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Overview of Psychology Research Methods
- Shannon Palmer
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1 Research Skills for Psychology Majors: Everything You Need to Know to Get Started Overview of Psychology Research Methods This chapter presents a brief overview of the methods used in modern psychology. It is meant to give you the big picture, not to provide the knowledge and skills required to use these methods in your own research. I begin with a set of basic concepts followed by a review of each type of method, then end with a description of some of the ways psychologists obtain data. Variables Preliminary Concepts A variable is a set of related events that can take on more than one value. The term is used in research methods much as you used it in algebra and physics classes. In physics, a variable m might represent a concept such as mass. Mass can have many different values, and in an equation like F=ma, you might give m a particular value in order to solve the equation for force. In psychology, a variable represents a psychological concept. The concept itself may highly abstract and not observable but the variable is something observable and measurable that allows us to do research on the concept. (This is idea is termed operationalization of a construct in the Theories and Models chapter.) For example, intelligence is an unobservable concept but IQ is a number that is derived from a test. IQ is a variable because it is observable and can assume more than one value. Some variables used in psychological research, such as gender or age, or not abstract at all. Imagine a favorite experiment of high school science fair project: the effect of distraction on retention while studying for a test. In this experiment, distraction and information retention are concepts that can be represented by variables such as the presence/absence of noise and score on an exam. The noise variable might be given two values by the research (e.g., noise present, noise absent). The exam performance variable could have a lot of different values depending on the type of test given (e.g., on a 100 point test, there are 101 possible values). Psychological research is all about variables and values. In the next sections I discuss the most important types of variables. Independent Variable An independent variable (IV) is directly controlled by the researcher. In the science fair example, noise is the independent variable. In experiments, the IV is carefully controlled to have just certain values so that the researcher can deter W. K. Gabrenya Jr. Version: 1.0
2 Page 2 mine how it affects other variables. Usually when researchers want to control the values of an IV they manipulate it. Manipulation refers to the researcher s complete control over the values of the variable. For example, the researcher controls whether or not a particular person in the distraction-retention experiment studies in a noisy or a quiet environment (the person is not allowed to choose). When this control of the IV is accomplished by manipulation, the IV is called the manipulated independent variable. Manipulated IVs have a special meaning in research because they are used in experiments (discussed in a later section) to show cause and effect relationships. Some independent variables are based on preexisting qualities of the subjects rather than manipulations. Such IVs are termed classification or demographic variables. Classification variables include categories that cannot be manipulated but are inherent characteristics of the subject, such as age, gender, religious affiliation, or ethnicity. Some of these characteristics are capable of change, such as age and religion, but not due to the actions of a researcher in a study. Classification variables may be assumed to have causal effects, but because they are not controlled by the experimenter, one can never be sure. The word independent is used here to imply that no other variables in the experiment affects the IV, not that it is somehow completely independent of anything; the research does control it. Most experiments include more than one IV, e.g., the noise study would be more interesting if a second IV, difficulty of the material to be retained, were also included. Dependent Variable The variable that is affected by the independent variable is termed the dependent variable (DV). The manipulation of the IV is hypothesized to affect the value of the DV, so the DV is at the effect end of the cause-effect relationship. In the example, score on an exam is the DV and, if everything was done just right, we can assume that the manipulated IV (noise) was the cause of the observed test score. Much of the story of research methods is about the creation, measurement, analysis and interpretation of IVs and DVs, and you will see these terms continually throughout the book. Doing everything just right is the challenge of all research and determines whether or not its results make any sense. Research Designs Many research designs have been developed in psychology over the last century. In this section I review only the most important ones. You should be able to see that every design has pros and cons, and that the best research program uses a combination of different designs to develop and test a theory. Experimental Design The most-favored design in modern psychology is the experiment. When the term experiment is used in research design, it refers to a specific method as described in this section, not generically to any kind of empirical research. Experiments are special because they are the only kind of design that can, if everything is done just right, unambiguously demonstrate a cause-effect relationship. To qualify
3 Page 3 for an experiment, a study must have the following minimal characteristics: 1. The independent variable must be completely controlled 2. The sample of research participants (subjects) must be randomly chosen 3. The research participants (subjects) must be assigned randomly to conditions Requirement 1 is that the IV must be carefully and cleanly controlled by the researcher, usually through careful manipulation. For example, in the distractionretention study, the experimenter must control the subjects experience of a noisy (or quiet) environment. In the simplest possible experiment, one group of subjects would be placed in a noisy environment while studying and the other in a quiet environment. The noisy group would be called the experimental group or the treatment group and the quiet group would be called the control group or comparison group. Only the research setting can be allowed to control the noise, and every detail of the environment in the experimental and control groups must be absolutely identical except the presence of noise. The second requirement is that the subjects must be randomly chosen. The group of subjects that will participate in the experiment is called a sample. The sample must be chosen randomly from the target population. The target population is the group of people (or animals in animal research) to which we want to generalize the research findings. In other words, once we successfully perform an experiment, we want to be able to say that the results of the study apply to everyone in the target population, not just to the sample of people that we used in the study. If the sample is chosen randomly from the target population, we can say that the results generalize to that population. The third requirement, that subjects are assigned randomly to conditions, is extremely important. Conditions refers to the groups of subjects who receive different values of the IV: noise condition, no-noise condition. By randomly assigning subjects to conditions we can be sure that there is no difference between the people in the different conditions. That way, if the IV does have an effect on the DV, we can assume that it s not because the people in the conditions were different. For example, consider the possibility in the distraction experiment that you decided to test all of the subjects in the noise condition in the afternoons and all of the no-noise condition subjects in the morning. Perhaps you did this so you wouldn t disturb the residents of the apartment complex next door to your lab early in the morning. By doing this you have committed a grave error, noise ordinances aside. The problem here is simple: you can t know if it is the difference between noise and no-noise that affects retention test results, or if it is something about studying and taking tests in the morning versus in the afternoon that affects the test results. The noise manipulation has become combined or confounded with the alertness of the subjects. It s quite possible that many of the morning subjects were still sleepy and most of the afternoon subjects were wide awake. If so, then your experiment might show that noise condition subjects scored better on the retention test than no-noise condition subjects. Because you didn t randomly assign subjects to conditions, you will never know if your result
4 Page 4 was due to the noise or to the sleepiness. The experiment has failed. Confounding is an important term in research methods. When a variable is confounded it has lost its original, pure meaning by becoming tied to something else. When this happens, you can t know for sure whether the IV affects the DV or something else that has become attached to the IV affects the DV. The solution to this problem in the present example is to randomly assigned each subject to one of the conditions just as he or she walks in the door using some kind of random method, like flipping a coin. Both noise and nonoise condition subjects would be run throughout the day. Experiments are very useful in providing the control and precision required to show causal relationships. No other method can do this as well. The problem with experiments is that this control and precision come at a cost in realism and in the range of phenomena that can be practically studied. Although experiments can be conducted in field settings, where field refers to a natural setting outside the laboratory, the cleanest experiments are conducted in unnatural lab settings. These unnatural settings reduce the ecological validity of the research: the extent to which the research realistically represents a normal human activity. When ecological validity is low, the results of even the best experiments are not necessarily interesting or convincing to psychologists or to non-psychologists who use our research. Besides problems of ecological validity, many phenomena cannot be studied using experimental methods because the IV cannot be manipulated. How would you study the effect of gender on conformity in a true experiment? Gender is a classification IV with so much stuff attached to it (sex, child-rearing experiences, social roles, etc. etc.) that a pure, unconfounded gender effect is meaningless. But it cannot be manipulated and you cannot assign subjects to its two (or more) conditions randomly, so it is not usable in a true experiment. Quasi-Experimental Design Quasi means to some degree or almost, so a quasi-experimental design is almost an experimental design. In such designs, one or more of the requirements of the true experiment is missing. However, if performed carefully and if a variety of possible threats to the study s validity are attended to, a quasi-experimental study may be able to demonstrate a causal relationship. Quasi-experimental research is most often performed in natural settings where the research question is very important but a true experiment is impossible or too expensive. For example, much educational research is quasi-experimental because it must be conducted on real students in real schools without disrupting the educational process. An example of a quasi-experiment is a study of a violence prevention educational program in junior high schools. You may recall the pleasant experiences you had in junior high school in locker rooms, hallways, and lunch rooms. The treatment in such a study might be psychoeducational : presenting students with information about the problems of violence, performing anger-control training, and teaching interpersonal skills. The treatment group would comprise captive groups of students who receive this training during 4th Period once a week for 8 weeks. The Another way to ruin this experiment Let s assume your are a nice guy and you allow the subjects to choose whether they want to come to your experiment in the morning or in the afternoon. And because you are so nice, you don t want to disturb the neighbors so you only run the noise conditions in the afternoon. If you find that the no-noise condition performs better on the retention task, what can you conclude?
5 Page 5 control group would receive an alternate, unrelated experience during 4th Period, maybe music lessons. Four schools would participate, and in each school, half the 4th Period English classes would be randomly chosen to receive the treatment, and half would receive the control. The dependent variable would be a measure of violent incidents of several types occurring in the schools for the remainder of the school year. This is not a true experiment because the students were not randomly sampled from the population of junior high school students (only four schools were used) and individual students were not randomly assigned to the conditions of the study. Furthermore, because a whole classroom could develop a group dynamic that would affect everyone in the room, the subjects are not exactly individual students, but rather the English classes as wholes. If the really violent kids gradually transitioned from the classroom to the county jail, violence might go down in both conditions as time passed. If the kids talked about their experiences outside of class, the violence prevention training might spill over to the control group and violence would be reduced in both conditions. (This is not necessarily a bad thing in itself, but it hurts the research.) If the training were really boring, the experimental group might be in a bad mood and beat up the control group kids who had fun learning the accordion. But having said all these negative things about this study, in fact it s not too bad. If the problems just described, and more, were carefully examined, a causal effect could be fairly inferred from the outcome (assuming of course that the treatment worked). Correlational Design In much research there is no hope of controlling or manipulating the independent variable, so instead all of the variables are simply measured. For example, all survey research is comprised of measured variables such as answers to opinion questions. If you wanted to know if a personality trait affects behavior in a certain situation, you would have to measure the trait and observe the behavior; you cannot manipulate the trait. (Actually, some research does manipulate personality traits, but only in short-term, weak ways.) A great deal of social science research is conducted in this way because no manipulation of the variables is possible. A correlational design is a research method that examines the relationship between two or more measured variables. Causal relationships are very difficult to prove in correlational research due to the researcher s lack of control over the independent variable. Indeed, it often unclear which of the variables is the IV and which is the DV. As an example of a correlational design, consider this published study: The researchers wanted to know if observing TV violence increases people s sense of paranoia. They performed a door-to-door survey of several neighborhoods in a large city. At each residence, they asked the adults how much and what kind of TV they watched, and measured paranoia by asking them to estimate the probabilities of being the victim of several kinds of crime within a certain period of time. Implicitly, the IV in this study is TV viewing and the DV is paranoia. However, because they did not manipulate TV viewing, they had poor control over the variable and could at best determine if there was a relationship between viewing and paranoia. The results of the study were as the researchers expected: people who watched more violent TV were more paranoid. This finding is quite interesting even if
6 causality can t be proven. Figure 1 illustrates the finding in an idealized (overly simple and perfect) manner. Think of each dot in the oval as one respondent (subject). Respondents who were lower in TV viewing were lower in paranoia, and vice-versa. This long oval pattern indicates a high correlation or relationship between the two variables. (How these data are treated quantitatively is discussed in a later chapter.) The researchers also assessed the social class of their respondents. Then they made the mistake of dividing the respondents into working class and middle class groups and looking at the TV-paranoia relationship within each group. Figure 2 illustrates Figure 1. Results for the whole sample. what happened. The fat oval with the red dots is the working class subsample and the fat oval with the blue dots is the middle class subsample. Because these ovals are not long and sleek as in Figure 1, the relationships between TV viewing and paranoia are now quite weak. Middle Class respondents watched less TV and were less paranoid than the Working Class respondents, but within each social class subsample there was virtually no relationship between TV viewing and paranoia. In other words, if you were a Middle Class person who watches more TV than most Middle Class people, you would not be more paranoid. This is a classic example of a spurious correlation. The correlation illustrated in Figure 1 between TV and paranoia in the full sample was spurious, that is, was actually caused by something else: a third variable, social class. Sometimes this situation is referred to as the third variable problem, but more than one additional variable can be responsible for a spurious relationship. It is also sometimes called a confounding, similar to the case in an experiment when the IV is contaminated by something other than the experimental manipulation. We can interpret this finding in several ways. First, maybe there is no relationship between TV viewing and paranoia. Middle Class people s perception that their neighborhoods are safe and Working Class people s perception that their neighborhoods are less safe may simply be correct and have nothing to with watching TV. The fact that Middle Class people watch less TV than Working Class people is sort of interesting, but irrelevant. Second, maybe Working Class people s knowledge of their unsafe neighborhoods drives them indoors where it s safe. This study was conducted before home computers were common so what else was there to do besides watch TV? Third, because Working Class people watch more TV, and because their TVs are inside the house, and because when no one is outside crime runs anonymously rampant, the act of watching so much TV actually is responsible for the greater crime in Working Class neighborhoods, and what the researchers called paranoia is really just an ac- Page 6 Figure 2. After dividing the sample into two groups.
7 Page 7 curate assessment about what s going on outside while they watch TV. (This lastmost explanation is a little far-fetched.) The fact that we can find so many different explanations for the results of this study illustrates how hard it can sometimes be to figure out what the results of a correlational study really mean. In this study, we say for certain that amount of TV viewing predicts how dangerous people think their neighborhoods are (if you know how much TV a person watches, you can look at Figure 1 and predict how paranoid he or she is), but it is not very helpful in explaining Why? this relationship holds. Good correlational research measures all of the variables that might be related to the key variables and tries to rule out spurious relationships so that the important ones can be understood. This is difficult to do and has resulted in some long and bitter arguments about the proper interpretation of large scale correlational studies conducted to understand important societal processes, such as the causes of poverty. Advanced techniques have been developed recently that allow us to look very carefully at complicated, multiple-variable correlational designs and tease out the causal relationships. Wine and Cheese My favorite confounding occurred in the research on drinking red wine and reduced heart disease. For years, the research supported this relationship and I was joyous. However, the researchers messed up (they were, after all, only medical doctors) by not measuring the social class of the study participants. When social class is taken into account, the results are very similar to the TV viewing study described in text. Upper Middle Class people have better health-related habits, get better medical treatment, and experience less stress than Working Class people. So they have lower heart disease. For cultural and financial reasons, they also happen to drink more red wine. To be fair, the most recent research found that moderate alcohol consumption reduces heart disease regardless of social class. Differential Research A special class of correlational research, differential research, is sometimes treated as a separate research design. Differential research is correlational research in which one or more of the variables cannot possibly be affected by the others, for example gender, age, or nationality. When relationships are found between differential variables and correlational variables, one of the possible interpretations that a correlational variable can be the cause of a differential variable can be discounted right away. As an example, many studies have been performed in social psychology to look at gender differences in helping. Overall, these studies have found that woman are more helpful when the act of helping does not entail danger, while men are more helpful when helping may be dangerous. Of course, the differential variable, gender, is never manipulated in such studies and one s gender does not change as a result of how helpful one is. The conclusion therefore is that gender causes helping in an interaction with degree of danger. The main drawback in making this causal inference is that gender is a complex package of personal characteristics, so just knowing the gender effect doesn t tell us much. Looking just at safe helping, are women more helpful because they are kinder people? Are they more averse to guilt at not helping? Are they afraid of violating their expected gender role by being unhelpful? Are they more socially perceptive? Could it be genetic? Identifying the gender effect is certainly interesting, but it leaves a lot of questions unanswered and the Why? of it is not satisfied well. A similar, more serious case could be made for differential variables such as culture. A famous anthropologist, John Whiting, suggested that we need to unpackage culture in order to understand cultural differences. The unpackaging would separate all the many components of culture environments, economies, histories,
8 Page 8 wealth, customs, norms, languages in order to see which one is responsible for observed differences in the behavior of people from different places. In his research, he used data about hundreds of cultural traits from hundreds of living and extinct cultures to find these unpackaged relationships. Experiments are easier! Where Data Come From Research designs, as presented in the previous section, concern the types of variables that are used in research and the extent to which the researcher has control over these variables. The manner in which data are obtained for use in these designs is partially, but not completely, independent of the designs themselves. In this section I present some of the most common sources of data and research settings. Laboratory Research Research conducted in special facilities designed for careful instrumentation and isolation from the complexity of natural life is termed laboratory research. In the natural sciences, labs are places where equipment is constructed and used. This is also true in psychology, although psychology labs are frequently not much more than an empty room. What distinguishes the empty room lab from the real world is that all of the activity in the room is focused on performing a research study and whatever would normally happen in the room is not happening during the research. The isolation of the lab from the real world facilitates the control required to conduct experiments (in the formal meaning of this word). This advantage of the laboratory in allowing great control is also its weakness in removing the research from natural settings and activities. Labs are therefore usually low in ecological validity, as discussed in a previous section of this chapter. Another disadvantage of the lab setting is that the research subjects are highly (humans) or dimly (rats) aware that they are in a special place in which their behavior is being observed and strange things could happen. As a result of this awareness, behavior in lab research can be not only unnatural, but also distorted in such a way that the experiment loses some control. The ways in subject awareness poses a problem for research are discussed in a later chapter. Field Research Research in natural settings in which the subject performs normal behaviors is termed, most generally, field research. The same empty room used in a lab study can also be used in a field study if the subjects are in it for normal reasons and perform normal activities unaware that they are in a research study. When experiments are performed in the field they are called field experiments. Non-experimental research in the field is termed a field study, and this method includes observational research (see next section). The realism of field research is balanced by the problems of maintaining control, so good experiments are more difficult to perform. Many field experiments are therefore quasi-experiments.
9 Page 9 Observational Research Psychologists, sociologists and anthropologists employ a type of field research called observational research to obtain information about real-world behavior. In controlled observational research, the researcher sets up the situation then observes the natural behavior that occurs in this situation. In this way a certain degree of control is imposed on the situation so that behavior takes place within a narrower range than it would otherwise. An extreme version of controlled observation is the simulation (discussed in a later section). Most controlled observation research is designed to allow the researcher to obtain detailed information about natural behavior that can be quantified in some way, that is, represented as numbers. For example, the author performed research in Taiwan in which he video taped junior high school students solving problems, then coded each and every phrase they uttered on tape in order to understand the communication strategies they used to come to a solution. Napoleon Chagnon (a cool guy)... In naturalistic observation the researcher does not create the situation, but rather observes normal, ongoing behavior. The observed behavior is also quantified, but it s more difficult to obtain as much detail due to the lack of any control. A classic example of this type of research is the Six Cultures Study, performed in the 1960s by anthropologists and cross-cultural psychologists with a large research grant from a US government agency. In one part of this large study, observers watched and coded the natural play activities of children in six cultures over a period of several months. The coded activities were used to understand the relationships between cultural characteristics such as family structure and the personalities of children. In some social science disciplines, a proper research study requires the researcher to live among or interact closely with the subjects. Cultural anthropologists favor ethnographic field research, an observational technique in which the researcher lives among the natives (this term is never used!) for an extended period of time, learning their language and practicing some of their customs. The goal of this type of research is to learn the culture from the people s point of view and at the same time to understand it in terms of the theories and models of scientific anthropology. The most famous or infamous example of this type of research is Napoleon Chagnon s dissertation research among the Yanamamö in the jungle region bordering Brazil and Venezuela. Lived in a village like this for a year... A similar type of research, participant observation, places the researcher in the social setting of the subjects under study, performing the same activities as the subjects. For example, if the researcher wants to study a social setting such as used car dealerships, he or she becomes a used care salesman for a while. These types of research offer virtually no control but can be used to obtain rich descriptive information on which formal theories can be based, and can be used to obtain specific kinds of information to test With people like this.
10 Page 10 the validity of an existing theory in a new setting. Surveys and Self-Reports Research that obtains information from subjects by asking them to report on their behaviors, attitudes, values, beliefs, and feelings is generically called survey research. The term self-report research is also used. Asking someone to tell the researcher what he or she did, plans to do, would do, wants to do, or might have done is distinctly different from observing his or her actual behavior. Behavioral reports are sometimes called behavioroid measures to distinguish them from real behavior. Likewise, asking somewhat what he or she thinks, thought, expects to think, should have thought, or ought to think is different than the thinking itself. Reports of this kind are sometimes called semantic, declarative reports because they depend on the respondent s ability to formulate the reported thought in consciousness then articulate it either in words or through a questionnaire or survey instrument. Behavior can often be observed but the problem with internal constructs like beliefs and values is that they are not directly observable; the subject must tell us. This reporting of internal states to the research has many problems, but few reliable alternatives exist. Several kinds of survey methods are used, the most common of which is the questionnaire. A variety of questionnaire types have been developed since they become popular in the 1920s and 1930s. Details about questionnaires are presented in a later chapter. The three most common types are the Likert scale, the 7-point scale, and true/false items. Likert scales ask respondents to rate the extent to which they agree or disagree with a statement. The use of explicit item response anchors ( strongly agree ) makes is easy to report the results in a familiar way, so Likert scales are used in opinion polling: The drinking age should be raised to 35. Strongly agree Somewhat agree Neutral Somewhat disagree Strongly disagree Seven-point scales often require the respondent to rate a concept on a bipolar scale by placing a check mark on one of the lines. Many studies use more or fewer than seven response categories. Pizza: good bad I would purchase a frozen pizza from Publix on a Wednesday evening on the way home after school: Definitely would definitely would purchase not purchase
11 Page 11 True-false measures are used in personality tests and occasionally in other types of surveys: I am careful to step over the cracks in the sidewalk. I wash my hands after using a Microsoft product. true false true false Survey methods also employ interviews and focus groups. Interviews that are used to collect self-report research data are often highly structured, that is, the interviewer follows a predetermined script and is careful to obtain usable answers. Q: How many different tasks do you normally perform during a typical day at work? A: Really quite a few Q: Would you say more than 10 or fewer than 10? A: I think about 6 Q: Could you please try to name those 6 tasks? A: Well, sometimes I write exams that no one can understand, and sometimes I give registration advice that is completely wrong, and on Tuesdays I teach nonsense to the clinical graduate students, and... A focus group is a small group of people brought together to determine what members of an identifiable population ( likely voters, people in the market to buy a car ) think about an issue. The focus group is lead by trained facilitators who attempt to tease out the members real thoughts about the issue at hand in a structured and systematic manner. Focus groups present an efficient way for getting a general idea about what people think about an issue, but do not provide good research data. Simulations An interesting but infrequently used technique for gathering information is the contolled simulation. In a simulation, the researcher creates the main features of a real world setting then places subjects in the setting performing activities typical of that situation. The goal of the research is to determine the effect of the situation on the subjects s behavior. The most famous simulation performed in psychology is the Stanford Prison Study. Philip Zimbardo, now president of the American Psychological Association, performed this experiment in 1971 in the basement of the Stanford University psychology department. He created a prison in the basement and randomly assigned a group of male volunteers to be inmates or guards. He found that the physical and social situation of a prison produces prison-like behavior in normal people: rebellion, cruelty, and psychological dysfunction. Other simulations evidence similar findings, pointing to the power of the situation over the influence of personality in many social behaviors. Simulations contribute wonderful information about the possibilities of human behavior, but they do not yield systematic research data that can, in themselves, test a theory. Archival Research Sometimes the researcher can answer a theoretical question by digging up existing data from archival sources. Because humans in cultures record so much of what
12 Page 12 they do, this accumulated information presents many research opportunities. For example, a study by Keith Simonton tested the theory that political leadership in revolutionary times requires single-minded devotion to the cause but leadership of an established peace-time government requires complex, multifaceted thinking. He collected the speeches given by revolutionary leaders before and after the revolution and analyzed them for the amount of cognitive complexity they displayed. He found that successful revolutionaries were simple minded zealots and successful peacetime leaders were complex thinkers. Successful revolutionaries who become more complex after the revolution (Fidel Castro) were successful in office but those who did not (Leon Trotsky) were unsuccessful. (Josef Stalin had Trotsky s head cut off in Mexico, indicating a lack of success.) Simonton s study also illustrates the use of content analysis. In order to determine if a speech was complex or simple, judges had to read the speech and analyze its content according to a predetermined set of rules. Qualitative Research Social science and psychology are suddenly becoming very interested in qualitative research, as evidenced by the many books that have been published on this topic in the last five or so years. Qualitative research is a broad umbrella that includes a variety of methods that have in common an attempt to find the meaning of a phenomenon without resorting to methods that separate the researcher from the subject or that reduce the subject to quantitative (numerical) values. Ethnographic field research and participant observation are types of qualitative research. Other types include analysis of cultural artifacts such as art and poetry, dream analysis, analyzing the layers of meaning in literature and myth, analyzing the hidden meanings in verbal interaction, case studies (looking at just one person s story) and more. To most psychologists, these methods are considered useful for generating ideas but not adequate for rigorous testing of theories or identifying causal relationships. However, a minority of psychologists appreciate the ability of qualitative methods to reveal the richness of the human experience in a way that quantitative research cannot (and is not intended to) do. Which Research Design, Which Data Source? Deciding which research to use is a complex question driven by many factors, including the theory you are working out of, your resources, and the nature of the psychological phenomenon that you are studying. In the real world of psychology research, scientists work within long-term research programs in which the methods and data sources have been figured out based on the several factors just listed, and these choices don t need to be made for each and every study. Highly successful researchers find the right designs and the right data sources and use them effectively and intensely.
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text:
Hello all of the other admins,
I'm looking for one other person to help me change some stories in the HTP section over to the Troll Pasta section (and vise versa).
Our mission: One person, myself, will move stories (such as Hyper-Realistic) over to the Troll Pasta category and another person will look for HTPs that have been tagged as Troll Pasta and then move those over to the HTP category.
Two people working together will make this go a helluva lot faster. The first person to volunteer will get the job. I'll leave a message on your talk page tomorrow to let you know when we start.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
The influence of psychosocial factors on expectations and persistent symptom report after mild traumatic brain injury
Edmed, Shannon L. (2014) The influence of psychosocial factors on expectations and persistent symptom report after mild traumatic brain injury. PhD by Publication, Queensland University of Technology.
|Shannon Edmed Thesis (PDF 801kB)
This thesis examines how psychosocial factors influence the report of persistent symptoms after mild traumatic brain injury. Using quasi-experimental methods, the research program demonstrates how factors unrelated to trauma-induced physiological brain damage can contribute to persistent symptoms after a mild traumatic brain injury. The results of this thesis highlight the possibility that outcome from mild traumatic brain injury could be improved by targeting psychosocial factors.
Impact and interest:
Citation counts are sourced monthly from Scopus and Web of Science® citation databases.
These databases contain citations from different subsets of available publications and different time periods and thus the citation count from each is usually different. Some works are not in either database and no count is displayed. Scopus includes citations from articles published in 1996 onwards, and Web of Science® generally from 1980 onwards.
Citations counts from the Google Scholar™ indexing service can be viewed at the linked Google Scholar™ search.
Full-text downloads:
Full-text downloads displays the total number of times this work's files (e.g., a PDF) have been downloaded from QUT ePrints as well as the number of downloads in the previous 365 days. The count includes downloads for all files if a work has more than one.
|ID Code:
|Item Type:
|QUT Thesis (PhD by Publication)
|Sullivan, Karen & White, Melanie
|Additional Information:
|Thesis embargoed until 12th of November, 2016. Please contact the author for further information.
|postconcussion syndrome, mild traumatic brain injury, concussion, assessment, athletes, diagnosis threat, expectations, recall bias, sport concussion, symptom assessment
|Current > QUT Faculties and Divisions > Faculty of Health
Current > Institutes > Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation
|Queensland University of Technology
|Deposited On:
|15 Jan 2015 04:36
|Last Modified:
|23 Jun 2017 14:46
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Whenever we have a super hot printable coupon, I like to close out the day with a "Coupon of the Day" post. That way folks get an extra chance to see the hot coupon and print it before it's gone. Today's top coupon was easy to choose. Chicken of the Sea coupons are very rare and this coupon is a very high value one. Hurry and grab your prints ASAP!
BOGO Chicken of the Sea Salmon Pouch printable manufacturer's coupon (preclipped)Extreme Couponing Tip: You can usually get two prints of most internet coupons. To find them in the easiest possible way, use our preclipped links that take you right to the coupon. Then come back and click the same link to get your 2nd print. This will save you the time spent searching for the coupon.
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Genital warts, also known as venereal warts, are a sexually transmitted disease associated with pain and discomfort from itching and burning sensations. Genital warts affect the moist tissues of the genital area, causing irritation. A home remedy using aloe vera gel can be used to soothe skin and reduce inflammation, which can be especially helpful in providing comfort at night.
Where to Find Aloe Vera
Obtain aloe vera gel directly from an aloe vera plant for maximum benefits. Look for the thickest leaves, usually the outside leaves at the bottom of the plant. Trim the thorny edges and remove the skin from the top of the leaf, and then, holding the bottom part of the leaf, use a knife to slide the gel substance from inside the leaf into a container. You can refrigerate aloe gel using a food-safe container with a lid.
You can grow your own aloe vera plant outdoors or indoors. Aloe vera is a cactus-like plant requiring very little watering, but it does enjoy sunlight. When growing aloe vera indoors, keep it near a window to be sure it gets enough light.
How to Apply
Apply the aloe gel directly to skin with your fingers. The gel will be cool and comforting to irritated and itchy skin, especially if it's been refrigerated. Apply it immediately after showering and allow it to sink in without being washed off. As aloe gel can be sticky, this home remedy works best at night when you can leave the application on while sleeping for overnight relief.
As a home remedy, aloe gel is gentle enough to be applied on and inside the genitals during a genital warts breakout.
Why Aloe Vera Gel Works
Aloe vera gel feeds the skin with nutrients, including the amino acid lysine. This helps heal the infection while allowing the skin to breathe naturally and remain dry. The gel soothes the skin and relieves itching, which also reduces further damage to skin from scratching.
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Last year's olive harvest in Calaveras was a little light compared to previous years, but the oil made from those olives has been winning awards and turning heads. Two Calaveras olive oil producers – Mangini Ranch and Winter Creek Olive Oil – took home silver medals from the California State Fair earlier this summer.
Olives have a long history in Calaveras, with many orchards dating back to the Gold Rush. One of those old orchards, about six acres near Wallace, was slated for removal a few years ago when Kris and Alan Mangini saw an opportunity to buy the land and save the trees. For the past two or three seasons, the Manginis have been cleaning up the orchard, tilling the soil, and processing the harvested olives at their on-site mill. They also planted another acre of new trees and are expecting a better harvest this year, thanks to some well timed late spring rains.
Down the road in Valley Springs is the ranch that Jim and Mary Anne Melson, of Winter Creek Olive Oil, retired to in 2000. In 2003 they planted 250 trees, all Tuscan in variety – 90% Frantoio and 10% Leccino. They had initially sought to plant grapes, but were persuaded to go with olives instead. Ed Rich, of Calaveras Olive Oil, help them decide on which varieties to plant and they also formed a partnership with Mangini Ranch, whose mill the Melsons use to process their fruit. Both couples attended the State Fair this summer, offering samples of their products and meeting new people interested in Calaveras County and its olive oils.
Mangini Ranch oil can be found retailing at Gold Country in Jackson, Tangles in Valley Springs and at the San Andreas farmers market on the second Wednesday of the month. Winter Creek, which has two labels – Winter Creek Oil and Ruscello d'Inverno, can be found at Tanner Vineyards tasting room in Murphys and at the Treasure Island Flea Market on the last weekend of the month. For the past three years, the two businesses have also teamed up to offer a special harvest experience to some of their customers who come pick olives, then get to help press them into oil and take home a bottle of the olive oil they helped produce.
To contact Mangini Ranch and inquire about orchard visits during harvest time, contact: Kris Mangini, 209-763-1033 or email: firstname.lastname@example.com
Winter Creek and Jim and Mary Anne Melson can be contacted at: 209-772-2738 or email: firstname.lastname@example.com
More olive oil producers in Calaveras
Copperopolis Olive Oil Company – They grow and bottle four Tuscan varieties available for purchase online and from their store at 621 McCarty Street, Copperopolis, CA 95228. Call 209-785-6868 for more information.
Calaveras Olive Oil Company – 15 European varieties grown locally available for purchase online and from their store located in the old 1890 bank building located at 665 O'Byrnes Ferry Road, Copperopolis, CA 95228. Call 209-785-1000 for more information.
Three Ponds Olive Oil – Producing boutique, estate, extra virgin olive oil from four varieties grown without any pesticides or chemicals utilizing solar power and gravity for drip irrigation. Contact them directly to order using their online contact form or call: 650-814-1230. You can also mail them at P.O. Box 592, Burson, CA 95225.
Rocca Bella Olive Oil – Soon opening a new tasting room for their four varieties of locally grown extra virgin olive oils. Call 209-763-2676 for updates. Currently located at 5476 Highway 12, Wallace, CA 95254.


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Sinners in the Hands of a Merciful God
Dr. Ray PritchardDr. Ray Pritchard is the president of Keep Believing Ministries, an Internet-based ministry serving Christians in 225 countries. He is the author of 29 books, including Stealth Attack, Fire and Rain, Credo, The ABCs of Christmas, The Healing Power of Forgiveness, An Anchor for the Soul and Why Did This Happen to Me? Ray and Marlene, his wife of 39 years, have three sons - Josh, Mark and Nick, two daughters-in-law- Leah and Vanessa, and four grandchildren - Knox, Eli, Penny and Violet. His hobbies include biking, surfing the Internet, and anything related to the Civil War.
- 2006 Aug 25
We have just posted the latest sermon in the series "Understanding God's Plan (Romans 9-11)":
Sinners in the Hands of a Merciful God
You can reach the author at [email protected]. Click here to sign up for the free weekly email sermon.
Read More Dr. Ray Pritchard100 Things Learned the Hard Way Friday, August 25, 2006 The War for China's Soul Thursday, August 24, 2006


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'The Killing,' Season 1, Episode 4, 'A Soundless Echo': TV Recap
Revelations and payoffs are the name of the game in last night's episode of "The Killing," "A Soundless Echo."
The episode starts off with Linden and Holder interrogating Jasper and his tweaker friend Kris, who are seen in the video seemingly raping Rosie. Only, it turns out that the girl in the pink wig isn't Rosie, but Sterling. Sterling admits that she's been jealous of Rosie for some time, and wearing that wig and going to the cage with the two punks was her way of acting out. So Rosie wasn't in the cage that night.


text:
News By Tag
Industry News
News By Place
Industry News
Award-winning Children's Author Carol Matas Launches Her 45th Book
Tucson Jo, an historical novel for middle grades set in 1882 Tucson, tackles tough moral issues with Jewish themes
When her father decides to run for mayor of Tucson in 1882, fourteen-year-
"Without law, without order, there is no freedom," states her father, but Jo wants nothing less than the freedom he promised her when he uprooted the family from "civilized" Boston to the Wild West of the Territory of Arizonabecause of his health. When trouble erupts during the election campaign and her father's opponent attacks him for being an Israelite, Jo has to reconsider her position and even what it means to be a Jew.
Tucson Jo is inspired by the life of Charles Strauss, the first Jewish mayor of Tucson. The fast-paced novel is packed with action and deeds of derring-do, shootouts and holdups, while dealing with serious moral issues like right and wrong, law and order, and women's rights. In addition to Jo, the novel's feisty protagonist, Matas has populated the novel with such intriguing characters as Jo's younger brother, Isaac, a budding Talmudic scholar, and Jo's best friend, Connie, whose ruthless father is also running for mayor.
In writing this book, Matas especially wanted to focus on the issues of law and order or, more particularly for young people, "the rules." Are rules made to be broken? When must one follow the rules? Is there ever a good reason to disobey? What does the "rule of law" mean in our society? How is it different now than over a hundred years ago? Does might make right? Are there different rules for the rich and the poor, for men and for women, for visible minorities and for all others? What do the words "freedom" and "equality"
Tucson Jo, written for Middle Grades (ages 9 -14), is available in paperback (print on demand) and in all eBook formats: http://fictivepress.com/
About Carol Matas. Carol Matas is an internationally acclaimed author of 45 books for children and young adults, ranging from Holocaust and historical fiction, to contemporary, fantasy and science fiction. Her books, which have won numerous awards, deal with serious and thought-provoking issues. Her novels have been published all over the world in more than a dozen languages, and are loved by readers of all ages. A detailed biography of Carol Matas can be found at http://carol.carolmatas.com/
About Fictive Press. FictivePress is an indie digital and print-on-demand publisher located in British Columbia, Canada. Since 2012, Fictive Press has published six books, including Matas' When I Die, A Meditation on Death for Children & Their families (http://fictivepress.com/
To request a digital review copy of Tucson Jo, or for more information, contact Morri Mostow, Editor/Publisher, FictivePress.com.
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Ex-cop held in assault case
There are 35 comments on the Newsday story from May 25, 2007, titled Ex-cop held in assault case. In it, Newsday reports that:A former Nassau County police officer smashed his estranged wife's car windows with a claw hammer, beat her, threatened to kill her and tried to abduct her following a court appearance, authorities said Friday.
Join the discussion below, or Read more at Newsday.
#24 Jun 12, 2008
okay. he has been abusive before the accident. steve has always been this way. The abuse got worse after the accident. he did bad things. i know that family and i would like ot say that i lovwe them. i cant believe someone could do that. for all of you people that just say he did it because he was a cop you may be wrong or you may be right. but i knew him. he was never a stable guy. he never was a good man. He needed help, and he unwinded from his stressful job by beating his family. They suffered because of him. They suffered way to much. And out on bail he did even more damage. So what ever you want to write go ahead...but you werent a first hand eye witness
and amanda. dont go saying this crap like you know everything. you dont. there was more. and if you swore not to tell, dont be posting crap for the public to see.
but joe...amanda is a good friend. we told everyone we could but it was too late. At least we did something. no one is guilty but steve. For saying that you are accusing people for someone elses wrong doing. No one should be blamed. We did what we could and everyone lived so something was done right.
#25 Jun 12, 2008
i think this cop needs to be jailed forever.we need to start an online petition here to get the message out there to say "its not okay to beat your woman",we as americans need to stand up and come together and put scu*bags like this away forever.using the silly motorbike accident as an excuse hit a 10 on the lame-o-meter !!!
GOODBYE STEVE,you wont be missed one bit by society.
see you in 60 years
#26 Jul 31, 2008
f*** all of you especially- James Talamini you dont know what the f*** your talking about so you should go eat donkey shit. we r friends with kayla and your a fn disgrace to god. Bro.Steve should go with you and play a fun game of keep your f***in mouth shut and abuse eachother. i think youve been smoking too much bleezies.
peece out .
#27 Jul 31, 2008
i agree with bocc and reade f*ck you James
#28 Aug 9, 2008
#29 Aug 9, 2008
we have a queer sending messages and his name is bill oreily hes marked a 10 on the queer o meter
#30 Nov 28, 2008
we feel so bad for what happened. everyone who agrees with this guy should just stfu. we are very sorry and had no idea. tell james telemini that hes not a f-in gent if he threatened to kill his wife. WHAT A LOSER !! we love you kayla and fam.
#31 Nov 28, 2008
Wasn't this Socci guy sued for assaulting a 66 yr old guy 5 or 6 years ago and for then having the guy falsely arrested?
#33 Dec 26, 2008
lets all keep sending gay ass coments and c where that goes. im kaylas vagina speaking and i say, child abuse is bad
#34 Jun 17, 2009
sean, u should go cr5awl back to ur little hole and eat out urself nd joe scmo thaat was greAt
#36 Jul 11, 2009
Amanda dont go writing stuff on this post...you little middle scool bitch
United States
#37 Jul 21, 2009
Is this Steve Socci originaly from Valley Stream N.Y.
#38 Nov 23, 2013
What is going on.
#39 May 9, 2017
Steve was abusive before the accident and it just got worse from there. He will be way worse when he gets out!!
#40 May 9, 2017
He gets out May 15, 2017. CRAZY!! Keep him locked UP!
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Sparky is a character who first appeared in Skip and Sqak Rangers. He is a robot created by Dr. Tron to aid the SSFF's quest to save the world. He is also one of the two new members joining the SSFF, the other being Oswald.
Sparky can be controlled on the Wii U Gamepad and Vita Touch Screen. He can help the players fight off bad guys and hack into locked doors. Sparky can also distract enemy fire away from the players with Sparky's Invincibility shield to protect him and his friends.
In the Xbox 360 and PS3 version of the game, Sparky can give the player hints if they are struggling and call upon him. He is also used as a communication device to contact his creator Dr. Tron and his assistants Hip and Hop.
- Sparky's role is very similar to Murfy's from Rayman Legends, since both characters can be played on the Wii U and Vita version, but not the 360 and PS3 Version.
- Sparky's design is a close resemblance to the character Pinky from De Blob 2. Except Sparky has antennas and halo eyes.


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CHICAGO -- Loyola's style of basketball was often difficult to watch during Ramblers coach Porter Moser's first season.
The Ramblers played slow, and they played sloppy mostly due to inexperience and lack of depth at point guard. They ranked 329th in the country with 62.7 possessions per game and 243rd with 14.4 turnovers per game.
The Ramblers plan to display a completely different pace of basketball during their four-game exhibition tour in Italy, which began this week.
The 24-second shot clock will certainly force Loyola to play faster, but its two new point guards will be just as vital to the quickened pace. With the addition of junior Cully Payne, who sat out last season after transferring from Iowa, and touted freshman Jeff White, who played at Peoria Manual, Loyola is hopeful its point-guard play will be a strength this season.
"I think we'll be quicker," said Loyola senior forward Ben Averkamp, who averaged 15.4 points and 7.1 rebounds last season. "I think you'll see we've be able to get up and down a lot more. We can run two point guards."
Payne is excited just to get back to playing competitive basketball. He played five games in the 2010-2011 season at Iowa due to an injury and sat out all of last season.
"I think more than anything it helps me as a person," said Payne, who started 32 games for Iowa as a freshman. "I'm happy when I'm on the court. I love it. It's kind of what I do. I'm just excited."
Because Loyola is implementing two new point guards and seven newcomers total with Payne, six freshmen and one junior-college transfer, the Ramblers' trip to Italy couldn't have come at a better time. Loyola had 10 practices leading up to its departure and will play four teams in four cities over a two-week span in Italy.
Loyola defeated the Italy All-Stars in Rome on Tuesday and will play Pallacanestro Bassano del Grappa in Bassano del Grappa on Saturday, Zepa Marostica in Treviso on Aug. 20 and Legnano Basket in Como on Aug. 22.
"I have no doubt the talent level has risen in our program, but still half the team is freshmen," said Moser, whose team went 7-23 last season. "These practices are invaluable."
Averkamp gets Loyola will be young, but he's optimistic the Ramblers will be much improved for his senior season. He and Jordan Hicks are the team's only seniors.
"I understand they're young and have a lot being thrown at them, but in the same respect for Cully and I and especially Jordan, who has been here five years -- he's been through everything -- we see an importance to this year," Averkamp said. "Hopefully, this trip to Italy springboards us for the year."


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Oscar Pistorius will not be released from prison this Friday after it was ruled the decision to the move him to house arrest was made 'too early'.
The former Paralympic champion was due to be released this week after serving 10 months of a five-year sentence for the manslaughter of his girlfriend Reeva Steenkamp.
Yesterday it was revealed South Africa's Justice Minister was seeking legal advice on whether the parole board was right in its decision to release Pistorius on house arrest on August 21.
South Africa's Department of Justice today said Pistorius's release from prison is to be put on hold and his case must be reviewed again by a parole board because he was approved for house arrest too early into his sentence.
Pistorius should have served 10 months of his sentence in prison before he was considered for release, but instead was approved for release to correctional supervision only eight months into his sentence.
In a statement, the justice department said: "It is apparent therefore that the decision to release him on 21 August 2015 was made prematurely on 5 June 2015 when the offender was not eligible to be considered at all."
Mthunzi Mhaga, justice department spokesman, told South African broadcaster eNCA it was uncertain if the board could meet to consider the athletes case again before Friday.
He added the decision of the parole board will "have to be suspended".
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- South Africa
- Oscar Pistorius


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By Matt Wirz and Julie Wernau
The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission is investigating the sale of $850 million in bonds issued by Mozambique, the latest development in a scandal that is exposing the links between the country, three international banks and a defense contractor.
The move inserts the U.S. into a widening global investigation of Mozambique's debt deals, which involved undisclosed loans and military purchases facilitated by the banks.
In 2013, Credit Suisse AG, Russian bank VTB Group and France's BNP Paribas sold the bonds to investors for a Mozambican state-owned company that said it needed money for tuna fishing. But months later, Mozambique's government announced that the funds had also been used to buy military equipment. Bondholders were also unaware that Credit Suisse and VTB made $1.2 billion in undisclosed bank loans to other state-owned companies for additional military purchases until The Wall Street Journal reported on the deals in April.
The SEC last month sent letters to bondholders asking them for documents provided by Credit Suisse, VTB and BNP Paribas during the sale of the bonds, according to a copy of the letter reviewed by the Journal. The letter also requested investors turn over all communications to and from the banks related to the bonds.
The SEC declined to comment.
British and Swiss regulators launched similar probes in the summer. The International Monetary Fund and donor nations in April suspended lending to the country after the Journal reported the existence of the undisclosed bank loans.
Mozambican President Filipe Nyusi recently agreed to an international audit of the deals by investigations firm Kroll, in an effort to regain access to frozen international aid. A report of the audit is expected in February, a person familiar with the matter said.
Mozambique used proceeds from the bonds and loans to purchase military and maritime goods and services from firms owned by holding company Privinvest, such as French defense contractor Constructions Mécaniques de Normandie. Privinvest is owned by Lebanese businessman Iskandar Safa. At the time of the deal, Mozambique's ruling party was in heightened conflict with opposition forces.
About four years after issuing the bonds, Mozambique's coffers are near empty and the country is requesting debt relief from bondholders for the second timein nine months.
The SEC investigation heightens scrutiny on the back-to-back restructuring attempts and on the accuracy of disclosures Mozambique and its banks made to bond investors and others as the debt deals slowly unraveled.
A committee of bondholders -- including mutual-fund managers AllianceBernstein LP and Franklin Templeton Investments, and hedge funds Greylock Capital Management, NWI Management and Pharo Management -- formed in recent weeks to defend their interests.
The $1.2 billion in additional loans were made by Credit Suisse and VTB to other companies owned by Mozambique's intelligence service to fund other contracts with Mr. Safa's companies. BNP helped sell the bonds but didn't arrange the undisclosed loans with Credit Suisse and VTB, people familiar with the matter said.
Proceeds from at least some of the debt deals went straight from the banks to Mr. Safa's companies, a person familiar with the mattersaid. In typical government bond sales, the borrowing country receives the proceeds, then uses them to pay contractors itself. A spokesman for Privinvest, Mr. Safa's holding company, said: "The funds flow and mechanics was agreed by and between the banks and the customer."
Mozambique's economy slumped in 2015 as oil prices fell and in March of this year, Credit Suisse and VTB asked bondholders to agree to let the repayment of the debt be postponed. Most bondholders agreed, but days later, the undisclosed loans became public knowledge, infuriating investors and prompting international donors to halt lending.
After agreeing to the international audit, Mozambique announced to bondholders in late October that it needed to restructure their debt again -- this time including the additional $1.2 billion in bank loans -- but bondholders rebuffed the proposal.
Mozambique's advisers haven't spoken with bondholders for more than a month but have been holding preliminary discussions with Credit Suisse and VTB to lay the groundwork for future negotiations, people familiar with the process said.
The SEC sent bondholders its letter a few weeks after Mozambique proposed the second restructuring.
(END) Dow Jones Newswires
December 28, 2016 06:44 ET (11:44 GMT)
Copyright (c) 2016 Dow Jones & Company, Inc.


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We've just got wind of a soon-to-occur Orange announcement - the operator will be stocking a new BlackBerry. According to the source, this new 'Berry is a lower spec update to last year's popular Curve 8320 - which to us sounds just like the Curve 8520 leaked a couple months ago, which Vodafone is rumoured to be launching soon.
No 3G on this baby (instead expect slower internet EDGE speeds) and in a surprise omission, no trackball either, which means the phone probably won't be much of a contender when it comes to web browsing. Full QWERTY keyboard though, plus a 3.5mm audio jack and a two-meg camera, no flash.