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Lexical Importation and Integration: The Case of English-rooted Polish Legalease 1 Edyta Więcławska-Szymańska
- Delphia Heath
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1 Lexical Importation and Integration: The Case of English-rooted Polish Legalease 1 Edyta Więcławska-Szymańska The analysis proposed here deals with the phenomenon of lexical interference in the field of legislative and legal texts. The analysis focuses on examining the lexical loan terms found in the sample-text analysis and the scope of their adaptation in Polish. The linguistic profile of the lexical units analysed allows to formulate and draw certain specific conclusions. One has grounds to say that the adaptation process in the Polish legislative and legal text is not an ad hoc phenomenon but rather it follows specific patterns which are often not observed in case of the adaptation of the loan words belonging to the general, core lexical inventory. Keywords: lexical interference, lexical importation, phonological/semantic/ morphological/ graphic adaptation, legalease, legal text, legislative text 1. Introduction The paper aims at presenting some issues connected with the process of lexical importation in the field legal lexicon hereafter referred to as legalese. 2 Examples of lexical importation are referred to as loan terms since the lexical structure of specialized languages, legalese being one of them, is made up of terms. The fact that the lexical importations have the status of terms determines the kind of the language analysis on the semantic level, which will be explained in detail later. In particular, one of the aims we shall pursue is to analyze the semantics of the English-based Polish legalese and the semantics of the corresponding terms in the donor language. In certain cases the semantics of English terms and the corresponding English originating Polish terminology is very much overlapping, if not cross-linguistically synonymous (e.g. franchising (Eng.) > franczyza (Pol.)). In a number of cases, however, the semantic structure of certain terms in the borrowing language shows to have diverged a long way from the item in the donor language, Pol. holding (Eng. > holding) being an example. The general framework of the paper is the description of language changes involved in the process of lexical importation, taking into account graphic, morphological and semantic dimensions. First, the typology of graphic changes will be presented. The next part of the paper will be dedicated to the morphological processes observed. The final part deals with the discrepancies between the source language and the recipient language equivalents pertaining to the semantics of certain terms. The text-based analysis guarantees a high degree of results reliability because the texts act as the source of the data and they help to define the terms providing natural contexts for them (Viesmann 2004: 310). The analysed vocabulary (over 70 in number) has been drawn from two representative samples of legal texts that cover two narrow disciplines of law; competition law (Jurkowska 2005) and company law (Kruczelak 2004). The choice of the texts was geared by the currency of the legal issues raised and exemplified in them. In recent years the two disciplines corresponding to the chosen texts underwent vast legislative transformation in connection with the transformation of Poland into a free-market economy (Kruczelak 2004: 39
2 25). The transformation was conducted along the lines of the West-European patterns (Cejmer, Napierała and Sójka 2004), which left significant traces in the linguistic structure of numerous legislative and legal texts, thus providing linguists with substantial grounds for gainful linguistic research. Additionally, the issues discussed in the texts undergo constant reinterpretation due to the process of harmonization of the Polish legal system with the European one, which is another reason for West-European legal concepts penetrating into the Polish legalese together with their English language designates, i.e. loan terms. The commonly accepted judicial sense of some of the items that have been subject to the analysis presented below was based on the body of the following legislative acts: 1. Handelsgesetzbuch vom 10. Mai 1897, Fundstelle RGBI S. 219, BGB1. III/FNA , zuletzt gaendert durch Art. 1G v I 2, ; 2. Ustawa z dnia 23 kwietnia 1964 r., Kodeks cywilny, Dz. U. nr 16, poz.93 ze zm., stan prawny na 6 lutego 2005; 3. Ustawa z dnia 15 września 2000 r., Kodeks spółek handlowych, Dz. U. nr 94, poz ze zm., stan prawny na 15 września 2004 r. The term English law needs to be explained at this point, as it is associated with common law which constitutes the basis of legal system of many English-speaking countries. The phrase English legalese is not definite for the same reason. It may refer to the legalese of the English speaking countries, to the language of the so called European law, which again many refer to the European Community or European Union regulations. To make things more transparent the paper makes references only to the federal US legal system, not taking any account of legal regulations adopted by individual states. Thus, whenever there is a reference to the common legal system or to English law the US legal system is meant. 2. Terminological and Methodological Principles Providing definitions of relevant terms as well as delineation of these should clarify the framework and objectives of the paper. The generic term that designates physical results of the linguistic importation is the term borrowing. It consists in the translation in a given linguistic system of characteristics peculiar to another linguistic system (Mańczak-Wohlfeld 2006:11). There is a great variety of motivation behind the process of borrowing: a) the referent is borrowed at the same time as its denomination, b) the word does not exist in the extralinguistic culture of the borrowing reality, c) the word is borrowed as the result of pressure exerted by a dominant linguistic community, which seems to be very true for legalese. In any case the direct reason for importing lexical items lies with linguistic interference, which is the primary term in the foregoing considerations. Interference in general is linguistic overlap, when two systems are simultaneously applied to a linguistic item. The problem of interference has been targeted by a number of linguists. Recently Kortmann (2005: ) has provided a thorough typology of the mechanism of interference. However, as long as in the middle of the 20 th century Weinreich (1953;1966: 1) formulated his definition of interference which points to its context, i.e. bilingualism: Those instances of deviation from the norm of either language which occur in the speech of bilinguals as a result of their familiarity with more than one language, i.e. as a result of language contact, will be referred to as interference phenomena. 40
3 Detailed lexical analysis of borrowings, hereinafter referred to as loan terms for the reason stated in the introduction, belongs to the field of contrastive linguistics which differentiates between phonological, graphic, morphological lexical and semantic importation or integration respectively (Volland 1986: 6). The process of borrowing cannot take place on one language level exclusively. Apart from the semantic structure of a lexical item lexical importation involves the importation of other elements of the source language on the phonological level (foreign phonemes, allophones, combination rules), graphic niveau (foreign graphemes, grapheme-phoneme relations) and morphological niveau (flexion, word formation morphemes). Thus, the loan terms undergo integration in the recipient language which means that foreign items are substituted with the native forms or native forms are added to them. This phenomenon is also referred to as adaptation (Mańczak-Wohlfeld 1995). Any lexical borrowing is partly the result of importation and partly the result of integration in the recipient language system, which is understood as substitution or addition. Not all the cases of lexical interference relate to all the language levels that were mentioned above. For example, Pol. broker (< Eng. broker), undergoes graphic, morphological and semantic importation and on the phonological niveau it undergoes substitution. Another case is represented by the Eng. term trademark that translates into Pol. as znak handlowy, where there is semantic importation and morphological substitution, graphic and phonological levels being inactive. The Pol. term parkiet represents a case when an already existing term in the recipient language was enriched via the process of metonymy with the new meaning that was coined in the English language, i.e. stock exchange floor (cf. Alms-Arvius 2007: 47-49). The only importation that takes place here is on the semantic level. The above mentioned examples representing various degrees of integration in the recipient language correspond to the three kinds of borrowings: lexical importations, morphological calques and semantic calques in the order they were mentioned above (Fisiak 1961:3). 3 To start with, the label lexical importation pertains to fifty-six lexical items that have been identified in the texts scrutinized (e.g. koopetycja (Pol.) < coopetition (Eng.), outsourcing (Pol.) < outsourcing (Eng.), factoring (Pol.) < factoring (Eng.)). Examples of morphological calques amount to ten cases (e.g. nazwa handlowa (Pol.) < trade name (Eng.), rynki kontestowalne (Pol.) < contestable markets (Eng.)). Significantly, the number of semantic calques is relatively small, as I have identified merely two cases: that is aplikacja (Pol.) with the added meaning formal written request and parkiet (Pol.), already referred to. The analysis carried out in the paper deals only with lexical importations, also referred to as loan terms. Some linguists differentiate between foreign words and loanwords (Volland 1986: 8). The difference between the two categories lies in the degree of integration in the recipient language. Loanwords show a higher degree of integration in the recipient language system in terms of phonetics, spelling and flexion, whereas foreign words bear the traces of the source language (e.g. Eng. goodwill, know-how that have been taken directly into Polish vocabulary stock). Since the definite categorization of the two is not possible in view of the large number of other criteria suggested by linguists (such as structural and sociolinguistic factors like frequency and usage (Volland 1986: 9), the paper does not differentiate between the two categories. From the body of the two texts analysed about 70 imported Anglo-Saxon lexical items have been extracted and the body of the loans was classified on the basis of their etymology. However, it was often the case that the etymology of the word could not be explicitly verified either because the term is of Latinate origin; having a kind of international status and appears 41
4 in a similar fashion in a number of European languages, or it has not been recorded in dictionaries because it is short-lived on the Polish linguistic market. Such illegitimate terms are still treated as lexical importations either because their English origin was acknowledged by the authors of the reference books (e.g. Pol. kontestowalny clearly based on Eng. contestable) or they are thought to be obvious derivatives of the recorded dictionary entries (e.g. Pol. bukingowa based on Eng. booking). 4 Moreover, due to the fact that English is an international language and one of the official languages of the European Union, many documents are originally drafted and concepts coined in English. Thus, even though some terms enjoy a parallel existence in a number of European languages, English can be considered to be the source language from which the terms designating newly-created concepts in the developing free-market economies are imported. The sample-text based analysis allows us to distinguish sub-groups of loan terms for which the process of linguistic integration follows specific sub-systems of regularity, which results from the projection on the Polish language of the source language system. The approach adopted for the analysis may be described as rule-based. Specific rules regarding the lexical importation as generated by Fisiak (1961), Mańczak-Wohlfeld (1995) and Kleparski (2001) are presented below and validated on the examples found. The analysis of the representative examples is synchronic and contrastive. It involves identifying structural differences and similarities between the borrowed lexical items and their English equivalents on the graphic, morphological and semantic level. The analysis on the semantic level is determined by the fact that the lexical items analysed have the status of terms, for the reasons stated in the introduction. Thus, in order to establish the semantic structure of a term account has to be made of the semantic relations between the concept, the term designates, other related concepts and the relevant sub-concepts (Lukszyn, Zmarzer 2001: 21). 3. Sample Text Analysis: Graphic Importation and Integration The graphic system of English and Polish varies as for the number and kind of letters. Polish has 30 letters while English has 26 letters, and both English and Polish have letters that are typical only for one of the languages. For example, doubled vowels are typical for English and not often in Polish (apart from the English loan terms koopetycja (Pol.) (< Eng. coopetition), kooperacja (Pol.) (< Eng. cooperation). Both languages have two-letter elements that correspond to one phoneme but in English it is not always a one to one correspondence, i.e. a two-letter element may correspond to a few phonemes. The distribution of letters is different in English and Polish (Mańczak-Wohlfeld 1995:42). Additionally, English, as opposed to Polish, has the so called defective orthography in that the pronunciation departs from the graphic representation of lexical units. The obvious consequence of this is that loan terms are first pronounced as they are written and then spelled as they are pronounced. Kleparski (2001) enumerates the following graphic changes that take place during the process of importation: 1. the substitution of consonants and groups of consonants, 2. the substitution of vowels or a group of vowels, 42
5 3. the substitution of uppercase letters with lowercase letters at the beginning of a lexical item, 4. the reduction of doubled consonants. The data acquired during the sample text analysis cover the three points in the order they were mentioned. Adaptation of loan terms on the graphic level involves cases of consonant and vowel changes. The examples are as follows: (1) ch > cz cheque (Eng.) > czek (Pol.); franchising (Eng.) > franczyza (Pol.) (2) c > k concern (Eng.) > koncern (Pol.) (3) s > z fusion (Eng.) > fuzja (Pol.); deposit > depozyt (Pol.) (4) g > dż budget (Eng.) > budżet (Pol.); managerial > menedżerska (Pol.) (5) a > e manager (Eng.) > menedżerska (Pol.) (6) e > ej safe (Eng.) > sejf (Pol.) (7) oo > u pool (Eng.) > pul (Pol.); booking (Eng.) > bukingowa (Pol.) (8) y > i deposit (Eng.) > depozyt (Pol.) As for orthography there seems to be no consequent treatment of loan terms during the process of their importation in the recipient language. Some kinds of graphic changes seem to be occasional, others occur regularly (e.g. /c/ (Eng.) > /k/ (Pol.)). The examples found in the sample texts point to the fact that in some cases the polonised versions exist alongside the source language versions (e.g. dealer (Eng.) > dealer/diler (Pol.); manager (Eng.) > manager/menedżer (Pol.); budget (Eng.) > budget/budżet (Pol.). A question may be asked why certain lexical items are adapted on the graphic level and others are not. It might be assumed that the category of language users and the time of importation play significant role in this respect. As for the first factor, the users of legalese are educated people who know the source language, which excludes the possibility of introducing changes resulting from the ignorance of the graphic system of the source language. As for the second factor, most of the examples are newly-coined terms, since they relate to the legal concepts that are new in the Polish legal system. It is considered that long term loan terms tend to be better assimilated (Volland 1986: 116). Submitting a word to the orthographic changes is not an ad hoc process. Polish Language Council (Rada Języka Polskiego; translation mine) takes into consideration many linguistic and extralinguistic factors. For example, the arguments for adopting the polonised term of franchising, i.e. franczyza (Pol.) 5 were the following: the polonised term has clear and unequivocal spelling, which makes it easy to pronounce the word; its derivatives franczyzodawca (Pol.), franczyzobiorca (Pol.) have been coined in line with the Polish wordformation rules; the Polish term franczyza is phonetically similar to the source language equivalent and at the same time it remains distinct from the term franszyza 6, used in Poland in reference to insurance. 43
6 4. Morphological Importation and Integration The degree of integration of a lexical unit into the recipient language is shown by the way it handles its grammatical relations, i.e. its inflection. The sample text analysis shows that most terms are inflected. Three exceptions were identified: joint venture (Eng.) > joint venture (Pol.), goodwill (Eng.) > goodwill (Pol.) and know-how (Eng.) > know-how (Pol.). The others take inflectional morphemes according to their gender, number and case. The first conclusion is that English loan terms are mainly masculine in Polish. Only a few cases of feminine loan terms were found. Many linguists come up with various arguments regarding the factors that determine grammatical gender. Mańczak-Wohlfeld (1995: 55) enumerates the following factors: 1. the structure of the terminal sound of the lexical item borrowed from other language, 2. the graphic shape of the borrowing, as long as it is pronounced as it is spelled, 3. the form of the suffix added in the recipient language, 4. the meaning of the borrowing and its relation to the grammatical gender of the lexical unit, having the same semantic load in the recipient language, 5. mediation of other language in the process of borrowing, 6. sex of the individual designated by the given noun, 7. homonymy, 8. the morphological structure of the loan term. From the data analysed it would appear that the factors that determine the masculine and feminine gender vary. The first two criteria apply to nouns that become masculine in the recipient language. That is the primary factor in determining masculine gender is the structure of the terminal sound or the graphic form of the loan term. Accordingly, the words having a consonant in their terminal sound or graphically ending with consonants are masculine: market (Pol.) < market (Eng.), budget/budżet (Pol.) < budget (Eng.), depozyt (Pol.) < deposit (Eng.), trust (Pol.) < trust (Eng.), koncern (Pol.) < concern (Eng.), to mention but a few examples. The criterion number four, does not apply here. Namely, the relation of the meaning of the borrowing to the grammatical gender of the word in the recipient language having similar semantic load does not play any role. For example, holding (Pol.) corresponds to grupa kapitałowa (Pol.). Were the criterion number four operative here, holding (Pol.) would take the grammatical gender after the word grupa (Pol.); that is feminine. As for feminine nouns the only criterion determining the gender is the graphic form of the loan term. Namely, words ending in a in the recipient language are feminine: koopetycja (Pol.), fuzja (Pol.), licencja (Pol.). Another sign of high degree of integration of the English loan terms in the Polish is the productivity of derivative morphemes. The examples found in the texts analysed make it possible to formulate some generalizations. Firstly, certain derivative morphemes are 44
7 particularly productive in legalese, not in other semantic fields. They are not mentioned in the relevant reference texts concerning word formation of borrowings (Fisiak (1961), Mańczak-Wohlfeld (1995)). The case of biorca and dawca is meant at this point. Secondly, when a term is borrowed, its derivative forms existing in the source language are not necessarily borrowed together with it. Thus, leasing (Pol.) entered into Polish to denote a kind of relation under civil law. The existing terms denoting the parties to the legal relation (lessee, lessor (Eng.)) were not borrowed but native forms were derived from the borrowed terms adding the derivative morphemes of the recipient language. One has reason to assume that this is due to the prevailing tendency to integrate new lexical units into the structural system of language. Lessee (Eng.) and lessor (Eng.) do not sound Polish and thus it was probably more practical to derive new terms following the well-known pattern that has already existed in Poland (usługo+dawca, usługo+biorca, etc.). The examples in point are: franchising (Eng.) > franchising, franczyza (Pol.) /franczyzo+dawca, franczyzo+ biorca (Pol.), licensing (Eng.) > licensing (Pol.)/licencjo+biorca (Pol.), licencjo+dawca (Pol.). Another derivative morpheme denoting an agent that was found in the text-based analysis, and not mentioned in the above quoted reference texts was the morpheme or and ant. These morphemes are productive in Polish (emitent (Pol.), acceptant (Pol.), etc.), and also in case of one of the loan term registered in the analysis (e.g. factor+ant (Pol.), fakt+or (Pol.)). To conclude, word formation in legalese in reference to loan terms is centered upon deriving terms that designate parties to legal relations. The borrowed terms (e.g. franchising, leasing, licensing, factoring that correspond to the English terms franchising, leasing, licensing, and factoring respectively), seem to be well assimilated in Polish and they frequently form collocations (e.g. umowa leasingowa rendered from English leasing agreement). They undergo the process of word formation, that is the recipient language suffixes are added to them in spite of the existing source language equivalents (franchisee (Eng.), licensee (Eng.), lessee (Eng.)). As for other cases of word formation the adjectival suffixes account for 7 cases. The collected material does not allow one to formulate any unequivocal rules. One observation can be made at this point. All the adjectival derivative forms in Polish are generated from the source language forms that are already derivatives: lease (Eng.) > leas+ing (Eng.) > leas+ing+owa (Pol.). The following groups of adjectival derivative suffixes can be differentiated: (9) -owa buk+ing+owa (Pol.); rewolw+ing+owe (Pol.), (10) -wska leas+ing+owa (Pol.); chicago+wska (Pol.); brok+er+ska (Pol.), (11) -dzka harvar+dzka (Pol.), (12) -owalny kontest+owalny (Pol.). The above listed suffixes seem to be productive specifically in legalese, since apart from the suffix owa they were not included in the relevant lists in the reference books consulted (e.g. Mańczak-Wohlfeld 1995). Another observation concerning adjectives is connected with decapitalisation, which was discussed in Kleparski (2001). In English Harvard has the attributive function (Harvard school) and it is spelled with the capital letter. The 45
8 corresponding phrase in Polish includes the adjective harvar+dzka of Harvard, where the first letter was changed from uppercase to lowercase. Obviously, the choice of the suffix dzka is deliberate and in line with the recipient language semantics. Each of the suffixes carry definite semantic load. For example, the suffix owalny does not have descriptive function like the suffix owa, i.e. typical for, connected with the concept of leasing (e.g. leasing+owa related to leasing ) but it denotes the possibility (i.e. possible to be contested). 5. Semantic Importation and Integration This section shows the ways in which the imported lexical units influence the lexicalsemantic structure of the recipient language. It also analyses the semantic changes experienced by loan terms. As for the influence that the lexical importation exercises on the structure of the recipient language three ways can be differentiated according to Weinreich (1953;1966: 54): Except for loanwords with entirely new content, the transfer or reproduction of foreign words must affect the existing vocabulary in one of three ways: (1) confusion between the content of the new and old word: (2) disappearance of the old word: (3) survival of both the new and old word, with specialization in content. The comparative analysis has made it possible to identify degrees of equivalence between the borrowed terms and their source language counterparts. The varying degrees of equivalence of terms and the concepts they denote in two languages allows us to identify four groups: 1. cases when the concept A does not have certain features of concept B (- x, y), but it has some additional features of concept B (+ a, b); 14 cases identified, 2. cases when the scope of concept A is less than the scope of concept B; 3 cases identified, 3. cases of nonequivalence; 2 cases identified, 4. cases of synonymity; 49 cases identified. A good example of the first kind of relationship, where there is substantial discrepancy between the semantics of the source language term and the corresponding loan term in the recipient language is the term trust (Pol.) < trust (Eng.). In the US legal system the term denotes an unincorporated business association operating a business under a written declaration of trust. The written declaration of trust specifies the terms, powers and duties of the trustees and the interests of the beneficiaries. In many states, this document must be filed with a public official (Haschka and Schmatzer 1990: 105). Additionally, in the US the term is used both in legislative and legal texts, which is not the case in Poland. Admittedly, the term trust (Pol.) in Poland belongs to the same legal field, that is business law and it refers to a kind of agreement, as its source language equivalent. However, the Polish use of the term departs from the way the term is used in American English. In 46
9 Poland the term is used only in legal texts, not legislative ones. Olszewski (1988) claims that the term is used exclusively in literature, that is in legal texts to denote big economic organizations. According to Kruczalak (2005: 254), the Polish term trust is sometimes used as an equivalent of the Polish institution koncern (Pol.) in the US legal system. Trust (Pol.) may also denote a legal form of a business entity, that is the most elaborate form of concern in which the economic concentration is so intense that the enterprises grouped in it lose their legal and economic independence and other independence in all or some fields of production and sale. (Czasami też przyjmuję się, że trust jest formą najwyżej rozwiniętego koncernu, w której dochodzi do takiej koncentracji gospodarczej, iż zgrupowane w nim przedsiębiorstwa tracą swoją prawną i gospodarczą niezależność i samodzielność we wszystkich lub określonych dziedzinach zbytu lub produkcji; Kruczalak 2005: 255; translation mine). Jurkowska (2005: 110) writes about prawo antytrustowe (Pol.) rendered from English antitrust law and she explicitly says that the term is used only in reference to the US legal system. All this brings us to an interesting conclusion. Trust (Pol.) is the example of a loan term which is widely used in the Polish legal texts. The content of the term may be twofold. When it is used in reference to the US institution its meaning is equivalent with the meaning in English. If the referent of the term does not belong to the US legal system its meaning departs somewhat from the meaning of its source language equivalent. Another interesting point is that the term happens to be identified with the native Polish term powiernictwo (Pol.), which is considered by some scholars to be the Polish equivalent of the Anglo-Saxon trust (Stec 2006: 15). This could be interesting starting point for analysis regarding differentiation of synonyms. An illustrative example of the second type of semantic relationship between English loan terms and their source language equivalents seems to be the following pair of terms: concept B partnership (Eng.) > concept A spółka partnerska (Pol.). The English origin of the loan term partner (Pol.) was acknowledged by Bańkowski (2000). The referents of both the source language term and the corresponding loan term belong to the same legal field; that is they are legal forms of enterprises in the field of company law. Moreover, both the referents can be characterized by he lack of legal personality, which means they are unincorporated. Yet, the scope and content of the two concepts in question is different depending on the kind of legal system. In the US legal system the term partnership (Eng.) is broader in terms of semantics as it may be qualified by specific adjectives or be prefixed and as such denote distinctive legal forms (limited partnership (Eng.), silent partnership (Eng.), general partnership (Eng.) and sub-partnership (Eng.), which prevents a one-to-one relationship with the corresponding Polish loan term. The US term comprises concepts which are either non-existing in the Polish legal system (sub-partnership (Eng.)) or designated by other lexical item (e.g. limited partnership (Eng.) is considered to correspond to spółka komandytowa (Pol.)) in the Polish legal system (Haschka and Schmatzer 1990: 101). The cases of nonequivalence are not very frequent and the registered examples are loan terms used in Polish not in reference to the concepts they are used in English. A good example in point is the term exclusive (Eng.) > ekskluzywny (Pol.). The content of the loan term in Polish departs form the content it has in English. Exclusive in English means (1) high class, or (2) not shared by others. In Polish the second meaning is absent. Thus, we say ekskluzywne ubrania (Pol.) rendered from English exclusive clothes, but we do not say ekskluzywne prawa (Pol.) after the English exclusive rights. 47
10 Another example illustrating the case of nonequivalence is constituted by the pair firm (Eng.) > firma (Pol.) which can be labeled as terms having international status and as such belonging to the category of loan terms (Mańczak-Wohlfeld 19985: 19). The explanation of the semantic relations between the Polish loan term and its English counterpart is carried out with reference to German sources since the term is considered to be of German origin, which is confirmed by the fact that it is registered in the dictionary of German loanwords functioning in English (Pfeifer and Garland 1994). The content of the term as provided in the aforementioned dictionary is in line with the meaning as implied by the relevant German legal act, i.e. Handelsgesetzbuch (1897), and it corresponds well to the semantic content of the term as it is used in the texts analyzed (Kruczalak 2005: 87). 17 [Begriff] (1) Die firma eines Kaufmans ist der Name, unter dem er seine Geschaefte betriebt und die Unterschrift abgibt (The business name of an entrepreneur ist the name under which he operates his enterprise and puts his signature; Handelsgesetzbuch 1897; translation mine). Additionally, the semantics of the term firma (Pol.) is confirmed by its definition provided in the relevant Polish legal acts, i.e. Kodeks Cywilny (2005). Art. 8. [Zdolność; firma] 2. Spółka prowadzi przedsiębiorstwo pod własną firmą (Capacity; business name 2. The partnership shall operate an enterprise under its own business; Code of Commercial Companies 2004; translation by Katarzyna Michałowska). In English the referent of the loan term firma (Pol.) is different than it is in German and Polish. When used in reference to the US legal institutions the English term in question denotes an organization which sells or produces something or which provides a service which people pay for. In Polish legal and legislative texts, as illustrated above, firma denotes the title, name, or style under which a business operates. The cases of synonymity involve loan terms such as goodwill (Eng.) > goodwill (Pol.), know-how (Eng.) > know-how (Pol.) and non-profit (Eng.) > profit (Pol.), to name but a few examples. In these cases the referents seem to be the same in the source and target language. It may be said that even though terminological comparison carried out in the analysis may not provide ready-made answers to socio-cultural and consequently linguistic problems, it does provide us with insights and shows possible ways out of a terminological dilemma. 6. Conclusion To sum up, lexical importation affects different levels of language structure: graphic, morphological, lexical and phonological, the last was not discussed in this paper. By lexical importation the recipient language acquires new terms to designate new concepts. Sometimes the new terms bring in linguistic variety in the recipient language allowing for differentiation of meaning regarding the already existing concepts in the recipient language. 48
11 Generally, there seem to be no absolute rules as to what lexical items are imported and which of them undergo integration and what kind of integration. The only consistent tendency observed is that the time when a lexical importation happened and the frequency of usage are significant factors that determine the degree of integration. The more recent the borrowing is the fewer graphic and morphological adaptations it underwent. The reasons for it may be twofold. Firstly, new loan terms need time to be well adapted to the recipient language. Secondly, it is due to the language specifics. Legalese is a language used by educated people, which excludes changes resulting from the lack of knowledge of the source language. Legalese does not share the kinds of adaptations with general language or other specialized languages. Most of the examples regarding graphic and morphological adaptations mentioned by Mańczak-Wohlfeld (1995) do not apply to legalease. Other regularities than those mentioned by Mańczak-Wohlfeld (1995) were determined. Two degrees of integration can be differentiated: processes that take place systematically, and processes that take place occasionally. An example of a systematic change is the adaptation of terms on the graphic level: /c/ (Eng.) is always changed to /k/ (Pol.), koncern (Pol.) being an example. On the other hand, the derivative form denoting agent is formed with the native derivational suffix only occasionally (e.g. franczyzo+biorca (Pol.), franczyzo+dawca (Pol.)). A few cases were registered when similar lexical categories were borrowed ready-made (e.g. dealer (Eng.) > dealer (Pol.), broker (Eng.) > broker (Pol.), makler (Eng.) > makler (Pol.)). The discussion should put at ease language purists who struggle to establish definite rules as to the correct, legitimate spelling of English loan terms. The process of borrowing is a continuous process and it takes time to fully assimilate foreign forms. It happens often that two forms live their life next to each other (e.g. franchising (Pol.) and franczyza (Pol.) both derived from the English term franchising). On the other hand, law practitioners should be careful using loan terms for denotation of certain concepts in the Polish legal system because their semantic load often significantly departs from their source language equivalent. Notes: 1 Let me take this opportunity and thank Prof. Grzegorz A. Kleparski who motivated me to write this paper, offered his valuable materials and devoted his time reading the final version of this text. 2 The term legalese comprises both legislative and legal texts; the distinction is made to differentiate the texts of legal acts (i.e. legislative texts) from the texts of legal literature (i.e. legal texts). A similar distinction will be drawn as to the language used in these two types of texts. Legislative texts are written in the language of law. The lawyer s language is the language of legal texts. Note that the term legalese seems to have formed the basis for a number of similar formations such as: auctionese, bureaucratese, computerese, pentagonese and others evidenced in Dickson (1990). 3 In fact, Fisiak (1961) employs the following Polish terms: zapożyczenia właściwe, kalki morfologiczne i kalki semantyczne. 4 The loan terms found in the process of the sample text analysis and chosen as representative examples to illustrate the importation and/or integration phenomena can be classified into the following groups regarding their etymology: 49
12 (i) loan terms whose etymology is unequivocally acknowledged as English: market, investor, pool, bukować, sejf, rewolwing, dealer, franchising, budget, menedżer, know-how, goodwill, joint-venture, trust, holding, factoring, leasing (Wiśniakowska 2004), depozyt (Bańkowski 2000), (ii) loan terms whose English etymology is possible, but not the only one: fuzja, korporacja, koncern, czek, licencja, ekskluzywny (Wiśniakowska 2004), kartel, partner, firma (Bańkowski 2000), (iii) loan terms whose English etymology is not legitimate, because they are not recorded in the dictionaries checked, yet their English origin is acknowledged by the authors of the texts making up the corpus: kontestowalny (Jurkowska 2005: 73), koopetycja (Jurkowska 2005: 85). 5 Available at: 6 The Polish term franszyza may be defined as zastrzeżone ograniczenie sumy odszkodowania ubezpieczeniowego w zakładach ubezpieczeń (stipulated restriction of the insurance sum in insurance companies; translation mine). References: ALM-ARVIUS, Christina Lexical Polysemy. In MAGNUSSON, U., KARDELA, H., GŁAZ, A. (eds.) Further Insights into Semantics. Lublin : Wydawnictwo UMCS, pp AMBRUS, Patrik, BÁZLIK, Miroslav A Grammar of Legal English. Bratislava : Iura Editio Wolters Kluwer, BAŃKOWSKI, Andrzej Słownik etymologiczny języka polskiego. Warszawa : Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, BUSSE, Dietrich Juristische Semantic. Berlin: Duncker & Humbolt, CEJMER, Mirosław, NAPIERAŁA, Jacek, SÓJKA, Tomasz. (eds.) Europejskie prawo spółek. Tom. 1. Zakamycze, DICKSON, Paul Slang!: The Topic-by-Topic Dictionary of Contemporary American Lingoes. New York: Pocket Books, FISIAK, Jacek Zapożyczenia angielskie w języku polskim. Analiza interpretacji leksykalnej (unpublished doctoral dissertation), HASCHKA, Helmut, SCHMATZER, Hannes Aspects of U.S. Business and Law. Fachverlag an der Wirschatftsuniversitaet Wien, JURKOWSKA, Agata Porozumienia kooperacyjne w świetle wspólnotowego i polskiego prawa ochrony konkurencji. Warszawa : Wydawnictwo Prawo i Praktyka Gospodarcza, LUKSZYN, Jerzy, ZMARZER, Wanda Teoretyczne podstawy terminologii. Warszawa: Poligrafia sp. z o.o. w Sieradzu,
13 KALINA-PRASZNIC, Urszula. (ed.) Leksykon prawniczy. Wrocław: Drukarnia wydawnictwa Atla 2, KLEPARSKI, Grzegorz A Angielskie zapożyczenia leksykalne w języku polskim i niektóre problemy ich adaptacji In Zeszyty Naukowe Wyższej Szkoły Pedagogicznej w Rzeszowie. Seria Filologiczna Studia Anglica Resoviensia 2. Zeszyt 42/2001. KORTMAN, Berndt English Linguistics: Essentials. Berlin : Cornelsen Verlag, KRUCZELAK, Kazimierz Zarys prawa handlowego. Warszawa : Wydawnictwo Prawnicze LexisNexis, MAGNUSSON, Ulf, KARDELA, Henryk, GŁAZ, Adam. (eds.) Further Insights into Semantics and Lexicography. Lublin : Wydawnictwo UMCS, MAŃCZAK-WOHLFELD, Elżbieta Angielsko-polskie kontakty językowe. Kraków : Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, MAŃCZAK-WOHLFELD, Elżbieta Tendencje rozwojowe współczesnych zapożyczeń angielskich w języku polskim. Kraków, MEYER, Charles F English Corpus Linguistics. An Introduction. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, MRÓZ, Teresa, STEC, Mirosław Prawo gospodarcze prywatne. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo C.H.Beck, NIEDZIELSKA, Katarzyna Europejska spółka akcyjna. Warszawa : Wydawnictwo C.H.Beck, OLSZEWSKI, Jan Wybrane zagadnienia polityki i legislacji antymonopolowej. In GRABOWSKI, J. (ed.) Problemy prawne grupowania przedsiębiorstw, Katowice, PFEIFER, John A., GARLAND, C German Loanwords in English. An Historical Dictionary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, SZAJOWSKI, Andrzej, TARSKA, Monika Prawo spółek handlowych. Warszawa : Beck, VIESMANN, Eva Rechtsuebersetzung und Hilfsmittel zur Translation. Tuebingen : Gunter Narr Verlag, VOLLAND, Brigitte Franzoesische Entlehnungen im Deutschen. Tuebingen : Max Niemeyer Verlag, WEINREICH, Uriel Languages in Contact. Findings and Problems. New York The Hague, Mouton and Co. (Deutsche Uebersetzung : Sprachen in Kontakt. Muenchen 1977, Becksche Verlagsbuchhandlung). WIŚNIAKOWSKA, Lidia Słownik wyrazów obcych. Warszawa : Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN,
14 Internet sources: Available at Edyta Więcławska-Szymańska ul. Polna 12/ Rzeszów In SKASE Journal of Theoretical Linguistics [online]. 2009, vol. 6, no. 2 [cit ]. Available on web page <http://www.skase.sk/volumes/jtl14/pdf_doc/03.pdf>. ISSN X. 52
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About the Book
Runway for the Ballet 2008, NC Dance Theatre, 3/2/08
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- Category Portfolios
Small Square, 7×7 in, 18×18 cm
34 Pages
- Publish Date Apr 17, 2008
- Tags NC Dance Theatre, Runway for the Ballet, black & white, 2008, Charlotte, NC
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About the Creator
Catherine Holt
Charlotte, North Carolina, United States of America
Art History buff bitten by the shutterbug. I love traveling, music, and belly dancing.
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(As adopted on February 24, 2004)
The Board of Directors of Nuance Communications, Inc. (the "Company") has adopted this Code of Business Conduct and Ethics (this "Code") for its directors, officers and employees (collectively, "Employees"). All Employees are expected to read and understand this Code, uphold these standards in day-to-day activities, comply with all applicable policies and procedures.
This Code has been reasonably designed to deter wrongdoing and to promote:
Employees are expected to act and perform their Company duties ethically and honestly and with the utmost integrity. Honest conduct is considered to be conduct that is free from fraud or deception. Ethical conduct is considered to be conduct conforming to accepted professional standards of conduct. Ethical conduct includes the ethical handling of actual or apparent conflicts of interest between personal and professional relationships as discussed below.
Employees should seek to avoid any action or interest that conflicts with the Company's interests. A conflict of interest exists where the interests or benefits of one person or entity conflict or appear to conflict with the interests or benefits of the Company. While it is not possible to describe every situation in which a conflict of interest may arise, Employees must never use or attempt to use their position with the Company to obtain improper personal benefits.
Any Employee who is aware of a conflict of interest, or is concerned that a conflict might develop, is required to discuss the matter with a higher level of management or the General Counsel promptly. Senior financial officers may, in addition to speaking with the General Counsel, also discuss the matter with the Chairperson of the Audit Committee.
The Company has a responsibility to communicate effectively with stockholders so that they are provided with information to the fullest extent required by applicable law. The Company's reports and documents filed with or submitted to the SEC and its other public communications shall include full, fair, accurate, timely and understandable disclosure to the fullest extent required by applicable law. Any Employee who becomes aware of or suspects any improper transaction, accounting or auditing practice within the Company, or believes that the Company's internal accounting and disclosure controls are deficient or the Company is not providing full, fair, accurate, timely and understandable disclosures in its filings with the SEC or in other public communications, is required to report the matter immediately to the Company's General Counsel or the Chairperson of the Audit Committee. The General Counsel is responsible for receiving, collecting, reviewing, processing and resolving concerns and reports by employees and others involving the Company's accounting, auditing and internal controls and disclosure policies, subject to the supervision of the Audit Committee. The General Counsel shall maintain appropriate records of all complaints, tracking their receipt, investigation and resolution and shall prepare a periodic summary report thereof for the Audit Committee.
It is the Company's policy to comply with all applicable laws, rules and regulations. It is the personal responsibility of each Employee in executing his or her Company duties to adhere to the standards and restrictions imposed by those laws, rules and regulations, and in particular, those relating to accounting and auditing matters. Any Employee who is unsure whether a situation violates any applicable law, rule, regulation or Company policy should discuss the situation with the General Counsel.
The matters covered in this Code are of the utmost importance to the Company, its stockholders and its business partners, and are essential to the Company's ability to conduct its business in accordance with its stated values. The Company expects all Employees to adhere to these rules in carrying out their responsibilities for the Company.
Situations that may involve a violation of this Code may not always be obvious and may require difficult judgments to be made. Employees should report any concerns or questions about violations of laws, rules, regulations or this Code to the Company's General Counsel.
Any concerns about violations of laws, rules, regulations or this Code by the Chief Executive Officer, any senior financial officer, any executive officer or director should be reported promptly to the Chairperson of the Audit Committee. If appropriate, the Chairperson of the Audit Committee will notify the Board of Directors. Reporting of such violations may also be done anonymously by filing a report at www.ethicspoint.com. An anonymous report should provide enough information about the incident or situation to allow the Company to investigate properly. If concerns or complaints require confidentiality, including keeping an identity anonymous, the Company will endeavor to protect this confidentiality, subject to applicable law, regulation or legal proceedings.
The Company encourages all Employees to report any suspected violations promptly and intends to investigate thoroughly any good faith reports of violations. The Company will not tolerate any kind of retaliation for reports or complaints regarding misconduct that were made in good faith. Open communication of issues and concerns by all Employees without fear of retribution or retaliation is vital to the successful implementation of this Code. Employees are required to cooperate in internal investigations of misconduct and unethical behavior.
The General Counsel will have primary authority and responsibility for the enforcement of this Code, subject to the supervision of the Audit Committee. The Company will devote the necessary resources to enable the General Counsel to establish such procedures as may be reasonably necessary to create a culture of accountability and facilitate compliance with this Code. The General Counsel will maintain appropriate records of all complaints, tracking their receipt, investigation and resolution and shall prepare a periodic summary report thereof for the Audit Committee. The General Counsel will also maintain a file for all complaints and related materials.
The Company will take appropriate action against any employee whose actions are found to violate these policies or any other policies of the Company. Disciplinary actions may include immediate termination of employment or business relationship at the Company's sole discretion. Determinations of the type of disciplinary action to be taken will be made by the Chief Financial Officer or Chief Executive Officer, or in the case of disciplinary action to be taken against an executive officer or director, by the Board of Directors or a designee thereof. Where the Company has suffered a loss, it may pursue its remedies against the individuals or entities responsible. Where laws have been violated, the Company will cooperate fully with the appropriate authorities.
Where violation of this Code is disputed by an employee, such alleged violation will be investigated by the General Counsel or the Chief Financial Officer, who shall make a determination following such investigation as to whether or not such a violation has occurred. Where a violation of this Code is disputed by an executive officer or director, such alleged violation will be investigated by the Board of Directors or a designee thereof, which shall make a determination following such investigation as to whether or not such a violation has occurred. Such a determination by the Company will be final.
The Company is committed to continuously reviewing and updating our policies and procedures. Therefore, this Code is subject to modification. Any waiver of any provision of this Code for a member of the Board of Directors or an executive officer must be approved in writing by the Board of Directors and promptly disclosed pursuant to applicable laws and regulations. Any waiver of any provision of this Code with respect to any other employee must be approved in writing by the General Counsel or Chief Financial Officer. Material amendments to this Code will be promptly disclosed to the public.


text:
The effects of a selective inhibitor of c-Fos/activator protein-1 on endotoxin-induced acute kidney injury in mice
Sepsis has been identified as the most common cause of acute kidney injury (AKI) in intensive care units. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induces the production of several proinflammatory cytokines including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, a major pathogenetic factor in septic AKI. c-Fos/activator protein (AP)-1 controls the expression of these cytokines by binding directly to AP-1 motifs in the cytokine promoter regions. T-5224 is a new drug developed by computer-aided drug design that selectively inhibits c-Fos/AP-1 binding to DNA. In this study, we tested whether T-5224 has a potential inhibitory effect against LPS-induced AKI, by suppressing the TNF-alpha inflammatory response and other downstream effectors.
To test this hypothesis, male C57BL/6 mice at 7 weeks old were divided into three groups (control, LPS and T-5224 groups). Mice in the control group received saline intraperitoneally and polyvinylpyrrolidone solution orally. Mice in the LPS group were injected intraperitoneally with a 6 mg/kg dose of LPS and were given polyvinylpyrrolidone solution immediately after LPS injection. In the T-5224 group, mice were administered T-5224 orally at a dose of 300 mg/kg immediately after LPS injection. Serum concentrations of TNF-alpha, interleukin (IL)-1beta, IL-6 and IL-10 were measured by ELISA. Moreover, the expression of intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1 mRNA in kidney was examined by quantitative real-time RT-PCR. Finally, we evaluated renal histological changes.
LPS injection induced high serum levels of TNF-alpha, IL-1beta and IL-6. However, the administration of T-5224 inhibited the LPS-induced increase in these cytokine levels. The serum levels of IL-10 in the LPS group and T-5224 group were markedly elevated compared with the control group. T-5224 also inhibited LPS-induced ICAM-1 mRNA expression. Furthermore histological studies supported an anti-inflammatory role of T-5224.
In endotoxin-induced AKI, T-5224 inhibited the production of TNF-alpha and other downstream effectors. In contrast, T-5224 did not inhibit IL-10, an anti-inflammatory cytokine. These data support that the use of T-5224 is a promising new treatment for septic kidney injury.
Recently, the incidence of acute kidney injury (AKI) has increased considerably. AKI occurs in 19–51% of patients with sepsis or septic shock, while sepsis is a contributing factor in approximately half of patients with severe AKI
Several inflammatory mediators have been assigned a key role in sepsis. In response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS), macrophages and other cells express and release multiple proinflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α
The responses to LPS are mostly dependent on the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways and activation of MAPK by dual phosphorylation can enhance the transcriptional activity of activator protein (AP)-1
In the present study, we investigated whether T-5224 has an inhibitory effect on LPS-induced AKI in mice by suppressing the inflammatory response, including TNF-α and other downstream effectors. Furthermore, as LPS administration can trigger an influx of neutrophils into organs such as the kidney, a process directed by the local expression of adhesion molecules on endothelium, we tested the effect of T-5224 on intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1 expression in the injured kidney.
This study was approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee and performed according to the Kobe University Animal Experimental Regulation (Kobe, Japan). Male C57BL/6 mice (CLEA Japan, Inc., Tokyo, Japan) aged 7 weeks were used throughout the study. They were maintained on standard rodent chow and allowed free access to water.
Animal protocols, blood chemistry and measurement of serum cytokine levels
First we examined the peak of serum TNF-α levels after intraperitoneal administration a 6 mg/kg dose of LPS (1.25 mg/ml)
To evaluate the effect of T-5224 on LPS-induced AKI, mice were assigned to one of three groups (control group, LPS group and T-5224 group). Mice in LPS group were administered orally with polyvinylpyrrolidone solution in the same volume of T-5224 solution immediately after LPS injection, while in the T-5224 group mice were administered orally with T-5224 (300 mg/kg) in the same manner. In the control group, mice received polyvinylpyrrolidone solution orally soon after intraperitoneal saline injection. Blood samples were collected for each measurement at the optimal time. Serum samples from all groups were sent to a commercial laboratory service (Special Reference Laboratories, Tokyo, Japan) to measure serum blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels. Serum creatinine (Cr) concentrations were also examined by enzymatic method in their laboratory. Serum IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-10 were measured using ELISA. ELISA kits were purchased from R&D Systems, Inc. for IL-1β and IL-6 measurements and Life Technologies (Grand Island, NY, USA) for IL-10 and were used according to the manufacturer's protocols.
Real-time PCR for ICAM-1 expression
Quantitative real-time PCR was performed to examine ICAM-1 mRNA expression in LPS-induced AKI. The kidney was removed at 6 h after LPS or saline injection
For histopathological observation, the mice were sacrificed and kidneys were removed at 48 h after LPS injection. Each tissue was fixed in 10% formalin, embedded in paraffin, sectioned, and then stained with hematoxylin and eosin for morphological examination.
Statistical analysis
All data were expressed as mean ± standard deviation (SD). The Kruskal–Wallis test was used to test for overall group differences and the Steel-Dwass test was used to test for between-group differences. Values of
In this study, no mice in LPS group and T-5224 group died at 48 h after intraperitoneal administration of LPS with 6 mg/kg.
T-5224 dose-dependently inhibits LPS-induced serum TNF-α
Serum TNF-α levels in mice peaked at 2 h after LPS injection (Figure
Figure 1
T-5224 attenuates LPS-induced TNF-α
T-5224 attenuates LPS-induced TNF-α. a, determination of the point for TNF-α measurement. b, dose-dependent effects of T-5224 on TNF-α at 2 h after intraperitoneal LPS injection. Serum TNF-α levels peaked after LPS injection at 2 h (1583.8 ± 161.5 pg/ml). T-5224 attenuated LPS-induced TNF-α release dose-dependently (n = 7–8 per group). **
T-5224 reduced serum BUN and Cr and pro-inflammatory cytokines
Blood samples were collected for the measurement of serum BUN, Cr, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-10 at the various optimal times (Figure
Figure 2
Time course for blood collection
Time course for blood collection. LPS or saline was injected to mice at 0 h. Subsequently, blood was taken at different time points for the measurement of BUN, Cr, IL-10, IL-6 and IL-1β.
Figure 3
Effect of T-5224 on serum BUN and Cr levels after LPS injection
Effect of T-5224 on serum BUN and Cr levels after LPS injection. LPS induced serum BUN and Cr levels. a, BUN in the T-5224 group was significantly lower than that in the LPS group at both 24 h and 48 h (24 h, 65.5 ± 13.8 mg/dl vs. 100 ± 15.5 mg/dl; 48 h, 79.8 ± 41.9 mg/dl vs. 180.7 ± 37.4 mg/dl). b, T-5224 also attenuated the increase of serum Cr induced in LPS group (24 h, 0.13 ± 0.04 mg/dl vs. 0.21 ± 0.10 mg/dl; 48 h, 0.32 ± 0.23 mg/dl vs. 0.93 ± 0.11 mg/dl) (n = 6–12 per group). *
Figure 4
Effect of T-5224 on serum cytokines following LPS administration
Effect of T-5224 on serum cytokines following LPS administration.a, the administration of T-5224 decreased serum IL-1β (132.7 ± 32.3 pg/ml vs. 335.5 ± 85.9 pg/ml). b, IL-6 levels were decreased after T-5224 treatment (44.4 ± 16.6 ng/ml vs. 113.4 ± 29.1 ng/ml) as compared with the LPS group. c, serum IL-10 levels in the T-5224 group were similar to the LPS group (1637.7 ± 402.3 pg/ml vs. 1597.7 ± 471.8 pg/ml) (n = 6–9 per group). **
We also examined the expression of IL-10, an anti-inflammatory cytokine, and found that stimulation with LPS resulted in an equally significant up-regulation of IL-10 in the LPS and T-5224 groups, compared with the control group.
T-5224 inhibits ICAM-1 mRNA in endothelium
To determine whether T-5224 was capable of inhibiting the infiltration of neutrophils into the injured kidney, we measured mRNA expression of ICAM-1 by quantitative real-time RT-PCR (Figure
Figure 5
Effect of T-5224 on ICAM-1 mRNA expression in injured kidney
Effect of T-5224 on ICAM-1 mRNA expression in injured kidney. Bars represent the relative ratio of ICAM-1 mRNA to the control group. T-5224 significantly inhibited LPS-induced ICAM-1 mRNA expression in the kidney (4.2 ± 1.4 vs. 8.2 ± 1.4) (n = 4–6 per group). **
T-5224 attenuated LPS-induced histopathological changes in kidney
To evaluate histopathological characteristics of kidney in mice, the tissue sections stained with hematoxylin and eosin were made (Figure
Figure 6
Renal injury after LPS injection
Renal injury after LPS injection.A, LPS caused tubular injury as manifested by tubular degeneration and dilatation. B, In contrast, there was less tubular damage in T-5224 group. The sections shown were harvested 48 h after LPS injection and stained with H&E. Magnification: ×400.
In the present study, we demonstrated that a selective c-Fos/AP-1 inhibitor, T-5224, suppressed LPS-induced TNF-α production dose-dependently. The inhibition of TNF-α is considered an effective treatment for septic AKI. The current study indicates that renal protection induced by T-5224 administration during endotoxemia occurs by controlling the expression of TNF-α and other downstream mediators.
Sepsis has been identified as the most common cause of AKI in intensive care units. Moreover, the combination of sepsis and AKI is associated with a very high mortality rate
Apart from the inhibition of serum TNF-α during endotoxemia, T-5224 decreased other serum cytokines, namely IL-1β and IL-6. IL-1β is important in multiple organ failure and death during endotoxemia. IL-1β, a pro-inflammatory cytokine, evokes similar pathophysiological responses to TNF-α. Inhibition of IL-1β signaling by treatment with recombinant IL-1β receptor antagonist, resulted in decreased mortality in an animal model of endotoxic shock
IL-10, an anti-inflammatory cytokine, plays an important role in improving survival in animals challenged with LPS and inhibits several macrophage functions including TNF-α production
The effect of T-5224 on ICAM-1 mRNA expression in the kidney was also examined. ICAM-1 is a member of the immunoglobulin-like supergene family of adhesion molecules known to mediate adherence of polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) to endothelial cells
We also examined renal histological change at 48 h after LPS injection. As previous study reported, LPS induced severe renal tubular injury
In the present study, T-5224 did not completely suppress all inflammatory mediators. One potential explanation for this could be that genes encoding TNF-α are also transcriptionally activated through nuclear factor (NF)-κB activation
We have shown that T-5224 attenuated LPS-induced AKI in mice. This protection was associated with reduced expressions of serum TNF-α and other downstream cytokines including IL-1β and IL-6. In addition, the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 was not affected by T-5224. Moreover, renal ICAM-1 mRNA induced by LPS was suppressed by T-5224.
AKI: Acute kidney injury; AP-1: Activator protein-1; BUN: Blood urea nitrogen; Cr: Creatinine; ELISA: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; ICAM-1: Intercellular adhesion molecule-1; IL: Interleukin; LPS: Lipopolysaccharide; MAPK: Mitogen-activated protein kinase; MMPs: Matrix-degrading matrix metalloproteinases; NF-κB: Nuclear factor-κB; PMN: Polymorphonuclear neutrophil; 3D: Three-dimensional; TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor-α, H&E, hematoxylin and eosin.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests (SS holds a patent relating to the content of the manuscript, but has never received reimbursements, fees, funding, or salary from a company relating to the content of the manuscript).
Authors' contributions
HM, JM and UM designed and coordinated the study. HM was responsible for blood sample collection, and data acquisition. JM and UM were involved in the interpretation of the data and manuscript drafting. JM, UM, KN and NM reviewed the manuscript. SS conceived the study. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
We thank Toyama Chemical Co., Ltd. for providing T-5224 generously and Miss Hiromi Tanaka for technical support.
Acute renal failure and sepsis
Immune regulation by microvascular endothelial cells: directing innate and adaptive immunity, coagulation, and inflammation
The enigma of sepsis
Transcription factor AP-1 regulation by mitogen- activated protein kinase signal transduction pathways
Treatment of arthritis with a selective inhibitor of c-Fos/activator protein-1
The role of ICAM-1 in endotoxin-induced acute renal failure
Ischemic acute tubular necrosis induces an extensive local cytokine response. Evidence for induction of interferon-gamma, transforming growth factor-beta 1, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, interleukin-2, and interleukin-10
Cancer therapy and renal injury
Involvement of endogenous interleukin-10 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in renal ischemia-reperfusion injury
TNF-alpha mediates chemokine and cytokine expression and renal injury in cisplatin nephrotoxicity
Acute renal failure in endotoxemia is caused by TNF acting directly on TNF receptor-1 in kidney
Activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase in bacterial lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophages
Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist reduces mortality from endotoxin shock
Elevated plasma concentrations of IL-6 and elevated APACHE II score predict acute kidney injury in patients with severe sepsis
Apoptotic cell death in patients with sepsis, shock, and multiple organ dysfunction
Interleukin-10 and the interleukin-10 receptor
The role of tumor necrosis factor-α for interleukin-10 production by murine dendritic cells
Neutrophils in development of multiple organ failure in sepsis
Induction of ICAM-1 by TNF-alpha, IL-1 beta and LPS in human endothelial cells after downregulation of PKC
Complement is activated in kidney by endotoxin but does not cause the ensuing acute renal failure
The NF-κB and I-κB proteins: new discoveries and insights
Pre-publication history
The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here:


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Davis' streak spanned two seasons, from Nov. 6, 1971-Oct. 21, 1972. The last time Henry failed to notch a score was in the LSU game last season on Nov. 8.
Here are notes from Alabama's 27-14 win over Arkansas in Bryant-Denny Stadium Saturday.
Alabama now owns the series advantage 16-8 (19-7 before forfeited and vacated games). Bama extended its winning streak over the Razorbacks to nine games, including six in a row in Tuscaloosa.
Alabama Coach Nick Saban is 11-2 (12-2 before the 2007 vacated win) against Arkansas, with his only two losses coming in his first three years at LSU (2000 and 2002). Saban's losses to Arkansas came in War Memorial Stadium in Little Rock, Ark. Saban has never lost a game to Arkansas in Baton Rouge, Fayetteville or Tuscaloosa and in his ninth year at Bama has seen the Crimson Tide take all nine games on the field against the Hogs.
With Adam Griffith's 24-yard field goal on Alabama's first offensive series of the game, the Crimson Tide has scored in the first half of its last 109 games, the longest streak in the nation. The last time UA failed to score in the first half was on Sept. 29, 2007, when Alabama and Florida State headed into halftime in a scoreless tie. The Seminoles won that game, 21-14. Alabama has a 93-16 record during the streak.
Alabama has now scored in 189 consecutive games – the longest streak in program history.
The 81-yard touchdown pass from Jake Coker to Calvin Ridley was the 11th-longest in Alabama history. The play was the longest since a connection of 87 yards from Blake Sims to Kenyan Drake a season ago against Florida on Sept. 20, 2014. The pass-and-catch was also the longest play for the Crimson Tide in the season, longest reception of Ridley's career, and longest completion of Coker's career.
Ridley finished with nine catches for 140 yards, both career-high marks for the first-year player. A week ago, the freshman totaled 120 yards at Georgia to set his high mark, and he previously reeled in a high of six against Ole Miss on Sept. 19. The 81-yard reception was also the longest of Ridley's young career.
Alabama limited Arkansas to 220 yards of total offense, the fifth time the Tide has kept a team under 300 in 2015. UA held Georgia to 299 yards, ULM to 92 yards of offense and also limited Middle Tennessee to 275 yards of offense, one week after holding Wisconsin to 268 yards of total offense in the season opener. In Saban's 114-game tenure at Alabama, the Crimson Tide has limited opponents to under 300 yards of total offense 71 times, or 62.3 per cent of the time. UA held six of its 14 opponents below 300 yards last season.
Alabama's defensive line has found multiple ways of affecting the quarterback six games into the 2015 season. The Tide's defensive front leads the nation in batted passes with 14 among its defensive ends and nose guards. Quick passing games have hindered Alabama's ability to sack the quarterback, even though UA ranks fourth in the SEC in sacks with 2.6 per game (29th nationally). Dalvin Tomlinson (DE) leads the nation among defensive linemen with six pass breakups this season (1.0 per game). Jonathan Allen (DE) is tied for eighth nationally among defensive linemen with .50 PBUs per game (three). Jarran Reed (DE) has two while A'Shawn Robinson (DE), Daron Payne (DE), and Darren Lake (NG) have one each. Add rush ends (OLBs) Denzel Devall (2) and Tim Williams (1) and Alabama's pass breakups among players with their hand in the dirt swells to 17. UCLA is the only other team in the nation double figures at 11.
Many new faces have earned a start this season for the Crimson Tide. In the Arkansas contest, freshman nose guard Daron Payne made his first career start. Previously, the most recent starting nods went to a pair of wideouts that made their first career starts against ULM, including senior Richard Mullaney and freshman Calvin Ridley. Quarterback Cooper Bateman made his first career start against Ole Miss. In the Middle Tennessee contest, Minkah Fitzpatrick (DB) and Dakota Ball (TE) each made their first career starts. In the season opener with Wisconsin, seven made their first career starts, three on defense and four on offense. On defense were Marlon Humphrey (DB), Darren Lake (DT), and Shaun Dion Hamilton (LB). The offensive starters were Jake Coker (QB), Robert Foster (WR), Dominick Jackson (OT), and Ross Pierschbacher (OG).
Honorary camptains for Alabama were former Tide All-America center Antoine Caldwell and former Bama tailback Roy Upchurch.
Captains for the Tide were cornerback Cyrus Jones, tight end O.J. Howard, and defensive lineman Jarran Reed.