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Toward Principles for the Design of Ontologies Used for Knowledge Sharing
- Jeffery Kevin Dorsey
- 2 years ago
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1 In International Journal Human-Computer Studies 43, p Substantial revision of paper presented at the International Workshop on Formal Ontology, March, 1993, Padova, Italy. Available as Technical Report KSL 93-04, Knowledge Systems Laboratory, Stanford University. Toward Principles for the Design of Ontologies Used for Knowledge Sharing Revision: August 23, 1993 Thomas R. Gruber Stanford Knowledge Systems Laboratory 701 Welch Road, Building C Palo Alto, CA Recent work in Artificial Intelligence is exploring the use of formal ontologies as a way of specifying content-specific agreements for the sharing and reuse of knowledge among software entities. We take an engineering perspective on the development of such ontologies. Formal ontologies are viewed as designed artifacts, formulated for specific purposes and evaluated against objective design criteria. We describe the role of ontologies in supporting knowledge sharing activities, and then present a set of criteria to guide the development of ontologies for these purposes. We show how these criteria are applied in case studies from the design of ontologies for engineering mathematics and bibliographic data. Selected design decisions are discussed, and alternative representation choices and evaluated against the design criteria. Keywords: ontology, knowledge sharing, ontology design, ontological commitment, Knowledge Interchange Format, measurement theory
2 1. Introduction Several technical problems stand in the way of shared, reusable knowledge-based software. Like conventional applications, knowledge-based systems are based on heterogeneous hardware platforms, programming languages, and network protocols. However, knowledge-based systems pose special requirements for interoperability. Such systems operate on and communicate using statements in a formal knowledge representation. They ask queries and give answers. They take background knowledge as an input. And as agents in a distributed AI environment, they negotiate and exchange knowledge. For such knowledge-level communication, we need conventions at three levels: representation language format, agent communication protocol, and specification of the content of shared knowledge. Proposals for standard knowledge representation formats (Fulton, 1992; Genesereth & Fikes, 1992; Morik, Causse, & Boswell, 1991) and agent communication languages (Finin et al., 1992) are independent of the content of knowledge being exchanged or communicated. For establishing agreements about knowledge, such as shared assumptions and models of the world, ontologies can play a software specification role (Gruber, 1991). Current research is exploring the use of formal ontologies for specifying contentspecific agreements for a variety of knowledge-sharing activities (Allen & Lehrer, 1992; Cutkosky et al., 1993; Fikes, Cutkosky, Gruber, & van Baalen, 1991; Genesereth, 1992; Gruber, Tenenbaum, & Weber, 1992; Neches et al., 1991; Patil et al., 1992; Walther, Eriksson, & Musen, 1992). A long-term objective of such work is to enable libraries of reusable knowledge components and knowledge-based services that can be invoked over networks. We believe the success of these efforts depends on the development of an engineering discipline for ontology design, akin to software engineering for conventional software. This paper is an analysis of design requirements for shared ontologies and a proposal for design criteria to guide the development of ontologies for knowledge-sharing purposes. Section 2 describes a usage model for ontologies in knowledge sharing. Section 3 proposes some design criteria based on the requirements of this usage model. Section 4 shows how these criteria are applied in ontologies designed explicitly for the purpose of knowledge sharing. 2. Ontologies as a specification mechanism A body of formally represented knowledge is based on a conceptualization: the objects, concepts, and other entities that are assumed to exist in some area of interest and the relationships that hold among them (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987). A conceptualization is an abstract, simplified view of the world that we wish to represent for some purpose. Every knowledge base, knowledge-based system, or knowledge-level agent is committed to some conceptualization, explicitly or implicitly. An ontology is an explicit specification of a conceptualization. The term is borrowed from philosophy, where an Ontology is a systematic account of Existence. For AI systems, what exists is that which can be represented. When the knowledge of a domain is represented in a declarative formalism, the set of objects that can be 1
3 represented is called the universe of discourse. This set of objects, and the describable relationships among them, are reflected in the representational vocabulary with which a knowledge-based program represents knowledge. Thus, in the context of AI, we can describe the ontology of a program by defining a set of representational terms. In such an ontology, definitions associate the names of entities in the universe of discourse (e.g., classes, relations, functions, or other objects) with human-readable text describing what the names mean, and formal axioms that constrain the interpretation and well-formed use of these terms. Formally, an ontology is the statement of a logical theory. 1 We use common ontologies to describe ontological commitments for a set of agents so that they can communicate about a domain of discourse without necessarily operating on a globally shared theory. We say that an agent commits to an ontology if its observable actions are consistent with the definitions in the ontology. The idea of ontological commitments is based on the Knowledge-Level perspective (Newell, 1982). The Knowledge Level is a level of description of the knowledge of an agent that is independent of the symbol-level representation used internally by the agent. Knowledge is attributed to agents by observing their actions; an agent knows something if it acts as if it had the information and is acting rationally to achieve its goals. The actions of agents including knowledge base servers and knowledge-based systems can be seen through a tell and ask functional interface (Levesque, 1984), where a client interacts with an agent by making logical assertions (tell), and posing queries (ask). Pragmatically, a common ontology defines the vocabulary with which queries and assertions are exchanged among agents. Ontological commitments are agreements to use the shared vocabulary in a coherent and consistent manner. The agents sharing a vocabulary need not share a knowledge base; each knows things the other does not, and an agent that commits to an ontology is not required to answer all queries that can be formulated in the shared vocabulary. In short, a commitment to a common ontology is a guarantee of consistency, but not completeness, with respect to queries and assertions using the vocabulary defined in the ontology. 3. Design criteria for ontologies Formal ontologies are designed. When we choose how to represent something in an ontology, we are making design decisions. To guide and evaluate our designs, we need objective criteria that are founded on the purpose of the resulting artifact, rather than based on a priori notions of naturalness or Truth. Here we propose a preliminary set of design criteria for ontologies whose purpose is knowledge sharing and interoperation among programs based on a shared conceptualization. 1. Clarity: An ontology should effectively communicate the intended meaning of defined terms. Definitions should be objective. While the motivation for defining a 1 Ontologies are often equated with taxonomic hierarchies of classes, but class definitions, and the subsumption relation, but ontologies need not be limited to these forms. Ontologies are also not limited to conservative definitions, that is, definitions in the traditional logic sense that only introduce terminology and do not add any knowledge about the world (Enderton, 1972). To specify a conceptualization one needs to state axioms that do constrain the possible interpretations for the defined terms. 2
4 concept might arise from social situations or computational requirements, the definition should be independent of social or computational context. Formalism is a means to this end. When a definition can be stated in logical axioms, it should be. Where possible, a complete definition (a predicate defined by necessary and sufficient conditions) is preferred over a partial definition (defined by only necessary or sufficient conditions). All definitions should be documented with natural language. 2. Coherence: An ontology should be coherent: that is, it should sanction inferences that are consistent with the definitions. At the least, the defining axioms should be logically consistent. Coherence should also apply to the concepts that are defined informally, such as those described in natural language documentation and examples. If a sentence that can be inferred from the axioms contradicts a definition or example given informally, then the ontology is incoherent. 3. Extendibility: An ontology should be designed to anticipate the uses of the shared vocabulary. It should offer a conceptual foundation for a range of anticipated tasks, and the representation should be crafted so that one can extend and specialize the ontology monotonically. In other words, one should be able to define new terms for special uses based on the existing vocabulary, in a way that does not require the revision of the existing definitions. 4. Minimal encoding bias: The conceptualization should be specified at the knowledge level without depending on a particular symbol-level encoding. An encoding bias results when a representation choices are made purely for the convenience of notation or implementation. Encoding bias should be minimized, because knowledge-sharing agents may be implemented in different representation systems and styles of representation. 5. Minimal ontological commitment: An ontology should require the minimal ontological commitment sufficient to support the intended knowledge sharing activities. An ontology should make as few claims as possible about the world being modeled, allowing the parties committed to the ontology freedom to specialize and instantiate the ontology as needed. Since ontological commitment is based on consistent use of vocabulary, ontological commitment can be minimized by specifying the weakest theory (allowing the most models) and defining only those terms that are essential to the communication of knowledge consistent with that theory. 2 Tradeoffs Ontology design, like most design problems, will require making tradeoffs among the criteria. However, the criteria are not inherently at odds. For example, in the interest of clarity, definitions should restrict the possible interpretations of terms. Minimizing ontological commitment, however, means specifying a weak theory, admitting many 2 An ontology serves a different purpose than a knowledge base, and therefore a different notion of representational adequacy (McCarthy & Hayes, 1969) applies. A shared ontology need only describe a vocabulary for talking about a domain, whereas a knowledge base may include the knowledge needed to solve a problem or answer arbitrary queries about a domain. 3
5 possible models. These two goals are not in opposition. The clarity criterion talks about definitions of terms, whereas ontological commitment is about the conceptualization being described. Having decided that a distinction is worth making, one should give the tightest possible definition of it. Another apparent contradiction is between extendibility and ontological commitment. An ontology that anticipates a range of tasks need not include vocabulary sufficient to express all the knowledge relevant to those tasks (requiring an increased commitment to that larger vocabulary). An extensible ontology may specify a very general theory, but include the representational machinery to define the required specializations. Extendibility and ontological commitment both include a notion of sufficiency or adequacy. Since an ontology serves a different purpose than a knowledge base, the concept of representational adequacy (McCarthy & Hayes, 1969) differs. A shared ontology need only describe a vocabulary for talking about a domain, whereas a knowledge base may include the knowledge needed to solve a problem or answer arbitrary queries about a domain. To see how these abstract criteria can be used guide ontology design, we will consider two case studies. In each, we will discuss selected design decisions, evaluating alternative representation choices against the proposed criteria. 4. Case studies in ontology design In this section we discuss the design of two ontologies. In conventional data modeling, one would define ontologies with data-type declarations or a database schema. Since we wish to write knowledge-level specifications, independent of particular data or programming languages, we use the knowledge interchange format KIF (Genesereth & Fikes, 1992) 3 Each ontology defines a set of classes, relations, functions, and object constants for some domain of discourse, and includes an axiomatization to constrain the interpretation. The resulting language (the basic logic from KIF + the vocabulary and theory from the ontologies) is a domain-specific specification of a conceptualization. 4.1 A quick overview of KIF KIF is a prefix notation for predicate calculus with functional terms and equality. Free variables, which start with the prefix?, are universally quantified. Material implication is indicated with the =>, <=, and <=> operators. Equality between terms is denoted by the = relation. The member relation indicates set-membership, and setof is the set construction operator. Relations are first-class objects in the universe of discourse, defined as sets of tuples. Relations are denoted by constants that serve as both predicate symbols and as terms denoting the relations as objects. Functions are a special case of relations, where a function of N arguments is equivalent to a relation of N+1 arguments whose last argument is the value of the function on the first N arguments. Classes are represented with unary relations. For example, the sentence (C?q) means?q is an 3 To support development, we used a set of KIF-based analysis and translation tools provided by the Ontolingua system (Gruber, 1992; Gruber, 1993). 4
6 instance of the class C. Definitions are given by the KIF definitional operators defrelation, deffunction, and defobject, which associate a relation, function, or object constant with the set of axioms that follow. In the style of Lisp syntax, case is not significant in constants and the text following a semicolon on the same line is ignored. 4.2 Case 1: Physical quantities, units of measure, and algebra for engineering models In the first case study, we consider the problem of representing mathematical models of engineered systems. Engineers use mathematical models, such as sets of equations, to analyze the behavior of physical systems. The conventional notations for formatting mathematical expressions in textbooks and the engineering literature usually implicit many of the details required to understand the equations. For instance, it is not clear from the expression f = kx+c which symbols are variables or constants; whether they represent numbers or quantities (e.g., forces, lengths); whether the numbers are reals or vectors; whether the quantities are static values, functions of time, or functions of time and space; and the units of measure assumed. The reader must interpret these notations using background knowledge and context. To build libraries of reusable engineering models, it is important to have a notation based on a formal language with a well-defined, context-independent interpretation. For this purpose, Greg Olsen and I have developed a family of formal ontologies for engineering modeling. Our goal was to define the vocabulary and conceptual foundation necessary for sharing mathematical models of device behavior among computer programs. These ontologies can then be used as a language for communication among engineering tools in a distributed, heterogeneous environment (Gruber, Tenenbaum, & Weber, 1992; McGuire et al., 1992). The most important concepts in the ontologies are physical-quantity (e.g., 3 meters, 80 kilometers/hour), physical-dimension (length, length/time), unit-of-measure (meters, kilometers/hour), magnitudes of various orders (scalars, vectors, tensors, and functions thereof), algebras for describing mathematical constraints (e.g., operators for products, sums, exponentiations, and derivatives), and the concepts at a metalinguistic level to describe mathematical expressions as objects in the universe of discourse (e.g., to reason about whether an expression is in closed form or to describe the dependent variables in system of equations). We now focus on the representation of physical quantities in engineering models. Engineers often use the word quantity to refer to both the thing-in-the-world, such as the length of some segment of railway track (about 3 meters), and the thing-in-theequation, such as the parameter X in an equation model denoting the position of a car along the track. In the engineering ontologies, we distinguish these two notions. A physical-quantity is the extent of some property in the world independent of how it is represented or measured (e.g., the length that is 3 meters long). The symbol X is an expression that denotes a physical quantity. A representation of X is at the metalinguistic level, where parameters and equations in an engineering model are treated as special cases of terms and sentences in the logic. The treatment of the metalinguistic level is beyond the scope of this paper, so we will concentrate on the object level representation of physical-quantity. 5
7 Version 1 Consider a straw-man proposal, which we will criticize and revise. We will start with a straightforward definition of a physical quantity: a pair comprising a number and a unit of measure. The KIF form below defines a physical-quantity as an object consisting of a magnitude and a unit, which are given by the unary functions quantity.magnitude and quantity.unit. The definition says that the magnitude of a physical quantity must exist 4 and be of type double-float and its unit must be a member of the standard set of units. These constraints are analogous to slot value restrictions in object-centered languages. Since the definition is an if-and-only-if (<=>) condition, it also says that every pair of such magnitudes and units defines a quantity. (defrelation PHYSICAL-QUANTITY (<=> (PHYSICAL-QUANTITY?q) (and (defined (quantity.magnitude?q)) (double-float (quantity.magnitude?q)) (defined (quantity.unit?q)) (member (quantity.unit?q) (setof meter second kilogram ampere kelvin mole candela))) Physical-quantity is a class (i.e., a unary relation that holds over instances of the class). For describing individual instances of the class, we define a constructor function called the-quantity. The term expression (the-quantity?m?u) denotes a physical quantity?q whose magnitude is?m and unit is?u. (deffunction THE-QUANTITY (<=> (and (defined (THE-QUANTITY?m?u)) (= (THE-QUANTITY?m?u)?q)) (and (physical-quantity?q) (= (quantity.magnitude?q)?m) (= (quantity.unit?q)?u)))) The definition of physical-quantity already stated that all quantities are determined by the values of their magnitudes and units; this definition simply adds vocabulary to be able to denote a specific quantity with a term. For example, the following states that X is the quantity 3 meters, where meter is one of the possible units of measure. (= X (the-quantity 3 meter)) Analysis Our original proposal satisfies some of the design criteria for ontologies. The definition of physical-quantity is specified declaratively its meaning is independent of any program. It is internally consistent, and simple enough to be clear. However, it falls short on some of the other criteria. First, the double-float constraint, while familiar to data definitions, is a specification of the precision of the encoding of numbers rather than the concept of physical quantities. This is an instance of encoding bias because it reflects an implementation detail (bits of precision) rather than the knowledge-level commitments of 4 In KIF, functions may be partial (only defined for some arguments). The predicate defined is used to indicate that a function has a value for a particular sequence of arguments. In relational terminology, (defined (f x)) implies that there exists a y such that, for the function F viewed as a binary relation, F(x, y) holds. In slot-value terminology, it means that slot f has exactly one value on object x. 6
8 parties to the ontology. It would be better to say that the magnitude of such a quantity is a real number, acknowledging that all computer programs must approximate the reals. 5 Second, the concept of units of measure is defined as a set of possible values for the quantity.unit function. This is also a specification of the encoding rather than the world, although it is not as obvious as the double-float vs. real-number example. What we mean by physical quantity does not depend on a commitment to a particular set of units. Therefore, the set of possible units should not be part of the definition of physicalquantity. Third, fixing the set of possible units is a limit on extendibility. The world has many standards for units of measure, and the purposes of this ontology (sharing engineering models and theories across people, domains, and tools) do not sanction a preference for one standard. Therefore, the ontology should allow for the definition of alternate sets of units, and a way to relate them to existing units. Version 2 Consider how we could modify the initial proposal to remove these inadequacies. First, we can reformulate the definition of physical-quantity so that the concepts of magnitude and unit of measure are made explicit as independent classes, magnitude and unit-ofmeasure. (defrelation PHYSICAL-QUANTITY (<=> (PHYSICAL-QUANTITY?q) (and (defined (quantity.magnitude?q)) (magnitude (quantity.magnitude?q)) (defined (quantity.unit?q)) (unit-of-measure (quantity.unit?q)))))) Now we can define the class magnitude to include the class of all real numbers, rather than the class of numbers encodable in floating point format. The class realnumber comes from KIF s number ontology. (defrelation MAGNITUDE (<= (MAGNITUDE?x) (real-number?x))) Note that the definition above is incomplete. A complete definition of a relation includes necessary and sufficient conditions for the relation to hold. The definition above gives sufficient conditions for being a member of the class that all real numbers are magnitudes but not necessary conditions. This is done in anticipation that there will be other sorts of magnitudes in engineering models. The complete family of engineering math ontologies includes separate theories for vector and tensor quantities. These specialized theories inherit from parent theories all the above axioms about quantities and magnitudes, and add axioms stating that vectors and tensors are also magnitudes. Decoupling the ontologies in this way helps to minimize ontological commitment. An agent can commit to the basic theory of real-valued quantities without any 5 For sharing knowledge about discrete approximation, such as theories of error bounds on numeric computation, axioms about precision could be written without encoding bias. 7
9 commitment to higher order magnitudes. The rationale for minimizing commitment is the assumption that greater commitment implies a more complex agent. To accommodate alternate sets of units, we define a class for units of measure, and provide vocabulary with which to define new units. We start with a class called unitof-measure, which is a primitive. 6 (defrelation UNIT-OF-MEASURE (class UNIT-OF-MEASURE)) To allow the user to extend the set of units we define a basis set called basic-unit (a subclass of unit-of-measure) and operators called unit* and unit^ for building new units from existing ones. Unit* is analogous to multiplication and unit^ is analogous to exponentiation to a real power. 7 In an engineering equation, if two quantities are multiplied, their product can be expressed as the quantity whose magnitude is the arithmetic product of the magnitudes of the quantities and whose unit of measure is the unit* of the units of the two quantities. The analogous relationship holds for exponentiation, which introduces division through negative exponents. (defrelation BASIC-UNIT (=> (BASIC-UNIT?u) ; basic units are distinguished (unit-of-measure?u))) ; units of measure (deffunction UNIT* ; Unit* maps all pairs of units to units (=> (and (unit-of-measure?u1) (unit-of-measure?u2)) (and (defined (UNIT*?u1?u2)) (unit-of-measure (UNIT*?u1?u2)))) ; It is commutative (= (UNIT*?u1?u2) (UNIT*?u2?u1)) ; It is associative (= (UNIT*?u1 (UNIT*?u2?u3)) (UNIT* (UNIT*?u1?u2)?u3))) 6 A primitive term is one for which we are not able to give a complete axiomatic definition. We must rely on textual documentation and a background of knowledge shared with the reader to convey the meanings of primitives. Technically, all terms with incomplete definitions are primitives. Some, like magnitude can be strengthened with further conditions to become complete (e.g., magnitude could be made equivalent to real-number). Others, like unit-of-measure, must get their meaning from human interpretation (the meter is a unit of measure purely by convention). 7 In a later revision of the physical quantities theory, we defined units as special cases of quantities. We also included real numbers as quantities with an identity dimension. Since quantities became a generalization of numbers, we extended KIF s * and expt functions with polymorphic definitions for each subclass of quantities, including units of measure. This allowed us to eliminate unit* and unit^, and substitute * and expt throughout. In this formulation, the-quantity reduces to *. 8
10 (deffunction UNIT^ ; Unit^ maps all units and reals to units (=> (and (unit-of-measure?u) (real-number?r)) (and (defined (UNIT^?u?r)) (unit-of-measure (UNIT^?u?r)))) ; It has the algebraic properties of exponentiation (= (UNIT^?u 1)?u) (= (unit* (UNIT^?u?r1) (UNIT^?u?r2)) (UNIT^?u (+?r1?r2))) (= (UNIT^ (unit*?u1?u2)?r) (unit* (UNIT^?u1?r) (UNIT^?u2?r))) For example, one can define meters as a basic-unit for length and seconds as a basic unit for time. We then define a unit for velocity called meters/second using the combination operators. We can use this new unit to denote a specific quantity of velocity. (defobject METER (basic-unit METER)) (defobject SECOND (basic-unit SECOND)) (defobject METER/SECOND (= METER/SECOND (unit* meter (unit^ second -1)))) (= REAL-FAST (the-quantity meter/second)) Analysis of Version 2 This new axiomatization of quantities, magnitudes, and units is extensible, but it turns out to be incoherent. Six feet and two yards are both descriptions of the same length, but if we use the definition above for physical quantities, treating them as pairs of magnitudes and units, then <6 feet> and <2 yards> are not the same quantity! This is easily proved: If and then (= (quantity.unit (the-quantity 6 foot)) foot) (= (quantity.unit (the-quantity 2 yard) yard) (not (= foot yard)) (not (= (the-quantity 6 foot) (the-quantity 2 yard))). This conclusion is consistent with (and follows from) the axiomatic definitions. However, in our conceptualization, these quantities are lengths in the world, independent of how they are measured. Thus 6 feet and 2 yards should be equal, and our proof has revealed a problem. If the representation allows one to infer something that is not true in the conceptualization then the ontology is incoherent. 8 Version 3 8 Of course we have no means of mechanically verifying coherence with the conceptualization. We do have means of deriving consequences of the axioms, which we must interpret with respect to the intended conceptualization. 9
11 The original representation for quantities as aggregates with magnitude and unit components reflects a style encouraged by object-oriented data modeling techniques. Objects are entities whose state is given by instance variables or methods. One can imagine implementing quantities as tuples of numbers and units. But in this domain, this image led us astray. If we abstract away from the implementation, we can solve the problem of equivalent quantities by changing the definitions of the functions that relate quantities to magnitudes and units. In the next version, we say that the magnitude of a quantity depends on the unit in which it is requested. This dependency is reflected in the definition below, in which quantity.magnitude becomes a binary function that maps quantities and units to magnitudes. With this definition, we avoid the incoherence; it is possible for two quantities specified in different units to be equal. (deffunction QUANTITY.MAGNITUDE (=> (and (defined (QUANTITY.MAGNITUDE?q?u)) (= (QUANTITY.MAGNITUDE?q?u)?m)) (and (physical-quantity?q) (unit-of-measure?u) (magnitude?m)))) So far we have provided a formal mechanism to describe new units and physical quantities, but have not said enough about the semantics of quantities with respect to units and other quantities. This is an issue of clarity. Can any combination of quantities be compared on magnitudes, or added? Which units make sense for which quantities? How is 1000 meter/second like 1 mile/hour but unlike 6 meters? The missing link is the notion of physical dimension. Length, time, and velocity are physical dimensions. Both units and physical quantities are associated with physical dimensions, and the units used to specify a quantity must be of the same dimension as the quantity. Only quantities of the same dimension can be added or compared. We can define a primitive class called physical-dimension (e.g., length, velocity), and say that a unit-of-measure must be associated with a single physical dimension. The definition of unit-of-measure below states the latter constraint with a total functional mapping (via the function unit.dimension) from units to physical dimensions. (defrelation PHYSICAL-DIMENSION (class PHYSICAL-DIMENSION)) (defrelation UNIT-OF-MEASURE (=> (UNIT-OF-MEASURE?u) (and (defined (unit.dimension?u)) (physical-dimension (unit.dimension?u))))) Similarly, we can define the function quantity.dimension mapping all quantities to their dimensions. (deffunction QUANTITY.DIMENSION (=> (physical-quantity?q) (and (defined (QUANTITY.DIMENSION?q)) (physical-dimension (QUANTITY.DIMENSION?q))))) We now have a notion of compatibility among quantities and units (i.e., equal dimensions). We can specify this by strengthening the definition of the function quantity.magnitude, adding the constraint (underlined below) that the dimensions of the quantity and unit must be the same. 10
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The dielectric property and magneto-optical effects of ferrofluids have been investigated in the terahertz (THz) regime by using THz time-domain spectroscopy. The experiment results show that the refractive index and absorption coefficient of ferrofluid for THz waves rise up with the increase of nanoparticle concentration in the ferrofluid. Moreover, two different THz magneto-optical effects have been found with different external magnetic fields, of which mechanisms have been theoretically explained well by microscopic structure induced refractive index change in the magnetization process and the transverse magneto-optical effect after the saturation magnetization, respectively. This work suggests that ferrofluid is a promising magneto-optical material in the THz regime which has widely potential applications in THz functional devices for THz sensing, modulation, phase retardation, and polarization control.
© 2014 Optical Society of AmericaFull Article | PDF Article
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subset: commoncrawl


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Teaching EH: Canada in Context
This set of eight teaching modules provides university instructors with a full set of pedagogical resources aimed at integrating Canadian themes and research into their course curriculum. All are drawn from the special Canada-focused issue of Environmental History (October 2007), edited by Matthew Evenden and Alan MacEachern (see their Introductory editors' note here). We hope the modules will inspire greater engagement with Canada's fascinating history and serve as models for instructors to develop similar teaching resources for other regions of the world… >>
Teaching EH: Better Living Through Chemistry
"Better Living Through Chemistry" explores issues raised in the Toxic Bodies/Toxic Environments Forum that appeared in the October 2008 issue. We thank the National Science Foundation, which funded the workshop at the ASEH's conference and the preparation of teaching materials. We thank Sarah Mittlefehldt for preparing the teaching unit.


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text: Check this out and tell me what you think: Left Face, Right Face. It's a little experiment with the apparent effect of the sides of the brain on the features of faces of celebrities, politicians, and the like. I only have four cases up so far (Tony Blair, Robert Deniro, Bob Dylan, and Dick Cheney), but the results are interesting in a couple of cases. I really like to know what you think, and if you'd like to see some more examples. Thanks!


text:
|Trad, 1 pitch, 80'
|YDS: 5.11c French: 6c+ Ewbanks: 24 UIAA: VIII- ZA: 24 British: E4 6a [details]
|Will Chen, Dave Kennedy, Mark Robinson
|Page Views:
|Submitted By:
|Brian Quiter on Mar 8, 2005
|Comments on Only the Young Die Brave
|Add Comment
|Show which comments —
By 426
Mar 21, 2007
|Great climb, solid arete technique required...
By Vlad S
Feb 8, 2016
rating: 5.11d 7a 24 VIII 25 E5 6a
|I replaced one of the 5/16" buttonhead protection bolts on the route. It turned out to be very bomber (in spite of being 26-27 years old), so I would assume the remaining three 5/16" bolts don't need to be replaced for at least another decade.
By Salamanizer suchoski
From: Vacaville Ca.
Feb 11, 2016
rating: 5.11c 6c+ 24 VIII- 24 E4 6a
Those 5/16 buttonheads can be quite deceivingly bomber. I'll usually give them some light (funking) with an old sling and hammer. If they don't budge at all, they're probably good to go. If the bolt twists or pulls out a bit,(not the hanger spinning), then it probably needs to be replaced. What usually happens with those bolts is they crack in half near the center of the split shank and appear to be solid until you give them a good tug with a funkness and hammer. Then their strength becomes apparent.
I inspected those bolts a few years ago when I was going around replacing all the old bolts at Sugarloaf. Most of the bad bolts at Sugarloaf have been replaced. There are still a few but they are on routes that never see traffic. I'll get to those eventually. If there is one you know about and want replaced, let me know and I'll put it on the list. Or I can give you the bolt if you are able and willing to do it yourself.


text:
Need Appliance Repair Help? Ask a Technician for Answers ASAP
If you did not include a model # XXXXX your question please do on you second reply if possible,this helps us serve you faster.
can you get me the full model #?
thats strange I found the parts on line but when I go to pull up the tech sheets they don't come up under the service tech sheets at Whirlpool, is this an American model?
Yes, let me do the number again straight from the sales sheet.
WHWFW92005, does that help


text:
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Messing with bots and aliens is fun.
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Minecraft: This is What Happens When I Am Crazy! (Hunger Games Pro) Make Sure to drop that LIKE button as we bring more epicness for you to dig!
Let's Blow Up the Earth! (universe sandbox ²) MP3
Enjoy watching me mess about with earth in Universe Sandbox 2! If you enjoy Universe Sandbox gameplay, be sure to drop a like! ▻ Help Me Reach 750000 ...
Minecraft TOO MUCH TNT MOD Spotlight - Let's Blow Stuff Up! (Minecraft Mod Showcase) MP3
Hello! Welcome to a look at the awesomely explosive 'Too Much TNT' minecraft mod! Who doesn't love blowing stuff up!? If you enjoyed this video please leave ...
BESIEGE | Lets Blow Stuff Up! MP3
Subscribe if you enjoy! http://goo.gl/73X2bU Twitch! http://www.twitch.tv/kryozgaming Follow me on twitter! http://www.twitter.com/kryozgaming Like me on ...
Im Jahova - Lets Blow Shit Up! MP3
Comment below of some shit you want to see get destroyed! Follow Me - http://www.twitter.com/jahovaswitniss Main Channel - http://www.youtube.com/jahov...
From Frozen's Do You Wanna Build a Snowman, Bree Essrig & Brett Erlich voice this chillingly real video about two sisters whose relationship has gone cold: Do ...
Michael Antiny - Let's blow up [EP] (Dubstep hero) MP3
Cancion original del juego dubstep hero Dale me gusta Xfa xD ^_^ :) ;) 17/08/2015.
Let's Blow Up Ubuntu 15.10 MP3
Having fun with Ubuntu 15.10 aliases: https://github.com/midfingr/aliases.
Let's Blow Some $hit Up! MP3
Waiting for more snow to start ripping on the sleds so we decided to blow some stuff up, huge thanks to the Deer Ridge Boys for having me out to witness the ...
Star Fox: Event Horizon - Let's Blow Up Andross MP3
Just a gameplay test, experimenting with diving into a planet's atmosphere and multi tiered boss fights. In this case a re-imagined slugfest with Andross at the ...
Bam Margera (Wheres Novak) Lets Blow Dynamite Up & Find Him MP3
After leaving 57 West in Orlando we all headed out on the party bus to Mike Busey's house "The Sausage Castle". Party Party Party and then its time to leave.
Ray Scully - Lets Blow This Town Tonight (Zodiac Sessions) MP3
Acoustic Compilation CD available to buy from Website. http://www.TheZodiacSessions.com http://www.facebook.com/thezodiacsessions ...
let's blow something up! | Dota 2 - Techies MP3
MUSIC: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aMPr67Z24j8 clips taken from two games played both games with friends add me and steam, le sven.
Let's blow up a FIRE ENGINE! MP3
What would happen if you placed 3 lbs. of C4 explosive inside the water-filled tank of a fire engine? This video demonstrates the hydraulic-effect water has ...
Michael Antiny - Let's Blow Up (Dubstep Hero) MP3
Link for download games:https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.electricpunch.dubstephero.
Star Wars Musical: Lets Blow This Thing MP3
Music by : http://www.infauxmedia.com Video by : http://www.thereeltodd.com Origin of video : http://www.thereeltodd.com/2003/01/swtm-lets-blow-this-thing.html ...
Bug Petal Tier 2! - Lets Blow Stuff Up | Vainglory MP3
Today we use Bug Petal Tier 2 skin in Vainglory! Vainglory Tips + Strategy Gameplay Videos. Subscribe for more Vainglory - http://goo.gl/Ku8ni3 Vainglory Free ...
Lets Blow This Town - The Misfits (Jem) MP3
Lets Blow This Town - The Misfits (Jem) music video.


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1994 GMC Suburban 1500 Questions
Get answers to questions about your 1994 GMC Suburban 1500 at RepairPal. Find solutions, diagnose problems and get back on the road.Refine by vehicle
was told by a diesel mechanic to replace iac but was also told to remove throttle body and clean it all out any ideas? new iac will be here soon..
Emergency brake light is on how do I fix this.
Always have to add oil & instead of the oil gauge reading low it reads high before the oil gets added. Is the gauge faulty?
it sluggeish all the time
I leted sit a little bit now it won't start
My 94 GMC Suburban has been displaying problems, automatic transmission won't shift from one gear to next, having problems with the fuel injection, and it won't come off of high idle. Can the main brain be malfunctioning or need replacement? Please explain what some symptoms could be if this is the case.
need to put more airconditionar gas , need to know which one is it , there are two color caps , red and blue?
I have recharged the A/C system, however the front still will not blow cold air. Any thoughts?
LT225/75R16 LR D tires. K1500 What is correct pressure?
How do we jump the abs system
Ok, well we had hard brakes at one point, then a slight shudder, to a left front brake smoking! Stopped, then found the Fliud in Master Cylinder, slightly gooy..We then Flushed the system, 3-4 times. Have back brakes, but front is soft. Then, bought the hand vaccum pump, to shoot air out, still nothing! HELP! Is it the Vaccum Booster, or Master Cylinder?
what is recommended tire pressure?


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If you cheat a Pokemon Go, you could get banned for life.
That's the new rule of law being handed down by developers Niantic as they seek to even the playing field and make their game a fair experience for all. If you are found to be in breach of any part of the terms of service for the game you could find yourself unable to play.
You can read the full terms of service over here but the methods that can lead to a banning are pretty obvious: changing your location to spoof the GPS, modifying the software to make things easier or accessing the game data using third party apps.
Basically anything that is a very clear example of cheating. If you do that, there's a good chance you'll be tracked down and banned.
Considering that many people would use their email address to log into Pokemon Go, a full on banning is a pretty punitive action, and would see the player lose any progress they had made forever. Of course you could just start the game again with a new email address, but you would have to begin from scratch.
These measures also seem designed to prevent players from using third party apps like mapping software which could help them locate Pokemon in-game, which will have a knock on effect on those other websites.
If you do find yourself banned and think you have a case for appeal, click over here.


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Upgrade your stay with our Superior sea view and Deluxe rooms and enjoy our complete terraces even more!
Next year we'll be featuring new rooms, with functional and modern decoration. You'll feel at home!
Our rooms are fully equiped, with air conditioner. Enjoy our free Wi-Fi, LED TV and your own balcony.
If you are looking for something special in Ibiza, the Deluxe rooms are made for you. Enjoy the large terrace with sea views, accommodation for up to 4 adults, comfortable beds and sitting area with sofa. You will enjoy the most comprehensive services and versatile space.


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Artcoe is one of the leading UK suppliers to retail in art, craft and graphics materials. As well as being the main UK distributor for large US brands such as Speedball and X-Acto, they're also famed for their high quality brand of Frisk papers and pads, produced on their premises in Manchester.
If there are any Artcoe products that you can't find here just call us on 020 7759 4500 and we'll be able to source them for you.
For more than 35 years Artoz have been producing beautiful, high-quality stationery and creative products with passion and commitment.
Artoz 1001 is a high-quality, magical and beautiful paper. It comes with the real and not the copied watermark as well as the dandy roll emboss. Artoz 1001 contains at least one share of 15 % rags (cotton). PH neutral (suitable for scrapbooking) and free of lignin. The card is ribbed on the front and back of the page.
Since 1783 Dalery Rowney have been establishing their reputation as a manufacturer of the finest art materials. Their broad range includes colour, canvas, paper, card, brushed and more. Daler Rowney produce materials to suit students, amateurs and professionals alike.
Derwent pencils are made in the UK by The Cumberland Pencil Company. They've been making pencils in Cumbria since 1832 and are proud of their heritage. They combine traditional pencil making skills with state of the art manufacturing techniques.
The name "FASHIONARY" comes from "Fashion + Dictionary + Diary". A reinvention of fashion sketching that started in 2009. Their goal is to create products that help with the brainstorming and sketching processes of fashion designers.
If there are any Fashionary products that you require that aren't featured here then call us on 020 7759 4500 and we'll be able to source them for you.
Made from colourful recycled truck tarpaulin and seatbelts every FREITAG bag is hardwearing and functional. The key to owning a FREITAG bag is the knowledge that every FREITAG bag is completely unique - there will be no other bag in the world like it!
We keep an extensive selection of FREITAG bags in stock, so you're sure to find one thats perfect for you. The bags shown here are examples, the ones in stock will be different colours and patterns.
Golden Artist Colours is continuously extending creative opportunities for artists and strengthening industry standards for professional art materials. Products in the GOLDEN Acrylics System can be used in virtually limitless combinations for endless application opportunities. Acrylic colours, mediums and grounds are the most versatile of all painting media.
An independant family business that focuses on design and quality. They specialise in creating beautiful design-led writing instruments that are amazing value for money.
Traditionally LAMY pens and pencils are inspired by the Bauhaus principle of functional design: 'form follows function'. This approach makes Lamy products unmistakable style icons.
The Montana brand provides graffiti and street artists with the tools to create! A huge range of different colours and effects available to satisfy any style or technique.
The ranges include matte, gloss, spray chalk, primers, varnishes and much more.
If there are any Montana products that you can't find here just call us on 020 7759 4500 and we'll be able to source them for you.
Experts in colour Pantone has been leading the way in colour matching since 1963. With their industry standard colour reproduction system PANTONE make sure that no matter where you are in the world, designers can communicate colour accurately and precisely, with no mistakes. We stock the full range of up-to-date PANTONE guides as well as replacement chip pages, Fashion and Home Guides and Plastics Guides.
Pentel has been producing some of the worlds favourite writing and drawing instruments for over 50 years. The products include a huge range of pens, pencils, markers and correction fluid pens.
Pentel are responsible for the development and research behind two-thirds of the worlds writing instruments.
If there are any Pentel products that you can't find here just call us on 020 7759 4500 and we'll be able to source them for you.
The Pilot Pen Company is Japan's oldest pen manufacturer. They produce some of the finest everyday pens in the world.
The most popular at London Graphic Centre being the Pilot Fineliner, Pilot Sign Pen and the Pilot DR Drawing Pens. This is because they lend themselves perfectly to multiple uses. They're excellent for writing, illustration and sketching.
More recently Pilot introduced what is fast becoming the best erasable rollerball pen, the Pilot Frixion Erasable Rollerball.
Seawhite is a market leader, providing art & graphic materials to the retail sector with a great reputation for educational products. They're especially well known for their huge range of quality sketchbooks. Here at London Graphic Centre we stock many Seawhite sketchbooks from the Starter Sketchbooks to the top quality Cloth Covered Sketchbooks. We also have a selection of presentation products from portfolios and display boxes to print racks.
If there are any Seawhite products that you can't find listed here just call us on 020 7759 4500 and we'll be able to source them for you.
Although Sharpie have produced one of the most famous markers in the world they stand for far more than just markers. They focus on self-expression, letting you be heard, putting you at the center of your world with their diverse range of products.
They do this by continuing to come up with innovative new products such as writing pens, highlighters, stainless steel Sharpies and much more.
Speedball® Art Product are much more than pens. Still located in the heart of Statesville North Carolina the associates produce a complete line of block printing and screen printing supplies, drawing pens and acrylic paints.
Speedball® Art Products are proud to have the opportunity to continue the age-old tradition of offering the "highest quality art products" and services second to none.
Started in 1832, Winsor and Newton are colour specialists offering artist quality oils, watercolours, gouache, ink and acrylic. Taking it's name from the two founders of the company, the artist William Winsor and the scientist Henry Newton. Winsor and Newton have stayed ahead of the competition providing high quyality products, formulating new colours and adopting new materials. We stock watercolour, gouache, acrylic and oils. We also stock Winsor and Newton Brushes and Paper.


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Founded in 2013 and headquartered in Ahmedabad,
Welcome to SaleinCity is all about Sale – Our aim is to empower every person in the country to independently connect and get perfect information with low price buyers and sellers grow their business online with giving Discounts on their Products.
Want to buy something? But not in your Budget? We're here for you. We always give you best low price nearby you which city, state you want to purchase.


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What is JotForm?
JotForm is a free online form builder which helps you create online forms without writing a single line of code. No sign-up required.
At JotForm, we want to make sure that you're getting the online form builder help that you need. Our friendly customer support team is available 24/7.
We believe that if one user has a question, there could be more users who may have the same question. This is why many of our support forum threads are public and available to be searched and viewed. If you'd like help immediately, feel free to search for a similar question, or submit your question or concern.
Why isn't a jotform notification being sent to the two email addresses that I have on file for this form?Asked by mweiss on March 19, 2014 at 10:59 AM
I've tried sending several test emails, but when I look in my email, I don't see that jotform submission that I usually do with all my other forms. Please help.
I've check email recipients of your form and its not in our bounce list. I also check our Mail Logs and it appears that all submission/entries successfully submitted in your email recipient.Current Server: /var/log/jotform/amazonSES.log:[19/Mar/2014:11:48:23 -0400] 40774279413156 AmazonSES Sent email to firstname.lastname@example.com - MessageID:00000144db07782a-b9655452-cba7-48c9-a294-9d07806777d7-000000 - RequestId:e73ffcba-af7d-11e3-a978-8f2761bdc547 /var/log/jotform/amazonSES.log:[19/Mar/2014:11:48:23 -0400] 40774279413156 AmazonSES Sent email to email@example.com - MessageID:00000144db077646-49d2aad3-4d39-40a8-b9ef-253f1aa861c7-000000 - RequestId:e6f58689-af7d-11e3-bcd4-6d2c2f3414c1
Can you please apply this workaround to prevent emails not being received? http://www.jotform.com/help/208-How-to-setup-email-alerts-to-prevent-emails-not-being-received-issues
Feel free to contact us again if you need further assistance.


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Sachin Pawa, CEO of MaharajahClub (MClub) welcomed 100 honoured guests and members of the press at the event, where he announced the launch of MaharajahClub's online casino and poker room. The launch marked the first gaming website to cater specifically for South East Asian communities around the world.
"This is the first time an online gaming company has targeted an audience based on ethnicity. It happens in land based casinos around the world and we at Maharajah Club wanted to be the first to take this very effective segmentation approach online," explained Pawa.
The gala celebration transformed Hotel Russell's elegant banquet room into a 1930s themed Indian palace, where guests were entertained by classical Indian musicians and dancers whilst enjoying a traditional Asian fare.
To endorse their launch, MaharajahClub enlisted the help of Bollywood actors, Rahul Dev and Gulshan Grover, who toasted to the success of the site: "May I say what an honour it is to be invited here tonight as a guest of the MaharajahClub," said Grover. "On the set of my recent movie, the new Bond film Casino Royale, I had the opportunity to become quite an expert on casino games, so you'll certainly find me at the tables on the Maharajah site."
After Gulshan's speech, Rahul Dev announced that MaharajahClub will be hosting the Asian Poker Classic, the first major poker tournament in South East Asia, which will take place in Goa, India, this coming March.


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Monday, June 13, 2011
Bits and Pieces
In no particular order:
* I've been making small but steady daily progress on the new draft.
* We had a lovely dinner tonight with a friend of mine from the hospital, an RN, and her husband. They have comp credits at one of the local casinos and treated us to a splendid meal at a fancy steakhouse there. Yum! It was really fun, and we hope to reciprocate by having them over here for dinner soon.
* On the way home, we stopped at Home Depot so Gary could buy various home-improvement items. While I waited for him, I started wondering if any hardware could be converted to knitting use. And, indeed, it turns out that o-rings used for plumbing repair are perfect stitch markers (although I'm not sure they're much less expensive than the stitch markers sold by knitting suppliers, which are already very reasonable).
* I'm in the process of trimming monthly expenditures, since this is my last month on full salary (next month is paycut plus the furlough that's being applied each of the next two years, plus sabbatical reduction). I reduced my Audible subscription from two credits to one each month; I'd been planning to cancel it entirely, but Gary said I should keep it. Then I started cancelling, or asking how to cancel -- since not all organizations make it easy -- my four small monthly donations to Modest Needs, the Humane Society, Doctors Without Borders and First Book. Modest Needs allows you to cancel a pledge from the website; I sent the others e-mail explaining that I'll reinstate my pledge when I come off sabbatical, and will also make occasional one-time donations during the sabbatical year as I'm able, but that I need to cancel the automatic pledge for the next twelve months. (I'll still be doing my ten percent tithe on discretionary purchases, so that's where one-time donations will come from.) This is prudent and fiscally responsible, but made me feel so wretched that I decided I really need to cancel the Audible subscription entirely too, as long as Audible can assure me that my wish list, and the books I've already purchased, will remain accessible. I've been stocking up on audiobooks in preparation for sabbatical, so it's really a purely symbolic sacrifice.
I'm not a big fan of "I can't have fun if anyone else is unhappy" thinking -- see recent yarn purchases, for instance -- but I decided I just wasn't comfortable buying audiobooks every month if I wasn't also, you know, helping starving cats and buying mosquito netting for field hospitals.
Note: In some quarters it's considered very tacky to talk about money, and especially to admit to charitable donations (that whole "when you give alms, do not let your left hand know what your right hand is doing, so that your alms may be done in secret" Ash Wednesday thing). However, I've come to the conclusion that our society would be a lot healthier if more people were comfortable discussing finances, and I think an open discussion of how and where and why we give -- or don't -- is part of that. And I certainly talk openly about how much I shop, so this is just balance, yes?
Posted by Susan Palwick at 12:11 AM
Labels: hospital, knitting, rickety contrivances, shopping, writing
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