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And so Forth... Copyright J.L. Bezemer
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1 And so Forth... Copyright J.L. Bezemer
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3 Contents 1 Preface Copyright Introduction About this primer Forth fundamentals Making calculations without parenthesis Manipulating the stack Deep stack manipulators Pass arguments to functions Making your own words Adding comment Text-format of Forth source Displaying string constants Declaring variables Using variables Built-in variables What is a cell? Declaring and using constants Built-in constants Using booleans IF-ELSE constructs FOR-NEXT constructs WHILE-DO constructs REPEAT-UNTIL constructs Infinite loops Getting a number from the keyboard Aligning numbers
4 4 CONTENTS 3 Arrays and strings Declaring arrays of numbers Using arrays of numbers Creating arrays of constants Using arrays of constants Creating strings Initializing strings Getting the length of a string Printing a string variable Copying a string variable Slicing strings Appending strings Comparing strings Removing trailing spaces String constants and string variables The count byte Printing individual characters Getting ASCII values When to use [CHAR] or CHAR Printing spaces Fetching individual characters Storing individual characters Getting a string from the keyboard What is the TIB? What is the PAD? How do I use TIB and PAD? Temporary string constants Simple parsing Converting a string to a number Controlling the radix Pictured numeric output Converting a number to a string
5 CONTENTS 5 4 Stacks and colon definitions The address of a colon-definition Vectored execution Using values The stacks Saving temporary values The Return Stack and the DO..LOOP Other Return Stack manipulations Altering the flow with the Return Stack Leaving a colon-definition How deep is your stack? Advanced topics Booleans and numbers Including your own definitions Conditional compilation Exceptions Lookup tables What DOES> CREATE do? Fixed point calculation Recursion Forward declarations This is the end I Appendices 65
7 Chapter 1 Preface 1.1 Copyright Copyright (c) 2001 J.L. Bezemer. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation with the Invariant Sections being GNU Free Documentation License, Introduction and About this primer, with the Front-Cover Texts being And so Forth..., J.L. Bezemer, and with the Back-Cover Texts being The initial version of this primer was written by Hans Bezemer, author of the 4tH compiler.. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU Free Documentation License". 1.2 Introduction Don t you hate it? You ve just got a new programming language and you re trying to write your first program. You want to use a certain feature (you know it s got to be there) and you can t find it in the manual. I ve had that experience many times. So in this manual you will find many short features on all kind of topics. How to input a number from the keyboard, what a cell is, etc. I hope this will enable you to get quickly on your way. If it didn t, me at You will not only get an answer, but you will help future Forth users as well. You can use this manual two ways. You can either just get what you need or work your way through. Every section builds on the knowledge you obtained in the previous sections. All sections are grouped into levels. We advise you to use what you ve learned after you ve worked your way through a level. If this isn t enough to teach you Forth you can always get a real good textbook on Forth, like "Starting Forth" by Leo Brodie. Have fun! 1.3 About this primer This primer was originally written for 4tH, my own Forth compiler. 4tH isn t ANS-Forth compliant, by ANS-Forth standards not even a ANS-Forth system. After a while I got questions why certain examples weren t working. Since I tested every single one of them I wondered why. Until it dawned on me: people learning Forth were using my primer! 7
8 8 CHAPTER 1. PREFACE So due to high demand I started to rewrite it for ANS-Forth compliant systems. Most of these systems don t even have a manual at all so the need for it should be great. The next question was: which format. Since I wanted to learn L Y X anyway, I settled for that. You can produce various formats with it which are readable on most systems, including MS-DOS, MS-Windows and Linux. The next question was: how far do you go. The original version was heavily geared towards 4tH, which reflects my own views on Forth. And those views sometimes contradict to those of ANS-Forth. However, since Leo Brodie took the liberty in Thinking Forth to express his views, I thought I should have the freedom to express mine. Some examples, especially in the Advanced topics chapter, use special 4tH extensions. Fortunately Wil Baden had helped me to write a 4tH-to-ANS-Forth interface. Since some of these extensions cover functionalities commonly found in other languages I decided to keep those sections in, using the Easy4tH definitions. In the previous chapters you ll find some 4tH words as well, but very sparingly. You may find that some examples are not working with your specific Forth compiler. That may have several reasons. First, your compiler may not support all ANS-Forth wordsets. Second, your compiler may not be completely ANS-Forth compliant. I ve tested most of these examples with GForth or Win32Forth, which are (almost) 100% ANS-Forth compliant. Third, your compiler might be case-sensitive. The ANS-Forth standard is a very important document. I can only advise you to get it. You should have no trouble finding it on the internet. I can only hope that the compiler you chose at least documented its ANS-Forth compatibility. This primer was written in the hope that it will be useful and that starting Forthers aren t put off by the high price of Forth textbooks. It is dedicated to Leo Brodie, who taught me much more than just Forth. Hans Bezemer Den Haag,
9 Chapter 2 Forth fundamentals 2.1 Making calculations without parenthesis To use Forth you must understand Reverse Polish Notation. This is a way to write arithmetic expressions. The form is a bit tricky for people to understand, since it is geared towards making it easy for the computer to perform calculations however, most people can get used to the notation with a bit of practice. Reverse Polish Notation stores values in a stack. A stack of values is just like a stack of books: one value is placed on top of another. When you want to perform a calculation, the calculation uses the top numbers on the stack. For example, here s a typical addition operation: When Forth reads a number, it just puts the value onto the stack. Thus 1 goes on the stack, then 2 goes on the stack. When you put a value onto the stack, we say that you push it onto the stack. When Forth reads the operator +, it takes the top two values off the stack, adds them, then pushes the result back onto the stack. This means that the stack contains: 3 after the above addition. As another example, consider: * (The * stands for multiplication.) Forth begins by pushing the three numbers onto the stack. When it finds the +, it takes the top two numbers off the stack and adds them. (Taking a value off the stack is called popping the stack.) Forth then pushes the result of the addition back onto the stack in place of the two numbers. Thus the stack contains: 2 7 When Forth finds the * operator, it again pops the top two values off the stack. It multiplies them, then pushes the result back onto the stack, leaving: 14 9
10 10 CHAPTER 2. FORTH FUNDAMENTALS The following list gives a few more examples of Reverse Polish expressions. After each, we show the contents of the stack, in parentheses (5) (-5) 12 3 / (4) / (-4) * (18) * (28) * - (-6) 2.2 Manipulating the stack You will often find that the items on the stack are not in the right order or that you need a copy. There are stack-manipulators which can take care of that. To display a number you use., pronounced "dot". It takes a number from the stack and displays it. SWAP reverses the order of two items on the stack. If we enter: Forth answers: cr 3 2 If you want to display the numbers in the same order as you entered them, you have to enter: 2 3 swap.. cr In that case Forth will answer: 2 3 You can duplicate a number using DUP. If you enter: 2.. cr Forth will complain that the stack is empty. However, if you enter: Forth will display: 2 dup.. cr 2 2 Another way to duplicate a number is using OVER. In that case not the topmost number of the stack is duplicated, but the number beneath. E.g. 2 3 dup... cr
11 2.3. DEEP STACK MANIPULATORS 11 will give you the following result: But this one: will give you: over... cr Sometimes you want to discard a number, e.g. you duplicated it to check a condition, but since the test failed, you don t need it anymore. DROP is the word we use to discard numbers. So this: 2 3 drop. will give you "2" instead of "3", since we dropped the "3". The final one I want to introduce is ROT. Most users find ROT the most complex one since it has its effects deep in the stack. The thirdmost item to be exact. This item is taken from its place and put on top of the stack. It is rotated, as this small program will show you: \ 1 is the thirdmost item... cr \ display all numbers ( This will display as expected) \ same numbers stacked rot \ performs a ROT... cr \ same operation ( This will display 1 3 2!) 2.3 Deep stack manipulators There are two manipulators that can dig deeper into the stack, called PICK and ROLL but I cannot recommend them. A stack is NOT an array! So if there are some Forth-83 users out there, I can only tell you: learn Forth the proper way. Programs that have so many items on the stack are just badly written. Leo Brodie agrees with me. If you are in deep trouble you can always use the returnstack manipulators. Check out that section. 2.4 Pass arguments to functions There is no easier way to pass arguments to functions as in Forth. Functions have another name in Forth. We call them "words". Words take their "arguments" from the stack and leave the "result" on the stack. Other languages, like C, do exactly the same. But they hide the process from you. Because passing data to the stack is made explicit in Forth it has powerful capabilities. In other languages, you can get back only one result. In Forth you can get back several! All words in Forth have a stack-effect-diagram. It describes what data is passed to the stack in what order and what is returned. The word * for instance takes numbers from the stack, multiplies them and leaves the result on the stack. It s stack-effect-diagram is:
12 12 CHAPTER 2. FORTH FUNDAMENTALS n1 n2 -- n3 Meaning it takes number n1 and n2 from the stack, multiplies them and leaves the product (number n3) on the stack. The rightmost number is always on top of the stack, which means it is the first number which will be taken from the stack. The word. is described like this: n -- Which means it takes a number from the stack and leaves nothing. Now we get to the most powerful feature of it all. Take this program: 2 ( leaves a number on the stack) 3 ( leaves a number on the stack on top of the 2) * ( takes both from the stack and leaves the result). ( takes the result from the stack and displays it) Note that all data between the words * and. is passed implicitly! Like putting LEGO stones on top of another. Isn t it great? 2.5 Making your own words Of course, every serious language has to have a capability to extend it. So has Forth. The only thing you have to do is to determine what name you want to give it. Let s say you want to make a word which multiplies two numbers and displays the result. Well, that s easy. We ve already seen how you have to code it. The only words you need are * and.. You can t name it * because that name is already taken. You could name it multiply, but is that a word you want to type in forever? No, far too long. Let s call it *.. Is that a valid name? If you ve programmed in other languages, you ll probably say it isn t. But it is! The only characters you can t use in a name are whitespace characters (<CR>, <LF>, <space>, <TAB>). It depends on the Forth you re using whether it is case- sensitive or not, but usually it isn t. So *. is okay. Now how do we turn it into a self-defined word. Just add a colon at the beginning and a semi-colon at the end: : *. *. That s it. Your word is ready for use. So instead of: 2 3 *. We can type: : *. *. 2 3 *. And we can use our *. over and over again. Hurray, you ve just defined your first word in Forth!
13 2.6. ADDING COMMENT Adding comment Adding comment is very simple. In fact, there are two ways to add comment in Forth. That is because we like programs with a lot of comment. The first form you ve already encountered. Let s say we want to add comment to this little program: : *. *. 2 3 *. So we add our comment: : *. *. This will multiply and print two numbers 2 3 *. Forth will not understand this. It will desperately look for the words this, will, etc. However the word \ will mark everything up to the end of the line as comment. So this will work: : *. *. \ This will multiply and print two numbers 2 3 *. There is another word called ( which will mark everything up to the next ) as comment. Yes, even multiple lines. Of course, these lines may not contain a ) or you ll make Forth very confused. So this comment will be recognized too: : *. *. ( This will multiply and print two numbers) 2 3 *. Note that there is a whitespace-character after both \ and (. This is mandatory! 2.7 Text-format of Forth source Forth source can be simple ASCII-files. And you can use any layout as long a this rule is followed: All words are separated by at least one whitespace character! Well, in Forth everything is a word or becoming a word. Yes, even \ and ( are words! And you can add all the empty lines or spaces or tabs you like, Forth won t care and your harddisk supplier either. However, some Forths still use a special line editor, which works with screens. Screens are usually 1K blocks, divided into 16 lines of 64 characters. Explaining how these kind of editors work goes beyond the scope of this manual. You have to check the documentation of your Forth compiler on that. The files these editors produce are called blockfiles.
14 14 CHAPTER 2. FORTH FUNDAMENTALS 2.8 Displaying string constants Displaying a string is as easy as adding comment. Let s say you want to make the ultimate program, one that is displaying "Hello world!". Well, that s almost the entire program. The famous hello world program is simply this in Forth:.( Hello world!) Enter this and it works. Yes, that s it! No declaration that this is the main function and it is beginning here and ending there. May be you think it looks funny on the display. Well, you can add a carriage return by adding the word CR. So now it looks like:.( Hello world!) cr Still pretty simple, huh? 2.9 Declaring variables One time or another you re going to need variables. Declaring a variable is easy. variable one The same rules for declaring words apply for variables. You can t use a name that already has been taken or you ll get pretty strange results. A variable is a word too! And whitespace characters are not allowed. Note that Forth is usually not case-sensitive! 2.10 Using variables Of course variables are of little use when you can t assign values to them. This assigns the number 6 to variable ONE : 6 one! We don t call! bang or something like that, we call it store. Of course you don t have to put a number on the stack to use it, you can use a number that is already on the stack. To retrieve the value stored in ONE we use: The is called fetch and it puts the number stored in one on the stack. To display it you use. : There is a shortcut for that, the word?, which will fetch the number stored in ONE and displays it: one?
15 2.11. BUILT-IN VARIABLES Built-in variables Forth has two built-in variables you can use for your own purposes. They are called BASE and >IN. BASE controls the radix at run-time, >IN is used by WORD and PARSE What is a cell? A cell is simply the space a number takes up. So the size of a variable is one cell. The size of a cell is important since it determines the range Forth can handle. We ll come to that further on Declaring and using constants Declaring a simple constant is easy too. Let s say we want to make a constant called FIVE : 5 constant five Now you can use FIVE like you would 5. E.g. this will print five spaces: five spaces The same rules for declaring words apply for constants. You shouldn t use a name that already has been taken. A constant is a word too! And whitespace characters are not allowed. Note that Forth is usually not case-sensitive Built-in constants There are several built-in constants. Of course, they are all literals in case you wonder. Here s a list. Refer to the glossary for a more detailed description: 1. BL 2. FALSE 3. PAD 4. TIB 5. TRUE 2.15 Using booleans Booleans are expressions or values that are either true or false. They are used to conditionally execute parts of your program. In Forth a value is false when it is zero and true when it is non-zero. Most booleans come into existence when you do comparisons. This one will determine whether the value in variable VAR is greater than 5. Try to predict whether it will evaluate to true or false: variable var 4 var! 5 >. No, it wasn t! But hey, you can print booleans as numbers. Well, they are numbers. But with a special meaning as we will see in the next section.
16 16 CHAPTER 2. FORTH FUNDAMENTALS 2.16 IF-ELSE constructs Like most other languages you can use IF-ELSE constructs. Let s enhance our previous example: variable var 4 var! : test 5 > if." Greater" cr else." Less or equal" cr then test So now our program does the job. It tells you when it s greater and when not. Note that contrary to other languages the condition comes before the IF and THEN ends the IF-clause. In other words, whatever path the program takes, it always continues after the THEN. A tip: think of THEN as ENDIF FOR-NEXT constructs Forth does also have FOR-NEXT constructs. The number of iterations is known in this construct. E.g. let s print the numbers from 1 to 10: : test 11 1 do i. cr loop test The first number presents the limit. When the limit is goes beyond the limit minus one the loop terminates. The second number presents the initial value of the index. That s where it starts of. So remember, this loop iterates at least once! You can use?do instead of DO. That will not enter the loop if the limit and the index are the same to begin with: : test 0 0?do i. cr loop test I represents the index. It is not a variable or a constant, it is a predefined word, which puts the index on the stack, so. can get it from the stack and print it. But what if I want to increase the index by two? Or want to count downwards? Is that possible. Sure. There is another construct to do just that. Okay, let s take the first question: : test 11 1 do i. cr 2 +loop test
17 2.18. WHILE-DO CONSTRUCTS 17 This one will produce exactly what you asked for. An increment by two. This one will produce all negative numbers from -1 to -11: : test do i. cr -1 +loop test Why -11? Because the loop terminates when it reached the limit minus one. And when you re counting downward, that is -11. You can change the step if you want to, e.g.: : test do i. i +loop test This will print: 1, 2, 4, 8, all up to Pretty flexible, I guess. You can break out of a loop by using LEAVE : : test 10 0 do i dup 5 = if drop leave else. cr then loop : test 2.18 WHILE-DO constructs A WHILE-DO construction is a construction that will perform zero or more iterations. First a condition is checked, then the body is executed. Then it will branch back to the condition. In Forth it looks like this: BEGIN <condition> WHILE <body> REPEAT The condition will have to evaluate to TRUE in order to execute the body. If it evaluates to FALSE it branches to just after the REPEAT. This example does a Fibbonaci test. : fib 0 1 begin dup >r rot dup r> > while rot rot dup rot + dup. repeat drop drop drop \ condition \ body \ after loop has executed You might not understand all of the commands, but we ll get to that. If you enter "20 fib" you will get: This construct is particularly handy if you are not sure that all data will pass the condition.
18 18 CHAPTER 2. FORTH FUNDAMENTALS 2.19 REPEAT-UNTIL constructs The counterpart of WHILE-DO constructs is the REPEAT-UNTIL construct. This executes the body, then checks a condition at UNTIL. If the expression evaluates to FALSE, it branches back to the top of the body (marked by BEGIN ) again. It executes at least once. This program calculates the largest common divisor. : lcd begin swap over mod dup 0= until drop. \ body \ condition If you enter "27 21 lcd" the programs will answer "3" Infinite loops In order to make an infinite loop one could write: : test begin." Diamonds are forever" cr 0 until test But there is a nicer way to do just that: : test begin." Diamonds are forever" cr again test This will execute until the end of times, unless you exit the program another way Getting a number from the keyboard Let s start with "you re not supposed to understand this". If you dig deeper in Forth you ll find out why it works the way it works. But if you define this word in your program it will read a number from the keyboard and put it on the stack. If you haven t entered a valid number, it will prompt you again. S" MAX-N" ENVIRONMENT? \ query environment [IF] \ if successful NEGATE 1- CONSTANT (ERROR) \ create constant (ERROR) [THEN] : number ( a -- n) 0. Rot dup 1+ [char] - = >r count if 1 /string then >number nip
19 2.22. ALIGNING NUMBERS 19 0= if d>s r> if negate then else r> drop 2drop (error) then : input# ( -- n) begin refill drop bl word number ( n) dup (error) <> ( n f) dup 0= ( n f -f) if swap drop then ( f n f) until 2.22 Aligning numbers You may find that printing numbers in columns (I prefer "right-aligned") can be pretty hard. That is because the standard word to print numbers (. ) prints the number and then a trailing space. That is why.r was added. The word.r works just like. but instead of just printing the number with a trailing space.r will print the number right-aligned in a field of N characters wide. Try this and you will see the difference: 140. cr r cr In this example the field is five characters wide, so 150 will be printed with two leading spaces.
21 Chapter 3 Arrays and strings 3.1 Declaring arrays of numbers You can make arrays of numbers very easily. It is very much like making a variable. Let s say we want an array of 16 numbers: That s it, we re done! create sixteen 16 cells allot 3.2 Using arrays of numbers You can use arrays of numbers just like variables. The array cells are numbered from 0 to N, N being the size of the array minus one. Storing a value in the 0th cell is easy. It works just like a simple variable: 5 sixteen 0 cells +! Which will store 5 in the 0th cell. So storing 7 in the 8th cell is done like this: 7 sixteen 8 cells +! Isn t Forth wonderful? Fetching is done the same of course: Plain and easy. sixteen 0 cells sixteen 4 cells 3.3 Creating arrays of constants Making an array of constants is quite easy. First you have to define the name of the array by using the word CREATE. Then you specify all its elements. All elements (even the last) are terminated by the word,. An example: create sizes 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 255, Please note that, is a word! It has to be separated by spaces on both ends. 21
22 22 CHAPTER 3. ARRAYS AND STRINGS 3.4 Using arrays of constants Accessing an array of constants is exactly like accessing an array of numbers. In an array of numbers you access the 0th element like this: sixteen 0 cells When you access the first element of an array of constants you use this construction: sizes 0 cells So I don t think you ll have any problems here. 3.5 Creating strings In Forth you have to define the maximum length of the string, like Pascal: create name 10 chars allot Note that the string variable includes the count byte. That is a special character that tells Forth how long a string is. You usually don t have to add that yourself because Forth will do that for you. But you will have to reserve space for it. That means that the string "name" we just declared can contain up to nine characters *AND* the count byte. These kind of strings are usually referred to as counted strings. E.g. when you want to define a string that has to contain "Hello!" (without the quotes) you have to define a string that is at least 7 characters long: create hello 7 chars allot When you later refer to the string you just defined its address is thrown on the stack. An address is simply a number that refers to its location. As you will see you can work with string-addresses without ever knowing what that number is. But because it is a number you can manipulate it like any other number. E.g. this is perfectly valid: hello dup drop drop \ address of string on stack \ duplicate it \ drop them both In the next section we will tell you how to get "Hello!" into the string. 3.6 Initializing strings You can initialize a string with the S" word. You haven t seen this one yet, but we will discuss it in more depth later on. If you want the string to contain your first name use this construction:
23 3.7. GETTING THE LENGTH OF A STRING 23 : place over over >r >r char+ swap chars cmove r> r> c! create name 16 chars allot s" Hello! " name place The word PLACE, which is a common word 1, copies the contents of a string constant into a stringvariable. If you still don t understand it yet, don t worry. As long as you use this construction, you ll get what you want. Just remember that assigning a string constant to a string that is too short will result in an error or even worse, corrupt other strings. 3.7 Getting the length of a string You get the length of a string by using the word COUNT. It will not only return the length of the string, but also the string address. It is illustrated by this short program: : place over over >r >r char+ swap chars cmove r> r> c! create greeting 32 chars allot \ define string greeting S" Hello!" greeting place \ set string to Hello! greeting count \ get string length.( String length: ). cr \ print the length drop \ discard the address You usually have nothing to do with the string address. However, it may be required by other words like we will see in the following section. If you just want the bare length of the string you can always define a word like length$ : : place over over >r >r char+ swap chars cmove r> r> c! : length$ count swap drop create greeting 32 cells allot \ define string greeting s" Hello!" greeting place \ set string to Hello! greeting length$ \ get string length.( String length: ). cr \ print the length 3.8 Printing a string variable Printing a string variable is pretty straight forward. The word that is required to print a string variable is TYPE. It requires the string address and the number of characters it has to print. Yes, that are the values that are left on the stack by COUNT! So printing a string means issuing both COUNT and TYPE : : place over over >r >r char+ swap chars cmove r> r> c! create greeting 32 cells allot \ define string greeting s" Hello!" greeting place \ set string to Hello! greeting count type cr \ print the string If you don t like this you can always define a word like PRINT$ : 1 Although not part of the ANS-Forth standard.
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text:
Denman's defeat in the Totesport Bowl prevented an opening three race hat-trick of wins for Paul Nicholls, Ruby Walsh and favourite backers at Aintree today, but the defeat of the Gold Cup runner-up was the only bright spot for the layers on a day when punters enjoyed a fruitful day.
"We took on Big Buck's, Zarkander and Denman, and so the loudest cheers when Nacarat won the third race came from the bookies. However our relief was short-lived, as favourite backers got back to winning ways with Baby Run in the Foxhunters, there was a huge market move for Silk Drum, and Wishfull Thinking was another well-backed winner. By the time Russian War won the last at 16-1, most punters were too busy celebrating to care!" said Coral's David Stevens.
"Punters have started Aintree as they left off at Cheltenham, and with the biggest betting day of the year just around the corner, we'll be hoping for a repeat of Mon Mome's 100-1 big race win!" added Stevens.
Compare all Aintree odds and bet at the best price.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
SHANGHAI – The International Monetary Fund's recent decision to add the Chinese renminbi to the basket of currencies that determine the value of its reserve asset, the Special Drawing Right, has captured headlines around the world. But the SDR itself has not exactly dominated discussions – much less transactions – since its creation in 1969. So does the decision really matter?
In fact, given the SDR's very limited role in the global economy, the move will have few concrete effects in the short term. In the longer term, however, the attention the decision has attracted could spur wider use of the SDR. More important, at least for now, the decision amounts to an endorsement by the IMF of the progress China has made toward renminbi internationalization, while reflecting – and reinforcing – China's growing economic clout.
Since China joined the World Trade Organization in 2001, its GDP has surged from about CN¥20 trillion ($3.1 trillion) to CN¥60 trillion. In 2009 China became the world's largest exporter. And last year, according to the IMF, China overtook the United States to become the world's largest economy (in purchasing power parity terms). The acknowledgement by the IMF board, which represents all 188 of the Fund's member countries, that the renminbi meets "all existing criteria" for inclusion in the SDR basket is another step forward along this path of progress.
It is important to note, however, that meeting "all existing criteria" does not place the renminbi on par with, say, the US dollar – or, indeed, with any of the other SDR currencies (the euro, the British pound, or the Japanese yen) – in terms of international usage. On the contrary, despite China's massive GDP and trade volume, the renminbi's share in the global foreign-exchange market remains negligible. And the process of internationalizing the renminbi is far from complete.


text:
How do climate-linked sex ratios and dispersal limit range boundaries?
Theoretical ecology and models
Geographic ranges of ectotherms such as reptiles may be determined strongly by abiotic factors owing to causal links between ambient temperature, juvenile survival and individual sex (male or female). Unfortunately, we know little of how these factors interact with dispersal among populations across a species range. We used a simulation model to examine the effects of dispersal, temperature-dependent juvenile survival and sex determining mechanism (temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) and genotypic sex determination (GSD)) and their interactions, on range limits in populations extending across a continuous range of air temperatures. In particular, we examined the relative importance of these parameters for population persistence to recommend targets for future empirical research.
Dispersal influenced the range limits of species with TSD to a greater extent than in GSD species. Whereas male dispersal led to expanded species ranges across warm (female-producing) climates, female dispersal led to expanded ranges across cool (male-producing) climates. Two-sex dispersal eliminated the influence of biased sex ratios on ranges.
The results highlight the importance of the demographic parameter of sex ratio in determining population persistence and species range limits.
For many organisms, particularly ectothermic animals, individual traits and demographic parameters are linked to temperature, such that ranges could be largely determined by abiotic factors
Colonisation and extinction rates may change spatially due to environmental gradients in habitat characteristics (for example, temperature, rainfall, or humidity)
The importance of biased sex ratios in limiting the ranges of species with TSD will depend on a few interacting factors. First, climatically-linked juvenile survival may also play a role in determining range boundaries, as eggs only survive at certain temperatures
Finally, dispersal among populations may bring the rare sex into biased populations, rescuing them from the risk of demographic collapse and potentially leading to expanded ranges. Dispersal by male hatchlings is thought to have an important role in facilitating population persistence in increasingly feminised populations
Dispersal in reptiles is thought to be primarily male-biased, although data are sparse and alternative dispersal tendencies (female-biased dispersal or dispersal by both sexes) have not been well investigated
There are no documented studies of two-sex dispersal in reptiles. A theoretical analysis of two-sex dispersal tendency found it enhanced population persistence in marginal habitats as gene flow through dispersal occurred in both directions
In this paper, we explore the role of dispersal in determining the extent of population persistence and range limits in species of reptiles with the common TSD pattern 1A (females produced at higher temperatures) and compare it to results for species with genotypic sex determination (GSD). We do this across populations that vary spatially, but not temporally, in air temperature. Importantly, we include in this analysis 1) the potential for male limitation on female fecundity when males are rare, and 2) the additional effect of temperature on juvenile survival.
Simulation model
A matrix (100 rows by 100 columns) of 10,000 populations was distributed across a continuous air temperature gradient, with each column assigned a temperature from 18°C to 33°C. Each population in the matrix was initiated with 100 adult males and 100 adult females (for both TSD and GSD species). We projected these populations in a simulation to determine range limits under different scenarios of dispersal and temperature-dependence of sex ratios. Within each population, simulated population operations approximated logistic growth, including density-dependent juvenile survival [Boyle M, Hone J, Schwanz L, Georges A: Under what conditions do climate-driven sex ratios enhance versus diminish population persistence? Ecology and Evolution. submitted].
In each time step, offspring were first produced. The total number of offspring produced was the product of the number of adult females in the population and per-female fecundity, which was subject to male limitation (see Male Limitation). The number of offspring in each population that were male was sampled using a random binomial distribution (and, hence sex ratio was stochastically determined), given the total number of offspring and the population-specific sex ratio probability of producing a male,
The population cycle was iterated 1,000 times. Throughout the simulation, populations were counted as extinct if they had either zero adult males or zero adult females, and were excluded from reproduction in that round. Each simulation was replicated ten times and the averaged numbers of extant populations were plotted in ten temperature intervals, each of 1.5°C in width, in the range of temperatures in the population matrix. Simulations were performed with MATLAB R2012b.
Male limitation (
In our simulation, per-female fecundity,
Pr{fert} was described as a function of adult sex ratio (ASR), or the proportion of adults in the population that are male,
The shape parameter for equation 2,
Figure 1
Adult sex ratio and fat-tailed dispersal kernels
Adult sex ratio and fat-tailed dispersal kernels. (a) The female fertilisation probability as a function of adult sex ratio (ASR = M/(M + F)). The different lines represent different sensitivities of fertilisation probability to changes in the ASR (after Rankin and Kokko 2007). (b) Actual probability of an individual moving a certain number of cells (dispersal distance) across a population matrix, according to two fat-tailed dispersal kernels (equation 3). 'Large' dispersal has parameters AL = 1 and ZL = 1 (black line) and 'Small' dispersal has parameters AS = 1 and ZS = 2 (grey line), where L = Large, and S = Small.
Cohort sex ratio (
We examined range limits under two relationships between cohort sex ratio (CSR) and air temperature. The first cohort sex ratio (CSR) curve was flat, with the offspring sex ratio at 0.5 for all air temperatures, describing the pattern for a GSD species (slope β = 0 and intercept of α = 0.5). CSR curve 2 represents a TSD species based upon the parameters derived for the painted turtle
Figure 2
Population persistence by temperature interval for temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) populations
Population persistence by temperature interval for temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) populations. (a) Temperature-dependent embryonic survival curve (TS) (black solid line) and cohort sex ratio (CSR) (black-dashed line) with intercept and slope parameters (α = 4.14, β = -0.147), for populations of reptiles with TSD. The unlabelled left axis represents juvenile survival and the unlabelled right axis represents the proportion of male hatchlings. (b) to (h) shows distributions of surviving populations of reptiles with TSD by temperature (°C) for dispersal conditions. The maximum population in each temperature interval is 1000.
Juvenile survival (
The number of juvenile males and females surviving the embryonic stage was sampled using a random binomial distribution based on the number of offspring produced of each sex and the juvenile survival rate. Juvenile survival rate was density dependent,
The TS curve had a maximum baseline embryonic survival of
Dispersal function
Several dispersal scenarios were evaluated owing to insufficient empirical information available to accurately parameterise dispersal in reptile species and variation among species in their dispersal tendencies. We explored three levels of dispersal: none, 'small' and 'large'. However, these terms are relative as there is no readily available information to estimate what small or large dispersal would be in these species. For the 'small' amount of dispersal, juveniles had a higher probability of not dispersing and a lower probability of travelling large distances compared to juveniles with a 'large' amount of dispersal (Figure
The dispersal function consisted of a probability density function (PDF) based on a fat-tailed (FT) dispersal kernel, which has been shown previously to best approximate dispersal in animals
Distances were calculated between cells (populations) as a von Neumann neighborhood, which counts the 4 cells immediately to each side of the focal cell as a distance of one, and the diagonal 4 cells as a distance of two
The limits of the range of GSD species (Figure
Figure 3
Population persistence by temperature interval for genotypic sex determination (GSD) populations
Population persistence by temperature interval for genotypic sex determination (GSD) populations. (a) Temperature-dependent embryonic survival curve (TS) (black solid line) and cohort sex ratio (CSR) (black dashed line) with intercept and slope parameters (α = 0.5, β = 0.0), for populations of reptiles with GSD. The unlabelled left axis represents juvenile survival and the unlabelled right y-axis represents the proportion of male hatchlings. (b) to (h) show the number of and distribution of surviving populations of reptiles with GSD by temperature (°C) for dispersal conditions. The maximum population in each temperature interval is 1000.
When temperature influences the primary sex ratio, the results share some similarities with GSD, but also have several important differences. For both TSD and GSD species, there are large numbers of surviving populations around the central temperature intervals (from 24 to 28.5°C, Figures
There is increasing evidence that factors such as population dynamics and dispersal strongly interact with abiotic factors such as climate in determining species ranges
Consistent with our previous work and Kallimanis
In addition, we had several novel findings: 1) when both sexes disperse, the existence of biased sex ratios at extreme climates has almost no effect on limiting ranges; 2) male-only dispersal led to ranges covering areas where sex ratios were slightly male-biased to where they were heavily female-biased; 3) female-only dispersal led to ranges covering areas where sex ratios were slightly female-biased to where they were heavily male-biased; 4) dispersal scenario was more influential in driving range boundaries in TSD species compared to those with GSD. Our findings provide a clear distinction between populations of reptiles with GSD and TSD in the effect of dispersal at range boundaries, and by inference their responses to climate change. Understanding the sex-specific tendencies of dispersal will be imperative for predicting the possibility of range change for species with TSD.
Female-biased populations have been described as more likely to experience growth than populations with even sex ratios
We show that population persistence at the colder (male-producing) edge of the range occurs only through female dispersal. Yet female dispersal has only been demonstrated in one GSD reptile, the alpine skink
Two-sex dispersal has been poorly investigated across species
Given the strong impact of the sex-bias and distance of dispersal on the results, these will be key behavioural traits to determine empirically when testing our theoretical predictions or making predictions about climate change. In addition, the distance of dispersal in a species must be considered with respect the spatial scale of its populations (e.g. distance is measured in number of populations that an individual can pass when dispersing). Our model makes the unique and testable prediction that, when comparing species of reptiles with pattern 1A of TSD, those species that have ranges where the sex ratios tend to be female biased will also to have male-mediated dispersal, while those that persist where the sex ratios tend to be male biased will have female-mediated dispersal.
While TSD species may persist in the short-term with biased sex ratios at range margins, an important caveat for our results is that populations at range margins (in extreme climates) may evolve in response to frequency-dependent selection on sex to produce more even sex ratios
A critical assumption of our model is that each sex has an increasing benefit to population growth as the sex ratio becomes biased towards the opposite sex. However, as females become rarer this assumption may not hold anymore. For example, a low density of females has been demonstrated to result in male aggression and population collapse
For our theoretical model to have explanatory power for the distributions of species with TSD, sex ratios must vary spatially. There is some evidence that sex ratios may be constant across the ranges of the painted turtle and the water dragon
More broadly, testing our model and understanding the influence of climate of the ranges of species with TSD requires additional empirical data on the key demographic parameters across the ranges of TSD and GSD species. While data on dispersal are hard to collect, inferences about dispersal can be made from genetic analyses. Genetic analyses of sea turtles suggest that gene-flow is male-mediated and hence male-biased dispersal is the likely pattern
Our theoretical model revealed that dispersal was more influential in determining the range limits of species with TSD than GSD. Male dispersal led to expanded species ranges across warm climates, where more females were produced, and female dispersal led to expanded ranges across cool climates, where more males were produced. Two-sex dispersal eliminated the influence of biased sex ratios on ranges.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
MB contributed to the manuscript writing, modelling, and data analysis (including figures). LS contributed to manuscript writing and editing, modelling, and data analysis. JH contributed to the manuscript editing and developed the population equations underpinning the model. AG, contributed to the manuscript editing and provided the conceptual framework for the analysis. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
This study was supported by an Australian Postgraduate Research Award to Maria Boyle, and supplementary funding by the Institute for Applied Ecology at the University of Canberra. Lisa Schwanz was funded by a US National Science Foundation International Research Fellowship and a University of Canberra Postdoctoral Fellowship. We thank the attendees at the Institute journal club for their vigorous discussion of ideas leading up to this paper, and J Lynch for providing comment on an earlier draft. Denis O'Meally established and maintained the high performance computer on which the modelling was done.
Mechanistic niche modelling: combining physiological and spatial data to predict species' ranges
Evolution and ecology of species range limits
The dynamics of climate-induced range shifting; perspectives from simulation modelling
Predicting the impacts of climate change on the distribution of species: are bioclimate envelope models useful?
Bioclimate envelope models: what they detect and what they hide
Dispersal will limit ability of mammals to track climate change in the Western Hemisphere
Biotic interactions affect the elevational ranges of high-latitude plant species
Where am I and why? Synthesizing range biology and the eco-evolutionary dynamics of dispersal
Dispersal and species' responses to climate change
Dispersal, evolution and range dynamics - a synthesis
Temperature-dependent sex determination and contemporary climate change
Temperature dependent sex determination and climate change
Environmental sex determination in reptiles -ecology, evolution, and experimental-design
Investigating the potential impacts of climate change on a marine turtle population
Will all species with temperature-dependent sex determination respond the same way to climate change? A reply to Kallimanis (2010)
Climate change and sea turtles: a 150-year reconstruction of incubation temperatures at a major marine turtle rookery
Climate change and marine turtles
Climate effects on offspring sex ratio in a viviparous lizard
Climate and predation dominate juvenile and adult recruitment in a turtle with temperature-dependent sex determination
Modeling the effects of climate change induced shifts in reproductive phenology on temperature-dependent traits
Predicting the impacts of climate change on a globally distributed species: the case of the loggerhead turtle
Modelling development of reptile embryos under fluctuating temperature regimes
Do males matter? The role of males in population dynamics
Metabolic heating and the prediction of sex ratios for green turtles (Chelonia mydas)
Multiple paternity, sperm storage, and reproductive success of female and male painted turtles (Chrysemys picta) in nature
Breeding periodicity for male Sea turtles, operational Sex ratios, and implications in the face of climate change
Sex ratio variance and the maintenance of environmental sex determination
Conceptual model for thermal limits on the distribution of reptiles
Female-biased natal and breeding dispersal in an alpine lizard, Niveoscincus microlepidotus
Male-biased dispersal in a tropical Australian snake (
Sex-biased dispersal in a polygynous lizard, Uta stansburiana
The microevolution of the Galápagos marine iguana Amblyrhynchus cristatus assessed by nuclear and mitochondrial genetic analyses
Sex‒biased dispersal and high levels of gene flow among local populations in the argentine boa constrictor,
Spatial genetic analysis and long-term mark-recapture data demonstrate male-biased dispersal in a snake
Molecular resolution of marine turtle stock composition in fishery bycatch: a case study in the Mediterranean
Molecular evidence of male-biased dispersal in loggerhead turtle juveniles
Global population genetic structure and male-mediated gene flow in the green sea turtle (
Population genetics and phylogeography of sea turtles
Significance of activity and movement in the yellow-bellied slider turtle (Pseudemys scripta)
Population genetic structure of a disjunct population of Blanding's turtle (Emydoidea blandingii) in Nova Scotia
Sexual and seasonal differences in activity in a northern population of snapping turtles
The multifarious effects of dispersal and gene flow on contemporary adaptation
Application of life-history theory and population model analysis to turtle conservation
Effects of Incubation Temperature
Critical periods and pivotal temperatures for sexual-differentiation in loggerhead sea turtles
Nest-site selection and offspring Sex-ratio in painted turtles, chrysemys-picta
Body temperature and maternal identity affect snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) righting response
Modelling population redistribution in a leaf beetle: an evaluation of alternative dispersal functions
SPOMSIM: software for stochastic patch occupancy models of metapopulation dynamics
Exploration of spatial scale sensitivity in geographic cellular automata
Global population genetic structure and male-mediated gene flow in the green turtle (
Geographic variation in the pattern of temperature-dependent sex determination in the American snapping turtle (
How rapidly can maternal behavior affecting primary sex ratio evolve in a reptile with environmental sex determination?
Nest site choice compensates for climate effects on sex ratios in a lizard with environmental sex determination
Phenological response of sea turtles to environmental variation across a species' northern range
Sex ratio bias, male aggression, and population collapse in lizards


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This hotel was renovated in 2001 and features 56 rooms spread over 3 floors. The hotel offers guests a lobby with 24-hour reception, hotel safe, currency exchange counter, cloakroom, lift and a caf�. A bar, a TV room, a games room and an air-conditioned � la carte restaurant (with highchairs for children and a non-smoking area) are also available for guests use. Furthermore, there is an Internet terminal, laundry and room services, medical attention, a bicycle hire service as well as a car park and a garage.
This appealing beach hotel affords a good central location. Links to the public transport system are only 100 m from the hotel. Various shopping venues, countless bars, caf�s, pubs and restaurants as well as many other entertainment venues are to be found in the vicinity (100 m). There is a nightclub to be found fairly near the hotel (just 1 km away). The wonderful beach by the turquoise-blue sea is also just 1 km away. The centre can easily reached on foot, by car or with local public transport, which is reasonably priced.
The functionally designed rooms come with an en suite bathroom, a hairdryer, a direct dial telephone, satellite/cable TV, a radio, centrally regulated air conditioning and central heating, a king-size bed as well as carpeting.
Guests may enjoy spending time in the freshwater pool and making use of the superb sun terrace, the snack bar, sun loungers, parasols and the massage service (for an additional fee). Leisure options additionally include an in-house gym and table tennis facilities. Aerobics sessions are also on offer. A seasonal entertainment programme for adults rounds off the offerings.
Guests are offered buffets for breakfast, lunch and evening meals. Lunch as well as the evening meal may also be chosen from the � la carte menu. In addition, the restaurant caters for special dietary requirements. Furthermore, there is the opportunity to book an all-inclusive stay.
American Express, Diners Club, MasterCard and VISA are accepted as methods of payment.
Room Facilities:
Direct dial telephone
Satellite cable TV
Double bed
Central airconditioned
Central heating


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- The green screen effect is a type of chroma key. The idea is to create a pure green background which is then replaced with whatever background image you want.
This tutorial shows you how to set up a green screen (cheaply if necessary) and how to use it in your video productions. The tutorial includes:
- Planning the studio setting
- Green screen material
- Lighting the green screen
- Incorporating green screen footage into your videos
- More Tips


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Choreographer-filmmaker Remo D'Souza, who worked with professional dancers in "ABCD: AnyBody Can Dance" and has roped in stars like Varun Dhawan and Shraddha Kapoor in "ABCD 2", says there's a difference between non-actors and actors.
Remo D'Souza
Remo told IANS: "People loved 'ABCD'. It was a hit, but not a huge hit on box office... but with these actors (Varun and Shraddha), because they are stars, I can see that the buzz is nice. So, there is difference between non-actors and actors."
He refrained from sharing the film's budget, but he said "producers will make money out of this film".
"ABCD 2" is a sequel to "ABCD", and it will release on June 19.
Talking about the chemistry between Varun and Shraddha, he said: "Their chemistry is outstanding in the film as they are childhood friends. They both understand each other so well and you will see that on the screen. I am glad I roped in Varun and Shraddha for this film."


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Jac Vanek
Black Eyelashes, Black Heart Pouch
The only thing that matters in life is good eyelashes and no new friends. The "I like my eyelashes as black as my heart and as long as the list of people I want to punch in the face" pouch is made with 100% cotton black canvas with a white graphic & white zipper. If this doesn't speak to you, we can't be friends anymore.
- 6 inches tall, 8 inches wide.
- Proudly made in Los Angeles.
Shipping specifications
- Ships from NY, please allow 3 business days for handling
- If you are a customer located in the U.S., please allow 5-7 business days for shipping
- If you are an international customer, please allow 2-3 weeks for shipping


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After an accidental explosion at a local mine, dinosaurs emerge from the rubble to terrorize a small western town. Now, a group of gunslingers must defend their home if anyone is going to survive in a battle of cowboys versus dinosaurs.
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Schools in Mississippi District Protected With IQEye Cameras
: 05 March, 2012
(Application Story)
Distributed IP Megapixel camera installation throughout school district will protect over 6000 students
The Meridian Public School District (MPSD) in Mississippi has installed approximately 373 IQeye HD megapixel cameras at their 12 school buildings and campuses. The Meridian Public School District has over 6,000 students in grades K-12 with more than 550 certified staff and approximately 500 classified staff.
At the end of the 2010 school year, MPSD embarked on their ambitious plan to install a unified video surveillance system in all their schools. By the start of the next school year, the system was up and running and the hundreds of IQeye 2 MP Alliance domes were transmitting new, high quality video images for security and administration personnel.
"In this initial phase," explained Tim Boutwell, MPSD Director of Technology, "we were looking to migrate a number of different systems and old camera technologies to a single, upgraded system covering all our schools." The focus was to get all the elementary and middle schools covered, as well as portions of the high school campus. Despite budget constraints and the occasional installation challenge, the system was up and running in short order and has been delivering positive results.
IQeye cameras are deployed at six elementary schools, three middle schools, and the vocational center at the high school to cover bus lanes, parent pick-up lanes, school entrances/exits, administrative offices, as well as many hallways. "We had been talking about upgrading video surveillance for some time," recalled Boutwell. "This project fit right in line with our number one district goal: safe and orderly schools. Now, there is no question that we have a much better idea what is going on at each of our campuses and that we have achieved a higher level of accountability."
Video is monitored at each school location by school personnel, using a 22-inch monitor at his/her workstation. Each principal also has access to their school's video, ensuring that at each school at least two people can monitor video at all times. At the District office, the Director of Security and the Director of Maintenance have access to video from all 373 cameras and they provide important back-up monitoring to the efforts at each school. The IQeye Alliance domes offer H.264 Main Profile compression, enabling MPSD to view and record at 30 frames per second. Video is stored for approximately one week.
Meridian staff have been using the new system for about five months. "This video system makes it very easy for each principal to know who is on campus," explained Boutwell. "We have great views of each campus and the surrounding areas. It's a tremendous benefit. We frequently have 'he said, she said' incidents, and now the principal can easily and quickly go back and see exactly what happened. We also have some vandalism, and we have been able to catch the offenders based on the video images—it's worked tremendously for that."
Boutwell reports that he's confident that Meridian School's identification of vandals and other perpetrators has greatly improved. "We're pleased with the image quality of the cameras. We're really enjoying the new cameras."
The future calls for adding cameras and areas under surveillance as budget becomes available. In addition to product performance, according to Boutwell, MPSD has been pleased in its business dealings with IQinVision, "You guys were real responsive in taking care of any questions that came up. Dealing with you has been a very pleasant experience."
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text:
As humans, we tend to make mistakes, and accidental deletion of files can happen. Don't throw your computer out in frustration. There are techniques you can use to recover lost data from your computer, and you don't need to be a super genius to make this happen. Don't let the delete button hold reign over your life.
Recycle Check
Always double-check your computer's recycle bin/trash. In most cases you will find your file sitting in there waiting to be restored. A simple right click can recover lost data and restore it to its rightful place.
If what you need cannot be found in the recycle bin, then you can search the folder the file was original stored in. Right click the folder and select "Restore previous version." This may enable you to access the contents of the file from a previous date.
Available space
Don't fret if these options haven't worked for you. The missing data is safe and sound somewhere on the hard drive. You can still recover lost data by utilizing the new space in your hard drive. When the file was deleted,your computer marked its space as available for further information.
The computer will not overwrite the available space unless you save further information. Don't save anything new until you are able to recover lost data. There are many different programs available online to help you recover lost data from your hard drive. Many of them are even free to download.
Make sure you do not download the software to your existing hard drive! Grab a second computer to download data recovery software. You don't want to find yourself overwriting your lost data. Connect your drive to the downloaded software using a USB. This will secure your lost data and help restore it.
Create a backup
There are many ways to avoid getting into this kind of situation again and ways to recover lost data more easily next time. The best way to recover lost data is by having your data backed up automatically. Give yourself a digital safeguard against future incidents. Some backups may cost a few pennies, but this is a worthwhile investment. Check through your PC and current software to see if there are any backup options currently available to you.
Now you can take a breath as you can recover lost data from the digital graveyard (you thought) it was sent to. Fixing issues like this is simple to do from home. You just need the right knowledge to help guide you through the restoration process.


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I'm having difficulty turning my head, stiffness in my neck, and my ears are popping. It also hurts when I lift my head. Does anyone know what I can do about it?READ MORE
What can I do about back of the neck pain?
There can be a number of different causes for neck and head pain. You don't mention how long you've been experiencing these symptoms. If they are new symptoms and you also have a fever or nausea, you need to see a doctor right away to rule out the possibility of meningitis.
If you've had the symptoms for quite awhile, there are several possibilities including, but not limited to, muscle spasm, pinched nerve, arthritis, or cervical spondylosis. You'll need to see a doctor who can examine you, take your medical history and perhaps do some tests to pinpoint what is causing your pain. Until you get an appointment, you might try using our Symptom Checker to see if you can narrow down the possibilities.
FROM OUR COMMUNITYYou should know Answers to your question are meant to provide general health information but should not replace medical advice you receive from a doctor. No answers should be viewed as a diagnosis or recommended treatment for a condition. Content posted by community members does not necessarily reflect the views of Remedy Health Media, which also reserves the right to remove material deemed inappropriate.DISPLAY TEXTLINK URL
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37 Jewelry Pieces to Add Sparkle to Your Winter Season
Capture the magic of winter with the sparkly jewelry below!
… More »
Capture the magic of winter with the sparkly jewelry below!
… More »
Not everyone has the winter blues this season. Just ask Sintha, the gorgeous dog featured in the ski video you're about to enjoy. Her human, Adrian Schaffner, recently posted a video of Sintha taking in the sights, sounds and smells of the slopes of the Swiss Alps. Let's just say, winter, you've never looked… More »
If you received too much snow this winter season, take a few pointers from Joseph Colangelo, a New Jersey father who recently took the powder into his own hands.
In a YouTube video shared over the weekend, Colangelo's kids can be seen having the time of their lives thanks to a… More »
Those in attendance at New York Fashion Week were greeted by a multitude of amazing shows… And some seriously cold weather.
Lots of celebrities donned (what we're hoping were) faux fur coats, leather and many layers to keep warm in the low temperatures. In fact, Chris Brown and girlfriend Karrueche Tran… More »
Cats are usually cute, lazy monsters. (Just ask Taylor Swift).
But ever since this video of Rudiger the kitty digging through snow surfaced, thousands have been doing double takes.
… More »
A few weeks ago, the world fell in love with Phinny the piglet and his epic debut on ice.
Now, to officially mark the first — and hopefully only — big winter storm this season, the world is once again melting over an animal vs. ice video.
… More »
Kendall Jenner may have been the hottest thing walking on the Paris Fashion Week runway over the last few days, strutting her stuff for likes of Chanel and Karl Lagerfield, but the girl also proved got some serious game in her street style, too!
From fringe-lined jackets to long, duster coats, the reality… More »
Poor Phinny the piglet. All he wanted to do was go for a walk on a recent afternoon.
Little did he know, it was so cold outside that the sidewalk had turned into a mini skating rink.
… More »
As the Polar Vortex makes it's way back to America, freezing over most of the Midwest and eastern states, I figured I'd comfort you with some celebrities who are bearing the cold right by your side.
… More »


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- Description
Ride the new wave of hGH release! Increases growth hormones stimulation*. Enhanced sleep and feeling of well-being*. Promotes a desirable feel-food experience*. Promotes an enhanced sexual experience*. Increases muscle mass & reduces body fat*. Somatomax is a dietary supplement used as a nighttime formula to enhance natural sleep and to assist the body in the release of natural hormonal compounds, including growth hormone (hGH)*. Improved sleep also supports a muscle building program by improving recovery times, and staying out of a catabolic state*. Somatomax is used by many people as a daytime formula, in lesser serving amounts, to support enhanced energy and mental alertness, promote an elevated mood, support increased libido and a heightened sexual experience, promote tranquility and relaxation, and induce a remarkable, feel-good experience*. In conjunction with proper diet and exercise, Somatomax may also contribute to an increase in muscle and a reduction in fat*. Somatomax stimulates hGH and modulates cortisol, which may make Somatomax a particularly effective supplement for athletes desiring to increase muscle mass and may provide the following benefits:* Increased muscle and decreased body fat, Increase energy and work capacity, Increased libido and sexual energy, Increased IGF-1 levels and bone density.*
Take one scoop of Somatomax with water or beverage 30 minutes prior to bedtime.
Do not operate heavy equipment when using this product. This product may cause drowsiness*. Do not consume this product with alcohol as it may cause side effects. Excessive serving amounts may result in dizziness, nausea, euphoria and diarrhea.*
- Additional Information
Additional Information
SKU SOMEF20N UPC 811836020625 Brand Hi-Tech Flavor Exotic Fruit Size 20 Servings Condition New
- Reviews
Note: Customer reviews are for informational purposes only. Results may vary.
Customer Reviews 10 item(s)
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text: This big, beefy wolf could barely wait for Dart, the rope master at Bear Bound to tie this submissive male up nice and tight. Wolfboy is a a very masculine submissive and he just loves the way he feels and looks when he's tied wearing nothing but his undies and showing off his nipples, legs and shoulders as he squirms helplessly against his bonds. The gag is the frosting on this cake - that and those unshaven legs and the way wolfboy's package looks in his briefs surrounded by the rope!


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a solid fat made from hydrogenated vegetable oil
Season with salt, pepper and butter or vegetable shortening and pour over all about a cupful of good stock.
Cottolene is a vegetable shortening, pure in source and manufactured amid cleanly favorable surroundings.
Work into the sifted flour a quarter cupful of lard or vegetable shortening, using the tips of the fingers or a case knife.


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It only takes a minute to get started. Fill out our uncomplicated sign up form and login to the site.
This step is discretionary but will dramatically increase your chances of people actually reading your profile and contacting you. Let people know a bit about yourself, your pasttimes and upload a nice photograph of yourself.
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It doesn't take long