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Does Chess Need Intelligence? A Study with Young Chess Players. Oxford University. Fernand Gobet. Brunel University. Correspondence Address:
- Janice Newman
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1 Does Chess Need Intelligence? A Study with Young Chess Players Merim Bilalić and Peter McLeod Oxford University Fernand Gobet Brunel University Correspondence Address: Merim Bilalić Department of Experimental Psychology Oxford University South Parks Road OX1 3UD Oxford, Great Britain Phone: Fax:
2 Abstract Although it is widely acknowledged that chess is the best example of an intellectual activity among games, evidence showing the association between any kind of intellectual ability and chess skill has been remarkably sparse. One of the reasons is that most of the studies investigated only one factor (e.g., intelligence), neglecting other factors relevant for the acquisition of chess skill (e.g., amount of practice, years of experience). The present study investigated the chess skill of 57 young chess players using measures of intelligence (WISC III), practice, and experience. Although practice had the most influence on chess skill, intelligence explained some variance even after the inclusion of practice. When an elite subsample of 23 children was tested, it turned out that intelligence was not a significant factor in chess skill, and that, if anything, it tended to correlate negatively with chess skill. This unexpected result is explained by a negative correlation between intelligence and practice in the elite subsample. The study demonstrates the dangers of focusing on a single factor in complex real-world situations where a number of closely interconnected factors operate. Key words: Chess, Intelligence, Practice, Children, Verbal ability, Visuo-spatial ability, Speed of processing, Memory span. 2
3 It is widely acknowledged that chess is the king among (board) games. This special status is most likely a result of the intellectual aura which surrounds it (Holding, 1985; Newell, Shaw, & Simon, 1963). While in other competitive activities, especially traditional sporting ones, people can always blame their failure on lack of luck or find a rationalization (e.g., so what if he can run faster than me I can do many other things better than him), it is more difficult to come up with such excuses in chess. One has the same set of pieces as the opponent, luck does not play any role, and if one loses one can only blame oneself, one s intellect, or lack thereof. Not being smart is more hurtful than not being able to run fast, as many chess players will testify. This notion is not only shared among lay people but also among some researchers - recently there has been a surge of research based, if not entirely then at least partly, on the assumed link between intelligence and chess (Howard, 1999; 2001; 2005a; 2005b; Irwing & Lynn, 2005). Given this common conception about the role of intelligence in chess, it is remarkable how unsuccessful the search for intellectual ingredients of chess skill has been. Despite being an apparently obvious example of a purely intellectual activity, for more than a century researchers have largely failed to connect success at chess with any intellectual ability (e.g., Binet, 1966/1893; Unterrainer, Kaller, Halsband, & Rahm, 2006). In this study we present new empirical evidence that highlights the difficulty of relating intelligence to success at chess. We will firstly consider the sparse positive evidence for the influence of intelligence on chess skill. We will then describe the studies which failed to uncover the often assumed link between intelligence and chess skill. Next, possible reasons for the lack of evidence for this influence will be considered and important trends that provide clues for solving the chess-intelligence paradox identified. Finally, we will present a study that addresses the problems and shortcomings of previous studies. 3
4 1. General intelligence and visuo-spatial abilities in chess positive evidence A common theoretical view is that besides general intelligence, chess requires a high level of visuo-spatial ability (e.g., Chase & Simon, 1973a; 1973b; Frydman & Lynn, 1992; Howard, 1999; 2005a; 2005b). Calculating variations/moves, that is imagining potential moves and representing future developments, has been thought to be one of, if not the main factor of chess skill (Aagard, 2004). Given that no external help is allowed, chess players need to do these transformations in their mind s eye (Chase & Simon, 1973b). At first sight, these transformations seem to resemble the popular mental rotation task (Shepard & Metzler, 1971) which taps visuo-spatial ability. It is thus fitting that Frydman and Lynn (1992), who administered the WISC to 33 young elite Belgian chess players (mean age 11; the average rating was slightly below that of an average adult chess player; see the discussion of the Elite subsample in the Results section for an explanation of the rating system in chess), found that the sample of talented chess players had above-average IQs (about 120) and their Performance IQ (as measured by half of the subtests) was considerably higher than their verbal IQ (as measured by the other half of the subtests). The stronger players had higher performance IQ scores than the weaker ones, which led Frydman and Lynn to conclude that visuo-spatial abilities are essential for successful chess playing. Similarly, Horgan and Morgan (1990) demonstrated a relationship between intelligence as measured by Raven s Progressive Matrices and improvement in chess skill. The 15 best players from the sample (performing roughly at the level of an average adult player) scored higher on the Raven s Progressive Matrices than the average for children of their age. Stepwise regression analysis showed that 65% of variance on the current chess rating was explained by the rating in the previous year, 77% when the Raven s test score was added to the regression, and 87% when the number of games played was added. 4
5 Unfortunately, both studies have some shortcomings that throw a shadow of doubt on the role of intelligence in chess expertise. In the study by Horgan and Morgan (1990), it is somewhat surprising that Raven s matrices explained as much as 12% of variance considering that the children s scores (on Raven s matrices) were not significantly correlated with improvement or with rating once age was controlled for. A plausible explanation is that in the stepwise regression the main confounding variable, age, was not included. Similarly, the conclusion voiced by Frydman and Lynn (1992) about the importance of visuo-spatial abilities in chess is questionable considering that a number of tests in the performance part of WISC do not measure visuo-spatial abilities (and most of them depend heavily on time/speed, Kaufman, 1994). In this respect, it is regrettable that the results on individual subtests were not presented. It is true that the children in both Horgan and Morgan s and Frydman and Lynn s studies performed better than average on the intelligence tests. Still, there was no significant association between intelligence and rating in the former study and it is not clear whether the association among the elite subsample in the latter study was strong, weak, or whether it existed at all. 2. General intelligence and visuo-spatial abilities in chess negative evidence The very first empirical investigation of chess by Alfred Binet (1966/1893) set out to examine exactly how expert chess players envision the chess board and anticipate moves when they play blindfold chess (chess without the help of external board). Contrary to his expectation that chess players would have a concrete and detailed image of the board and the transformations that are taking place during a blindfold game, even the very best players reported that their representations were abstract without clear encoding of the board and pieces (but see Fine, 1965). 5
6 Subsequent research confirmed that intelligence and visuo-spatial abilities are rarely, if ever, correlated with chess skill among adult chess experts. Djakow, Petrowski and Rudik (1927) tested eight grandmasters including several world champions and some of the best players at their time with a number of measures of general intelligence and visuo-spatial memory. They found no differences between this highly talented group and a control group of adult non-chess players. Lane (an unpublished study, D. Lane, mentioned in Cranberg & Albert, 1988, p. 161) found no association between chess ability and performance on a visuospatial task (the Guilford-Zimmerman Spatial Visualization Subtest, Form B; Guilford & Zimmerman, 1953). Doll and Mayr (1987) also failed to identify any reliable correlation between chess skill and various intellectual abilities as measured by the Berlin Structural Model of Intelligence Test in 27 expert chess players. Waters, Gobet and Leyden (2003) found virtually no association between chess skill and the Shape Memory Test (MV-1), a measure of visual memory ability, among 36 adult chess players despite a positive correlation between the scores on the Shape Memory Test and the recall of random positions. Similarly, a recent study by Grabner, Neubauer and Stern (2006) could not establish significant association between chess rating and intelligence (as measured by the Intelligenz-Struktur-Test 2000 R) among 47 adult players (including solid tournament players as well as master players). Finally, Unterrainer, Kaller, Halsband and Rahm (2006) found no association between chess skill and the scores on the Raven s Progressive Matrices, Digit Span, and Corsi block-tapping test among a group of 25 experienced chess players. In addition, the same group of players did not have better fluid intelligence (Raven matrices), memory capacity (Digit Span), or visuo-spatial working memory (Corsi block-tapping test) than a group of non-players matched for age and education. Even more surprising was the finding of Gruber and colleagues (Gruber, Renkl, & Schneider, 1994; see also Opwis, Gold, Gruber, & Schneider, 1990) who measured the general 6
7 memory capacity (with the Digit Span subtest from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)) of expert and novice child chess players and their recall of briefly presented chess positions. While novice child players showed a small but positive correlation (between.20 and.50) between digit span and the recall task, expert child players had a high negative correlation (larger than -.70). Expert child players with better memory capacities were reproducing briefly presented chess stimuli worse than their peers with worse memory capacity. The reviewed studies indicate that intelligence, visuo-spatial abilities, and basic memory capacities do not play a significant, if any, role at later stages of chess skill acquisition. There seems to be a link between intelligence and performance on stimuli unrelated to standard chess material (e.g., Waters et al., 2003), but the association disappears (e.g., Waters et al., 2003), or it even becomes negative (Gruber et al., 1994), as soon as chess related stimuli are used. Closely related is the result that has been found many times that experts huge advantage over weaker players (or non-players) in recalling chess positions disappears when the positions are scrambled, that is, they no longer make chess sense (see Chase & Simon, 1973a, Vicente & de Groot, 1990; but see also Gobet & Simon, 1996b, for the explanation of minor differences). In addition, Ellis (1973) found that chess players were better at a same-different detection task only when (chess) boards contained chess pieces. The differences disappeared when dots were used instead of pieces. 3. Reasons for the lack of association between intelligence and chess skill Given that intelligence plays a significant role in many activities (e.g., academic success Neisser et al., 1996; school achievement Gagne & St.Pere, 2002; vocational success Schmidt & Hunter, 1998; 2004; various motor-perceptual tasks; Ackerman, 1988), some of which could be seen as less intellectual than chess, it is surprising that the studies with established players could not establish its role in chess, seen as an intellectual activity par 7
8 excellence. There are several possible explanations for the absence of the link between intelligence and chess among established players. For example, most of the current theories of expertise (Chunking Theory Chase & Simon, 1973a; 1973b; Template Theory Gobet & Simon, 1996a; Apperception-Restructuring Theory Saariluoma, 1995; Long Term-Working Memory Ericsson & Kintsch, 1995) assume that chess skill depends more on knowledge (e.g., stored patterns of chess configurations, chunks and templates) than on analytical abilities such as search or calculation of variations (but see Holding, 1985; 1992). It has been estimated that chess experts have between 10,000 and 100,000 chunks stored in their memories (Simon & Gilmartin, 1973), a number that recent computer simulations place as high as 300,000 (Gobet & Simon, 2000). These constellations are connected with common moves and plans which are responsible for successful chess playing. In order to acquire such a large number of chess position patterns, prolonged training is a necessity for every chess expert. There are disagreements about exactly how much time is necessary to become a good chess player (see Howard, 1999 and Gobet, Campitelli, & Waters, 2002), but it is certain that nobody will become a successful player overnight. Several studies point out how important training is in skill acquisition. In a survey of over 230 expert chess players, Charness and colleagues (Charness, Krampe, & Mayr, 1996) found that practice alone was moderately associated with chess skill even when a number of other factors, such as practice with others, competitive games played, and number of chess books owned were entered in a regression analysis. Furthermore, the addition of time spent on playing games did not explain any additional variance once solitary practice had been entered in the equation. Similar results were obtained in recent large scale studies with chess players (Charness, Tuffiash, Krampe, Reingold, & Vasyukova, 2005; Gobet and Campitelli, in press), as well as in the number of different sports (see Ward, Hodges, Williams, & Starkes, 2004 for a review). 8
9 These findings underline the importance of focused practice, also called deliberate practice (Ericsson, 2003; Ericsson, Krampe, Tesch-Roemer, 1993), where practice is intentionally targeted at those aspects of performance one wants to improve. Focused practice is a part of experience (e.g., number of games played, number of years playing) but it is also different in that focused practice has a clearly beneficial influence on performance while the same cannot be claimed for experience. Although the studies mentioned above illustrate the pivotal role of focused practice, none of them took account of intelligence measures and all were of a retrospective character using already established performers. This makes it difficult to say anything about the influence of practice and intelligence on chess skill and their interplay in the chess skill acquisition process. A related problem in the studies of exceptional performance, and another possible reason for the absence of an intelligence-chess skill link among established players, is selective drop-out (Detterman, 1993; Sternberg, 1996). By the time some people become proficient players, many others of them have long given up chess. This drop-out is usually selective because many of the people who give up chess were usually not very good in the first place. The main consequence of this selective drop-out is a restriction in the range - established players are likely to be highly selected individuals with similar characteristics (e.g., intelligence, motivation) which artificially reduces the association between these characteristics and chess skill. The restriction in the range of important individual characteristics as a consequence of selective drop-out may also be a reason why the link between intelligence and chess skill was established only among young players (children) while the link seems to be absent among established players (adults). 4. Present study 9
10 In short, the data and theoretical assumptions on the role of intelligence in chess skill are inconsistent. On the one hand, we have a general theoretical assumption that intelligence plays a part in intellectual activities (e.g., Howard, 1999; 2005). On the other, many researchers on expertise believe that practice is the main ingredient in the development of most skills (e.g., Ericsson & Lehmann, 1996; Howe, Davidson, & Sloboda, 1998). Both theoretical standpoints have been repeatedly supported (e.g., Ericsson et al., 1993; Gagne & St.Pere, 2002; Neisser et al., 1996; Schmidt & Hunter, 1998; 2004; Ward et al., 2004) and one can also say that they have received some support in chess. Practice explains a significant part of variance in chess skill (Charness et al., 1996; 2005) while there is still some evidence that intelligence is correlated with chess skill at least among children (Frydman & Lynn, 1992; Horgan & Morgan, 1990). The studies showing the association between intelligence and chess skill are, however, far from conclusive. In addition, there is also counter-evidence that even suggests a negative relation between intelligence and chess expertise among expert child players (Gruber et al., 1994). We believe that one of the reasons we do not know how intelligence influences chess skill is that none of the studies described so far took other relevant factors into account. The studies on intelligence generally neglected to control for practice (an exception to this rule being Horgan and Morgan s study, 1990, which included the number of played games) while the studies on practice did not take intelligence and the consequences of restricted range into account. In this study, we used not only measures of intelligence but also measures of practice and experience. We tested children who had recently started to play chess because we felt that it is necessary to see how intelligence and practice interact at the beginning of the chess skill acquisition process. Our study also included a subsample of star players who participated in national and international competitions, thus enabling us to see how intelligence and practice 10
11 influence the very best young players, possibly highly selected children who are likely to become very good players. We used three measures of chess expertise (Chess Test, Recall, Knight s Row Task), four WISC subtests (Vocabulary, Block Design, Symbol Search, Digit Span) and measures of experience and practice. We tested how verbal and spatial ability, as well as speed of processing and memory, correlate with various measures of chess expertise among children. The Vocabulary subtest was included because Holding (1985) speculated, on the grounds of the observation that many remarkable chess players were journalists and that there was no evidence that visuo-spatial ability is connected with successful chess playing, that verbal ability is more important for chess than visuo-spatial ability. 5. Method 5.1. Participants Fifty-seven primary and secondary school children from four schools in Oxfordshire, UK, participated in the study. Age and gender can be found in the first two columns of Table 1. All children could play chess and were attending a chess club in their schools (at least once a week). They had been playing chess for about four years at the time of the study was conducted (see Table 1) Measures Chess skill. In order to measure the skill level of children, we employed three different measures of chess skill. The main measure was a Chess Test that contained two parts. The first part dealt with the rules of the game (e.g., moves, castling, en passant), while the second part contained chess problems (puzzles) that featured different chess motifs (e.g., double attack, pin). The time for trying to solve one item was limited to two minutes. There were 55 items in 11
12 the Chess Test with one point for each correct answer. The second measure was De Groot s (1978/1946) Recall Task where participants recall/reconstruct a position previously seen for a brief period. We adapted this task for the use with children in such a manner that the positions were presented for 10 seconds on a computer screen instead of the usual 5 seconds. In addition, the chosen positions were highly structured (coming from openings) so that the task was easier than usual. There were three target positions which were preceded by two practice positions. The average percentage of correctly recalled pieces across all three target positions was used in subsequent analysis. Almost identical results were found when individual positions were analyzed. The last measure was the Knight s Row Task (KRT; adaptation of Milojevic, 1967, Knight s Row Tour; reported in Holding, 1985) in which the task was to transfer, as fast as possible, the knight from one corner of the board to the other on the same horizontal (a1 to h1), visiting each square between the two corners (in order a1, b1, c1 and so on until they reach h1). Two obstacles were on squares c3 and f3 which made the task more demanding. The time for the task was limited to 10 minutes. We first calculated the average time needed per square to finish the task. We then applied a log 10 transformation on the average time per square in order to ensure a normal distribution. The descriptive statistics for the three chess skill measures can be found in Table 1. The Chess Test and Recall tasks included highly internally consistent items - Cronbach s alphas for Chess Test and Recall were.92 and.96, respectively. To check whether the three chess skill measures indeed measured chess skill (criterion validity), we used the scores of the tournaments organized in the schools, as well as coaches estimates of children s chess ability. Pearson correlation between the number of points in the tournaments and the number of points in the Chess Test was.80 while the correlation was slightly weaker for Recall and KRT r =.60 and -.50, respectively. Spearman s correlation between the ranks of coach s estimates and the results in the Chess Test were also high (.90), while the correspondence with Recall and KRT were slightly weaker (.80 and -.65, respectively). All 12
13 correlations are the average of the correlations in the four schools and all were significant at the.05 level. All three chess skill measures correlated highly with each other (see Table 1) and a factor analysis using the three chess skill measures produced one factor. This reinforces the belief that all tasks captured the same construct, most likely chess skill, which is evidence for concurrent validity (sharing the variance with measures that are believed to measure the construct). Intelligence. Four subtests from the WISC III were applied. They represent four major abilities that could influence chess skill acquisition. The Vocabulary subtest (children orally define a series of orally presented words) was used to test verbal abilities; Block Design (replicating geometric patterns with red and white colored cubes from both two and three dimensional models) for visuo-spatial abilities; Symbol Search (indicating, by marking a box, whether a target symbol appears in series of symbols) for speed of processing; and Digit Span (repeating a list of orally presented numbers forward and backward we used a combined score of both forward and backward span, but similar results were obtained when forward and backward scores with age control were used separately) for memory capacity. Vocabulary and Block Design are the most reliable tests for measuring g in the whole WISC III (Kaufman, 1994) and are frequently used together as a short form (Sattler, 1992; the correlation between the IQ obtained with Vocabulary and Block Design and the full scale IQ is above.80). Adding Symbol Search and Digit Span provides additional reliability to the estimated IQ and makes it possible to use a composite intelligence score (IQ) in the study. On the other hand, all four subtests tap different abilities and are not particularly highly related. Therefore, it is possible to examine diverse intellectual abilities and their influence on the acquisition of chess skill. The estimated overall IQ is obtained using the formula provided by Sattler (2001; pp ) which converts the standardized scores (where M is 10 and SD is 3) of subtests into the IQ 13
14 scale (where the mean is 100 and the standard deviation 15). The standardized scores were used in all analyses. Practice. A face to face interview was conducted in order to collect the background data (e.g., date of birth) and to obtain children s estimates of the time when they started to play chess (start year) and the amount of time they spent playing chess up to the point of the interview (practice). The obtained estimates were cross-checked with parents who were sent a questionnaire with the same questions. Over 70% of parents returned the filled questionnaire. The Pearson correlation between parents and children s estimates of the time spent on chess before the interview was.71. As a rule, we kept parents estimates in the analyses except in the cases where children had learnt to play chess in their schools. We felt that those parents would be an unreliable source of the time spent on chess because they only rarely played chess with their children (some of them could not play chess at all). In addition to the interview, diaries for logging daily amounts of practice were used in the first two terms (about half a year) before the actual testing took place. Children were asked to fill in the diaries every week and the first author visited the chess clubs every week to ensure that the children remembered to do this. In addition, parents were informed about the diary routine and most of them agreed to help logging the time spent doing chess. At the end of the diary period, children were asked to estimate the time they spent on chess during the diary period. The Pearson correlation between their estimates and the data from diary was very high (.99 and.98 for each of the two school terms) which indicates that children can reliably estimate their practice times at least within a couple of months. In all analyses we used a log 10 transform of the practice data time. Experience. Experience was measured as the number of years of playing chess, that is, the time in years between the point where the child learned to play chess and the actual testing. As previously mentioned, the questionnaire was sent to the parents to estimate the time when their children started to play chess. The Pearson correlation between parents and children s 14
15 answers for questions about the start year was.91. As with practice, we took parents estimates in the cases where they introduced their children to chess and children s estimates if they learned it in school Procedure As a part of a larger project (Bilalić, 2006), we firstly obtained agreement from the schools which were regularly organizing a chess club within their programme. The children in the chess clubs were then familiarized with the project and asked if they were willing to participate. All children who were regularly attending the chess clubs agreed to participate. A letter briefly describing the study was sent to the parents of the children. About 75% of parents contacted agreed to participate in the study. The initial face to face interview was conducted first. The parents questionnaire was sent out next while the intelligence testing was conducted during the diary period. The session with chess skill measures was conducted last and just after the second face to face interview in which we collected children s estimates of the practice times for the diary period. All four WISC-III subtests were administered in one session in the following sequence: Block Design, Vocabulary, Symbol Search, and Digit Span. The testing with chess measures was done in two sessions in order to minimize the pressure on young children. In the first session, the Knight s Row Task and the Recall task were conducted. The knight s row task was conducted on a chess board taken from the chess club so that the children were familiar with it. A Macintosh laptop (11 screen) was used for the recall task (for information about the software used, see Gobet & Simon, 1998). The second session featured only the chess test which was administered on a PC laptop (15 screen). Both testing sessions, as well as the intelligence testing and face to face interview, were conducted in the same quiet room (e.g., head teacher s office, library or computer room during classes when they were quiet) Statistical analysis 15
16 We used hierarchical regression analysis to test how gender, age, intelligence, practice, and experience predict the results on the chess skill measures. All variables were checked for normal distribution and necessary transformations were made where needed (e.g., practice and KRT). The relations of the predictors with the chess skill measures were linear but some of the predictors were moderately related (see Table 1). Although none of the correlations between predictors exceeded.65, the inter-predictor correlations may result in multicollinearity which would make the estimation of the error terms inexact and produce distorted significance levels. To test out this possibility, we calculated the variance inflation factor (VIF) for each predictor. VIF shows the increased amount of variance for the regression coefficient in question relative to a situation where all predictors were unrelated. Almost all predictors had the VIF value of less than 2.00 (the exception being experience which had a VIF value of less than 3.00) indicating that multicollinearity was not a problem (the cut-off value being 4.00; Fox, 1991). Finally, we made sure that other relevant indicators (e.g., homoscedasticity, error distribution, outliers) confirmed that the regression analyses were reliable (Cohen, Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2003). 6. Results 6.1. General intelligence of young chess players descriptive statistics The means and standard deviations of the variables used in the study, as well as the intercorrelations among the variables, are presented in Table 1. Our sample was above average intelligence, confirming the previous findings of high intelligence in young chess players (e.g., Horgan & Morgan, 1990; Frydman & Lynn, 1992). Chess skill measures were positively and moderately correlated with age, gender, experience, and the composite IQ score. The highest correlation with chess skill measures was practice, that is the log 10 of hours children spent on playing chess (over.75 for all three chess skill measures). The Vocabulary and Block Design 16
17 subtests were rather moderately associated with chess skill measures, while Digit Span and Symbol Search correlated higher. Both experience, that is the number of years playing, and the composite IQ score were positively correlated, with a similar magnitude, with all three measures of chess skill. It should be noted that experience was not significantly related to IQ nor any other intelligence subtest except Digit Span. Practice, on the other hand, was moderately but significantly correlated with the IQ as well as with all intelligence subtests, especially Digit Span and Symbol Search. Finally, there were no stark discrepancies between different measures of chess skill and their associations with intelligence, practice, and the other variables of interest. Insert Table 1 about here 6.2. The association of intelligence, practice, and experience with chess skill - predictive analysis In order to see how intelligence (and different abilities), practice, experience, age, and gender are correlated with chess skill when they are all taken into account, we performed a hierarchical regression analysis for each of the three chess skill measures. We made sure that the following variable in the hierarchical regression analysis was unlikely to cause the preceding one (Cohen et al., 2003). In all three regression analyses we first entered gender (Model 1) followed by age (Model 2), then added the composite IQ (Model 3) after which practice was included (Model 4), and finally experience was added as the last predictor (Model 5). While one can imagine that intelligence can cause practice because more intelligent children may be more interested in an intellectual endeavour such as chess, one can be relatively sure that chess practice should not influence intelligence. Similarly, experience and practice are 17
18 related but while experience per se does not necessarily equal practice, practice always equals experience. The results for the Chess Test, Recall, and KRT are presented in Table 2. In all three regression analyses, age and gender explained around 40% of the variance in the chess skill measures pointing to an unsurprising pattern of results where boys and older children play better chess than young children and girls (see Model 1 and 2 in Table 2). The inclusion of IQ, nevertheless, increased the explained variance to around 55% in all three chess skill measures (see Model 3 in Table 2). When practice was entered (Model 4) in the analyses it raised the explained variance to around 70% for Recall and KRT, while the Chess Test variance was particularly well explained (86%). After the inclusion of practice all other variables became weaker predictors of chess skill. Intelligence still remained a significant predictor, although its influence was weaker, while age became an insignificant predictor. The exception to this pattern of results was KRT where age remained significant even after the inclusion of practice, while intelligence became insignificant when practice was accounted for. In all three chess skill measures, practice was the best predictor. Experience (Model 5) did not contribute significantly to the explanation of the Chess Test and Recall results. Experience was also not a significant predictor of the KRT scores but it did significantly explain some variance in the results. This is most likely due to the association of experience with age and practice the coefficients for age and practice became higher in absolute value with the inclusion of experience. This was also reflected by the VIF value for experience as well as by the increase in the VIF values for age and practice. Insert Table 2 about here 18
19 When the intelligence subtests were entered separately and individually to Model 3 instead of IQ, the best predictors were not spatial (Block Design) and verbal (Vocabulary) abilities as some researchers speculated (e.g., Chase & Simon, 1973a; 1973b; Frydman & Lynn, 1992; Holding, 1985; Howard, 1999; 2005a; 2005b) but memory capacity (Digit Span) and processing speed (Symbol Search). Block Design did not predict significantly any of the three chess skill measures while Vocabulary significantly predicted Chess Test and Recall (standardized beta coefficients, β, of.27 and.33 respectively). The best predictors of the Chess Test and Recall scores were Digit Span and Symbol Search (βs of.38 and.37 for Chess Test;.28 and.39 for Recall, respectively) while the KRT scores were only significantly predicted by Digit Span (β = -.38). We also checked how individual intelligence subtests predicted the three chess skill measures when practice had been included in the regression analyses (Model 4). Chess Test was significantly predicted only by Digit Span (β =.14) while Symbol Search and Vocabulary just failed to reach the 0.05 significance level (β =.12 and.11, respectively). Recall was significantly predicted by Symbol Search and Vocabulary (both β =.20) while Digit Span proved to be the only significant predictor of KRT (β = -.22). Bock Design was not a significant predictor of any of the chess skill measures, although it just failed to reach the significance in Recall (β =.16) Elite subsample It thus seems that intelligence has a role in chess playing of children even when gender, age, experience, and practice are controlled for. It is possible, however, that the influence of intelligence is present only with samples of children of wide chess skill range who had just recently started to play chess. As previously mentioned, other studies using a sample of elite child chess players did not find a significant link (e.g., Horgan & Morgan, 1990) while some 19
20 even found a significant negative association (e.g., Gruber et al., 1994). In order to examine this possibility, we performed a similar analysis on a subsample of elite young chess players. Among the children participating in the study there were 23 children (all boys, mean age 11.4, SD = 1.2) who were regularly participating in local, national and some even in international chess competitions. In comparison with the players in the rest of the sample, the players had higher IQ scores (133 vs. 114; t(55) = 4.9, p <.001), were more experienced (5.5 vs. 3.5; t(55) = 5, p <.001) and spent more time playing chess (2.8 vs. 1.9; t(55) = 10.4, p <.001). All of players in the elite subsample had a chess rating which we will use as the measure of chess skill. Chess rating is based exclusively on the results against other rated players. It is thus an objective measure of chess skill (given enough rated games). The average rated player, all adults and children included, has a rating of 1500 with a standard deviation of 200. One can be fairly sure that children as good as 1100 (2 SD below the average) will beat adults who occasionally play chess and regard themselves as competent players. Expert chess players start from 2100 (3 SD above the mean) while the very best players in the world, grandmasters, have a rating 2500 or more (5 SD above the mean). Taking these considerations into account, and given their age, our elite subsample was truly exceptional. The average rating was 1603 (SD = 109). The highest rating was 1835, more than 1.5 SD above the mean, while the lowest was 1390, half a SD below of the average player. (All children had British Chess Federation ratings which we converted into the international ELO rating using the current formula provided by the British Chess Federation: ELO = (BCF*5) ) The results of the hierarchical regression analysis using age, experience, practice and IQ or intelligence subtests as predictors of the rating are presented in Table 3. The most surprising result was that IQ negatively correlated with chess rating, indicating that the children with lower IQ scores were better players in the elite subsample (see Model 2). Age, on the other hand, did not play a significant role in the chess rating prediction (Model 1 and 2). But practice 20
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text:
Trites, Evan
Year Inducted / Année Intronisé:
Province / Province:
New Brunswick
Category / Catégorie:
Biography / Biographie:
The curling world was saddened in May of 1984 with the sudden passing of Mr. Evan Trites.
For nearly 40 years, Ev Trites was known throughout New Brunswick for his outstanding contribution to the building of the sport of curling. He is the only man in the history of the CCA to hold the position of national chairman of two different championships (Canadian Mixed for five years and National Seniors, for years). Ev's work didn't end with curling; he was also involved as a player and executive with a baseball, softball, bowling, golf and lawn bowling. Cumulatively, he was a director and president of four curling clubs, four golf clubs and 14 associations.
Behind every successful sport program can be found a competent organizer. Evan Trites, long-time resident of Saint John, was, in the words of one of his army of admirers "The best organizer Ever Seen" The term "the best" had been applied to Ev Trites before, – in his business and his military careers where he rose through the ranks because of his leadership talents.
Baseball, softball and bowling occupied much of his time and attention before World War II. Since 1977 he played a leading role in obtaining the Canada Summer Games for Saint John. But, it is for his 38 years of contributions to golf and curling that we honour him.
The awards he received were many and prestigious; so too, were the contributions he made to the world of sport in New Brunswick and at the national level.
Quick Facts
- Chairman of the National Mixed Curling Committee from 1971-76
- Served on the executive of the NB Curling Association from 1973-75
- Served on the executive of the NB Mixed Curling Association from 1974-76
- Chairman of the National Senior Committee from 1977-81
- Secretary-treasurer of the NB Golf Association from 1975-83
- Served as chairman of the Saint John Canada Summer Games Bid Committees in 1977
- Inducted into the Canadian Curling Hall of Fame in 1985
[source: http://www.honouredmembers.com/trites-d/]

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Wow, check out this hot deal! SOME Dollar Tree stores carry these small packets of Gevalia Coffee for just $1. If your store carries them, use our newspaper coupon to pick up freebies! NOTE: Not all Dollar Tree stores will carry this item. Here's the scenario:
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How can I add a column for file/path length in windows explorer. For all users in a windows domain. This is important for me because our projects are copied to CD/DVD and there are built in restrictions in the software we use. Most of my users have Win 7 64bit, but I have 4 win XP and 2 Vista users also.
Additionally, if there is a way to change the color of the resulting text when it reaches a value of 106 characters length, and again at a value of 212 characters length.
Thank you in advance
Steve in Alaska
8 Replies
Aug 25, 2011 at 10:43 UTC
This looks oddly familiar to your other post?
Aug 25, 2011 at 11:55 UTC
Yes, it is. Especially if you use comparative analysis. Good job Jay.
Trying to find the right forum in the hopes of stimulating the creativity of that one person that knows how to do this.
Also posted on several other websites (well, one right now - by the end of the day as many as I can remember).
Steve in Alaska
Aug 25, 2011 at 4:34 UTC
Getting closer to an answer for this
looks promising!
Steve in Alaska
Aug 25, 2011 at 8:21 UTC
Awesome, because I couldn't find a thing.....on a different note......do you know that chick on Discovery channel that flies stuff in and out of Alaska?
She was on Wipeout too.
Aug 26, 2011 at 10:43 UTC
Whats a "Discovery Channel"? Is that that the one you find while your flippin through your 3 broadcast channels and you find a 4th channel showing an awsome snowstorm?
I would suggest limiting yourself to one 24 pack so that you don't over excite yourself.
Sigh, no - I really don't watch much TV. There is literarily too much for me to physically see in my lifetime here in Alaska. And much more interesting than TV also.
Steve in Alaska
Steve in Alaska
Aug 26, 2011 at 11:19 UTC
Sigh, no - I really don't watch much TV. There is literarily too much for me to physically see in my lifetime here in Alaska. And much more interesting than TV also.
Steve in Alaska
Hmmm.....sounds like a good example to follow lol.
Aug 26, 2011 at 11:27 UTC
adding columns to Explorer's details view via a column handler shell extension
Now, to learn C++
Steve in Alaska
Aug 26, 2011 at 11:36 UTC
Cool, now to write it as a how to and publish it on SpiceWorks.......not that I have seen this request that much....well at least one other time lol
This discussion has been inactive for over a year.
You may get a better answer to your question by starting a new discussion.


text:
A martial arts fighter who attacked the friends of a man killed during a violent New Year's Eve confrontation at Rye has had his jail sentence increased by 21 months.
In a judgment handed down on Tuesday, Court of Appeal president Justice Chris Maxwell and Justices Mark Weinberg and Joseph Santamaria called on the government to do more to stop violence in the community.
"Random street violence is a scourge on our society," the appeal judges said when jailing Tyrone Russell, 23, for three years with a non-parole period of one year and nine months over the "one punch" death of David Cassai n the early hours of New Year's Eve, 2012.
"Typically, the violence is brief and unpremeditated but it has profound and enduring consequences," the appeal judges said. "Innocent people are killed or seriously injured; their families are devastated; their communities disrupted ... and the outburst of violence is ruinous for the offender, too.
"Imprisonment with all its destructive consequences is virtually inevitable, as is the shame and embarrassment felt by the offender's family ... The present case had all of these characteristics."
The appeal judges said it was up to the government to get the message across to the community, especially to young men, that random street violence would not be tolerated.
"If the message is not getting through no change in sentencing law can make the difference."
Russell had been jailed on June 25 for 15 months with a non-parole period of eight months after pleading guilty to recklessly causing serious injury, recklessly causing injury and affray over the attack, which ended in the "one punch" death of David Cassai.
Russell punched two of Mr Cassai's friends in the face in quick succession, knocking both men to the ground and fracturing one man's jaw.
He later called his girlfriend to say he didn't think one of the men would walk again.
The Director of Public Prosecutions appealed against Russell's jail sentence, claiming it was too lenient and the Court of Appeal agreed.
Russell's friend, Dylan Closter, 21, had confronted Mr Cassai as he was walking with nine friends back towards his family's holiday house in Rosebud on the morning of December 31, 2012, and asked him if he wanted to fight.
Mr Cassai, 22, told Closter to "get f---ed" and kept walking. Closter ran towards Mr Cassai, holding his arms up like a boxer and started taking big swings at his head. Mr Cassai backed away, shouting "What are you doing?"
One of the punches connected and Mr Cassai stumbled back on to the road. Russell and another friend, Thomas McCluskey-Sharp, ran over to get involved in the fracas.
Closter then chased Mr Cassai and hit him in the left temple with one powerful roundhouse punch. Mr Cassai fell straight backwards, hitting his head on the pavement and fracturing his skull. He died of his injuries at The Alfred hospital about 4pm on December 31.
Closter was jailed for nine years and three months after pleading guilty to one count of manslaughter and one count of affray.
McCluskey-Sharp, 26, pleaded guilty to one count of recklessly causing injury and one count of affray, and will be sentenced on December 19.
The Court of Appeal's decision on Tuesday means McCluskey-Sharp is likely to face a lengthier jail term.


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May 24, 2007 in Services (F)
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1.) Most Popular: 2 Chainz ft. Drake & Lil Wayne - I Do It
No surprise here. The words to 2 Chainz' "I Do It" were by far the most popular of the week, thanks to features from Drake and Lil Wayne. This is probably the biggest track from Tity Boi's upcoming B.O.A.T.S. II: Me Time album, which hits iTunes on September 10th.
Lyrically speaking, there's nothing particularly remarkable here. These three emcees are among the most successful rappers on the planet, and their successes aren't quite as engaging as their struggles were. This track's about the star power, plain and simple.
[Excerpt: 2 Chainz]
Get that sack, already, man, we've got them racks already
As for your girl, I hit it from the back already
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[Excerpt: Drake]
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[Excerpt: Lil Wayne]
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Gotta keep that Trukfit fresh, shout-out to all of my hoes
Hit the badge to read the rest:


text:
Ed Thompson: When you talk to coaches and scouts, has the word "playmaker" come out of their mouths? I see you blocked a kick, had four interceptions, caused fumbles, deflected passes, I mean, you're all over the place...
Zak DeOssie: They're aware of my production and I'm sure they're happy with it. They're saying ... I've heard everything from outside, inside linebacker in both 3-4 and 4-3 defenses. My play speaks for itself.
ET: Anybody talking to you about possibly adding weight and trying out the DE position?
ZD: The Vikings were entertaining that, but that's the only time I ever heard it. It was just a casual conversation. They were just entertaining the thought. But I've heard from everywhere that the size is perfect; in fact, some said you should be able to put on a little more weight and still run at linebacker.
ET: From a technical standpoint, what are your strengths as a linebacker?
ZD: Well, I run sideline to sideline and I can run down running backs and receivers, whoever it may be. I've got great speed and I've got a nose for the ball. I'm able to drop back in coverage and break on the ball. The thing I need the most improvement on, I believe, is just getting off blocks. I tend to stalemate with linemen and try to figure out where the play's going instead of just getting rid of them and getting them off me because if they take me out of the play, they've succeeded. However, it's a learning curve and I feel I've gotten a lot better in past years.
|(David Silverman, DSpics.com)
ZD: My thought is whatever helps--it's football, you know (laughs). Special teams start the game and potentially swing everything, and that's a role that I love and I've embraced from the first time I stepped on the field. It's just part of the game and I love it.
ET: We talked extensively at the Combine about the Bill Belichick connection. You want to tell the fans about that and what his interest has been so far?
ZD: I haven't heard much from their end. There is a connection there, as in I am best friends with his daughter, Amanda, who I graduated with from Phillips Academy in Andover (Mass.). Mr. Belichick went to Andover as a post-graduate and he invited me to be a ball boy for two years in high school. The first year was the first year they won the Super Bowl. It was just a great experience. I like to think of Mr. Belichick as a best friend's father and nothing more, and try to keep it as professional as possible on top of that.
ET: Zak, you saw first-hand what it was like to be in the family of a professional football player, the travel and the schedule and everything. Was that in any way a deterrent at all during your life, as far as whether you wanted to have the same lifestyle?
ZD: No, it was intriguing. It was part of my life. When you're around it so much, you get used to it and it just becomes a way of life. It's the status quo in my family. I watched my father play and I was fortunate enough to be old enough to remember. That's just how it is for me and my family and I'm completely aware of what's going to happen there. It's not an issue at all, or a deterrent by any means.
ET: When you were at the Combine, did you have an opportunity to do some formal 15-minute interviews?
ZD: I had two of them, actually. Jets and Chicago Bears.
ET: How about at your Pro Day at Boston College? Did some specific teams show interest in you?
ZD: I went to BC and Cleveland came the night before and I went out to dinner with the linebacker coach. Cincinnati, I sat down with them. And there was a whole slew of coaches watching, but nothing too unusual after that.
ET: Any private workouts or visits?
ZD: Yeah, Philadelphia came to work me out. I'm scheduled to visit the Giants.
ET: What do you think you love most about the game of football?
ZD: Just getting out there and running around. It's just very competitive. Everybody is just doing everything they can to win. I just love the nature of the game.
ET: How much of a help has your Ivy League education been an asset to you in this process?
ZD: It's rare and I think it does work to my advantage.
You've seen
it first-hand, some guys like to just leave school and go workout and
just leave
and drop
everything, whereas I'm still taking four courses, training, driving up to Boston, doing the best of both worlds. It's been tough, but it's certainly worth it. I think it's just a commitment that I've chosen to take and I'm proud of.
|A member of the Professional Football Writers of America, Ed Thompson's NFL and college football player interviews and features have been published across the Scout.com network and syndicated through FoxSports.com's NFL team pages.


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Brian Fielding Informs Commercial Real Estate Investors this Fall of Best Practices
Brian Fielding of Fielding Investments shares that there are many different resources for those who are interested in commercial real estate investment. However, these resources oftentimes have conflicting information, or are written by individuals who do not have the 40 years of experience that commercial real estate advisor Brian Fielding does. In order to assist these individuals with their efforts in the industry, Mr. Fielding is sharing some of his best practices.
Consider multiple facets of commercial real estate investment.
Brian Fielding shares that one of the most unique and attractive aspects of commercial real estate investment is the fact that there are many different arms of the industry. There is much more to commercial real estate than residential investments. Commercial real estate also includes mobile home parks, office buildings, land development, industrial space and so much more. While Brian Fielding suggests becoming a master at one of these areas before moving on to another one, investors are advised not to limit themselves to just residential offerings, and are encouraged to explore the other types of commercial real estate investment.
Knowing formula is essential.
Commercial real estate investment involves a lot of math. From formulas to determine how much an investor can potentially make on a property, to formulas such as ROI, Cap Rate and IRR, Brian Fielding shares that a successful commercial real estate investor is very well-versed in the math and equations that permeate the industry. These formulas allow the investor to grasp the true value of their investment, and these terms are extremely common. Brian Fielding suggests that anyone looking to invest in commercial real estate become familiar with these terms, so that they are knowledgeable and build credibility with lenders, brokers and other professionals who will be on the look out for how much knowledge they posses.Read More