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The Coral Reefs of Eilat Past, Present and Future: Three Decades of Coral Community Structure Studies
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1 1 The Coral Reefs of Eilat Past, Present and Future: Three Decades of Coral Community Structure Studies Yossi Loya 1.1 Introduction Here, I shall present a brief review of ca. 35 years of our studies on changes in the coral species diversity and community structure at Eilat, Red Sea, at several scales in space and time. In the following, I shall: (1) summarize the geographical setting and the geological, physical and biological characteristics of the Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba, then point out the uniqueness of the coral reefs of Eilat, which are situated at the most northerly boundary of coral reef distribution, yet exhibit extraordinarily high within-habitat coral species diversity; (2) present the changes that took place in coral species diversity and community structure on the reef flats in the northern Gulf of Aqaba/Eilat (during the ), due to natural disturbances (extreme midday low tides) and man-made perturbations (chronic oil spills); (3) discuss possible mechanisms that generate and maintain the high within-habitat coral diversity typifying pristine reefs in the Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba;(4)discusstheoppositemechanismsthatcausedadramaticdecrease in coral abundance and living cover at the Eilat Coral Nature Reserve (ECNR) during I will also point out two major anthropogenic disturbances: first, eutrophication caused by Eilat s sewage discharge to the sea until 1995; and second, further eutrophication originating from intensive net pen mariculture off the northern coast of Eilat, which exponentially expanded activity from to present times. The grave implications for the coral reefs of Eilat caused by this chronic eutrophication will be presented. Finally, (5) I conclude with a warning that, at present, the coral reefs of Eilat are severely damaged and subsist in a critical state. If eutrophication of the northern Gulf is not halted immediately, the final collapse and total destruction of the unique coral reefsofeilatarecertain.intheirpresentfragilestate,theonlychancefortherestoration of the Eilat reefs is extreme and instant protection measures against all man-made disturbances The Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba: Geographical Setting, Geological, Physical and Biological Characteristics The Red Sea is a long body of water separating northeastern Africa from the Arabian Peninsula. Nearly 2000 km of water connects the south with the In-
2 2 Yossi Loya Fig General map of the northern Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba indicating the work sites: Eilat Coral Nature Reserve (ECNR), the Control Reef, the Interuniversity Institute (IUI) and the mariculture fish cages dian Ocean and almost joins the Mediterranean Sea at the north of the Gulf of Suez. When Ferdinand de Lesseps completed the Suez Canal in 1869, the connection became direct. The Red Sea is connected to the Indian Ocean by the relatively shallow Bab el Mandeb Straits (270-m depth). Although it is relatively young, the Red Sea evolved to harbor a number of unique ecosystems. Its pelagic ecosystem is characterized by a photic zone (0 200 m depth) and an aphotic zone ( m depth). The Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba (Figs. 1.1, 1.2A) is part of a major geological formation, the 1000-km-long Dead Sea rift, which is a portion of the 6000-km Syrian African rift that extends from Mozambique to Turkey.The rift was formed by the Fig A Satellite view of the geographical setting. B, C Unpredictable extreme low tide at the northern Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba exposed corals during midday (September 1970) on the reef flats for 4 days (3 4 h every day) to high irradiance and air temperature of ca. 40 C. The consequences were massive mortality of ca. 90% of the coral populations on the reef flats of the northern Gulf of Eilat/ Aqaba. The coral community structure at the oil-polluted ECNR and a clean control reef (CR) 5 km further south were studied in detail by means of line transects, before, during and after the catastrophic low tide (see Fig. 1.4 for details). D F During an average of two to three oil spills per month covered the ECNR with crude oil
3 1. The Coral Reefs of Eilat Past, Present and Future 3
4 4 Yossi Loya opposing movement of the African and Arabian continents.the Gulf is the more eastern of the two northern horns of the Red Sea, which are separated by the Sinai Peninsula. It is surrounded by desert; hence, water inflow from land-based sourcesisnegligible.thegulfisca.180kmlong,verysteep-sidedanddeep(although it is only 5 26 km wide),reaching a maximum depth of over 1800 m near theeasterncoast.thegulf sphoticzoneisstratified,nutrient-depletedandhas exceptionally crystal-clear surface waters (no river runoffs). The climate in the region is arid with an average net evaporation of 1 m 3 /day. Predominant northern winds enhance the evaporation. As a result, the Gulf s waters are extremely saline, ranging between 40 and Temperature ranges from 20.5 (winter, northern Gulf) to 27.3 C (summer, southern Gulf). Tides in the Gulf are minimal with a maximal range in the order of 1 m. Extreme midday low tides, which expose entire reef flats to the air are quite rare, but when they do occur, they may cause complete desiccation of the coral populations (Fig. 1.2B, C; see also Sect ).The general circulation pattern consists of an inflow of less saline Red Sea water in the upper layers through the straits of Tiran and an outflow of bottom heavier, more saline, Gulf water near sill depth. The coral reefs along the Gulf are of the fringing type and among the most spectacular and diverse in the world (Fig. 1.3A, B). Both the coral reefs and the mangroves are among the world s northern-most such ecosystems. The semi-isolation of the Red Sea from the main body of the Indian Ocean, as well as the semi-enclosed nature of the Gulf and the rather extreme oceanographic conditions resulted in the evolution of a high proportion of endemic species typical of the Red Sea flora and fauna (Sheppard et al. 1992). Coral reef ecosystems are the most spectacular and diverse marine ecosystems. They form reservoirs of the highest marine biological diversity, including genetic resources and bioactive compounds. Unfortunately, coral reefs are also among the most heavily degraded marine ecosystems. Over the last two decades, coral reef communities have been experiencing increasingly stressful conditions due to a combination of natural and anthropogenic detrimental factors (Wilkinson 2000). Fig The coral reefs of Eilat: past. A, B TheECNR1969(seeFig.1.1).Highwithinhabitatdiversity typified the ECNR in the past. C F Urban development (Eilat) and pollution sources in the northern Gulf during the last three decades. C Phosphate pollution caused by the poor loading procedures used in Eilat port brought about eutrophication of the reef during the 1970s and 1980s. During the last decade, environmental law enforcement resulted in improved loading technology decreasing this pollution source almost to nil. D The Aqaba phosphate port has been another eutrophication source in the Gulf, but in the last decade has decreased substantially due to improved loading procedures. E Aerial view of the surroundings of the Inter University Institute at Eilat (IUI) in F Aerial view of the same surroundings in 2000 demonstrating the fast urban development of the area. G Discharge outlet of the desalination power plant of Eilat (operated during the early 70 s). H, I Eilat s municipal sewage was flowing into the northern Gulf of Eilat until Since then, this source of nutrient pollution was stopped after a modern sewage treatment facility was built 6 km north of the city
5 1. The Coral Reefs of Eilat Past, Present and Future 5
6 6 Yossi Loya Scleractinian corals are the most important hermatypic (reef-building) organisms in the Gulf of Eilat (Loya and Slobodkin 1971).Hermatypic corals play a key role in forming the structure of coral reefs and in providing substrate and shelter for a wide variety of organisms. Acute damage to the corals may result in the collapse of the complex community of organisms that live in close association with them. Since the Gulf is a semi-enclosed basin, and the prevailing winds and currents are predominantly from the north, the Gulf is potentially vulnerable to pollution,particularly at its northern tip.the two cities located there,eilat, in Israel, and Aqaba, in Jordan (Fig. 1.1), are both industrial and tourist centers to their respective countries. In the last three decades, the area has gone through rapid urban development (Loya 1995), increasing anthropogenic pressures on thereefs(figs.1.2d F,1.3C I).Hence,thepotentialthreatofpollutionisvery real, including possible spills from maritime activities and oil transport in the Gulf. In addition, chemical pollutants that may pollute the Gulf during transport and loading of phosphates (Fig. 1.3C, D), potash bromides and other cargoes, in both the commercial ports of Eilat and Aqaba (Loya 1995). Other major sources of human stresses to the reefs in the most northern section of the Gulf include eutrophication from Eilat s municipal wastewater (Fig. 1.3H, I), discharged in the past into the sea (stopped in 1995, see Sect. 1.4.), unregulated mariculture effluents in Eilat, which at present are the major source of coastal eutrophication of the northern Gulf of Aqaba/Eilat (Sect. 1.4.), as well as occasional ballast and bilge water spilled from various boat activities, occasional discharges of fuel, crude oil and detergents. In addition, due to tourism, physical damage to corals occurs, mainly by boat anchors, scuba divers and snorkelers The Coral Reefs of Eilat Although situated in the most northern boundaries of coral reefs distribution, the pristine reefs of the northern Gulf of Aqaba (ca. 30 N), along the shorelines of the Sinai Peninsula (Fig. 1.1), exhibit extraordinary high within-habitat coral species diversity (sensu MacArthur 1972), among the highest in the world (Fig. 1.3A, B). Unfortunately, those reefs that have been chronically perturbed by anthropogenic activities, such as the coral reefs of Eilat, have severely deteriorated in the last three decades, especially in the last decade (Loya 1976a, 1990 and this chapter). In , the community structure of the coral reefs in the northern Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba was studied in detail by means of 10-m-long line transects at the Eilat Coral Nature Reserve (ECNR, Loya 1972, 1975) and a site referred to as the control reef (Figs. 1.1,1.2C),5 km further south.both reefs were pristine at that time. The exact locations of the transects on both reefs were marked by stainless steel pegs, which enabled repeated long-term monitoring of the same transects in the following years (Loya et al. 1999). Any coral species that overlapped the line was recorded,and its projected length on the line was measured to the nearest centimeter. The line transects were surveyed from the reef flat to
7 1. The Coral Reefs of Eilat Past, Present and Future 7 30-m depth. The data provide estimates of the number of coral species, number of colonies, percentage of total living coverage, and diversity of corals. This large data set served as a baseline for continued long-term monitoring of the scleractinian coral populations of the northern Gulf until today. In 1969, the average number of species per transect obtained at the two sites in the northern Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba (see below) was 13.5±3.8 (ECNR) and 15.7±3.4 (control reef, CR) species per 10-m transect (Loya 1972, 1976a). This diversity is very high for corals measured on reef flats (within-habitat diversity) in view of the low total number of species known from Eilat (ca. 100, Loya and Slobodkin 1971), and the fact that the coral reefs of Eilat are among the most northern reefs in the world. By contrast, about 360 coral species are known in the Great Barrier Reef (GBR, Veron 1986). Yet, within-habitat diversity on reef flats is higher in Eilat than on either the Australian inshore fringing reefs or the GBR proper. A similar methodology suggested by Loya (1972) was used to study coral diversity on the GBR reef flats, with the only difference being the length of the transect lines (30 m). On Lizard Island, the average number of coral species per transect was 11.1±4.8 (data computed from Pichon and Morrissey 1981); on Heron Island, 9.8±4.1 (n=12 transects; Pichon, Weizman-Best and Loya, unpubl. data); and on an inshore reef at Magnetic Island, 4.8±3.7 (n=9 transects; Pichon, Loya and Bull, unpubl. data). Clearly, if the GBR data were transformed into 10-m transects, as performed in Eilat, the average number of species per transect would have decreased. Since information on community structure and species diversityofthegbrcoralsislimitedandmostprobablyregionallydifferent (2500 km of reefs), any generalization on local patterns of diversity in the GBR would be premature. Two major environmental disturbances dictated the changes in the coral community structure at Eilat for years to come. Firstly, an unexpected and extremely low tide that occurred in the northern part of the Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba in September 1970 killed almost all the corals on the reef flats (Fig. 1.2B, C; see Sect ), and secondly, the harmful effect of chronic oil spills that occurred during in the vicinity of the ECNR to the coral populations (Fig. 1.2D F, see Sect ). 1.2 Changes in Coral Community Structure at Eilat Due to Natural Perturbations and Human Disturbances During Natural Catastrophes: Extreme Midday Low Tides The Eilat Coral Nature Reserve (ECNR) is located 3 km south of the general port of Eilat, approximately 1 km south of two major oil terminals (Fig. 1.1). Oil tankers using the port of Eilat after 1970 caused two or three major oil spills every month, during which the ECNR was completely blackened by oil (Fig. 1.2D F). This chronic oil pollution continued until ca Since then, oil spills at
8 8 Yossi Loya Eilat have become rare. A major reason for this remarkable improvement is the drastic decrease in the number of oil tankers arriving at Eilat (political reasons), in addition to the establishment of a Pollution Prevention Control Station by the Israeli Ministry of the Environment and the stiff fines imposed on the shipping companies. Since the wind direction along the Gulf of Aqaba/Eilat is predominantly from the north or northeast, oil spilled around the terminals is carried by surface currents towards the ECNR. It does not, however, reach the control reef, a pristine coral reef located 5 km further south. The control reef (CR) has been termed so, since it has been found to be free of oil pollution (Loya 1975) and has served as a comparatively pristine site for studies on changes in the community structure of corals in the polluted ECNR. An unexpected and extremely low tide occurred in the northern part of the Gulf from September 1970 (Fig. 1.2B,C; Loya 1972).The water level fell approximately cm below the reef flats. As a result, they were completely exposed to air and sun for 3 4 h during the hottest time of the day. The air temperaturerangedfromaminimumof34 Con16Septembertoamaximumof 38.4 Con18September.Theimmediateconsequenceofthelowtidewasthe death of approximately 80 85% of the hermatypic corals along the northern part of the Gulf (Loya 1975, 1976a). The high temperatures and desiccation were probably the direct causes of the rapid coral mortality.the community structure and species diversity of hermatypic corals had been studied in several reef locations along the northern Gulf before the low tide (Loya 1972). Hence, the incident provided a unique opportunity to study recruitment patterns in both a chronically polluted reef (ECNR) and a clean control reef (CR). During the low tide, the corals below the lowest water level were unharmed. Since the ECNR and the CR were similar in community structure (Loya 1975), it wasreasonabletoassumethatasimilarstockofcoralpropagulesexistedin both. Theoretically, providing human activities had not had a harmful effect on the coral communities at the ECNR, a similar recruitment rate of corals could have been expected in both localities. The parameters compared were the average number of coral species, colonies, living coverage, and diversity (Shannon and Weaver s H n index 1948) per transect, in both reefs, during 1969 to In 1969, no significant difference was found between the coral community structure of the ECNR and that of the CR, when all four statistics were compared (Loya 1972; Fig. 1.4). A detailed account of changes in the community structure and species diversity of corals in 1969 and 1973 is given in Loya (1975,1976a).Although both reefs suffered similar mass mortality of corals during the low tide (85% at the ECNR and 81% at the CR), a marked difference was observed in recovery 3 years later. The extent of recruitment was 23-fold greater at the CR. No significant difference was found in coral community regeneration (15% at the ECNR and 19.2% at the CR). Three years after the low tide, the number of species, number of colonies, living coverage and H, n remained very low on the reef flat of the ECNR,while the reef flat of the CR exhibited rapid recruitment and recovery(fig.1.4).thesignificantlyhighercoralcoveratthecrwasmainlydueto
9 1. The Coral Reefs of Eilat Past, Present and Future 9 Fig The scleractinian coral community structure at the chronically polluted reef flat of the ECNR (Fig. 1.1) and a pristine control reef (CR), 5 km further south, were studied in detail by means of 10-m line transects in 1969 (prior to the unpredictable catastrophic low tide), during the low tide in 1970 and 3 years later in 1973 (see Loya 1976a for details). The same transects were resurveyed periodically until 1986 in both localities (in ECNR until 2000) for coral living cover, number of colonies and number of species, providing a long-term database of changes that took place in the coral community structure. No further monitoring was possible in the CR beyond1986 because of regional political reasons. (n=12 to m transects; H n = Shannon and Weaver s [1948] index of diversity. ND No data, bars represent ± SD mass recruitment of the most abundant species (40% more colonies per transect in 1973 compared to 1969), in addition to the full regeneration of massive colonies that had suffered partial mortality during the low tide (Loya 1976a). Further monitoring throughout the years, in both sites, indicated that in 1976, 1982 and 1986 all monitored factors were significantly higher at the pristine CR compared to the ECNR (Loya 1990; Loya et al. 1999; Fig. 1.4).Unfortunately, further monitoring at the CR was not possible beyond 1986, due to regional political reasons. However,monitoring of the ECNR reef flat and deeper reef at 4 m depth ( Japanese Gardens ) continues until today (see Sect ).
10 10 Yossi Loya Coral Community Stability Interpretation of stability in ecological systems has long been a matter of controversy among researchers (see selected literature: Margalef 1969; Woodwell and Smith 1969; Pimm 1991; Knowlton 1992; Holling 1996, 2001; Lewin 2000; Nystrom et al. 2000; Ives et al and others). In this paper, I adopt, as a measure of community stability, Margalef s (1969) definition, i.e., the likelihood of a community to bounce back after external disturbance and return to its former state. Hence, there are marked differences between the ECNR and the CR. The ECNR has still not regained its former community structure and species diversity almost two decades after the low tide (Loya 1990), and unfortunately continues to remain poor in coral diversity and living cover to this day (Loya et al. 1999, this chapter). By contrast, the pristine CR showed remarkable resilience (i.e., capacity for self-repair) and only 3 years after severe perturbation, (the catastrophic low tide), it had returned to its former configuration. A significantly high correlation was found between the percentage contribution of the most common coral species to the total number of colonies and to the total living cover in the CR, before the low tide and 3 years later. Nonsignificant correlations were obtained when the same parameters were tested at the ECNR (see Loya 1976a for details). I concluded (Loya 1976a) that one of the differences between the effects of human impacts (chronic oil spills) and natural disturbances (extreme low tides) on coral reefs is the prolonged failure of a human-perturbed reef to return to its former state,whereas restoration of reef areas denuded by natural disturbances is a function of a relatively short time period. There have been, unfortunately, insufficient long-term quantitative coral reef community studies to test this hypothesis (for further discussion, see Johannes 1975; Loya 1976a; Brown and Howard 1985; Bythell et al. 1993; Dollar and Tribble 1993; Hughes 1994; Connell et al. 1997; Guzman and Cortes 2001). al. 2001) Oil-Pollution Effects on Eilat Corals Up to 1975 there was no conclusive evidence that oil floating above the reef damages stony corals (Johannes 1975). At that time, most of the studies of the effects of oil pollution on corals were either short-term incidental observations or laboratory experiments that did not reflect the effects on corals in nature. Our long-term quantitative studies in situ and in the laboratory have established the vulnerability and sensitivity of hermatypic corals to crude oil and oil components (Loya 1975, 1976a; Rinkevich and Loya 1977, 1979a; Loya and Rinkevich 1979, 1980). As discussed before, clear differences have been shown in coral recovery between the chronically polluted ECNR (Fig. 1.2D F) and the pristine CR. I have suggested (Loya 1975) that chronic oil pollution could damage coral commu-
11 1. The Coral Reefs of Eilat Past, Present and Future 11 nities, inhibiting coral recruitment in oil-polluted reefs, by (1) harming the reproductive system of corals, (2) decreasing the viability of coral larvae, or (3) changing some physical properties of the reef flat, thus interfering with normal settlement of coral larvae (any combination of these is also possible). We tested these hypotheses in a series of field and laboratory experiments summarized below. We chose the coral Stylophora pistillata as our model experimental coral, since this is the most abundant coral in the Eilat reefs (Loya 1972), and its life history has been studied in detail (Loya 1976b d; Rinkevich and Loya 1979b, c). Field experiments, observations, and histological studies on two populations of S. pistillata in a chronically oil-polluted reef near the oil terminals (ECNR, Fig. 1.1) and at the pristine CR revealed detrimental effects on the polluted corals. The coral population at the polluted reef showed a higher mortality rate of colonies, a smaller number of breeding colonies, a decrease in the number of female gonads per polyp, a smaller number of planulae produced per coral head (fecundity was four times higher in the CR than that in the ECNR), a decrease in the viability of planula larvae with increasing concentrations of oil and lower settlement success of larvae on artificial objects with the increase in oil concentrations (Rinkevich and Loya 1977). Further studies on the effects of crude oil on the reproduction of S. pistillata in the laboratory, using large tanks with running seawater, supported the field results (Rinkevich and Loya 1979c). Large and mature colonies of S. pistillata were cut into halves at the beginning of the reproductive period; to avoid expected variation between different colonies, one was placed in a periodically oil-polluted tank, the other in a clean tank. After 2 months a significantly lower number of female gonads per polyp were recorded in 75% of the polluted halves, compared to the controls. An additional effect of low concentrations of crude oil on S. pistillata is the immediate indication of mouth opening followed by abortion of premature larvae. Since premature extrusion of planulae occurs during an oil spill, their chances of survival or successful settlement are very low (Loya and Rinkevich 1979). Our field and laboratory studies on the effects of oil pollution on corals may explain the lack of recruitment of corals in the chronically polluted ECNR until However, although no major oil spills have occurred in Eilat since 1980, to date the reef flats at the ECNR have not returned to their former community structure (Fig. 1.4). In the last two decades, other man-made perturbations (mainly eutrophication) have increased in severity (Sect. 1.4), preventing rehabilitation of the coral reefs of Eilat. Rather than speculating on this subject, I prefer, at this stage, to address the wider issue of the mechanisms that generate and maintain the diversity of organisms. Below, I present two hypotheses stemming from our long-term studies at the northern Gulf, to help interpret possible mechanisms that promote and maintain high coral diversity on pristine reefs of the northern Gulf.
12 12 Yossi Loya 1.3 Mechanisms That Generate and Maintain Coral Diversity in the Northern Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba Hypothesis 1 Unpredictable midday low tides act as diversifying forces by preventing monopolization of the reef flat by individual or a few competitively superior species. Because space for settlement and development is one of the most important limiting resources on coral reefs, overlap in the utilization of space may result in acute competition among coral populations (Lang 1973; Grigg and Maragos 1974; Porter 1974; Jackson and Buss 1975; Connell 1976,1978; Loya 1976a; Jackson 1977; Buss and Jackson 1979; Lang and Chornesky 1990; Hughes 1994; Abelson and Loya 1999; Hughes and Connell 1999). Resource monopolization by corals may take place through competitive interactions such as extracoelentric digestion,whereby the mesenterial digestive filaments of a dominant species extend onto the living tissues of an adjacent subdominant and destroy it (Lang 1973; Richardson et al. 1979), rapid growth (Connell 1973), overtopping morphology (Porter 1974), or allelopathic effects (Jackson and Buss 1975; Sammarco et al. 1983). Abilities in these competitive mechanisms are species-specific, and in areas of high densities on the reef have been shown to affect patterns of coral abundance and distribution (Lang 1973; Grigg and Maragos 1974; Porter 1974; Connell 1976, 1978; Loya 1976a; Porter et al. 1982; Sheppard 1985). Coral mass mortality on reefs may result from a variety of causes such as (below selected references) mechanical destruction during tropical storms (Woodley et al. 1981; Rogers 1993), abnormally low or high seawater temperatures (Glynn 1981; Jokiel and Coles 1990), sedimentation (Loya 1976e; Rogers 1990) exposure to air during midday air temperature maxima (Glynn 1976; Loya 1976a), bleaching (Glynn 1993; Brown 1997; Hoegh-Guldberg 1999; Ostrander et al. 2000; Loya et al. 2001), diseases (Kushmaro et al. 1996; Harvell et al. 1999), Acanthaster predation (Lourey et al. 2000) and anthropogenic activities (Brown and Howard 1985; Nystrom et al. 2000). The period of time required for recruitment and recovery of reefs after such disturbances varies from very short (2 years; Shinn 1972) to prolonged (50 years or more; Grigg and Maragos 1974; Pearson 1981) and largely depends on local settings. The role of disturbance on community structure and species diversity of natural communities has been documented and discussed by many investigators. (For selected bibliography and reviews, see Dayton 1971; Connell 1978; Paine and Levin 1981; Miller 1982; Porter et al. 1982; Sousa 1984; Pickett and White 1985; Knowlton 1992; Karlson and Hurd 1993; Hughes and Connell 1999 Nystrom et al. 2000; Holling 2001 and others.) Grigg and Maragos (1974) suggested a model for coral community succession basedonpatternsofrecruitmentonsubmergedhistoriclavaflowsinhawaii.by
13 analyzing data sets from progressively older flows, they found that diversity at first increased and then gradually decreased as more and more species became established. They hypothesized that the decline in diversity in older flows was due to space limitation and competitive exclusion by dominant species, a process that took over 50 years. Glynn (1976) attributed the diversifying effect to recurrent and extreme tidal exposures of reef flat corals off the Pacific coast of Panama. Tide-induced mortality of pocilloporid corals, which are prime-space monopolists at that site, resulted in increased coral species diversity. I have suggested (Loya 1976a) that the unpredictable low tides at Eilat act as a diversifying force in a way similar to storm and swell damage in Hawaii (Grigg and Maragos 1974; Grigg 1983), and the extreme tidal exposures of reef flats off the Pacific coast of Panama (Glynn 1976). Connell s (1978) intermediate-disturbance hypothesis, stating that the highest diversity of natural communities will be maintained in areas suffering intermediate disturbances on the scales of frequency and intensity, fits these examples. ThehigherdiversityrecordedatthepristineCR3yearsafterthelowtide,compared to the diversity at the CR prior to the devastation, may reflect a situation in which diversity continues to increase in time after a catastrophe until space for coral settlement becomes limiting and competitive interactions between species may cause a decline in diversity. The results obtained for the average number of species recorded on the reef flat of the CR between 1970 and 1986 support this pattern (Fig. 1.4). The time interval required to reach species equilibrium (sensu Wilson 1969) is quite short (approx. 5 7 years). The time interval for full recovery and for competitive interactions to take place is expected to be much longer and more variable between different reefs depending on local conditions (15 30 years or more; see Loya 1976a). The frequency of extremely low tides at the Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba seems to be such that full recovery is never reached on the reef flats, and interspecific competition is not carried out to completion. Monopolization of the reef flats by competitively superior species is interrupted, providing an opportunity for more species to colonize vacant spaces. Hence, the exceptionally high diversity recorded on pristine reef flats in the northern Gulf probably reflects early successional stages Hypothesis 2 1. The Coral Reefs of Eilat Past, Present and Future 13 Temporal reproductive isolation (i.e., discrete breeding period) and intraspecific synchronization of spawning of northern Red Sea corals generates high diversity by preventing hybridization (i.e., minimizing gametogenic wastage) and decreasing interspecific competition. Information on reproductive patterns in corals has progressively accumulated in the last 20 years (see Fadlallah 1983; Harrison et al. 1984; Richmond and Jokiel 1984; Shlesinger and Loya 1985; Shlesinger et al. 1998; Babcock et al. 1986; Szmant 1986; Harrison and Wallace 1990; Richmond and Hunter 1990;
14 14 Yossi Loya Ward and Harrison 2000 for reviews and selected regional patterns). However, no study has attributed coral community structure and species diversity in relation to coral reproductive patterns. In trying to explain the high within-habitat diversity of hermatypic corals on reef flats in the northern Gulf, my second hypothesis relates to the phenomenon of temporal reproductive isolation exhibited by the most abundant coral species at Eilat (Shlesinger and Loya 1985; Shlesinger et al. 1998). We have examined the reproductive patterns of 13 ecologically important coral species at Eilat (Fig. 1.5; Shlesinger and Loya 1985). Although these species comprise only 13% of the total known species there, they are among the most abundant, contributing approximately 60 70% of the total living cover of coral communities on the reef flats (Loya 1972). The major reproductive activities of these species (planula shedding or gamete spawning) occur in different seasons, different months, or different lunar phases within the same month (Fig. 1.5). A similar conclusion was obtained for the reproductive patterns of an additional 11 coral species studied at a later stage (Shlesinger et al. 1998). By contrast, many corals of the GBR of Australia are synchronous multispecific spawners (Harrison et al. 1984; Babcock et al. 1986, Harrison and Wallace 1990). The coral mass spawning event takes place at the GBR during a few nights in late spring, between the full and last quarter of the moon. Fig Reproductive patterns of 13 scleractinian corals at Eilat in 1980 (after Shlesinger and Loya 1985). The first three species are brooders and the rest are broadcasting spawners. The results presented are in accordance with the lunar calendar, as follows: black circle new moon, half circle to the right first quarter, blank circle full moon, half circle to the left last quarter. The period of gonad development is represented by a solid line with indications of the onset of oogenesis (female sign), and spermatogenesis (male sign). Further development of both gonads is indicated by the line following the male and female signs. Black bars represent massive spawning (90 100% of the population), and gray bars represent sporadic spawning (10 20% of the population)
15 1. The Coral Reefs of Eilat Past, Present and Future 15 I have mentioned that space is a major limiting resource for settlement, growth, and development of reef corals. The reproductive activity of the vast majority of coral species at Eilat coincides with the seasonal disappearance of benthic algae,a major competitor for space on the reef flats of Eilat (i.e.,mainly during June to September; Benayahu and Loya 1977a, b, 1981; Fig. 1.6C F). Various species of algae progressively decline in abundance during the summer months, creating more space for coral settlement. During winter, algal cover on the reef flats is very high and space for settlement is scarce (Sect. 1.4; Fig. 1.6E).At any given time, space availability for settlement on the reef flats is more predictable during summer than winter. Thus, summer breeders among the corals maximize their reproductive success by concentrating their reproductive effort into a relatively short period of time (Fig. 1.5). By contrast, winter breeders like S. pistillata adopt an opposite strategy, spreading the risks of reproduction over a long period of time (December to May in the case of S. pistillata). During the winter, the availability of space in time is random, due to occasional denudation of small areas by winter storms (Fig. 1.6B) and, to a limited degree, by grazers. Therefore, a long reproductive period is advantageous for winter breeders. Intraspecific synchronization of spawning and a discrete breeding period may be advantageous to each coral species in the northern Red Sea, not only by reducing gametogenic wastage and preventing hybridization, but also by reducing interspecific competition among corals and between corals and algae. Thus, temporal reproductive isolation may act as a mechanism that generates high coral diversity in the northern Red Sea. By contrast, the mass spawning exhibited by the GBR corals probably increases interspecific competition among them. However, whether this may be a cause for the relatively lower within-habitat diversity of corals on the reef flats of the GBR compared to that in the northern Red Sea remains to be shown. The two hypotheses presented here are not mutually exclusive.the net result of high coral diversity on pristine reefs along the Gulf of Eilat may be a cumulative synergistic effect of external abiotic factors, such as intermediate disturbance on reef flats (sensu Connell 1978), through exposure to air during midday air temperature maxima, and biotic factors, such as temporal reproductive isolation. (reef flats and deeper reef regions). While these hypotheses may elucidate the exceptionally high diversity of pristine reefs in the northern Gulf, the chronic disturbance of the coral reefs of Eilat, caused by a variety of human activities, are undoubtedly the major cause for their continued deterioration and critical state of health nowadays.
16 16 Yossi Loya
17 1. The Coral Reefs of Eilat Past, Present and Future Man s Destructive Activities: Acute Degradation of the Coral Reefs of Eilat Due to Eutrophication Acute Degradation of Coral Diversity and Living Cover at Eilat During Due to Eutrophication by Urban Sewage and Net Pen Fish Farms During the 1980s, the city of Eilat went through rapid development and population growth (20,000 people in 1980; 40,000 in 1990; 54,000 in 1995), which increased human stress on the reefs. The decline of the reefs of Eilat at that time was probably due to a combination of anthropogenic disturbances (i.e., phosphate dust, urban sewage, siltation, tourist diving activities and port ballast water). However, while most of these harmful activities have been minimized by strict environmental enforcement, the sewage of Eilat continued to flow to the sea (Fig. 1.3G I) and stopped only after a sewage treatment plant was built north of the city in Atkinson et al. (2001) estimated that in 1980 the total annual nitrogen and phosphate release into the northern Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba originating from Eilat s urban sewage was mol N and mol P. These quantities doubled in 1990, with the doubling of the population number, and stopped in 1995 after the sewage treatment plant was built. Since coral reefs flourish in oligotrophic waters, eutrophication of reef waters is considered to be one of the main causes for their decline (see literature in Lapointe 1997; Roberts et al. 2002). Although there is no direct evidence, it is most likely that the nutrient enrichment caused by Eilat s sewage as well as the activities of Aqaba s and Eilat s phosphate ports were among the major causes for the decline of coral populations at the reefs of Eilat until 1995 (Fig. 1.3H, I). At that time, intensive net-pen fish farms (Figs. 1.1, 1.6A), situated at the northernmost section of the Gulf of Eilat ( the North Beach ) have increased their fish production exponentially. The fish farms utilize large fish cages, 12 m in diameter and 10 m in length, densely populated mainly with the gilthead sea bream Sparus aurata (Fig. 1.6A, insert). In 1991, the annual fish yield was Fig A The intensive net-pen fish farms situated at the northernmost section of the Gulf (Fig. 1.1) utilize large fish cages, mostly for the gilthead sea bream Sparus aurata (insert). B A southern storm detached vast amounts of macro-algae from the vicinity of the fish farm onto the northern shoreline. C, D The seafloor in the vicinity of the fish cages forms an anaerobic benthic habitat which supports the growth of bacterial mats and sulfide-resistant populations. E Vertical mixing of the water column during winter results in algal blooms and competitive exclusion of stony corals by algae. F Stylophora pistillata: enhanced eutrophication of the reefs encourages proliferation of filamentous algae overgrowing and smothering corals at the northern Gulf of Eilat. G Transplanted Favia favus colonies on inverted plastic boxes near the fish cages site were overgrown by algae and died within a year. H Montipora lobulata: in summers 2002 and 2003 sporadic coral bleaching was observed for the first time, in some coral species, at the northern Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba
18 18 Yossi Loya 200 tons,it grew to 700 tons in 1995 and 2300 tons in 2000 (Atkinson et al.2001). The fish are nourished with a total of 4200 tons/year of protein-rich added food (Gordin 2000). Waste food and fish feces deposited in the vicinity of the cages, or in the direction of the prevailing currents, result in substantial accumulation of organic material (OM) on the seafloor (Fig. 1.6C, D). Such OM enrichment leads to sediment anoxia, sulfate reduction and drastic changes in the sediment porewater chemistry (Holmer and Kristensen 1992). This anaerobic benthic habitat supports the growth of widespread bacterial mats and sulfide-resistant populations.part of the sinking organic particles are carried a large distance southward by sea currents (Abelson et al. 1999). After the sewage treatment plant had been built and the flow of sewage into the sea had been halted (in 1995), the fish cages remained the major source of organic enrichment (N and P) to the northern Gulf, releasing an estimated mol/year N and mol/year P (Atkinson et al. 2001). Gordin (2000) estimated that ca. 68% of the nitrogen and 27% of the phosphorus fed to the fish are subsequently excreted and released into the water in a dissolved form. In addition, 10% of N and 44% of P are excreted as solid excretions; hence, the annual amount of nutrients released into the surrounding water totals ca. 240 tons of N and 40 tons of P.(i.e., the input of the fish farms alone contributes 97% of N and 66% of P to the northern Gulf of Eilat. Thus, after 1995, the fish farms replaced Eilat s sewage, as the major source for eutrophication of the reefs continuing the mass killing of Eilat s corals (Fig. 1.7). Indeed, long term monitoring of the coral community structure at the Japanese Gardens site of the ECNR (has been closed to tourist diving activity in the last 8 years), at 4m depth, reveals a decrease of 76% and 73% in coral cover and abundance, re- Fig Long-term monitoring of the coral community structure at the Japanese Gardens site, ECNR (4-m depth). The percent living cover of stony corals decreased in the last 15 years by 76% and the number of coral colonies decreased by 73%. Data for 1969 from Loya (1972). (n=9 21 transects, each 10 m in length, bars represent ± SD)
19 1. The Coral Reefs of Eilat Past, Present and Future 19 spectively. If one further examines this time period between (during which Eilat s sewage was flowing to the sea but stopped in 1995)and between (during which the fish cages were, and still are, the major nutrification source of the northern Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba), it is most probable that Eilat s sewage was the major cause for the decrease of 51% and 57% in coral living cover and abundance, respectively, during , while the fish farm industry, which grew exponentially in their fish production during replaced Eilat s sewage contribution to nutrification of the northern Gulf, causing a further decrease of 62% and 49% in coral living cover and abundance, respectively (Fig. 1.7) Eutrophication Effects on the Reef s Food Chain, Metabolism, Interspecific Interactions and Genetic Structure of Coral Populations In 1998,the waters of the northern Gulf of Aqaba/Eilat contained at over 500-m depth a max. 4 µmol/l nitrate and 0.3 µmol/l phosphate. In 2000, they were nutrient-enriched to 7 and 0.5 µmol/l, respectively. This dramatic increase results essentially from the fish farm nutrient pollution (Lazar et al. 2000). In , surplus nitrate accumulating in >500-m depth equaled 200 tons; during this period the fish farms polluted the water column with 500 tons of nitrates available for primary production (i.e., N accumulating in deep water equalled ca. 40% of N originating from the fish farms; Lazar et al. 2000). Asaresultofnutrientenrichmentthephytoplankton,whichmultipliesrapidly (can double every 1 2 days), is eaten by zooplankton and the latter is preyed upon by fish. Thus, the nutrients that were passed on to higher trophic levels in the food chain, are distributed over wide areas in the northern Gulf. At each stage in this process, part of the nutrients is removed from the living system as solid excretions that drop to the depths of the sea. Finally, a surplus of nutrients is accumulating in the depths and the seafloor of the northern Gulf (Atkinson et al. 2001). During winter, cold surface waters sink to deeper layers creating vertical mixing, pumping nutrient-rich waters to the surface, resulting in algal blooms (Genin et al. 1995; Fig. 1.6B) and competitive exclusion of stony corals by algae (Fig. 1.6E, F). Genin et al. (1995) reported that the deep vertical mixing during winter 1992 resulted in excessive eutrophication of the upper illuminated reef layers, generating wide-scale algal blooms which killed 25% of the corals in Eilat. Silverman et al. (Chap. 21, this Vol.) proposed an index of reef metabolism (RM, i.e., the proportion of reef calcification to P/R ratio) as an index for the reef s health. High RM values denote a healthy reef, while low RM values denote deteriorating reefs. The RM measured in 1991 at the ECNR was ca. 200 µm C m 2 day 1,similar to values reported from pristine Indopacific reefs during the 1970s and 1980s. In winter 2000, RM decreased in the ECNR to a value of ca. 6 µm C m 2 day 1 (i.e., five- to sixfold lower than the values obtained in winter 1998 and over 20-fold lower than the values obtained in 1991
20 20 Yossi Loya from the same reef). This means that the reef growth at the ECNR virtually stopped. The authors attributed these alarming results to the extreme increase in eutrophication of the Gulf in recent years. A recent study of the genetic structure ofs. pistillata populations in four distinct sites at the northern Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba (Zvuloni (2003) adds to our great concern for the persistent detrimental effects of the fish farms on coral populations. Zvuloni (2003) found that the genetic variation within S. pistillata coral populations was much greater (90.2%) than among populations (9.8%), suggesting a high level of connectivity among the coral populations in the region. Nevertheless, a significant variation was found between the adult S. pistillata population in the Peace Lagoon (located ca. 400 m west of the fish farms) and all other adult S. pistillata populations in three further away southern sites. Moreover, the genetic variation within young recruits of this species in the Peace Lagoon was found to be significantly larger than within adult coral colonies at the same site. He suggested that a selection process, taking place immediately aftersettlementof S. pistillata juvenile spat, permitted only individuals from particular genotypes to survive there. Furthermore, he attributed these results to the higher pollution levels reported by other studies in the vicinity of the Peace Lagoon study site Detrimental Effects of Eutrophication on Coral Reproduction Recently,wehaveassessedtheimpactofthefishfarmsonthesurvivaloftwo branching corals (Stylophora pistillata and Acropora variabilis)and twomassive and encrusting species (Favia favus and Coscinarea monile respectively, Fig.1.6G)andtheimpactofthefishfarmonthereproductionofS. pistillata (see details in Loya et al. 2004). For the reproduction study, we collected 40 mature S. pistillata colonies (larger than 20 cm in diameter) from a site mid way between the IUI and the fish farm site (at 15 m depth) and transplanted 20 colonies at each of the two sites: (1) 200 m west of the fish farm cages at a depth of 19m,and(2)attheInteruniversityInstitute(IUI)reefatthesamedepth.Over thenexttwoconsecutiveyears,histologicalstudiesofthereproductiveeffortof the experimental corals showed that there were more oocytes per polyp in coloniessampledfromthefishfarmsitethanattheiuireferencesite(fig.1.8),but they remained significantly smaller than the IUI oocytes throughout the reproductive season. Monitoring changes in oocyte size frequency distribution in the colonies throughout the reproductive cycle, we found that polyps from the IUI colonies contained significantly more oocytes, which reached the mature size of over 200 µm, than those from the colonies near the cages. Moreover, the percentage of polyps with planulae was significantly higher in colonies from the IUI site than from those under the cages (Figs. 1.8, 1.9). In comparing number of planulae per polyp in the experimental colonies transplanted at both sites (Fig. 1.9), we found significantly larger numbers of polyps with planulae both in 2001 and 2002 in the IUI reference site than near the fish cages (Loya et al. 2004).
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Textures in headwear
Taking inspiration from nature and art, we are introducing a collection of patterned hats in tones of black, white, and blue. Each piece serves to accent and complement a refined outfit, and each is finished with a raised metal logo on the front panel. Now available HERE

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Pussycat dolls - Painted Windows FULL ALBUM VERSION + DOWNLOAD MP3
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New song from PCD's album DOLL DOMINATION 0.2 OUT April 14th.
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Bankruptcy Law
Bankruptcy Law Questions? Ask a Bankruptcy Lawyer.
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If your husband receives $864 per week from the VA, he will be allowed to file a Chapter 7 Bankruptcy, as he is allowed to have up to $3,873 income per month to qualify to file a Chapter 7 Bankruptcy.
However, since you and your husband are not living together, and since you are planning on filing a Bankruptcy, it will not matter if your husband files one before you do.


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Hydro Models and Salmon Recovery in the Northwestby Ken Dragoon, Hydro Resource Analysis Section, Portland, United States,
Document Type: Proceeding Paper
Part of: Water Management in the '90s: A Time for Innovation
Hydro regulation models provide extensive support for analyzing the efficacy of salmon recovery plans in the Northwest. Power planners developed these computer programs to help plan and efficiently operate a large multiple use river system. The models represent physical relationships and operational requirements on the system. They also simulate coordinated system operations for efficient power generation. These models are being pressed into service to provide data for fish recovery plans. They provide important information about hydro system capabilities and responses to recovery programs. However, the models cannot meet all of the analytical needs of fish biologists working toward salmon recovery.
Subject Headings: Computer models | Simulation models | Fish management | Hydrologic models | Data processing | Information systems | Computer software | River systems
Services: Buy this book/Buy this article
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By Andrea Adelson, The Associated Press
Matt Elliott can picture it all: He is sitting on his couch years from now, his aching knees having failed him, remembering the good ol' days as a hard-nosed offensive lineman, scrapping together a seven-year career when nobody thought much of him.
That he played longer than any Mr. Irrelevant before him is a badge of honor. He was the final player taken in the last draft that went 12 rounds, when Washington gave him a shot in 1992.
Elliott overcame the long odds to become one of the biggest overachievers in NFL history. It hardly made much sense at the time, but now it all fits perfectly. Elliott, you see, needed to become an expert at triumphing when he was the only one who believed.
Because his baby son is fighting a much bigger, much more dangerous battle.
Six-year-old Max Elliott has leukemia.
"The first thing that came out of our mouth was: Show us the mountain so we can start climbing," Matt Elliott recalled during a telephone interview.
Matt and his wife, Kristin, knew something was wrong with Max when their son would get searing headaches for weeks at a time. Max went for an MRI exam and had blood taken. His doctor noticed irregularities and sent him to the children's hospital in Indianapolis, two hours from the family home in Warsaw, Ind.
After more blood was taken, along with a bone marrow sample, the Elliott family got the devastating news on Jan. 12, 2005. Max was 4.
"Every emotion comes flooding through in a matter of moments," Elliott said. "You start with shock and denial, but the biggest emotion I felt was fear. The fear of there's not a whole lot I can do."
The Elliotts had to watch as Max was fitted with a port in his chest to receive chemotherapy. They had to watch as Max was pricked and poked countless times, as he had one spinal tap after another, as bone marrow samples were drawn, as he took his steroids and chemo.
But they also watched as their son showed incredible determination to beat the cancer. He was the one giving hope to his parents and his younger sister, Abbie, now 3.
"The kid, he keeps plugging along," Kristin Elliott said. "He tells me, 'I'm fighting cancer, Mom, and I'm doing a good job, I know it.'
"When this child can have this attitude, how can you not just be 100% up for him?"
When Max was first diagnosed, his parents would crush his pills and put them in yogurt and juice so they would be easier to take. Within two months, Max walked into his parents' bedroom and proclaimed, "Mommy, Daddy, I think I'd like to learn how to take pills. How does Sunday morning work for you?"
Sunday morning came, and Matt offered him the smallest pill of the bunch. His son shook his head no. He wanted the biggest pill. So Matt gave it to him and watched his son swallow it down, look up and say, "That was easy."
Much easier than most everything the family has gone through. In June, Max started losing his hair. In a show of solidarity, his father decided they would both shave their heads. When Max looked at his bald head in the mirror for the first time, he cried.
But in typical Max fashion, he got over the setback quickly. A few minutes later he walked out of his room and told his dad, "I think I like my new look. I look cool."
"Matt and I both say that we wish it was us instead of him. But we know we couldn't handle it as well," Kristin Elliott said. "I don't think I could face each day like that child does."
The outpouring of support has been more than the Elliotts ever expected. For 45 days after Max got sick, the Elliotts never had to cook — neighbors brought a constant stream of food.
When former Panthers teammate Sam Mills heard the news, he and Mark Fields sent an autographed football, wristbands from their Keep Pounding Fund and a note from them and the team owner. Mills and Fields were also fighting cancer; Mills died a few months later at age 45.
"It was very touching to get the note from the group," Matt Elliott said.
It is easy to see why so many people wanted to give to the Elliotts.
Throughout his college career at Michigan, Matt Elliott volunteered at the local children's hospital. When he played for Carolina from 1995-97, where he made 32 starts, he founded Fatguy Charities to raise money for children.
The family immediately got involved with the Leukemia & Lymphoma Society after Max was diagnosed. Last September, Max was the honoree for the "Light the Night" walk in Warsaw to raise money for research funds. More than 150 people from Matt's office were there wearing "Max Pack" T-shirts. The walk raised $50,000.
"I've never met people like the Elliotts," said Amy Kwas, executive director of the Indiana chapter of the Leukemia & Lymphoma Society. "Kristin said to me, 'Max is going to be OK, I can't even tell you what kind of person this is going to make him.' I kept thinking, if this were my kid, I'm not sure I could be that positive. ... I've got tears in my eyes, she's got tears in her eyes. They're determined this will all work out."
It would be an understatement to say there are tough moments. Matt Elliott works as a product manager and does marketing for an orthopedic implant manufacturer, taking him away from home for a good portion of the year. That leaves his wife to care for Max while trying to give Abbie equal amounts of attention.
Kristin Elliott will sometimes cry hysterically in the shower, then face her kids with a smile. Matt Elliott sometimes walks away from his son to cry, too.
In January, Max was briefly hospitalized after he ran a high fever. Tests showed he had a sinus infection and his body couldn't fight that along with the cancer. After an adjustment in his medication, Max rebounded well.
But he still gets severe headaches. His legs get sore. His skin gets so sensitive it hurts to get a hug. He must undergo chemo treatments for the next two years. The Elliotts won't know whether he has beaten the cancer until five years later, when Max is 13.
Through it all, Max has started kindergarten. He plays basketball. He loves football and Peyton Manning. Max wants to play quarterback, too, after learning he shared the same birthday as the Colts star. It was only recently that he learned his father was a football player.
But Matt Elliott knows his son is tougher than anyone he knows. So he can picture the conversations with his son in the years to come, when Matt is older and laments how he used to be the toughest guy on the block:
"Max is going to look at me and smack me in the back of the head and say, 'Hey tough guy, did you ever beat cancer?'"
Copyright 2006 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.


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Adams Indigo Sock
Sorry, this product is Sold Out.
The Adams Indigo Socks are a part of the Deus Ex Machina Autumn 2017 collection.
This melange slub sock features a contrast opening stripe and centre back embroidered logo, with 80% cotton and 20% elastane construction.
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Steering Column Shaft Bearing; 76-95 Jeep Wrangler YJ
Steering Column Shaft Bearing 1976-1995 Jeep Wrangler (YJ) By Omix-ADA
Pricing: $50.99
Direct OE replacement Jeep parts and accessories built to the original specifications by Omix-ADA. Limited five year Manufacturer's warranty.
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$ 25.00
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This super soft, black Saturn tee has our signature extra soft SPACE BABE print on the front!
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Pillow Cases
While pillow shams are for decorating, pillow cases are for comfort. Warm Things has a large collection of pillow cases that will take your sleeping experience to the next level. Lay your head on a pillow case designed with your comfort in mind when you purchase a set from Warm Things. Give yourself the restful night's sleep you deserve.