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Bioelectrical impedance analysis part II: utilization in clinical practice
- Sabina Clarke
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1 Clinical Nutrition (2004) 23, ESPEN GUIDELINES ioelectrical impedance analysis part II: utilization in clinical practice Ursula G. Kyle a, Ingvar osaeus b, Antonio D. De Lorenzo c, Paul Deurenberg d, Marinos Elia e, José Manuel Gómez f, erit Lilienthal Heitmann g, Luisa Kent-Smith h, Jean-Claude Melchior i, Matthias Pirlich j, Hermann Scharfetter k, Annemie M.W.J Schols l, Claude Pichard a, a Clinical Nutrition Unit, Geneva University Hospital, 1211 Geneva 14, Switzerland b Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Goteborg, Sweden c University Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy d Nutrition Consultant, Singapore e Southampton General Hospital, Southampton, UK f Hospital Universitario de ellvitge, arcelona, Spain g Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark h University of Porto, Porto, Portugal i Hospital Raymond Poincaré, Garches, France j Universitatsklinikum Charité, erlin, Germany k Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria l Univerity Hospital Maastricht, Maastricht, The Netherlands Received 7 September 2004; accepted 7 September 2004 KEYWORDS ioelectrical impedance analysis; IA; Segmental bioelectrical impedance analysis; Summary IA is easy, non-invasive, relatively inexpensive and can be performed in almost any subject because it is portable. Part II of these ESPEN guidelines reports results for fat-free mass (FFM), body fat (F), body cell mass (CM), total body water (TW), extracellular water (ECW) and intracellular water (ICW) from various studies in healthy and ill subjects. The data suggests that IA works well in healthy subjects and in patients with stable water and electrolytes balance with a validated IA equation that is appropriate with regard to age, sex and race. Clinical use of IA in Abbreviations: CM, ody cell mass; F, ody fat; IA, ioelectrical impedance analysis; IS, ioelectrical impedance spectroscopy; MI, ody mass index; IVA, ioelectrical impedance vector analysis; DXA, Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry; ECW, Extracellular water; FFM, Fat-free mass; ICW, Intracellular water; MF-IA, Multi-frequency bioelectrical impedance analysis; PhA, Phase angle; R, Resistance; SF-IA, Single frequency bioelectrical impedance analysis; TK, Total body potassium; TW, Total body water; Xc, Reactance. Corresponding author. Tel.: ; fax: address: (C. Pichard) /$ - see front matter & 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi: /j.clnu
2 ioelectrical impedance analysis 1431 Multifrequency bioelectrical impedance analysis; ioelectrical spectroscopy; ioelectrical impedance analysis; ESPEN guidelines; Fat-free mass; Fat mass; Total body water; Extracellular water; Intracellular water; ody cell mass subjects at extremes of MI ranges or with abnormal hydration cannot be recommended for routine assessment of patients until further validation has proven for IA algorithm to be accurate in such conditions. Multi-frequency- and segmental- IA may have advantages over single-frequency IA in these conditions, but further validation is necessary. Longitudinal follow-up of body composition by IA is possible in subjects with MI kg/m 2 without abnormal hydration, but must be interpreted with caution. Further validation of IA is necessary to understand the mechanisms for the changes observed in acute illness, altered fat/lean mass ratios, extreme heights and body shape abnormalities. & 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. ackground Nearly 1600 papers about IA are found in English medical literature between 1990 and 2003, with 450 being published in the last 3 years. This vast body of literature makes it difficult to understand when and how IA should be used. Part I of these ESPEN 2-part guidelines on IA discussed the principles, methods and IA equations. 1 Part II of these guidelines, limited to adults, reviews the current applications and limitations and presents the ESPEN recommendations for IA in clinical practice as follows: (a) IA measurement conditions. (b) Healthy subjects, ethnic groups and body shape abnormalities. (c) Conditions with a potential for weight loss or being underweight. (d) Conditions of overweight or obesity. (e) Conditions of altered hydration. This review does not cover IA measurements in children. Interpretation of IA is difficult in children, because of variations in body composition due to interindividual differences in growth velocity and puberty related changes. IA measurement conditions The factors/conditions that affect IA are shown in Table 1. Subjects must be measured (recall values are not acceptable) for height and weight at the time of the IA measurement. Standardized conditions with regard to body position, previous exercise, dietary intake and skin temperature must be respected. 2 4 Consumption of food and beverage may decrease impedance by 4 15 O over a 2 4hperiodaftermeals, representing an error smaller than 3%. 2,4 Measurements on two consecutive days at the same time in the nourished state were highly reproducible (4720 O, non-significant) in patients with stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. IA results are most affected by whether subjects was in a fasting or a fed state. 5 Compared to baseline, exercise was shown to decrease R by E3% and Xc by E8% immediately post-exercise, with measurements returning to normal when repeated 1 h later. 6 A3%increaseinR (17 O) was observed after 60 min of recumbence. 7 Errors of E l in predicted TW may occur in individuals who are restricted to bed rest for several hours or days when IA equations are used that were developed in subjects who were measured within 5 min after subjects were lying down. Greater errors can be expected for ECW because this compartment is more dependent on gravitational shifts. This is reflected by a greater shift in R at low frequencies of measurements. No interference with pacemaker or defibrillators is anticipated. 6 Although there are no known incidents reported as a result of IA measurements, the possibility cannot be eliminated that the induced field of current during the measurement could alter the pacemaker or defibrillator activity. Therefore the patient should be monitored for cardiac activity. Conclusion: Standardized methodology (Table 1) must be observed to optimize measurements. Universally standardized protocols of IA measurements have to be developed and implemented. Healthy subjects, ethnic groups and body shape abnormalities It is essential that appropriate IA equations are chosen for the population studies. Published
3 1432 U.G. Kyle et al. Table 1 Recommendations for clinical application of bioelectrical impedance analysis * Definition/comments Recommendations Instruments/material Generator Consistent signal of reproducible amplitude atteries Calibration of electrical equipment attery-powered to avoid interference with current variations Autonomy for 420 measurements Analyzer Measures R or impedance and Xc or phase angle Regular calibration against known ohmmeter Identify type of signal measured (i.e. impedance or R or PhA or Xc) Automatic verification of skin resistance Identify abnormal skin resistance, in cases of excessive resistance (e.g. pachydermia) Cables Length Appropriate for length of subject height (up to 2 m) Diameter/isolation Meets manufacturer s recommendation Electrodes Surface size Meets instrument requirements Integrity of gel (44cm 2 ) Keep electrodes in sealed bag. Protect against heat Statiometer Calibrated to 0.5 cm Use tape measure for subjects who are unable to stand and for kneeankle height or arm span Scale Calibrated to 0.1 kg Regular cross-calibration with other scales Subjects Height Weight Food, drink, alcohol ladder voided Measure height (0.5 cm) and weight (0.1 kg) at the time of the IA measurement Fasting/no alcohol for 48 h recommended Self-reported height and weight are not valid Shorter periods of fasting may be acceptable for clinical practice (versus research) Subject has voided before measurement Physical exercise No exercise for 48h Timing Note time of measurement For longitudinal follow-up, perform measurement at the same time of day Note menstrual cycle Skin condition Temperature Ambient temperature Integrity No skin lesions at the sight of electrodes. Change site of electrodes Cleaning Clean with alcohol Electrode position Note body side of measurement Always measure same body side Distance between electrodes Minimum of 5 cm between electrodes. If needed, move proximal electrode Limb position Abduction of limbs Arms separated from trunk by about 30 o and legs separated by about 451 ody position Supine, except for scale type IA instruments Ambulatory subjects supine for 5 10 min. For research protocol, standardize time that subjects are
4 ioelectrical impedance analysis 1433 Table 1 (continued ) Definition/comments Recommendations supine before measurement. Note if subject is confined to bed (patients) Environment Electrical interference No contact with metal frame of bed. Neutral environment (no strong electrical or magnetic fields) ody shape Note body abnormalities Note measurement validity (e.g. R or Xc outside of expected range for subject). Consider validity of measurement when interpreting results (e.g. abnormally low R suggests edema) Amputation Measure non-affected limb. Not valid for research, but permits determination of body compartment, because measurement error is consistent Atrophy, hemiplegia Measure non-affected side. See Table 6 for limitations Abnormal limb or trunk (e.g. Note abnormal condition Ethnic group Disease conditions Cardiac insufficiency Liver failure Kidney failure Abnormal serum electrolyte concentrations scoliosis) Dystrophy (HIV, Cushing s syndrome etc.) Obesity Edema interferes with measurement Ascites/edema interferes with measurement accuracy Edema/altered ion balance interferes with measurement Electrolyte concentration affects IA measurement Limited validity in conditions of abnormal body compartment distribution Use electricity-isolating material (e.g. towel) between arm and trunk, and between thighs Note race. Use race-specific IA equation, if applicable Measure patient in stable condition Consider segmental IA measurement Perform IA when serum electrolytes are within normal range. Compare IA results when serum electrolyte concentrations are similar Hypothyroid Pachydermia May invalidate measurement because of high skin resistance Treatments IV/Electrolyte infusions Drugs that affect water balance Peripheral edema interferes with measurement Steroids, growth hormone, diurectics Measurements are invalid if patient is abnormally hydrated If patient is in stable condition, measurement should be effected at the same time after medication administration Dialysis Hemo-, peritoneal dialysis Use special protocols, standardize measurement procedure, i.e. measurement should be performed min post-dialysis Ascites puncture Use special protocols, standardize measurement procedure
5 1434 U.G. Kyle et al. Table 1 (continued ) Definition/comments Recommendations Orthopedic prosthesis/implants (metal) E.g. hip prothesis Measure non-affected body side. Note prosthesis/implants Pacemakers Defibrillators Implanted cardiac defibrillator No interference with pacemakers or defibrillators is anticipated. 6 Although there are no known incidents reported as a result of IA measurements, the possibility cannot be eliminated that the induced field of current during the measurement could alter the pacemaker or defibrillator activity. Therefore, the patient should be monitored for cardiac activity See Table 6 for further discussion. equations and criteria of selection are presented in part 1. Longitudinal changes in FFM and F can be assessed with IA, but are controversial when significant weight loss occurs because of physiological changes Assessment of changes in FFM, F or TW of less than kg is limited, because of limitations in IA precision. 14 Reproducibility over a 7-week period was excellent in weight stable subjects. 15 Longitudinal changes in FFM or F must be interpreted with caution in the presence of altered hydration. 16,17 The use of general prediction equations across ethnic populations without prior testing of their validity should be avoided, because of existing differences in body build among ethnic groups. 18,19 Failing to adjust for differences in FFM hydration fraction in ethnic groups may result in systematic biases. 19 The inhomogeneous nature of the various body compartments and large variations in crosssectional areas are likely responsible for the lack of portability of IA equations from one population to another, such as from young to elderly subjects, or from normal weight to obese or severely underweight subjects. In addition, differences in conductor lengths from limbs and trunk are likely to be responsible for the lack of portability of IA equations between ethnic groups. In this context, Heitmann et al. 20 previously showed that variations between R and height, most likely due to the different relative sitting heights, influence IA results. This might support the use of segmental IA (trunk or limb IA), which overcomes differences in distribution of body compartments between limb and trunk. However, the distribution of body water between the intra- and extracellular space is also partly responsible for population specificity of prediction equations (e.g. age or sex effects, pregnancy). Conclusions: In addition to methodological limitations mentioned in Table 1, we draw the following conclusions: Healthy adults: IA equation has to be validated in the population studied (e.g. race, age, sexspecific). Healthy elderly: A number of IA equations developed in young subjects result in large bias in older subjects. Population-specific equations or equations that adjust for FFM and F changes with age are recommended. Ethnic groups: The use of IA equations has to be adapted to the ethnic group studied. Longitudinal changes: FFM and F changes can be assessed by IA in subjects without abnormal hydration, but must be interpreted with caution and are limited by IA precision. ody shape abnormalities, very small or large body heights or relative sitting heights: The use of general prediction equations in subjects with abnormal body build, e.g. acromegaly or amputation, should be interpreted with caution. Use of segmental IA requires further validation in such conditions. Future developments: IA equations and reference values should be developed for ethnic groups. The validity of segmental IA in subjects with body shape abnormalities or extreme body height is to be determined.
6 ioelectrical impedance analysis 1435 Conditions in specific groups with an emphasis on those at risk for malnutrition and weight loss Table 2 shows that variable and contradictory results are obtained by IA for FFM, F and CM in various pathologies 15 17,21 33 by a number of different IA equations 22,27,29,30,34 49 with comments or evaluation shown in the last two column of the table. These discrepancies stem not only from the IA method limitations but also from limitations in reference methods (see part I). 1 Abnormal tissue conductivity may also be responsible for the inadequacy of IA equations developed in healthy subjects when applied to patients with lean tissue abnormalities, such as neurological disorders. 50 Potential sources of errors for IA in subjects with acromegaly syndrome may be due to increased bone mass of limbs and changes in skin thickness and hydration, which might influence the extension of the tissues electrical characteristics. 32 In patients with moderate fluid overload, such as cirrhotic patients without ascites, changes in electrical conductivity of the lean tissue might be less marked in the arms than in the legs. 32 This might explain the advantage of segmental IA (trunk or limb IA). 51 A greater variability of ECW:ICW ratio may be responsible for the lower accuracy of IA and the greater contribution of weight to the unexplained variance of total FFM and FFM leg in anorexia nervosa 33 and cachexia. An altered ICW to ECW distribution is suggested by low phase angle. 52 Thus, SF-IA body composition parameters must be interpreted with caution in early refeeding in anorexia nervosa and cachectic subjects who might have altered tissue hydration. 53 Studies using raw IA data, i.e. phase angle (PhA), are shown in Table 3. PhA has been correlated with the disease prognosis in HIVinfection, 54,55 hemodialysis, 56 peritoneal dialysis, 57 chronic renal failure 58 and liver cirrhosis patients. 59 These studies suggest that PhA may be useful in determining increased risk of morbidity and that PhA decreases with age. Studies using the IVA are shown in Table Abnormal body composition was detected by IVA in renal insufficiency, 66 dialysis, 67 liver disease, 68 lung cancer patients 64 and patients with other cancers. 65 The IVA in the elderly showed a clear trend for a reduction of FFM with age, with the greatest changes occurring after 80 y. 62 IVA requires further validation. Conclusions: ased on these studies in Tables 2 4, we draw the following conclusions: Severely malnourished and anorexia nervosa patients (MI o16 kg/m 2 ): IA results are affected by variable tissue hydration and should be interpreted with caution during early refeeding. In patients with extremes MI (o16 or 434 kg/ m 2 ), prediction errors appear to be important, but it is possible to obtain estimates of longitudinal changes in FFM and F with weight gain or loss in subjects with MIs of kg/m 2. Abnormal tissue hydration, edema: Inter-individual differences of lean tissue hydration are probably too high to develop uniform equations to assess FFM, F or CM and thus the application of whole-body, SF-IA is not appropriate in these circumstances. Neuromuscular diseases (e.g. Duchenne muscular dystrophy, post-traumatic paraplegia/hemiplegia): use of IA equations requires further validation. Use of segmental IA may be recommended in these conditions for long-term followup. Segmental-IA appears to be able to detect abnormalities in patients with altered body geometry and may detect altered fluid status. Phase angle: Low PhAs have been shown to be of prognostic relevance in HIV-infected, peritoneal and hemodialysis, liver disease patients and elderly subjects. IVA method is able to detect altered tissue electrical properties in ill subjects and may be more predictive of prognosis than weight loss, but this method is limited, because it does not give any indication of FFM and F reserves. Future developments: Further validation of segmental-ia in subjects with altered body geometry, fluid status and fat distribution is necessary. Confirmation of the relevance of low PhA in the prediction of survival in larger populations is necessary. Confirmation of altered tissue electrical properties by IVA in the prediction of disease prognosis in larger populations is necessary. Conditions of overweight and obesity The studies that have evaluated IA in overweight and obese subjects are shown in Table 5, with comments or evaluation shown in the last column of the table. Currently, it appears that IA
7 Table 2 IA studies evaluating FFM, F and CM in specific groups of subjects and with an emphasis on those at risk of malnutrition Author Subject group n IA parameter Reference Method/ equation used Instrument Mean bias7sd r SEE Comments/ or 95%CI a appreciation Study type; Limitations (L) 1436 osaeus et al. 16 eshyah et al. 17 GH deficient subjects GH longitudinal follow-up GH deficient subjects 23 F DXA -L Manufacturer RJL 3.5; 5.0; F DXA -L Manufacturer RJL 1.23; 0.03; FFM DXA -L Lukaski et al., 34 Kushner and Schoeller 35 Smith et Cancer 38 %F DXA-H Segal et al. 36 al. 21 Deurenberg et al At baseline, large underestimation of F. Population specific equation might improve results At follow-up, lower correlations between methods, with overestimation of F loss Holtain DXA- and IA-derived FFM highly correlated. Use of IA is questioned in clinical situations associated with TW D RJL Large errors between IA and reference methods for % F were noted in prostate cancer with geriatric equation RJL % Disease (HIV) did not affect the prediction Kotler et al. 22 HIV 134 FFM CM DXA -L TK Kotler et al % Corcoran AIDS 132 FFM DXA-H Manufacturer 0.92 et al. 23 Lukaski et al olonchuk and Segal Lukaski and equations resulted in olonchuk 38 minimal bias in lean Kotler et al subjects. IA Deurenberg et al significantly different Segal et al from DXA with other Van Loan and equations. IA Mayclin 40 overestimated FFM in those with greater F Steiner et COPD 85 FFM DXA -L Schols et al. 42 al. 15 Kyle et al. 24 Heart, lung and liver transplant patients Gray et al odystat 0.72; 5.7; IA overestimated FFM. Mean differences were small, but limits of agreement relatively large. Reproducibility over a 7-week period was excellent 245 FFM DXA-H Kyle et al. 43 Xitron IA permits estimation of FFM in pre- and posttransplant patients A; longitudinal study; L: small sample size A; longitudinal study U.G. Kyle et al. ARTICLE IN PRESS
8 Nau et al. 25 Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis 23 FFM DXA L Segal et al. 45 Lukaski et al. 34 RJL RJL Non-significant difference between DXA and IA for the two equations Desport et ALS 32 FFM DXA L Various Analycor % Suggests need for al. 26 equations 34,40,41 populations-specific IA equations Roubenoff et al. 27 Elderly, Framingham study Elderly, New Mexico 161 M 294 F 161 M 294 F 116 M 167 F 116 M 167 F FFM DXA L Roubenoff et al. 27 Roubenoff et al. 27 Lukaski et al. 34 Lukaski et al. 34 Roubenoff et al. 27 Roubenoff et al. 27 Lukaski et al. 34 Lukaski et al. 34 RJL Lukaski equation, derived in thinner/ younger subjects, underestimated FFM in the older/heavier Framingham cohort. The Roubenoff equation, derived in the Framingham subjects, overestimated FFM in taller/less obese New Mexico Study subjects. Differences in DXA instruments (same manufacturer) may have contributed to result differences Xitron Deurenberg and Genton et al. 28 Elderly 100 M FFM DXA-H Deurenberg et al. 37 aumgartner et al Roubenoff et al Kyle et al F FFM DXA-H Deurenberg et al. 37 Xitron aumgartner et al Roubenoff et al Kyle et al Haapala et al. 29 Elderly women 93 FFM DXA -L Manufacturer RJL ; 0.1;10.9 Segal et al ; 3.7; 4.3 Deurenberg et al ; 11.3; 1.7 Heitmann ; 3.4;4.2 Swendsen et al ; 4.1; 8.7 Roubenoff et al ; 6.0;2.0 Piers et al ; 5.6; 4.0 Kyle et al ; 3.7; 6.3 Haapala et al ; 3.7; 2.7 Roubenoff equations underestimate and aumgartner overestimated FFM. Geneva equations accurately predicted FFM in Swiss elderly subjects IA prediction equations must be chosen with care ; L: small sample size ; L: small sample size ; L: IA and DXA measurements not performed at the same time ioelectrical impedance analysis 1437 ARTICLE IN PRESS
9 Table 2 (Continued) 1438 Author Subject group n IA parameter Reference Method/ equation used Instrument Mean bias7sd or 95%CI r SEE Comments/ appreciation Study type; Limitations (L) Elderly 106 FFM 4 comp Roubenoff et al. 27 Dey and RJL 3.4; 2.2; IA equations need to osaeus 30 Deurenberg et al. 37 Kyle et al. 43 Dey and osaeus ; 2.8; ; 5.4; ; 5.2; be developed and validated in the population under study Pirlich et Cushing 15 CM TK see reference Data input IA overestimated al. 31 syndrome CM by 18%. Limits of agreement between methods were large Pirlich et al. 32 Pirlich et al. 32 edogni et al. 33 Cirrhosis w/o ascites with ascites Cushing s CM CM CM TK TK TK Kotler et al. 22 Kotler et al. 22 Kotler et al. 22 Data input Inclusion of segmental impedance data in patients improved the predictive power of final IA Acromegaly 18 CM TK Kotler et al Cushing 12 CM TK Segmental using arm Data input Segmental IA syndrome improved assessment Acromegaly 18 CM TK Segmental using of CM in trunk malnourished and patients with acromegaly, but not in patients with fluid overload Anorexia 35 FFM DXA -L SF-IA and segmental RJL Population-specific Nervosa (5%) b IA equations gave FFM leg DXA -L RJL (7%) b good estimates of total and appendicular FFM in anorexics, with higher prediction error in anorexics than controls. Lower IA accuracy may be due to greater ECW:ICW ratio variability ; L: small sample size ; L: small sample size ; L: small sample size ARTICLE IN PRESS FFM, fat-free mass; F, body fat; CM, body cell mass; DXA, dual energy X-ray absortiometry; DXA-L, Lunar; DXA-H, Hologic; DXA-N, Norland; TK, total body potassium; GH, growth hormone; COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Data Input, Hofheim, Germany; RJL Systems, Inc, Clinton Twp, MI, USA; Xitron Technologies, San Diego, CA; Human-IM Scanner, Dietosystem, Milan, Italy; Analycor3, Spengler, France; Valhalla Scientific, San Diego, CA, USA; Holtain, Holtain Ltd, Crosswell, United Kingdom; odystat, odystat Ltd, Douglas, UK. A: randomized, controlled clinical trial; : controlled clinical trial, non-randomized; C: non-controlled prospective clinical trial; D: controlled study of case studies with weak methodology; R: review article. a 95% confidence interval. b RSME=root square mean error. U.G. Kyle et al.
10 ioelectrical impedance analysis 1439 Table 3 IA studies showing an association between Phase Angle (PhA) and survival Author Subject group n IA parameter Instrument Comments/ appreciation Ott et al. 54 HIV 75 PhA RJL PhA was a significant predictor ( po0.001) of survival in HIV-infected patients Schwenk HIV 469 PhA Data input Low PhA (o5.31) et al. 55 remained an independent prognostic marker of clinical progression and survival. Survival was shorter in patients with PhA o5.31 (463 d; 397, 528) compared to patients with PhA (697 d; 690, 705) Maggiore Hemodialysis 131 PhA RJL Patients with PhA in et al. 56 lowest quartile (meno4.51, women o4.21) had significantly lower 2-y survival (51.3% versus 91.3%) Fein et al. 57 ellizzi et al. 58 Selberg and Selberg 59 Peritoneal dialysis Chronic renal failure 45 PhA RJL Peritoneal dialysis patients with a PhA had significantly longer survival (p=0.01) 46 PhA RJL Decline in PhA was associated with reduced survival, even when biochemical markers were unchanged. Mortality was 28% in patients with PhAo3.01 versus 3% with PhA 431 Cirrhosis 305 PhA RJL Patients with PhAo5.41 had significant (po0.01) shorter survival Study type; Limitations (L) C; L: abstract only IA-2000-M, Data Input, Hofheim, Germany; RJL Systems, Inc, Clinton Twp, MI, USA. A: randomized, controlled clinical trial; : controlled clinical trial, non-randomized; C: non-controlled prospective clinical trial; D: controlled study of case studies with weak methodology; R: review article. equations can estimate body composition in overweight patients. IA has been shown to be valid with MIs to 34 kg/m 2. 24,43 In morbid obesity, most predictive equations are unable to predict static body composition and are not reproducible for individuals over time. 69 The disproportion between body mass and body conductivity lowers the accuracy of IA in obesity. The trunk contributes about 50% of conductive mass, but only about 10% of total body impedance Despite of enhancements in IS technology, the differentiation of ICW and ECW in obesity remains elusive. 78 Empirical regression models are of limited value and very population-specific because of interference effects (abnormal hydration, increased fat fraction, abnormal geometric tissue distribution, etc.) across various body segments in different populations, but especially in obese subjects. 79
11 1440 U.G. Kyle et al. Table 4 IA studies showing changes in body composition by bioelectrical impedance vector analysis (IVA) vector graph Author Subject group n Comments/appreciation Study type Limitations (L) Piccoli et al. 60 Obesity 540 Edema could be identify in 91% of obese subjects with impedance vectors. A different impedance vector pattern was associated with weight loss in obesity due to fluid removal versus an energyrestricted diet Guida et al. 61 Obesity 516 MI influenced the impedance vector distribution pattern, which proved to be consistent up to a MI of 65 kg/m 2. Obese women with an altered body composition can be identified and monitored using vector IA uffa et al. 62 Elderly 201 Lean body mass reductions were noted with age, with the greatest changes occurring after age 80 y. IA parameters approached values typical of pathological lean subjects (cachexia and anorexia) Cox-Reijven et al. 63 Gastrointestinal disease 70 Low sensitivity, but high specificity of vector IA in detecting depletion in gastrointestinal patients. Further validation seems necessary Toso et al. 64 Toso et al. 65 Lung cancer Cancer of mixed origin Altered body composition in lung cancer and cancer patients of mixed origin, as reflected by reduced Xc and preserved R values Piccoli et al. 66 Chronic renal failure 91 Vectors from patients with edema were displaced downward on the R Xc graph, compared to the healthy population Piccoli and Italian CAPD IA study group 67 Peritoneal dialysis 200 Vectors from patients with edema were displaced downward on the R Xc graph (88% sensitivity, 87% specificity), and were close to vectors from nephrotic patients. Whether CAPD patients with vector within the target ellipse have better outcome needs longitudinal evaluation Guglielmi et al. 68 Cirrhosis 305 All liver cirrhosis patients with clinically detectable edema fell outside the 50% tolerance ellipse for the healthy subjects. The abnormalities were proportional to the stage of liver failure and the degree of fluid imbalance. VIA can detect fluid imbalances, but cannot quantify fluid volume ; L: used published data for control group, not the same population Comment: All studies used RJL instruments by RJL Systems, Inc, Clinton Twp, MI, USA A: randomized, controlled clinical trial; : controlled clinical trial, non-randomized; C: non-controlled prospective clinical trial; D: controlled study of case studies with weak methodology. Scharfetter et al. 80 proposed a localized fat estimation procedure which measures a welldefined abdominal segments and found highly linear correlations between subcutaneous fat layer thickness and SF-IA across the waist. This method may permit to assess abdominal obesity, but
12 Table 5 Author ioelectrical impedance analysis (IA) studies in overweight and obese subjects Subject group n IA parameter Reference Method/ equation used Hendel et Obese 16 FFM DXA-N SF-IA, various al. 69 equations Das et al. 70 Extremely obese Weight reduced Instrument Animeter Mean bias7sd or 95%CI 20 %F 3 comp Manufacturer RJL ; 0.6; Lukaski et al ; 4.7; 6.9 * Segal et al ; 2.8;5.9 * Manufacturer RJL ; 4.8; 14.9 * Lukaski et al ; 10.6; 11.4 * r SEE Comments/appreciation Study type; Limitations (L) In obesity, most predictive equations are unable to predict static body composition and are not reproducible for individuals over time. However, a significant or insignificant change in R may be used to indicate whether FFM is lost or preserved in groups of obese subjects Lukaski equation provided mean 10.8 * % F values closest to reference method in extremely obese, weight-reduced state and for changes over time. The %F limits of agreement were much broader than with other body composition methods, making IA a method more suitable for population groups than for individuals Segal et al ; 15.4;5.8 * Tagliabue et al. 71 Obese Obese Arm FFM Leg FFM DXA L DXA L MF-IA MF-IA Human-IM Human-IM etter prediction of FFM in obese with segmental IA (low frequencies for the arm and Cox-Reijven Obese 90 TW and Soeters 72 high frequencies for the leg) 2 H 2 O IS-Hanai Xitron 0.3; 3.9; IS, with obesity specific constants, was slightly more accurate in obese subjects than linear regression, but was not sensitive enough for clinical use Obese 90 ECW Nar IS Xitron 0.8; 2.6; Obese 10 DECW 2 H 2 O Nar IS-Hanai IS-Hanai Xitron Xitron 2.4; 8.1; ; 5.3; IS overestimated fluid loss during weight loss in morbidly obese subjects. The higher the % F of the weight loss, the more IS overestimated the loss of TW Cox-Reijven Obese 10 DTW et al. 73 De Lorenzo et Obese 55 TW al H 2 O MF-IA Xitron 0.1; 5.4; MF-IA to determine TW included body volume and impedance at 2 frequencies (1 and 100 khz) ; L: small sample size ; L: small sample size ; crossvalidation ; longitudinal; L: small sample size FFM, fat-free mass; TW, total body water; F, body fat; DXA, dual energy X-ray absortiometry; 2 H 2 O, deuterium oxide; Nar, sodium bromide; MF-IA, multifrequency IA; IS, bioelectrical impedance spectroscopy; DXA-L, Lunar, Lunar Radiation Corp, Madison, WI, USA; DXA-N, Norland, Norland Medical Systems, Fort Atkinson, WI, USA; SD, standard deviation; SEE, standard error of the estimate. Animeter, Odense, Denmark; RJL Systems, Inc, Clinton Twp, MI, USA; Human-IM Scanner, Dietosystem, Milan, Italy; Xitron Technologies, San Diego, CA, USA. A: randomized, controlled clinical trial; : controlled clinical trial, non-randomized; C: non-controlled prospective clinical trial; D: controlled study of case studies with weak methodology. * Limits of agreement. ioelectrical impedance analysis 1441 ARTICLE IN PRESS
13 1442 requires further investigation to determine its clinical application. Conclusions: ased on these studies in Table 5, we draw the following conclusions: Initial measurement: IA results are valid up to 34 kg/m 2, but must be interpreted with caution in subjects with MI434 kg/m 2 and requires further validation in these subjects. Longitudinal follow-up: Although the error in absolute values of FFM and F are greater at extremes of body weight, it is possible to obtain estimates of longitudinal changes in FFM and F with weight gain or loss in moderately obese subjects, subject to limitations in IA precision ( kg). Segmental-IA (trunk) and localized IA (arm, thigh or abdominal section) may be able to evaluate F in obese subjects, but further validation is required. Future development: Further validation of IA, including segmental- and localized IA, is necessary in obese and morbidly obese subjects. Conditions with a potential for altered hydration Table 6 shows various studies in subjects with altered hydration, which determine TW, ECW and CM based on a number of body composition models or equations, 22,35,38,40,45, with comments or evaluation shown in the last two columns of the table. These discrepancies stem not only from the IA method limitations but also from limitations in reference methods (see part I). 1 In a short-term within-subjects experiment, Gudivaka et al. 82 found an accuracy of ml and a precision of ml with the Cole Cole model when the effects of other biological parameters (orthostatic changes, conductivity of body tissue, etc.) that influence impedance independent of volume were eliminated. MF-IA correlated well with changes in weight and body fluid compartments in patients going from overhydration to euvolemia, but did not correlate with these changes in patients going from dehydration to euvolemia. 85 This suggests that MF-IA is limited in its ability to quantify the magnitude of fluid volumes over time. Confounding effects, such as simultaneous changes in electrolyte concentration, changes in cylinder (leg) diameter and skin temperature in addition to changes in impedance, may be in part responsible for the inability to measure changes in hydration. 79 U.G. Kyle et al. Furthermore, it is necessary to demonstrate that the results are not influenced by changes in specific conductivity (muscle, blood, etc.) or orthostatic effects. 3 Differences noted between dilution (bromide, deuterium) and IA methods (MF-IA and IS) are largely due to errors because IA does not measure the body compartments directly, and errors are likely due to the inhomogeneous nature of the various body compartments and the large variations in cross-sectional area between, for example, thigh versus trunk. 110 IA is limited because large changes in the volume of the trunk may result in relatively small changes in total body R. The errors found limit the clinical usefulness of the MF-IA and IS methods for the assessment of ECW and TW in individual patients. In patients with severe fluid overload, inter-individual differences of lean tissue hydration are probably too high to develop uniform equations to assess ICW and CM. 32 Mean TW was reasonably well predicted in both controls and HIV subjects by the three model impedance predictors (Cole Cole model, an inductor circuit and a modified circuit model). 100 However, the application of the HIV-derived predictors to the control group underestimated TW, whilst the predictor derived in the control group overestimated TW in the HIV subjects. ECW was poorly predicted in both subject groups by any of the predictors as indicated by poor correlations ( ), biases ranging from 6.1% to 21% and wide limits of agreement. The authors 100 found that algorithms derived in one group of subjects are not necessarily equally accurate when applied to another group of subjects with differing characteristics. The lack of portability of empirically derived algorithms, particularly for the estimation of ECW, implies an inadequacy in the fundamental model underlying estimation of body fluids by MF-IA and IS. 100 Although the relationship between fluid removed during hemodialysis and IA indices were well correlated in individual subjects, the gradients of the relationships varied considerably between subjects. 126 The overestimation of fluid loss may be affected by shifts in ion concentration, variable changes in impedance as a result of differential loss of fluid from different body segments and postural changes. 126 Scharfetter et al. 116 estimated that, due to electrolyte changes, at the end of dialysis, the error with respect to the volume change was large (up to 15% for ECW and 420% for ICW). The authors concluded that a correction of the fluid distribution model for resistivity changes is necessary to obtain more reliable intracellular volume data.
14 Table 6 Author IA studies evaluating TW, ECW and ICW in subjects with altered hydration Subject group n IA parameter Reference Method/equation used Instrument Mean bias7sd or 95%CI a r SEE Comments/appreciation Study type; Limitations (L) Martinoli et al. 81 Various Meta-analysis SF-IA and IS significantly overestimated TW in healthy individuals, whereas there was no overestimation by MF-IA. MF-IA seems to be a more accurate method for determining the TW compartment for healthy and obese adults and for persons with chronic renal failure Healthy subjects Gudivaka et al. 82 Deurenberg et al. 83 De Lorenzo et al. 84 Healthy subjects Healthy subjects Healthy subjects Olde Rikkert et Elderly 53 DTW DECW al. 85 erneis and Keller 86 Healthy subjects 28 TW R 50, R 50p, X 50p, R ecf, R icf, Xitron Cole model is useful to assess body ECW IS, depending on model used fluid compartments in subjects with altered ratio of ECW-to-ICW. ICW In this short-term within-subjects paradigm, the authors found an accuracy of ml and a precision of ml when other biological effects that influence impedance independent of volume were eliminated. If the goal is to assess small changes in fluid volume, it is necessary to demonstrate that the results are not influenced by changes in specific conductivity or orthostatic effects 48 TW 2 H2O-Nar MF-IA, IS Xitron Modelling impedance data has no ; R advantage over impedance values ECW measured at fixed frequencies in healthy individual with normal body water distribution 14 TW 2 H2O-Nar Hanai mixture Xitron Results support the validity of the ICW Hanai theory and the conclusion ECW that ECW and ICW can be predicted 73 ICW TK Hanai mixture Xitron by this model in healthy subjects 8 TW, ECW Plasma Na, K, H2O balance 2 H 2 O-Nar MF-IA Human-IM TW 11%, ECW 10 18% Detection of dehydration or overhydration based on a single MF-IA measurement is not possible. MF-IA correlated well with changes in weight and body fluid compartments in patients going from overhydration to euvolemia, but not from dehydration to euvolemia. MF-IA cannot detect changes in the distribution or movement of fluid between ICW and ECW space MF-IA Data input Measurement of TW using IA under unknown hydration status and unknown osmolality may not be reliable, because IA is disturbed by altered plasma sodium levels Meta-analysis A; L: small sample size; hydration status based on plasma osmolality, not TW and ECW ioelectrical impedance analysis 1443 ARTICLE IN PRESS
15 Table 6 (Continued) 1444 Author Subject group n IA parameter Reference Method/ equation used Instrument Mean bias7sd or 95%CI * r SEE Comments/appreciation Study type; Limitations (L) Pregnancy Van Loan et al. 87 Löf and Forsum 88 Pregnant women Pregnant women Various diseases Simons et al. 89 Cancer 41 TW Simons et al. 90 Cancer 33 DTW Cornish et al. 91,92 Lymph-edema in breast cancer aarends et COPD 77 TW al. 93 Steele et al. 94 Van den Ham et al. 95 uchholz et al. 96 Chronic cardiac failure Post kidney transplant Paraplegic patients 10 TW ECW 2 H 2 O Nar IS Xitron b No significant differences between IS and dilution estimates of TW and ECW. More research is needed to determine population-specific resistivity coefficients 21 TW 2 H 2 O IS Hydra week 14 week week week ECW Nar IS 14 week week week 0.16, 32 week 0.57 IS estimated increases in ICW accurately, whereas increases in ECW and TW tended to be underestimated. IS may be useful in pregnancy, but that further research is needed 2 H 2 O SF-IA RJL 1.6; 0.2; 3.2 Equation developed in normal weight subjects overestimated TW in underweight subjects 2 H 2 O SF-IA RJL 0.81 Ht 2 /R was significant correlated with DTW. However, precision of prediction of TW changes was poor 20 Segmental MF-IS Lymphedema was detected by MF- IA up to 10 month before the condition could be clinically detected 2 H 2 O IS Xitron M=0.88, F=0.85 M=2.3, F=2.9 TW by IS not significantly different from actual TW. TW bias and error were comparable to SF-IA 77 ECW Nar IS Xitron M=0.75, F=0.73 M=1.4, F=1.2 ECW by IS was not significantly different from actual ECW, but showed large errors and low correlation compared to studies in healthy subjects. ECW prediction error unable to predict fluid shifts in individual patients 12 TW 2 H2O SF-IA Holtain 2.4; 1.4; 8.9 Although there was a strong correlation between dilution methods and SF-IA, IA overestimated TW 77 TW 2 H 2 O IS Xitron l IS is suitable for measurement of TW 77 ECW Nar IS l IS significantly underestimated ECW and is not suitable for measurement of ECW 31 TW 2 H 2 O Population-specific N/A Suggests need for populationsspecific IA equations; equations ECW Nar Population-specific require further cross-validation. MF-IA did not improve prediction of TW or ECW ; L: small sample size C: L: parameters not compared to reference method ; L: small sample size U.G. Kyle et al. ARTICLE IN PRESS
16 Desport et al. 97 ALS 20 TW100 TW O Vache et al. 119 Analycor Acceptable estimation of TW for TW 100 ; less accurate and concordant at TW 50 Rutkove et al. 98 Neuro-muscular 45 cont, RJL Phase angle reductions correlated disease 25 pt with disease progression and normalization of phase angle correlated with disease remission. Localized IA may play a role in the therapeutic evaluation of neuromuscular disease Scalfi et al. 99 Anorexia nervosa 19 TW Ward et al. 100 Controls 27 TW HIV 33 TW 2 H2O Population-specific RJL IA at 100 khz can be used to predict TW in anorexia women at the population level, but the individual bias is sometimes high 2 H 2 O Various model, see Ref. SF A Cole model, an inductor circuit 3 H2O [100] for details model and a modified circuit model predicted TW well in both controls and HIV subjects. est predictors were based on estimates of Rtbw derived from polynomial fits and worst predictor was Z-Cole. Application of the HIV-derived predictors to the control group underestimated TW, and predictor from control group overestimated TW in the HIV subjects SF Algorithms derived in one group [100] for details are not necessarily equally accurate when applied to another subject group with differing characteristics as indicated by poor correlations ( ), large biases (6.1 21%) and wide limits of agreement when algorithm is applied to alternate subject group. Lack of portability of empirically derived algorithms, particularly for ECW estimation, suggests that the fundamental model underlying estimation of body fluids by MF-IA and IS is inadequate 2 H 2 O 120 Hannan R200 Xitron TW prediction by Kotler gave highest correlation and lowest SEE Ward et al. 100 Controls 27 ECW Nar Various model, see Ref. HIV 33 ECW Nar Earthman et HIV 21 TW al. 101 TW HannanR TW 22 Kotler Z TW IS ECW Nar 120 Hannan R Subtraction of ICW from TW ECW Kotler produced best correlation and SEE TWZ50 ICWXc50 22 for ECW ECW IS ICW 2 H2O-Nar Hannan TW200R ECW5R ICW prediction for all 4 methods 120 evaluated was similar ICW Hannan ,121 TW 500R ECW 5R ICW Kotler Xc50 (22) C; L: parameters not compared to reference method ; L: small sample size ; L: small sample size ioelectrical impedance analysis 1445 ARTICLE IN PRESS
17 Table 6 (Continued) 1446 Author Subject group n IA parameter Reference Method/ equation used Instrument Mean bias7sd or 95%CI * r SEE Comments/appreciation Study type; Limitations (L) Earthman et al., 101 prediction of longitudinal change in TW, ICW and ECW with anabolic steroid treatment ICW IS HIV 21 DTW 2 H 2 O 120 Hannan R200 Xitron b D TW by IS and R 500 was not different from dilution-determined DTW HannanR b TW D. Further research is DTW 22 Kotler Z b necessary to confirm these results DTW IS b DECW Nar 120 Hannan R b RSME was larger than the average DECW Kotler b dilution D in ECW. The ECW D was 22 TW Z50 ICW Xc50 too small to draw any conclusions DECW IS b DICW 2 H2O-Nar Hannan b ICW D by IS was not different from 120 TW 200R ECW 5R dilution-determined D in ICW. ICW DICW Hannan b D was poorly predicted by IA at 120,121 TW 500R ECW 5R frequencies below 200 khz. ICW D DICW 22 Kotler Xc b predicted by TW 500R ECW 5R was DICW IS b closer to, but statistically different from dilution-determined ICW D. Systematic error was 12 13% of the average measured D in ICW HIV 42 ICW TK Kotler 22 Schwenk et Data Input 1.6; 1.8; 0.73 IA is unreliable in this population al compared to better established Data Input 1.2; 2.2; 0.73 estimation of TW or ECW 4.6 Paton ; 3.4; Cornish ; 0.1; Xitron 2.9; 1.9; Xitron HIV 1.6; 6.2; Kotler et al. 22 HIV 134 TW 3 H2O Kotler 22 RJL % Disease (HIV) did not affect the prediction of TW Soderberg et Congestive 12 DTW D weight IS Xitron 0.11 IS corresponded well to weight al. 103 heart failure changes at the group level, but correlations were poor in individual patients with acute congestive heart failure undergoing diuretic treatment Carlson et al. 104 Tatara and Tsuzaki 105 Laparoscopic and open abdominal surgery Abdominal surgery patients 24 DZ D weight SF-IA EZ COMP 1500 Impedance did not correlate with changes in net postoperative fluid balance in laparoscopic and open abdominal surgery 30 DECW net fluid balance IS Xitron Segmental IA 124 can determine fluid accumulation in the trunk during surgery, and monitor perioperative ECW redistribution ; L: small sample size C; L: small sample size; TW not measured by reference method C; L: parameters not compared to reference method C; L: parameters not compared to reference U.G. Kyle et al. ARTICLE IN PRESS
18 Gonzales et al. 106 Cardiopulmonary bypass 18 DR cumulative fluid balance SF-IA RJL Relative day-to-day D in whole body resistance may be more appropriate than calculating absolute fluid changes over time 18 DR D weight SF-IA RJL racco et al. 107 Cardiac surgery 26 MF-IA University Lausanne Cardiac surgery produced a decrease in segmental trunk impedance, which suggests that fluid accumulation is more predominant in the trunk Perko et al. 108 Cardiac surgery 16 DTotal Z D Thoracoabdominal Z D fluid balance Segmental IA Alteration in electric impedance closely followed changes in fluid balance during postoperative period Patel et al. 109 Hannan et al. 110 McCullough et al. 111 orghi et al. 112 Coronary artery bypass surgery Surgical patients Cirrhosis with and w/o ascites Cirrhosis w/o ascites Lehnert et al. 113 Cirrhosis 21 TW Pirlich et al. 114 Cirrhosis with and w/o ascites 8 TW 2 H 2 O SF-IA Kushner 35, IS RJL, Xitron SF , IS ECW Nar SF-IA Van Loan 40, IS RJL, Xitron SF , IS SF-IA was more accurate to predict TW and IS to predict ECW than IS in critically ill patients. However the accuracy and bias need to be substantially improved before these methods are useful at the patient s bedside 29 TW 3 H 2 O-Nar TW Xitron MF-IA compares favorably to IS. Differences between dilution and 29 ECW Nar MF-IA 200 IS ECW MFIA 5 ECW IS Xitron MF-IA or IS are due to errors in the indirect IA method, and are due to inhomogeneous nature of body compartments and large variations in cross-sectional trunk, arm and leg area. Methods are limited because large changes in the volume of the trunk result in small changes in total body resistance 21 TW 2 H 2 O Kushner and Schoella 35 RJL Good correlation for TW in Lukaski et al. 38 controls and patients without 21 ECW Nar Lukaski et al. 38 ascites, but not in patients with ascites. SF-IA was unable to determine changes of TW and ECW after paracentesis 34 TW 2 H2O Deurenberg et al. 125, Human-IM MF-IA was able to estimate TW Segal et al. 45 and ECW, but SEE were higher in ECW Nar patients than controls 2 H2O IS SF2 CI79.2% a 0.89 Despite strong correlations in TW 21 ECW Nar CI714.4% a 0.73 and ECW, large limits of agreement suggest that MF-IA technique requires further refinement 20 DTW DECW volume of paracentesis SF-IA Data input TW-1.4 kg, paracentesis -6.2 l Measured changes of TW were low compared with the amount of fluid removed. No significant ECW changes were found even in patients who lost up to 13 l of ascites. Whole-body IA is unable method C; L: small sample size; parameters not compared to reference method C; L: parameters not compared to reference method C; L: small sample size; parameters not compared to reference method ; small sample size ; small sample size ; small sample size C; small sample size; parameters not compared to reference method ioelectrical impedance analysis 1447 ARTICLE IN PRESS
19 Table 6 Author (Continued) Subject group n IA parameter Reference Method/ equation used Instrument Mean bias7sd or 95%CI * r SEE Comments/appreciation Study type; Limitations (L) 1448 Hemodialysis 6 ECW Ion Hemodialysis ecause the extrapolation of Recw to detect changes in peritoneum Ho et al. 115 Hemodialysis 16 DTW 2 H2O MF-IA, IS Xitron SF and IS correlated well with TW by 2 H 2 O. IS was slightly more precise than linear equation (6.2% versus 6.7%, resp) Scharfetter et Hanai mixture Xitron na; 1.0%; 1.9% At the end of dialysis, the error al. 116 ICW concentration na; 1.2%; 2.1% percentage with respect to the volume change was up to 15% for the ECW and420% for ICW. The authors concluded that a correction of the fluid distribution model for resistivity changes is necessary to obtain more reliable intracellular volume data Zhu et al. 117 Hemodialysis 10 ECW Ultrafiltration Segmental IS Xitron Segmental IA detected 100% and 101% of changes in ECW in sitting and supine position, compared to 80% and 65% with whole body IA. Results required changes in electrode placement, estimation of trunk extra-cellular volume using a new algorithm and consideration of changes in dialysate conductivity Jaeger and R Ravindra 118 and Ricw, determined by IS, into volumetric terms is based on resistivity constants derived regression against Nar or 2 H2O from nonuremic subjects, the hydric volumes estimated for dialysis patients from these equations must be interpreted with caution until more data is available ; small sample size C; small sample size; parameters not compared to reference method C; small sample size; parameters not compared to reference method ARTICLE IN PRESS TW, total body water; ECW, extracellular water; ICW, intracellular water; TK, total body potassium; 2 H 2 O, deuterium oxide; Nar, sodium bromide; R, resistance; Z, impedance; Xc, Reactance; SF-IA, single frequency IA; MF-IA, multifrequency IA; IS, bioelectrical impedance spectroscopy. IA-2000-M, Data Input, Hofheim, Germany; RJL Systems, Inc, Clinton Twp, MI, USA; Xitron Technologies, San Diego, CA, USA; Human-IM Scanner, Dietosystem, Milan, Italy; Hydra- 4200,Xitron, Technologies, San Diego, CA, USA; Analycor3, Spengler, France; Valhalla Scientific, San Diego, CA, USA; Holtain, Holtain Ltd, Crymych, UK; SF2, SEAC, risbane, Australia; EZ COMP 1500, Cranleigh, irmingham, UK. A: randomized, controlled clinical trial; : controlled clinical trial, non-randomized; C: non-controlled prospective clinical trial; D: controlled study of case studies with weak methodology; R: review article. a 95% confidence interval. b RSME=root square mean error, na=not available. U.G. Kyle et al.
20 ioelectrical impedance analysis 1449 The IVA showed that all liver cirrhosis patients with clinically detectable edema fell outside the 50% tolerance ellipse for the healthy population and the progressively greater abnormalities were proportional to the stage of liver failure and the degree of fluid imbalance. 68 Thus IVA is capable of detecting fluid imbalances, but cannot quantify the fluid volume. Segmental MF-IA was significantly more sensitive than circumference measurements both in early diagnosis of lymphedema and in monitoring changes in upper limb following surgery for breast cancer. 91,92 Edema was detected by MF-IA up to 10 month before the condition could be clinically detected. Conclusions: ased on these studies in Table 6, we draw the following conclusions: Visible edema: Hand-to-foot IA is not valid. IS and segmental-ia require further validation. Significantly altered hydration states (e.g. large volume IVs, diuretic therapy, edema, ascites, kidney, liver and cardiac disease, status post major surgery, intensive care, pregnancy): Interindividual differences of lean tissue hydration are probably too high to develop uniform equations to assess body composition, and thus the application of standard SF-IA is not appropriate to assess ICW or ECW. Dialysis (hemo- and peritoneal) and liver diseases with ascites: Currently, IA and IS do not appear to be sufficiently accurate to determine dialysis volume and intraperitoneal fluid changes. MF-IA and IS may be useful for non-invasive monitoring of metabolic changes in subjects with altered hydration state. However, further validation of MF-IA and IS is necessary for clinical application of these methods in abnormal hydration states. The potential of MF-IA and IS can only be exhausted if the data are interpreted with adequate algorithm that include reliable data fitting and a valid fluid distribution model which considers tissue inhomogeneities. A valid model must guarantee that extracellular volume changes do not corrupt the intracellular volume and vice versa. Segmental IA may prove to be best in determining abnormal hydration in trunk; however, this method has not yet been sufficiently standardized to be used as a bedside technique. IVA method is able to detect altered tissue electric property in ill subjects and this may be more predictive of prognosis than weight loss. Future development: Further validations of MF-IA, segmental-ia and IS against dilution methods (bromide, deuterium) is necessary to determine their usefulness in under- or overhydration, as well as in abnormal fluid distribution, such as in case of pregnancy, diurectic therapy, edema, ascites, kidney, liver and cardiac disease, status post major surgery, intensive care or dialysis. Conclusion IA is non-invasive, relatively inexpensive, does not expose to ionizing radiation, has very limited between observer variations and can be performed in almost any subject because it is portable. IA works well in healthy subjects and chronic diseases with a validated IA equation that is appropriate with regard to age, sex and race. However, clinical use of IA in subjects at extremes of MI ranges and in subjects with abnormal hydration cannot be recommended for routine assessment of patients until further validation has proven for IA algorithm to be accurate in such conditions. MF- and segmental-ia may have advantages over SF-IA in these conditions, but further validation is necessary. Longitudinal follow-up is possible in subjects with MI between 16 and 34 kg/m 2 without abnormal hydration, but must be interpreted with caution. Further validation of IA is necessary to understand the mechanisms for the changes in acute illness, fat/lean mass ratios, extreme heights, and body shape abnormalities. Acknowledgements The support by Public Foundation Nutrition 2000Plus for Ursula G. Kyle is acknowledged. References 1. 1 Kyle UG, osaeus I, De Lorenzo AD, et al. ioelectrical impedance analysis part I. Review of principles and methods. Clin Nutr 2004;23: Kushner RF, Gudivaka R, Schoeller DA. Clinical characteristics influencing bioelectrical impedance analysis measurements. Am J Clin Nutr 1996;64:423S 7S. 3. Gudivaka R, Schoeller D, Kushner RF. Effects of skin temperature on multifrequency bioelectrical impedance analysis. J Appl Physiol 1996;81: Heitmann. Impedance: a valid method in assessment of body composition. Eur J Clin Nutr 1994;48: Schols AMWJ, Dingemans AMC, Soeters P, Wounters EFM. Within-day variation of bioelectrical resistance measurements in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Clin Nutr 1990;9:
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text:
One by one, the women file in, wearing their tantalizing diaphanous gowns. They hold all types of food, which is as culturally diverse as they are. Some type of Asian woman sits on my left, while a large black girl begins rubbing my shoulders. They tell me to eat, to be healthy, to be happy. And I try, at least. I remember it being easier at first, and how I used to fill my stomach with fruit and bread and meat, and then fill my arms with each one of them.
I can't remember the last time I saw another man. Day after day, it's just these women, each one more beautiful and kind than the last. What's worse is how happy they all seem. They all smile at me, while they lay me down and take from me what they want. At one time I was more than glad to oblige them, imagining myself to be the luckiest man in the world. But eventually, I had to realize that I was the only man in the world.
I'm sure there are others, somewhere, but I'm never allowed to see them. In fact, I'm barely even allowed to see the sky outside. It's a different world out there now. There are fewer buildings, and more flowers. Every tree seems to be overflowing with fruit, nothing like you would've seen before. And of course there are the women walking around, smiling nonstop at one another. A lot of them speak English, I think. I don't exactly talk to them much, because the words uttered while rolling around in bed are few and short. I try to strike up a conversation, and they just smile like sharks.
I've gotten more women pregnant than I can count. I never had kids back in my old life, and now I've probably got tons. Hundreds of girls, I'm sure. I don't want to think about what they're doing to all the boys. Maybe one of them will get lucky and take over my place once I'm too old for this, knowing each of his sisters briefly and intimately, one by one. Even if I'll never know him, I feel sorry for my only son. This isn't what I'd want for anyone.
I'm not sure how much longer I can do this before going insane. I'd kill just to see a football game, or to talk about old-fashioned guy stuff again. I don't remember the last time I heard a car, or drank a beer. They probably don't even exist anymore. This world belongs to the women.
I'm the last man alive, and I'm only for breeding purposes.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
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Time goes slowly
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The mechanism of wrist watches. Variable lighting. Close-up
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Description Edit
Christina Aguilera's new album Lotus available now: http://smarturl.it/Lotus Her new single Your Body is Available on iTunes Now: http://smarturl.it/yourbody
Official Facebook: http://www.facebook.com/christinaaguilera Official Twitter: http://www.twitter.com/TheRealXtina Official Website: http://www.christinaaguilera.com
Lotus is the seventh studio album by American recording artist Christina Aguilera, released on November 9, 2012 by RCA Records. After the low sales figures of her sixth studio album Bionic (2010), Aguilera was inspired by events in her life, including appearing on The Voice, and a divorce, which she describes as a rebirth to her. Aguilera recorded the album at her home studio, with new collaborators such as the known Alex da Kid, Max Martin, Lucas Secon, and new producers such as Mike Del Rio, Jamie Hartman, Aeon Manahan, Chris Braide, Supa Dups and Jason Gilbert. The album contains two duets with Aguilera's co-stars on the reality talent show The Voice, Cee Lo Green (on "Make the World Move") and Blake Shelton (on "Just a Fool"). A pop album, Lotus also explores other styles, including dance-pop on "Your Body" and "Make the World Move", piano-driven power ballads on "Sing for Me" and "Blank Page" (a collaboration with Sia Furler, who had previously worked with Aguilera on "Bionic"), and rock-tinged empowerment anthems on "Army of Me" and "Cease Fire". Aguilera also described the song "Army of Me" as "Fighter 2.0". The lead single, "Your Body", was released on September 17, 2012.
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Lotus Intro (song)
Lotus Intro is the first track on the album Lotus. "Lotus Intro" is a song recorded by American...
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|08:23, February 4, 2015
|RockStarrMusicLover95 (wall | contribs)
|created video


text:
How can you tell when we are covering a news story about a luxury phone? When we start discussing dichotomies, that's when. When, in the same breath, we describe to you a phone that's so expensive that we're not even allowed to tell you the price and, if you really wanted to know then you shouldn't really be buying it in the first price and then…and then…in the same breath, trumpeting the fact that, for the very first time, that same new luxury phone will be featuring a phone feature that is so old, so old, that the guy who used to wave his flag in front of speeding horse-less carriages in a desperate attempt to prevent early motorists sprouting nose-bleeds would not only ignore it but instruct his intrepid, flat-capped, be-scarfed road surfer to ride right over it, squashing it under his air-less, hard rubber tire in disdain.
The phone? The Vertu Ascent X. The feature? A 5-megapixel camera with LED flash and autofocus. We'll pass on more information about it when we wake up.
Click here for more information


text:
Hey, I'm actually working on a statistics project for class and was curious about a certain subject.
The consoles sales of both Xbox 360 and PS3 are almost even, but around my school, all I hear are Xbox 360. I only know of one person in my school that actually owns a PS3.
I thought' I'd branch this discussion out to a larger audience, so I've really got to ask you guys.
- Do you own an Xbox 360?
- Do you own a PS3?
- Do you own a Wii?
- What school activities are you a part of?
- About how many hours do you spend a week on them?
Thanks, and I may as well start the discussion by talking about my self. I own a Wii and Xbox 360. I am part of the Soccer team and Drama club. I spend 3 hours a week on them.


text:
Surgeon by thomaswieveggWatch
©2013-2017 thomaswievegg
Another quick sci-fi head dude thing.. 1h 40min. Not too happy with how this came out though. I'll probably do another one soon
I recorder my process. It can be found here:
I recorder my process. It can be found here:
Amazing, really love it!
awesome work, love it!
I like it but for some reason the number of lines on eye nose and cheek areas bother me a bit. Just the way my mind is though.
Impressive! Nice job! Love the detail!
The detail is really impressive
the colors and shading are simply magnificent. the usage of monochromatic colors in the actual person in this scene with a slightly red light reflecting of it, aswell as the shadows makes realy have the "bloodstained basement" sort of feel. you truley do have a skilled hand at geometry as the shapes of this persons mask are quite elaborate and it is obvious planning out the entire figure mustve takin some time to make.
your hard work reflects greatly in your creations.
this is awesome dude haha love it!!
I love this! one question, can i use this as my avatar on steam?
This reminds me of the stuff Dr Who use to do - alien and scary - when I saw this, it freaked me out!
But the skill is amazing, the lighting is superb, and the overall design is striking!
But the skill is amazing, the lighting is superb, and the overall design is striking!
Nice concept. I like it.
so awesomely creepy
Nice work dude B3
I like how every detail is on his face but his neck is kinda blurry.
Great job!
"Hold still. This may science a bit."
Surgeon: Trust me…I'm a doctor.
Patient: Hell no bitch!
If Darth Vader had looked like this, I'd STILL be having nightmares.
Looks like a photo realism style mixed in with painting. I love it. The design really makes me wonder what exactly that character is hiding behind his or her mask.
wow looks really cool
Whoa awesome!
nice char design
Wow, it looks very cool and realistic!
This is definitely really good.
Wish I could do something this good in an 1 and 40 minutes. Even if you don't care for it, but I still admire your skills to come up with something so cool in just under 2 hours.


text:
Chennai, Feb 11: In the absence of top players, Australia's Matthew Wade will be leading the team in the first warm-up game against Board President's XI at Chennai that begins on Tuesday.
According to reports, Michael Clarke, Shane Watson and other big players haven't arrived yet, as Wade is looking forward to lead the side in the first warm-up match.
Since Australia were busy till Feb 10, with the ODI series against West Indies, they are expected to arrive on Tuesday.
The inexperienced Matthew Wade on Monday added that he had led Victoria in a Shield game and had no experience of leading the side in any other tournament.
"The bigger guns aren't here as yet so we've only got 11 to pick from tomorrow," Wade was quoted as saying by The Age.
Steve Smith in action
Australia's Steve Smith during a practice session ahead of their first warm-up game at Chennai
Australian cricketers during a practice session at Chennai
Australian cricketers during a practice session ahead of their first warm-up match against Board President's XI on Sunday.
Australia's Ed Cowan during a net session
Australia's ED Cowan during a practice session in Chennai on Sunday.
Australian cricketers during the net session
Australian cricketers during a practice session at Chennai ahead of their warm-up game on Sunday.
"It will be nice to get out there and play a game of cricket and especially to captain. It will be something different and I'm looking forward to it," Wade was quoted as saying.
Talking about the team's first warm-up match, Wade said he had plans of playing his pacers Peter Siddle, James Pattinson and Jackson Bird while Nathan Lyon, the specialist spinner would also like to play a vital role in the tour game.
"I'd suggest Glenn Maxwell, Nathan Lyon and Steve Smith will bowl plenty of overs in the next few trial games," Wade said.
Australia playing four Test matches against India will also be playing two warm-up matches against Board President's XI and India A.
The first warm-up match against Board President's XI will be played at Guru Nanak College Ground on Tuesday.
Australia: Matthew Wade (capt), Ed Cowan, Usman Khawaja, Glenn Maxwell, Moises Henriques, Steve Smith, Peter Siddle, James Pattinson, Nathan Lyon, Jackson Bird, Ashton Agar.


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PrimEve 1300 90 gels
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PrimEve 1300 90 gels | Oakmont Labs
PrimEve™ 1300 is a pure, hexane free Organic Evening Primrose Oil, containing the essential fatty acid Gamma-Linolenic Acid (GLA) which is rarely found in foods.*
Every 1300mg capsule gives 10% GLA content, one of the highest potencies available. Oakmont Labs rigorously tests its products to guarantee product quality, purity and truth-in-labeling. This product is free of artificial additives (colors, flavors, and preservatives), gluten and dairy.*
PrimEve 1300 90 gels | Oakmont Labs
Directions: Use only as directed. Take one softgel 2 to 3 times daily with food or as directed by your health care practitioner. Store in a cool, dry place.
Supplement Facts
Serving Size 1 Softgel
Servings Per Container 90
Amount Per Serving
Calories 15
Calories from Fat 10
Total Fat 1.5 g
Organic Evening Primrose Seed Oil* 1,300 mg
-Gamma-Linolenic Acid (GLA) 130 mg
-Linoleic Acid 960 mg
-Oleic Acid 40 mg
Other Ingredients: Gelatin, glycerin and water.
WARNING: Do not use if safety seal is broken or missing. Keep out of reach of children. Keep your licensed health care practitioner informed when using this product.
* Certified Organic by: EcoCert
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*Your results may vary from those listed above.
*These statements have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration.
*This product is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent any disease.
Since we do not know everything about your medical history and medications, please consult with your health care practitioner before implementing any new protocols and supplements. Do not construe any information listed on this site as a substitute for actual medical advice. The info you receive from us is not intended to replace medical advice by your doctor. Forrest Health, Inc. does not dispense medical advice, prescribe, or diagnose illness. We offer nutritional programs and supplements that support your health. The views and nutritional advice expressed by Forrest Health, Inc. are not intended to be a substitute for conventional medical service. If you have a medical condition, see your physician of choice.