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1 ARTICLE LAMENTING THE DISAPPEARANCE OF PRAGMATISM : SUBSIDIES LAW AFTER THE URUGUAY ROUND by Lara FRIEDLANDER * L'adoption des Accords dits de la phase d'uruguay démontre de façon significative le passage du GATT de l'orientation pragmatique à l'approche légaliste. Les subventions qui constituent un aspect de plus en plus controversé du commerce international sont parmi les mesures affectées par ce changement d'orientation. Ainsi, par exemple, au lieu de l'ancienne méthode dite de deux voies, la légalité des subventions dans le cadre du GATT sera maintenant établie principalement par des tests de spécificité et de préjudice. L'auteure prétend que 1'Accord de la phase d'uruguay portant sur les subventions aura pour effet d'affaiblir le GATT, les pressions domestiques forçant les États à en ignorer les dispositions. Elle suggère donc que la réforme du droit applicable aux subventions aurait avantage à recourir à l'usage de la clause d'invalidation ou d'affaiblissement des avantages tirés des concessions commerciales. Puisque cette clause fait sentir la contrainte de la réciprocité, elle amène les États à se comporter en prenant pour acquis que les autres États observent également leurs engagements; du même coup, cette clause possède une légitimité supérieure à celle des Accords de la phase d'uruguay. Or, une telle légitimité est cruciale lorsque la viabilité même de l'ordre juridique international dépend de son respect par chacun des États. 1. LL.B., University of Toronto. Student-at-law, McMillan Binch. I would like to thank Professor Michael Trebilcock for his helpful comments and suggestions.
2 288 of Pragmatism : ( ) 25 R.D.U.S. Acceptance of the Uruguay Round Agreements marks a significant reorientation of the GATT from pragmatism to legalism. Not least among the measures affected by this shift is subsidies, an increasingly controversial area of trade law. Unlike the previous Track 1/ Track 2 method, GATT-legality of subsidies will be now be determined primarily by specificity and injury tests. This paper argues that the Uruguay Round Agreement on subsidies will eventually undermine the GATT as domestic pressures force states to ignore GATT rules. The paper goes on to suggest that subsidies law reform should concentrate on encouraging the use of the nonviolation nullification and impairment provision. As nonviolation nullification and impairment facilitates reciprocity by regulating reliance-induced behaviour, its legitimacy is stronger than that of the Uruguay Round Agreements. Such legitimacy is crucial when the viability of an international legal order depends on self-enforcement.
3 ( ) 25 R.D.U.S. of Pragmatism : 289 TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction Subsidies a) Subsidies Law Before the Uruguay Round b) The Uruguay Round Nullification and Impairment a) Summary of the Law of Article XXIII:1(b) b) Effectiveness of Article XXIII:1(b) Nullification and Impairment and the Uruguay Round Agreement Conclusion
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5 ( ) 25 R.D.U.S. of Pragmatism : 291 Introduction Underlying the many battles that have been fought during the Uruguay Round of negotiations on the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 1 is one major theme : the transformation of the GATT into a rules-oriented world legal order. The dialectic between a negotiation-oriented, pragmatist model and a legalist, rules-oriented model has existed from the very inception of the GATT 2. In 1950, the pragmatist model prevailed : proposals for the International Trade Organization (ITO) were defeated by American protection of state sovereignty 3. The momentum of the legalist model has increased over the past forty-five years 4, as complaints of weakness in the GATT regime have accumulated 5. Many of the elements of the Uruguay Round Agreements 6, such as the creation of an appelate body and the augmentation of surveillance functions, reflect this trend. Acceptance of the Uruguay Round Agreement in December, 1993 marks a profound re-orientation of the GATT. This paper will argue against this legalistic shift and will posit instead that the vision of the GATT as a diplomatic instrument should have been strengthened. It will assert these propositions in Stat. A3, T.I.A.S. No at 47, 55 U.N.T.S See for example J. Jackson, The World Trading System : Law and Policy of International Economic Relations, Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press, 1989, at ; J.M. Lutz, «GATT Reform or Regime Maintenance : Differing Solutions to World Trade Problems», (1991) 25:2 J. of World Trade 107; J. Carlson, «Hunger, Agricultural Trade Liberalization and Soft International Law : Addressing the Legal Dimensions of a Political Problem», (1985) 70 Iowa L.R. 1187; R.E. Hudec, «GATT Dispute Settlement After the Tokyo Round : An Unfinished Business», (1980) 13 Cornell Int'l L.J R. Howse and M.J. Trebilcock, International Trade : Legal Order and Political Economy, (unpublished manuscript, 1993), c.1 at H.J. Cheetham, «The Federal Government Proposals for Reform of the GATT Dispute Settlement System : Continued Momentum for a Rules-Oriented Approach to Dispute Settlement in International Trade Agreements», (1991) 22 R.G.D. 431 at V.C. Price, «New Institutional Developments in GATT», (1992) 1 Minn. J. Global Trade 87 at 90; R.E. Hudec, Enforcing International Trade Law : The Evolution of the Modern GATT Legal System, Salem, New Hampshire, Butterworth, 1993, at 362; R.Z. Lawrence & R.E. Litan, «The World Trading System After the Uruguay Round», (1990) 8 Boston U. Int'l L.J. 247 at 251; Howse and Trebilcock, supra, note 3, c. 15 at Final Act Embodying the Results of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations : Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures, 15 December, 1993, MTN/FA, UR [Hereinafter «Uruguay Agreement»].
6 292 of Pragmatism : ( ) 25 R.D.U.S. the context of subsidies, a contentious branch of GATT law which has spawned many of the complaints referred to above 7. It will argue that the new agreement on subsidies represents an attempt to impose a legalist framework on a mixture of legalist and pragmatist substance. Finally, this article will draw conclusions from the application of the new approach to the subsidies context, and attempt to generalize about the future of the GATT as a legal order. Subsidies a) Subsidies Law Before the Uruguay Round Initially, the GATT provisions regarding subsidies were somewhat sparse. Article VI of the GATT prohibited the use of any export subsidy, direct or indirect, with the exception of subsidies for primary products. Subsidies on primary products only violated the GATT if they resulted in an inequitable share of world trade. There was no remedial provision other than Article XVI which merely required notification and consultation. A more aggressive subsidies regime did not appear until the Tokyo Round. The Subsidies Code 8 was a compromise between two views on the regulation of subsidies : the «injury-only» school and the «anti-distortion» school 9. The injury-only school contends that subsidies are not harmful by definition. They can help correct market distortions and support economic and political goals which are distinct from economic efficiency. Therefore trade remedies should only be used when injury is caused to the domestic production industry of another state. The anti-distortion school reasons that all subsidies are bad because they reduce productive and distributive efficiency. The result of the compromise between these two views was a two-track approach. The first track, 7. Subsidies complaints comprised approximately 38% of GATT litigation up to and including Hudec, supra, note 5 at Agreement on Interpretation and Application of the Articles VI, XVI and XXIII of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, (1980) 26 BISD 56; 31 U.S.T. 513; T.I.A.S. No [hereinafter «Subsidies Code»]. 9. J.H.J. Bourgeois, «The GATT Rules for Industrial Subsidies and Countervailing Duties in the New GATT Round - The Weather and the Seeds» in The New GATT Round of Multilateral Negotiations : Legal and Economic Problems, E. Petersmann & M. Hilf (eds.), Deventer, Netherlands, Kluwer Law and Taxation Publishers, 1991, 219 at
7 ( ) 25 R.D.U.S. of Pragmatism : 293 Article 4 of the Subsidies Code, allowed states to impose countervailing duties on export subsidies, as long as the aggrieved party could show the existence of a subsidy, material injury and a causal link between the subsidy and the injury. In contrast, Article 11 merely allowed a state to request consultations with any other party when an export subsidy existed or when any subsidy appeared to be causing harm to a domestic industry. No other specific remedial provisions were contemplated. The two track approach to subsidies caused much concern among trade theorists, as well as among the GATT's member states. A basic source of contention was the vagueness of the definition of a subsidy. The GATT divided subsidies into countervailable export subsidies and other subsidies, but gave no definition of either term. A list in the Annex to the Code prohibited certain subsidization schemes such as direct subsidies contingent upon export performance and currency retention schemes involving export bonuses, but the list was merely «illustrative and non-exhaustive» 10. The GATT had developed a fairly effective legal framework for export subsidies 11, yet had been unable to find an equivalent principle for domestic subsidies. The reason for this is clear: it is difficult to discover a legitimate domestic policy justification for an export subsidy. However, many domestic subsidies have legitimate policy justifications : long-term economic stability, infant industries, religious preferences, lifestyle preferences and preservation of traditional work patterns are just a few examples 12. The legitimacy of domestic subsidies is recognized in the very text of the General Agreement. Although Article XVI notes that domestic subsidies can be harmful to other states' interests and distort trade, it also states that domestic subsidies are «widely used as important instruments for the promotion of social and economic policy objectives such as employment sustenance, restructuring of certain economic sectors and re-training» 13. According to Depayre and Petriccione, the intellectual difficulty of finding an umbrella principle which covers an almost endless variety and degree of government policies and the diversity of political attitudes on what should be considered a 10. Article XI: Bourgeois, supra, note 9 at Jackson, supra, note 2 at Article XI:1.
8 294 of Pragmatism : ( ) 25 R.D.U.S. legitimate subsidy have resulted in an inability to define an actionable subsidy 14. Despite the widespread use of subsidies world-wide, the number of rulings against subsidies has been remarkably low 15. The lack of clarity of a definition of subsidies has made an effective regulation regime impossible and has significantly decreased incentives to reduce or eliminate subsidies. A second criticism of the current approach to subsidies centers on the GATT's dispute settlement mechanism. One consequence of the Track 1/Track 2 approach has been excessive reliance on countervailing duties (CVDs) 16. Although there have been numerous complaints concerning countervailing duties, particularly in the past decade, the success rate of these complaints, both in terms of panel decisions and settlements, has been extremely low 17. Hudec has speculated that CVD cases are inherently more likely to fail given the «typical arbitrariness of AD/CVD criteria and the legal rigidity of measures once taken» 18. CVDs themselves are not inherently undesirable remedies. With attention to overcompensation, a countervailing duty is often preferable to other trade remedies such as export taxes and export quotas which may increase trade distortion. As Hufbauer and Erb suggest, «the remedy can prove worse than the original subsidy» 19. In fact, the use of CVDs by the United States has resulted in trade liberalization in that the removal of foreign trade barriers outnumbered American retaliatory restrictions G. Depayre and R. Petriccione, «Definition of Subsidy» in Subsidies and International Trade : A European Lawyers' Perspective, J.H.J. Bourgeois (ed.), Deventer, the Netherlands, Kluwer Law and Taxation Publishers, 1991, Hudec, supra, note 5 at Lawrence & Litan, supra, note 5 at Hudec, supra, note 5 at 338-9, and Ibid. at 355. Note that «AD» refers to «Anti-Dumping». 19. G.C. Hufbauer and J.S. Erb, Subsidies in International Trade, Washington, Institute for International Economics, 1984, at J.M. Finger, «That Old GATT Magic No More Casts Its Spell (How the Uruguay Round Failed)», (1991) 25:2 J. World Trade 19 at 20.
9 ( ) 25 R.D.U.S. of Pragmatism : 295 Rather, it is the unilateral nature of past usage of countervailing duties which has caused concern 21. Under Track 1, a state could impose countervailing duties without prior authorization from a GATT panel 22. Thus, barring a GATT complaint, the content and frequency of application of countervailing duty law is determined entirely by domestic legislation. The result is a debilitation of the GATT. Since CVDs bring domestic control within GATT-legality, they «have a magic all their own» 23, reducing or eliminating the incentive to use multilateral GATT procedures. As Meng states, Track 1 was «more predictable, timely and effective» 24. Therefore, although Track 1 and Track 2 were not mutually exclusive options, the incentive for strong economies to negotiate through the GATT was all but destroyed. Futhermore, although Track 1 mechanisms were available to all members of the GATT, realistically they were only available to economically powerful states. For example, threats by Madagascar to reduce American access to the Madagascar market would not be terribly effective. Even the possibility of using countervailing duties against economic powerhouses can result in other types of trade restraints, such as voluntary export restrictions (VERs) or orderly marketing arrangements (OMRs). The result is that some states, particularly developing ones, see the countervailing duty as a new form of non-tariff barrier 25. Finally, not only did the Track 1/Track 2 system weaken the GATT and limit effective remedies to strong economies, it provided remedies for only a portion of all subsidies. Subsidies can be categorized into different groups according to their distortionary effects. A can subsidize its exports into B, thereby harming B's domestic producers. A can subsidize its exports into C, thereby displacing 21. K. Kautzor-Schroder, «Subsidies and Countervail in the Uruguay Round : A Comment» in The New GATT Round of Multilateral Negotiations : Legal and Economic Problems, E. Petersmann and M. Hilf (eds.), Deventer, Netherlands, Kluwer Law and Taxation Publishers, 1991, 237 at Subsidies Code, supra, note 8, art. 4(4). 23. Finger, supra, note 20 at W.P. Meng, «Comment» in Subsidies and International Trade : A European Lawyers' Perspective, J.H.J. Bourgeois (ed.), Deventer, the Netherlands, Kluwer Law and Taxation Publishers, 1991, 175 at Lawrence & Litan, supra, note 5 at 253.
10 296 of Pragmatism : ( ) 25 R.D.U.S. B's producers who also export to C. A can subsidize its domestic industries, thereby harming B's producers who export to A. Of these three types of subsidies, only the first type was countervailable under the Subsidies Code. The other types had to be pursued through Track 2. Thus, as Bourgeois argues, «while the importing contracting party can protect itself by countervailing measures, other contracting parties whose exporting interests may be affected are left out in the cold» 26. Given the gravity of these problems, it is no surprise that the Subsidies Code never received much support from GATT members : as of June 1989 only 24 states (the EC countries being one state) had signed on to the agreement. b) The Uruguay Round The Uruguay Round Agreement categorizes subsidies into «prohibited», «actionable» and «non-actionable» groups (also known as the white/grey/black or green/amber/red approach). Prohibited subsidies include listed export subsidies, subsidies contingent upon export performance or local sourcing and other subsidies such as some of the ones listed in the Code's Annex which are obviously intended to give aid to exports 27. The rationale here is that such subsidies betray motives of trade distortion rather than legitimate domestic policy actualization 28. Non-actionable subsidies are at the opposite end of the spectrum, being those subsidies which cannot be attacked with trade remedies. These are subsidies which are generally available (not «specific») or which are identified by the Agreement as non-actionable, such as some research and development activity 29. Determination of whether or not a subsidy will be specific will be done through the application of a specificity test of the type currently used in the United States. If a subsidy is deemed specific, then it will be actionable. A subsidy is specific if it is overtly so (i.e. if the legislation is clearly targetting specific enterprises or industries), if it is theoretically available 26. Bourgeois, supra, note 9 at Uruguay Round Agreement, supra, note 6, art J.J. Barceló, «Subsidies, Countervailing Duties and Antidumping after the Tokyo Round», (1980) 13 Cornell Int. L. J. 257 at Uruguay Round Agreement, supra, note 6, art. 8.2(a).
11 ( ) 25 R.D.U.S. of Pragmatism : 297 to everyone but in fact only used by a few producers or if government discretion indicates that certain producers have been targetted 30. In the middle category are actionable subsidies. A subsidy will be deemed actionable if it is specific and causes «adverse effects» to other states. Adverse effects are defined as : «(a) (b) injury to the domestic industry of another signatory nullification or impairment of benefits accruing directly or indirectly to other Members under the GATT 1994, in particular the benefits of concessions bound under Article II of the GATT 1994 (c) serious prejudice to the interests of another Member.» 31 Should a state believe that a prohibited or actionable subsidy is causing harm to its domestic producers, it can take one of two approaches. The state may request consultations and, if the consultations fail, may request consideration by a panel 32. Unilateral action in the form of a countervailing duty is also available to the complainant state, so long as the complainant member has made reasonable attempts at consultations and so long as the subsidized imports are causing injury 33. There is one distinctly positive element of the Uruguay Round Agreement. Clarification of the definition of subsidies reduces the uncertainty of possible unilateral or multilateral response. In contrast to the vague thresholds of the Subsidies Code, the tests in the Agreement are specific enough to enable governments and economic actors to plan at least some subsidization without fear of trade retaliation 34. Fears over the possible vulnerability of broad social 30. Ibid., art Ibid., art Ibid., art. 4 and Ibid., art J. Jackson, «Strengthening the International Legal Framework of the GATT-MTN System : Reform Proposals for the New GATT Round» in The New GATT Round of Multilateral Negotiations : Legal and Economic Problems, E. Petersmann and M. Hilf (eds.), Deventer, Netherlands, Kluwer Law and Taxation Publishers, 1991, 3 at 7-8.
12 298 of Pragmatism : ( ) 25 R.D.U.S. policies such as health care or education should be alleviated and even the fear of unilateral trade remedies should be somewhat decreased in view of the opportunity to present evidence 35. However, the classification system proposed in the Uruguay Round Agreement does not clearly address the underlying, more complex issue in subsidies law : the determination of the «legitimacy» of a domestic subsidy by an international tribunal. The crux of the problem is this : domestic subsidies are important if not crucial aspects of domestic politics 36. This has long been acknowledged by the GATT itself 37. An international organization which purports to regulate domestic subsidies therefore must have some basis for determining which subsidies are legitimate and which subsidies should be exposed to retaliation. Normally, the GATT is competent to make decisions based on basic trade theory. Trade theory reasons that subsidies cause economic distortions. They transfer production from efficient to inefficient producers, thereby raising the price consumers pay for products 38. Consumers lose again because they must pay tax dollars to fund subsidies. It has been suggested that states which import subsidized goods should send a «thank-you note» to the exporting state 39. Since comparative advantage tells us that free trade is always more beneficial to trading states than distorted trade 40, a GATT panel could make a legitimacy decision based on its own area of expertise : trade theory and practice. However, as with other areas of trade law (such as intellectual property), trade theory can be an inadequate basis for decision-making regarding domestic subsidies. It is not clear, for example, that an unelected international panel with no expertise outside trade law should decide whether or not to strike down a subsidy which affects a product's price by a relatively small smount, yet achieves 35. Uruguay Round Agreement, supra, note 6, art Bourgeois, supra, note 9 at As noted above, the preamble and article 8.1 of the Subsidies Code state that «subsidies are used by governments to promote important objectives of national policy». 38. Howse & Trebilcock, supra, note 3, c. VI at Jackson, supra, note 2 at 251; M. Trebilcock, «Throwing Deep : Trade Remedy Laws in a First- Best World» in M.J. Trebilcock and R.C. York (eds.), Fair Exchange, Toronto, C.D. Howe Institute, 1990, 235 at See chapter 1, pp. 3-5 in Howse & Trebilcock, supra, note 3.
13 ( ) 25 R.D.U.S. of Pragmatism : 299 a significant national objective, such as enabling a traditional community to maintain its historical way of life. If states could agree on a list of legitimate subsidies, the institutional competence of a GATT panel would not be in doubt. Yet, as Kautzor-Schroder suggests, it is unlikely that states would be able to agree on such a list 41. Hudec has stated that «The regulatory impact of GATT rules has rested on the normative force of organized community condemnation. The key to the force of such normative pressures is an underlying consensus among GATT member governments about what constitutes correct governmental behavior.» 42 Given the difficulty of reaching consensus on the legitimacy of a particular subsidy, the force of a panel decision is thus reduced. The Agreement's response to this problem is puzzling. First, the heart of the Agreement, the categorization of prohibited, non-actionable and actionable subsidies, amounts to a legal framework which presupposes that the legitimacy of subsidies can be definitively determined. At first glance the fact that most contentious subsidies could be actionable makes the Agreement's categorization uncontroversial. However, a closer look shows that even this apparently uncontroversial attempt to impose legal rules on subsidies is problematic. For example, a subsidy which is partially contingent on use of domestic goods over imported goods will be prohibited by article 3.1(b) regardless of the subsidy's potential positive domestic economic, social or political impact. The use of the specificity test to determine which subsidies are nonactionable is questionable as well. The decision to label non-specific subsidies as non-actionable is intuitively sensible as such subsidies normally do not produce significant distortion 43. However, this goal can be accomplished by simply requiring a minimum level of adverse effects of a subsidy before a GATT panel will consider authorization of retaliation or other measures. This approach is already embodied in article 5.1 of the Agreement. Furthermore, specificity is not always a guarantee that protectionist interests are at work. For example, 41. Kautzor-Schroder, supra, note 21 at Hudec, supra, note 2 at Jackson, supra, note 2 at 267.
14 300 of Pragmatism : ( ) 25 R.D.U.S. the United States imposed countervailing duties on Canadian softwood lumber in However, the fact that Canadian firms have supported lower stumpage fees than those in effect in the United States may have only been a reflection of Canada's industrial structure 44. Jackson suggests that there is another justification for specificity. Specificity eliminates from the trade regulation arena policies, such as health care, policing and education which we intuitively believe should be excluded from its scope 45. Thus the specificity test, as it is applied to determine which subsidies are non-actionable, is also a legitimacy test. This type of test is of particular concern given the possibility of unilateral retaliation. Second, the same legalistic approach to legitimacy occurs in article 5 of the Agreement which addresses actionable subsidies. As said above, article 5.1 states that a subsidy is actionable if it causes injury, nullification and impairment and serious prejudice to another signatory. Should a subsidy satisfy these criteria, the Agreement states that the offending state «shall take appropriate steps to remove such adverse effects or shall withdraw the subsidy» 46. If the subsidy is not removed within 6 months, then the Committee on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures will authorize countermeasures 47. Thus the Agreement represents a rejection of the Tokyo Round Track 2 conciliation approach in favour of specific rules which can determine with some certainty the legality of a subsidy. The Agreement is overt in its legalistic approach and does not betray any sense of institutional incompetence. Note the almost constitutional tone of the phrase «No signatory should cause...adverse effects to the interests of other signatories» in article 5.1. It is my argument that the Agreement's legalistic approach to subsidies will be harmful to the future of GATT. Even well-drafted rules may be ignored at times. A state may choose to ignore international rules for two reasons. First, domestic needs are sometimes more important than international obligations. 44. A.D. Anderson, «An Analysis of the Proposed Subsidies Code Procedures in the `Dunkel Text' of the GATT Uruguay Round : The Canadian Exporters' Case», (1993) 27 J. of World Trade 71. Anderson acknowledges that the Dunkel Draft attempts to account for differences in the extent of diversification of economic activities, yet is skeptical about its implementation. See text at Jackson, supra, note 2 at Uruguay Round Agreement, supra, note 6, art Ibid.
15 ( ) 25 R.D.U.S. of Pragmatism : 301 A government may ignore the GATT in favour of finding solutions to serious domestic problems. As Hudec points out, «Trade restrictions are the product of underlying economic problems, and they are "inevitable" as long as the problems are not solved. The mere existence of rules will not make these economic subsidies disappear, nor will rules promote the kind of discussion needed to understand and solve them.» 48 The GATT may also be ignored by governments which face severe domestic political pressure from certain industries, interest groups or political parties 49. The controversy in Canada during the 1988 election over the Free Trade Agreement and its potential impact on Canadian jobs is but one example of the strength of anti-free trade domestic pressure. Although an international regulatory system will exert some external pressure on governments 50 it is inevitable that without an enforcement mechanism bound to happen these two types of domestic pressure will sometimes prevail over the GATT. Given that even well-crafted rules will undoubtedly be disregarded by individual states at times, an excessively legalistic GATT will eventually lose its effectiveness. If the sole reason why GATT members used subsidies in the past was the vagueness of the Tokyo Round reforms, then the more precise Uruguay Round Agreement would be more effective in eliminating subsidies. However, as Lutz has argued, the implicit assumption of legalism that faulty rules are responsible for protectionism is incorrect since violations of the GATT are more likely to take place in reaction to economic problems and not before economic problems appear 51. As it is inevitable that GATT members will sometimes ignore the General Agreement, then making the General Agreement 48. R.E. Hudec, «GATT or GABB? The Future Design of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade», (1971) 80 Yale L.J at Hudec, supra, note 2 at Long has stated that «the very existence of GATT law can have important side-effects. Governments are likely to be more hesitant about taking unlawful trade measures when they know the rules are there, and that they may well come under heavy criticism for their action in an international forum.» O. Long, Law and its Limitations in the GATT Multilateral Trade System, Dordrecht, Martinus Nijoff Publishers, 1985, at 64. See also Price, supra, note 5; Carlson, supra, note 2 at Lutz, supra, note 2 at
16 302 of Pragmatism : ( ) 25 R.D.U.S. more detailed or more strict will not improve compliance and certainty, and will only accentuate the rejection of the Agreement. Repeated evasion of GATT rules would weaken the legitimacy of the GATT itself. As long as the GATT does not have its own enforcement mechanism, it must seek to find rules which achieve some certainty without encumbering itself with the risks of constitutional pretensions. I will argue below that the concept of nullification and impairment realizes this goal. Nullification and Impairment The GATT provision on nullification and impairment is found in Article XXIII. It states, in part : 1. If any contracting party should consider that any benefit accruing to it directly or indirectly under this Agreement is being nullified or impaired or that the attainment of any objective of the Agreement is being impeded as a result of (a) the failure of another contracting party to carry out its obligations under this Agreement, or (b) the application by another contracting party of any measure, whether or not it conflicts with the provisions of this Agreement, or (c) the existence of any other situation, the contracting party may, with a view to the satisfactory adjustment of the matter, make written representations or proposals to the other contracting party of parties which it considers to be concerned If no satisfactory adjustment is effected between the contracting parties within a reasonable time, or if the difficulty is of the type described in paragraph 1(c) of this Article, the matter may be referred to the CONTRACTING PARTIES. The CONTRACTING PARTIES shall promptly investigate the matter...and shall make appropriate recommendations...if the CONTRACTING PARTIES consider that the
17 ( ) 25 R.D.U.S. of Pragmatism : 303 circumstances are serious enough to justify such action, they may authorize a contracting party or parties to suspend the application to any other contracting party or parties of such concessions or other obligations under this Agreement. Nonviolation nullification and impairment (Article XXIII:1(b)) is different from the rest of the GATT in that it represents a distinctly pragmatic approach to trade regulation. Unlike violation nullification and impairment in XXIII:1(a), 1(b) contemplates compensation or reaction to a trade measure without the categorization of that measure as GATT-illegal 52. Because of its emphasis on compensation rather than punishment 53, it seeks not to judge state conduct, but to preserve trade relationships by emphasizing equity and predictability. It is this emphasis, it will be argued, that makes Article XXIII:1(b) a desirable alternative to the Uruguay Round approach to subsidies. a) Summary of the Law of Article XXIII:1(b) On its face, 1(b) appears too broad to be effective. This has certainly been a complaint of many commentators 54. Certainly the jurisprudence has been sparse. Of the 26 complaints which put 1(b) forward as a ground up until the end of 1989, a detailed analysis of 1(b) was only made ten times. However, it is submitted that this jurisprudence is sufficient to provide an analytical basis for subsidy complaints which currently fall under 1(b), as well as a basis for expansion of the application of this concept to all subsidy questions. Early GATT panels developed a two-pronged test to determine whether nonviolation nullification and impairment had occurred. The first prong of the test is whether or not the complainant party had a «reasonable expectation» that the impugned trade measure would not be introduced. The second prong of the 52. W.J. Davey, «Dispute Settlement in GATT», (1987) Fordham Int'l L.J. 51 at J. Jackson, World Trade and the Law of GATT, New York, Bobbs-Merrill, 1969, at See, for example, J. Jackson, «Governmental Disputes in International Trade Relations : A Proposal in the Context of GATT», (1979) 13 J. of World Trade 1 at 7 and J.M. Waincymer, «Revitalizing GATT Article XXIII - Issues in the Context of the Uruguay Round», (1988) 12 World Competition 5 at See also R.E. Hudec, «Retaliation Against `Unreasonable' Foreign Trade Practices : The New Section 301 and GATT Nullification and Impairment», (1975) 59 Minn. L.R. 461 for a review of the drafting history of XXIII:1(b).
18 304 of Pragmatism : ( ) 25 R.D.U.S. test examines whether or not the trade measure has significantly changed competitive conditions. Evidence of material injury is not necessary. This analytical framework was established in a 1949 complaint by Chile against Australian subsidies on ammonium sulphate. During World War II, Australia subsidized both sodium nitrate and ammonium sulfate. Australia then negotiated a tariff concession with Chile on sodium nitrate. In 1949 Australia lifted the subsidy on sodium nitrate but continued the subsidy on ammonium sulphate. The result was that Australian ammonium sulphate absorbed Chile's sodium nitrate market. The Working Party stated that the actions of the Australian government «could not reasonably have been anticipated» by Chile and, moreover, that Chile «had reason to assume» that the subsidy on ammonium sulphate would not be removed before the removal of subsidies on other products 55. The Working Party was careful to state that the reasonable expectation would not apply to all subsidies; it was applied because the two products were so similar and the initiation and implementation history of the subsidies on each product was equally similar. In the Norwegian Sardines case 56, Norway and Germany had negotiated tariff concessions in 1951 on Scandinavian sardines. However, soon after the tariff concession, Germany granted more favourable treatment to Portugese sardines. The GATT panel supported Norway's claim of nullification and impairment on the grounds that Germany's actions had «substantially reduced» the value of Norway's concessions and that Norway had reason to believe that its product would not be treated less favourably than products from other states. The panel held that Norway's expectations were reasonable because equality of treatment was discussed during the tariff negotiations and that tariff concessions were in fact exchange. The framework established in the Ammonium Sulphate and Norwegian Sardines cases has been vigorously affirmed. In the Import Duties on Starch and Potato Flour case, a GATT panel found that Benelux tariff concessions to Germany were undermined by Germany's failure to carry out its obligations (1952) 2 BISD 188 at General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, Basic Instruments and Selected Documents, vol. 2, Geneva, GATT, 1952, at (1955) 3 BISD 77.
19 ( ) 25 R.D.U.S. of Pragmatism : 305 A 1955 report by a GATT Working Party affirmed the principle that GATT members which have negotiated concessions under Article II have, absent evidence to the contrary, a reasonable expectation that the value of their concessions will not be impaired by subsequent trade measures 58. Attempts by the European Economic Community to weaken the jurisprudential value of the Norwegian Sardines case and the Ammonium Sulphate case have been squarely rejected by GATT panels 59. More general use of nullification and impairment has received some support among academics as well 60. The two early cases are an explicit rejection of fault-based judgment by GATT panels. In the Ammonium Sulphate case, Australia's policy was intended to support sugar farmers by increasing their income through the subsidization of ammonium sulphate. The panel report recognized the legitimacy of the policy, and specifically stated that it had «no intention of implying that the action taken by the Australian Government was unreasonable, but simply that the Chilean Government could not have reasonably been expected during the negotiations in 1947 to have foreseen such action or the reasons which led to it.» 61 Furthermore, although the panel recommended a change in Australia's subsidy policy as the most practical solution, it emphasized that its power was limited to the authorization of compensatory trade measures on the part of Chile. The panel was careful to respect Australia's sovereignty and not to substitute its own policy determinations. As Petersmann states, «the GATT rules on nonviolation complaints rightly recognize the various «GATT freedoms» of contracting parties to introduce trade measures not prohibited by GATT even if they nullify and impair the competitive benefit of previous trade concessions» 62. This 58. (1955) 3 BISD See the Oilseeds case, (1988) 37 BISD 86, described below. 60. See Hudec, supra, note 48 at Supra, note 55 at E.-U.Petersmann, «Violation Complaints and Non-violation Complaints in Public International Trade Law», (1991) German Yearbook of Int'l Law 175 at 227. This sentiment was also echoed in the Oilseeds case, below, where the panel wrote that «[t]he recognition of the legitimacy of an expectation relating to the use of production subsidies therefore in no way prevents a contracting party from using production subsidies consistently with the General Agreement; it merely
20 306 of Pragmatism : ( ) 25 R.D.U.S. respect for sovereignty is perhaps reflected in the fact that although Australia wrote a dissenting opinion, the panel report was adopted by the contracting parties in March of Mark Sills 64 has argued that the spirit of Norwegian Sardines and Ammonium Sulphate has been significantly diluted by more recent GATT panel decisions, especially the series of complaints launched by Uruguay in The complaints were directed at 15 different countries with respect to 30 different products or groups of products, including a complaint added on later against the European Economic Community's CAP (the Common Agricultural Policy). However, Uruguay's position was remarkably unclear. No specific legal theory was enunciated, with the exception of one reference to Article XIII:1(c). No statistical information was provided to the panel. Uruguay did not even specify which type of retaliation it wished the panel to authorize. The panel gave recommendations for certain violations of the GATT which had been admitted by the defendant states, yet refused to give any ruling on the subject of nonviolation nullification and impairment. Sills argues that the Uruguay case indicates a «decidedly more conservative approach to the issue of the effect of impairment of the benefits of a GATT concession without actual breach of a GATT obligation» because the panel «demonstrated some reluctance to make use of [the concept of nonviolation nullification and impairment] without proof based on statistical or other evidence of trade impairment» 66. Yet it is hardly surprising that a GATT panel would refuse to make a ruling without any specific legal argumentation or evidence. Surely the Uruguay complaints are not a signal of a decline in the potency of Article XXIII, but rather represent the analytical rigor expected by GATT panels. delineates the scope of the protection of a negotiated balance of concessions.» See infra, note 59 at GATT/CP.5/SR.6 (6 November 1950). 64. M.N. Sills, «The Concept of Non-Violation Nullification and Impairment in the Investment and Services Chapters of the Canada-US Free Trade Agreement», (1990) 3 R.I.B.L (1963) 11 BISD Sills, supra, note 64 at 134.
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|Message view
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|"Hairong Kuang (JIRA)" <j...@apache.org>
|[jira] Updated: (HDFS-903) NN should verify images and edit logs on startup
|Fri, 05 Nov 2010 17:58:45 GMT
[ https://issues.apache.org/jira/browse/HDFS-903?page=com.atlassian.jira.plugin.system.issuetabpanels:all-tabpanel ] Hairong Kuang updated HDFS-903: ------------------------------- Attachment: trunkChecksumImage3.patch This patch made the change in Checkpointer as Konstantin suggested. Actually TestBackupNode caught this. The patch also fixed a subtle bug in TestSaveNameSpace caused by using spy. A spyed object does only a shallow copy of the original object. So when a new checksum is generated when saving the image to disk, the new value is set in the spyImage, but when saving the signature into VERSION file using StorageDirectory, it uses the value set in orignalImage. So reloading the image would fail. I fixed it by explicitly setting the storage directories in spyImage. > NN should verify images and edit logs on startup > ------------------------------------------------ > > Key: HDFS-903 > URL: https://issues.apache.org/jira/browse/HDFS-903 > Project: Hadoop HDFS > Issue Type: Bug > Components: name-node > Reporter: Eli Collins > Assignee: Hairong Kuang > Priority: Critical > Fix For: 0.22.0 > > Attachments: trunkChecksumImage.patch, trunkChecksumImage1.patch, trunkChecksumImage2.patch, trunkChecksumImage3.patch > > > I was playing around with corrupting fsimage and edits logs when there are multiple dfs.name.dirs specified. I noticed that: > * As long as your corruption does not make the image invalid, eg changes an opcode so it's an invalid opcode HDFS doesn't notice and happily uses a corrupt image or applies the corrupt edit. > * If the first image in dfs.name.dir is "valid" it replaces the other copies in the other name.dirs, even if they are different, with this first image, ie if the first image is actually invalid/old/corrupt metadata than you've lost your valid metadata, which can result in data loss if the namenode garbage collects blocks that it thinks are no longer used. > How about we maintain a checksum as part of the image and edit log and check those on startup and refuse to startup if they are different. Or at least provide a configuration option to do so if people are worried about the overhead of maintaining checksums of these files. Even if we assume dfs.name.dir is reliable storage this guards against operator errors. -- This message is automatically generated by JIRA. - You can reply to this email to add a comment to the issue online.
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|Reviews for Pein Consults
| Guest chapter 10 . 7/11/2014
Did they have XXX or they just went to sleep?
I like it!
| Guest chapter 3 . 10/7/2013
Actually, zestu was a symbiote, half a body. Madara gave him the other half.
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| death2society chapter 10 . 7/22/2010
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| AkatsukiSoRules chapter 10 . 7/18/2010
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| Enigma infinite chapter 10 . 6/20/2010
That was surprisingly touching!


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Tuesday, May 3, 2016
Dell, EMC To Shift Branding After Acquisition
Round Rock-based Dell and enterprise storage developer EMC unveiled their new branding plans, as the two close their merger. According to the two, they will rename their combined company Dell Technologies, and use the name Dell EMC for their Enterprise business, and Dell for client solutions. The combined business will include all of the infrastructure and enterprise products of Dlel and EMC, plus Dell's PC business, and such companies as VMware, SecureWorks, Pivotal, Virtustream and RSA.


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Hello, all you Chicago types.Thanks for the help -- My phone's battery was perilously low, and I couldn't keep it on. It died this morning as I was talking to Robb, trying to figure out where HE was in the airport so he could get me. BLEAH!I'm okay, home now, and safe. Tell anyone not here that I'm all right, and THANK YOU ALL for trying!
*peers in, grins evilly*Hi!It's Erika, from Michigan ... I showed up to the latest Mage/Cam game.I very well may start making regular trips, so I thought I'd join.*waves, toddles off to bed*
I just set up this community for my fellow livejournal users and domain members.So, here you go!


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Russia's Rosneft and Italy's Eni announced Monday that they have agreed a loan deal to finance geological exploration in three license blocks offshore Russia.
The deal, part of a wider cooperation agreement between Italy and Russia, was signed in Moscow by Eni CEO Paolo Scaroni and Rosneft vice president Igor Pavlov in the presence of Russian Prime Minister Dmitri Medvedev and Italian PM Mario Monti, who is on his first official visit to Russia. Under the agreement, Eni will fully finance geological works for the Fedynsky and Central Barents blocks in the Barents Sea as well as the Western Chernomorsky block in the Black Sea.
Expenses for geological exploration outside of the license obligations will be split between the companies in line with their stakes in the projects. The two companies are to form joint ventures to work on the projects in which Eni will hold a one-third interest, while Rosneft will hold two thirds.
In addition, Eni will compensate the majority of historical costs on completed geological works at the Russian offshore blocks. The Italian firm's investment will be returned from project cash flows once production is launched at any of the blocks.
Eni's licensing obligations stipulate that the following works must be completed:
Eni stated that the signing "represents another important step towards the commencement of exploration activities in two areas of great mining potential, and strengthens the partnership between Eni and Rosneft, which is strategic for the development of Eni's activities in the Russian upstream".
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Post-game: Penn State's defense looked shaky, than it looked fine. And its offense never looked like much of anything.
Minnesota dropped the Lions to 5-4 Saturday at TCF Bank Stadium with a 24-10 victory over the visitors. It marks the third straight loss for Bill O'Brien's program on the road, and the program's lowest point total since scoring seven in a 2011 loss to Wisconsin.
The Golden Gophers improved to 8-2 and 4-2 in Big Ten play with the victory. They didn't score in the second half, but didn't need to, as Penn State could not convert a fourth-down inside the red zone on one fourth quarter possession, and fumbled on another when the center-quarterback exchange was bad at Minnesota's one-yard line. The Golden Gophers recovered, and ran the final 6:40 off the clock.
State receiver Allen Robinson grabbed seven passes for 63 yards, setting the program's single season receiving record in the process by eclipsing former State wide-out Bobby Engram's mark of 1,084 yards. It's a record that dated back to 1995, but despite it, Robinson was rarely targeted in the second half, and failed to find the end zone.
Quarterback Christian Hackenberg finished 14-of-25 for 163 yards, and Zach Zwinak led Penn State with 150 yards on 26 carries. Minnesota quarterback Phillip Nelson threw for a game-high 186 yards and rushed and threw for a score, while back David Cobb paced the Golden Gophers offense with 139 yards on 27 carries and a score.
Penn State returns to the field next Saturday at Beaver Stadium, where the Lions host Purdue at Noon. The quarter-by-quarter recaps can be found below.
PREGAME: It is windy and temperatures are in the 40s. … RB Akeel Lynch is on the trip but is wearing a brace on his right knee. … It looks like Donovan Smith is back in the starting lineup at LT.
Fumble problems plagued Penn State again early Saturday at TCF Bank Stadium. So did the inability to make a stop on defense. Yet, at the end of one, Minnesota leads State 10-7.
The Lions took the ball first, but starting back Bill Belton preceded to fumble on the first snap of the drive, leading to a Minnesota 45-yard field goal from Chris Hawthorne. The Golden Gophers would later march 96 yards on 15 plays in 8:10 to swell its lead to 10, capped off by a David Cobb one-yard rush.
State would finally answer, though, in the final minutes of the first quarter, as Zach Zwinak, spelling Belton, broke off runs of nine, 34, and two before rumbling for a 12-yard score. The ball then went back to the hosts, who will continue its third drive when the second quarter resumes.
Ryan Keiser leads State's defense with three tackles, and linebacker Mike Hull is back in the rotation after an early scare prompted him to go off to have his right knee examined. Lions' quarterback Christian Hackenberg is 2-for-2 for 22 yards, while Zwinak has a team high 63-yards rushing. The Golden Gophers lead on the time of possession clock by a 10:34 to 4:26 margin.
Minnesota has had the ball four times at TCF Bank Stadium. And it has 24 points.
The Golden Gophers lead visiting State 24-10 at the half, a late Phillip Nelson touchdown toss - he ran for one earlier in the quarter - marking the fourth straight score by the Golden Gophers. The hosts have scored on drives of three plays, 15, 13, and 11, and have only not covered more than 70 yards once. The one time they didn't, it was thanks to Penn State, who gave Minnesota good field position after Belton's fumble.
The Lions did get on the board in the stanza, as Sam Ficken was true on a 27-yard field goal. Head coach Bill O'Brien had originally considered going for it deep in Minnesota territory, but opted to take the points.
Penn State has struggled to get off the field on third down, as the Golden Gophers are 7-of-10 on third down, and a perfect 2-for-2 on fourth. They have outgained the visitors by a 241-160 count, and have held the ball for 19:20 compared to Penn State's 10:40.
Hackenberg is 5-of-6 for 48 yards, while Zwinak has carried 14 times for 97 yards and a score. Minnesota has been paced by a 12-of-18 for 165 yards effort from Nelson, who has run and tossed for a score. He and Cobb lead the team with 32 rushing yards at the half.
Minnesota will have the ball to start the second half.
There wasn't much to write home about in the third quarter, a bad sign for visiting Penn State, who still trails 24-10 heading into the fourth quarter.
State punter Alex Butterworth downed a punt inside the one, and Minnesota's Peter Mortell dropped two there, but the neither offense could muster much in the only quarter thus far where points haven't been scored. Though the Lions seemed to have chance.
They had just forced the Golden Gophers to fumble on their side of midfield, a strip from end C.J. Olaniyan the vehicle. But Penn State's drive, which started at the Minnesota 37, went no where fast, as Zwinak carried for no gain on first down, Hackenberg threw an incomplete pass, and then was sacked, leading to Butterworth's 36-yard punt down at the one.
State is driving to begin the fourth quarter.


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Area Sales Manager ( 1 - 2 yrs)
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Rajat Equipments Pvt. Ltd.
RS 1,00,000 To 3,75,000 Bilaspur, Raigarh, Raipur, Surat, Bangalore, Chennai
Required Sale Executive with Good Communication Skills for Our Company. mba Freshers & Experienced 1-3 Years in the Painting Indiustry, Cement Industry, Machines, Contractors, Construction Equipment.heavy & Light ,Tiles Industry, Sanitary Tools,Real...
Key Skills : sales executive,business development,marketing,sales
State Sales Heads in all Capitals ( 15 - 31 yrs)
RR Infratek
RS 5,00,000 To 10,00,000 Hyderabad, Guwahati, Raipur, Shimla, Srinagar, Mumbai, Nagpur, Bhubaneswar, Pondicherry, Kolkata
We are Looking for State Head for Our Vehicle Mounted Product Range Manufactured for Police, Rescue, Safety, Fire, Sky Lifts, Ambulance, Mobile Medical Unit, Solid Waste, Refuse Compactors, Garbage Tippers and Municipal Machines Etc
Key Skills : exposure to deal with departmental heads and bureaucrates,sales,marketing,business development
Mobile App Developer ( 2 - 5 yrs)
Sjain Ventures Ltd
RS 1,75,000 To 3,00,000 Raipur
1. Deep understanding of JAVA, Objective C, C#, HTML5 languages. 2. Extensive knowledge of Eclipse/ADT/Android Studio/XCode/Visual Studio tools for native mobile applications development along with expertise in debugging and testing. 3. Continuous...
Key Skills : 1. be/mca/ msc degree/ diploma or equivalent in an it related discipline.,2. 2-5 years of experience in developing: android/ios /windows/cross...
Android Developer ( 1 - 3 yrs)
Job Alert Consultants
RS 3,00,000 To 7,00,000 Ambikapur-Surguja, Bhilai Nagar, Bilaspur, Durg, Korba, Raigarh, Raipur
Role and Responsibilities a Call Executive in Foodinger is One of the Most Important Role. translate Wire-frames and Prototypes Into High Quality Code. design, Build and Maintain High Performance, Reusable Java Code. identify and Correct Bugs in ...
Key Skills : java developer,xml,android sdk,sqlite,html5 developer,css3,javascript,android developer,android app...
Android Developer ( 0 - 5 yrs)
Bcloud Web Dsingers
RS 1,00,000 To 4,50,000 Bhilai Charoda, Bhilai Nagar, Raipur
• Debug and Optimise Android applications to work on multiple Android versions and devices. • Build Android UI application using Android SDK and Java. • Have published at least one original Android app. • Experience working with Android ...
Key Skills : android developer,android programmer,application developer,android sdk,android app development,mobile application...
Android Developer ( 1 - 3 yrs)
ASAP Recruitment
RS 1,00,000 To 2,50,000 Raipur
WE ARE CURRENTLY HIRING FOR ONE OF OUR REPUTED CLIENT. Experience - 1 to 3 Years JOB ROLE An Android developer is responsible for developing applications for devices powered by the Android operating system. We are l...
Key Skills : candidate should have work experience in mobile technology – android developing. candidates must have knowledge of native & angular js. ...