideaLate Carboniferous to Early Permian; North America and Europe.†Superfamily EryopoideaLate Carboniferous to Early Triassic; North America.†Superfamily DissorophoideaPermian; North America and Eurasia.†Superfamily TrimerorhachoideaEarly Carboniferous to Late Permian (258–245 million years ago); Europe and North America.Subclass LissamphibiaTriassic to Recent; worldwide.Superorder GymnophionaJurassic to Recent; pantropical.†Order "Jurassic fossil" (unnamed)Fossils only; Jurassic; North America.Order Apoda (caecilians)Paleocene (66.4–57.8 million years ago) to Recent; pantropical.Infraclass BatrachiaTriassic to Recent; worldwide except Antarctica.Superorder UrodelaJurassic to Recent; primarily Northern Hemisphere.†Order KarauroideaFossils only; Jurassic; Asia.Order Caudata (salamanders)Jurassic to Recent; primarily Northern Hemisphere.Superorder SalientiaTriassic to Recent; worldwide.†Order ProanuraTriassic; Madagascar.Order AnuraJurassic to Recent; worldwide.Class Amphibia (amphibians)Middle Mississippian to present. Skull with a closed otic notch and a squamosal-parietal articulation; mandible of one endochondral and three dermal elements; skull articulates with vertebral column via a specialized atlas vertebrae.†Superorder Lepospondyli (lepospondylians)†Order Adelospondyli (adelospondylians)†Order Aistopoda(aistopodans)Upper Mississippian to Lower Permian. Lepospondylous vertebrae; elongate body with reduced or no limbs; and forked single-headed ribs.†Order Nectridea (nectrideans)Lower Pennsylvanian to Middle Permian. Lepospondylous vertebrae; elongate body with reduced well-differentiated limbs; fan-shaped neural and haemal spines on caudal vertebrae.†Order Microsauria (microsaurs)Lower Pennsylvanian to Middle Permian. Lepospondylous vertebrae, i.e., spool-shaped bony cylinder around the notochord.†Subclass Temnospondyli (temnospondyls)Upper Mississippian to Middle Cretaceous. Vertebral centrum of large intercentrum and pair of small pleurocentra.†Superfamily Trimerorhachoidea (trimerorhachoids)Upper Mississippian to Upper Permian. Flattened skull, shortened preorbital and elongate postorbital regions; palatal openings enlarged.†Clade Eryopoidea (eryopoids)Upper Mississippian to Late Permian. Flattened skull, long preorbital and shortened postorbital regions; palatal openings moderate; and palate with bony connection to braincase.†Superfamily Dissorophoidea (dissorophoids)Middle Pennsylvanian to Lower Triassic. Vertebrae strongly ossified; dorsal surface often with bony armor.†Family Trematopidae (trematopids)Upper Pennsylvanian to Lower Permian. Vertebrae weakly ossified, large intercentrum.†Family Dissorophidae (dissorophids)Subclass Lissamphibia (lissamphibians)Lower Triassic to present. Skull without roofing bones behind parietal; teeth pedicellate; and monospondylous vertebrae.Clade Gymnophiona Order Gymnophiona (caecilians)Early Jurassic to present. Compact skull for burrowing with many compound bones, e.g., maxillopalatine; few or no caudal vertebrae; and reduced or usually no girdle or limb skeleton. 6 extant families and about 170 living species.Clade Batrachia†Family Albanerpetodonidae (albanerpetodontids)Middle Jurassic to Lower Miocene. A peg and socket syphyseal articulation of the mandible. 1 genus and several species.Order Anura (frogs)Middle Jurassic to present. A single frontoparietal and no lacrimal bone in skull; ilium elongated and oriented anteriorly. 2 extinct and 28 or more extant families and over 5,400 living species.Order Caudata (salamanders)Middle Jurassic to present. Four-faceted articulation between the skull and vertebral column; an incomplete maxillary arcade lacking a bony connection with neurocranium and palatoquadrate. 10 living and 3 extinct families, and more than 550 living species.
The Lissamphibia is a well-corroborated monophyletic group containing all the living orders of amphibians. However, the exact placement of the Lissamphibia within an overall classification of the Amphibia remains questionableuncertain, although evidence continues to grow for them as members of the temnospondyl clade. Within the Lissamphibia, there are two major clades, the superorder Gymnophiona contains the order Apoda (caecilians) and their sister group, an extinct unnamed taxon from the Kayenta Formation of the Jurassic of Arizona in the United States. Although the Kayenta fossil has a great attenuate body and compact skull like living caecilians, it has small limbs. The remaining groups of living amphibians—and their extinct relatives—are grouped in the infraclass Batrachia. For a balance in classification, the Gymnophiona also should be placed in an infraclass. Within the Batrachia, the superorder Urodela contains the primitive salamander-like fossil Karaurus, which is placed in its own order, whereas the salamanders make up the order Caudata. Likewise, the superorder Salientia is made up of the order Proanura, containing the Triassic fossil Triadobatrachus, and the order Anura, containing the frogs and toadsand the Batrachia, the latter containing three clades: frogs, salamanders, and albanerpetodontids. The living members of frogs and salamanders are placed in the orders Anura and Caudata, respectively. To accommodate the earlier and now extinct proto-frogs and proto-salamanders, the group names Salientia and Urodela are used.
The relationships among the Paleozoic amphibians are highly uncertain and change regularly as new taxa and characters are discovered. The scientific consensus presently accepts edopoids, eryopoids, trematopids, dissorophoids, and several other groups of ancient amphibians as temnospondyls. A sister group relationship of the lissamphibians and microsaurs has less support, and it is entirely possible that the aistopodans and nectrideans are not amphibians, but instead are members of the antrachosaur evolutionary line, or each may represent independent evolutionary branches within the basal tetrapod radiation.


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Foundation for Information Technology Education (FITE) Scholarships Now Open
The Foundation for Information Technology Education (FITE) is now taking applications for the 2017-2018 academic year, for the Betty Stevens-Frecknall Scholarship, the Kevin Jetton Service Scholarship, and the William R. Reaugh Memorial Scholarship through May 31, 2017.
These scholarships are available to only active AITP Student Members.
Betty Stevens-Frecknall began her career in computers as a cardpunch operator. She trained in the 1940's as a keypunch clerk, a computer repair technician, and a systems analyst. She started as a civilian employee of the Navy in Seattle. Later she obtained a position as a systems analyst with the Department of Housing and Urban Development. From that point on, Betty proved herself with a series of successes on major projects, saving the taxpayers millions of dollars.
During her career, Betty was very active in the Washington D.C. Chapter of DPMA, now AITP, serving as chapter president in 1972. She was committed to developing the chapter and increasing membership, especially among women. She later was active on the Mid-Atlantic Region of DPMA and was elected Region president in 1979. The Betty Stevens-Frecknall Scholarship was started in her honor by her family so other students may have the opportunity to learn.
The selection committee will choose the scholarship recipients on the basis of scholastic ability, leadership potential and financial need.
The Kevin Jetton Service Scholarship was started to honor Kevin's service to AITP. Kevin has provided dedicated and energetic service to AITP for many years, serving as President of his local chapter, his region and as the national President of AITP. Since 1996, he has been the driving force behind the AITP National Collegiate Conference. Kevin currently serves as the Vice President of the Foundation for Information Technology Education (FITE). As a result of Kevin's generous service, thousands of AITP student and professional members have enjoyed numerous opportunities for meaningful personal/professional growth.
The selection committee will choose the scholarship recipients on the basis of service to fellow IT students/professionals, scholastic ability, leadership potential and financial need. Please note thatexceptional service to fellow IT students/professionals plays a major role in the selection process.
The William R. Reaugh Memorial Scholarship was started in honor of a man who devoted a lifetime of service to the Information Technology profession. Along with a highly distinguished career as an information systems leader with Caterpillar, Inc., Bill served in many DPMA/AITP chapter, region, and association positions. He was a long time member of the Association's Board of Directors and served as its 1995 Association President. He was President of the Foundation for Information Technology Education (FITE) in 2003 and 2004.
During his career, Bill made countless contributions to the DPMA (and later AITP) Model Curriculum, impacting tens of thousands of IT students and professionals around the world. He represented AITP on the Board of Directors of the Institute for the Certification of Computing Professionals (ICCP) in order to further career opportunities and IT professional certification. Bill epitomized the highest standards of professionalism and upheld the highest ethical standards. He was known for his sharp wit, a great sense of humor, and a deep love for the IT profession.
The selection committee will choose the scholarship recipients on the basis of service to fellow IT students/professionals, scholastic ability, leadership potential and financial need. Please note thatexceptional service to fellow IT students/professionals plays a major role in the selection process.
Scholarship applications can be found at the Foundation web site, www.edfoundation.org. Click on the Scholarship link to learn more about these IT Leaders, the scholarships themselves and to apply.
To be eligible for any of these scholarships, applicants must meet all of the following criteria:
Note: By completing one online application form at the Foundation website's Betty Stevens-Frecknall, Kevin Jetton, or William R. Reaugh Scholarship pages, you will automatically be considered for all three scholarships.
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I have the same problem!how to solve it?
hello all,
I'm running bt-5 r1 KDE-32bit on my system with a ati 5850HD graphics card on it, and am running into the same error for nearly every program I try to install on my system (everything from virtualbox to pyrit...same error) . Namely:
Error! Bad return status for module build on kernel: 188.8.131.52 (i686)
Consult the make.log in the build directory
/var/lib/dkms/fglrx/8.723.1/build/ for more information.
dpkg: error processing fglrx (--configure):
subprocess installed post-installation script returned error exit status 10
dpkg: dependency problems prevent configuration of fglrx-amdcccle:
fglrx-amdcccle depends on fglrx; however:
Package fglrx is not configured yet.
dpkg: error processing fglrx-amdcccle (--configure):
dependency problems - leaving unconfigured
dpkg: dependency problems prevent configuration of fglrx-dev:
fglrx-dev depends on fglrx; however:
Package fglrx is not configured yet.
No apport report written because the error message indicates its a followup error from a previous failure.
dpkg: error processing fglrx-dev (--configure):
dependency problems - leaving unconfigured
No apport report written because MaxReports is reached already
Processing triggers for python-gmenu ...
Rebuilding /usr/share/applications/desktop.en_US.utf8.cache...
Processing triggers for initramfs-tools ...
update-initramfs: Generating /boot/initrd.img-188.8.131.52
Processing triggers for python-support ...
Errors were encountered while processing:
E: Sub-process /usr/bin/dpkg returned an error code (1)
After looking online for a solution it looks like it isn't that uncommon of an issue for people with ati cards, but all of their solutions stated that fglrx wasn't installed to the system and went on describing how to install...
I've tried uninstalling and reinstalling several times, using different methods. So far I've reinstalled in the terminal as well as with jockey, synaptic, and ubuntu software center. After all installs I go to terminal and configure by
aticonfig --initial --input=/etc/X11/xorg.conf
and then check to see if the fglrx file was made by
aticonfig --initial=check
getting a return of
Check: Found fglrx section.
so its clearly there. But I still get the errors! As a double check I go into my hardware info and look at the drivers installed. Sure enough, there's a fglrx driver there....so what now?
Is there more needed to configure the fglrx drivers? Any help with this is appreciated! Thanks in advance!
I have the same problem!how to solve it?
aticonfig --initial --input=/etc/X11/xorg.conf
aticonfig: No supported adapters detected
what i can do for solve same problem ?!
Acer Aspire 5100
Ati Radeon 200M
same problem here, I googled but I can't found any way to solve it.
The fglrx is the priopetary driver..HD 5000 series are not supported by open driver..So try downloading the radeon driver from vendors page:
Make sure you have installed the previously teh headers, remove the radeon open driver and blacklist the radeon. Then need to enter in recovery mode or kill X's to install the ATI driver.
See if it works.
I strongly recommend to update to BT5r3, sickness mentioned in one of his posts that R1 is no longer supported.
Update from R1 to R3: Need to upgrade from R1 to R2 (http://www.backtrack-linux.org/backt...acktrack-5-r2/) then from R2 to R3 (http://www.backtrack-linux.org/backt...acktrack-5-r3/).


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Kenneth Charles "Kenny" Womack
Windsor/Columbus – Kenneth Charles "Kenny" Womack, age 73, passed away unexpectedly on Friday, September 13, 2013 at his home and was able to give the gift of organ donation.
He was born to Charles and Emma (Challac) Womack in Dodgeville, WI on May 17, 1940. He farmed for a short time and then was employed by United Parcel Service until his retirement. Over the years Kenny was active in the Windsor Fire Department, Windsor Town Board, the Windsor Sanitary District, Scouts, little league, Masons, and the Zor Shrine Camel Patrol.
He is survived by his wife of 53 years, Karen (Forseth); sons, Kenrick (Donna) and Kelly; beloved granddaughters, Kendra and Kayci and honorary son, Rick Varner. He is also survived by his sisters, Joyce (Stan) Zenz and JoAnne (Dick) Popp; sister-in-law Nelda Womack; and many other dear relatives and friends.
He was preceded in death by his parents and sisters: Alva Reed, Ruth Hannon and Betty Biddick.
At his request there will be no services held.
In lieu of flowers, donations may be made in Ken's name to American Family Children's Hospital.
"Grandpa, you are the most beautiful person in the world!" "We love you and will miss you always."