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WHAT IS SAID HERE by Alvin Liberman 1 for. Language within our grasp V IEWPOINT. Giacomo Rizzolatti and Michael A. Arbib
- Dustin Wilkinson
- 2 years ago
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1 U. Frey and R.G.M. Morris Late LTP 58 Schacher, S., Castellucci, V.F. and Kandel, E.R. (1988) Science 240, Dash, P.K., Moore, A.N. and Dixon, C.E. (1995) J. Neurosci. 15, Schulman, H. (1995) Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 5, Moore, A.N., Waxham, M.N. and Dash, P.K. (1996) J. Biol. Chem. 271, Blendy, J.A. et al. (1995) Brain Res. 681, Deisseroth, K., Bito, H. and Tsien, R.W. (1996) Neuron 16, Das, S. et al. (1997) Synapse 25, Seidenbecher, T., Reymann, K.G. and Balschun, D. (1997) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 94, Gustafsson, B. and Wigström, H. (1990) Prog. Brain Res. 83, Morris, R.G.M. and Frey, U. (1997) Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London 352, Nadel, L. and Moscovitch, M. (1997) Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 7, Stäubli, U. and Chun, D. (1996) J. Neurosci. 16, Clark, K.A. and Collingridge, G.L. (1996) J. Physiol. 490, Language within our grasp Giacomo Rizzolatti and Michael A. Arbib In monkeys, the rostral part of ventral premotor cortex (area F5) contains neurons that discharge, both when the monkey grasps or manipulates objects and when it observes the experimenter making similar actions.these neurons (mirror neurons) appear to represent a system that matches observed events to similar, internally generated actions, and in this way forms a link between the observer and the actor. Transcranial magnetic stimulation and positron emission tomography (PET) experiments suggest that a mirror system for gesture recognition also exists in humans and includes Broca s area. We propose here that such an observation/execution matching system provides a necessary bridge from doing to communicating,as the link between actor and observer becomes a link between the sender and the receiver of each message. Trends Neurosci. (1998) 21, Giacomo Rizzolatti is at the Istituto di Fisiologia Umana, Università di Parma, Via Gramsci 14, Parma, Italy, and Michael A. Arbib is at the USC Brain Project, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA , USA. In all communication, sender and receiver must be bound by a common understanding about what counts; what counts for the sender must count for the receiver, else communication does not occur. Moreover the processes of production and perception must somehow be linked; their representation must, at some point, be the same. WHAT IS SAID HERE by Alvin Liberman 1 for speech where individuals have an explicit intent to communicate, must apply also for communications in which such an overt intention is absent. We understand when one individual is attacking another or when someone is peacefully eating an apple. How do we do it? What is shared by the (involuntary) sender and by the receiver? Is this mechanism the precursor of willed communications? The present review addresses these questions. The mirror system Neurons located in the rostral part of monkey inferior area 6 (area F5) discharge during active movements of the hand or mouth, or both 2 4. Some years ago we found that in most F5 neurons, the discharge correlates with an action, rather than with the individual movements that form it 3. Accordingly, we classified F5 neurons into various categories corresponding to the action associated with their discharge. The most common are: grasping with the hand neurons, holding neurons and tearing neurons 3,5. Further study revealed something unexpected: a class of F5 neurons that discharge not only when the monkey grasped or manipulated the objects, but also when the monkey observed the experimenter making a similar gesture 6 8. We called the neurons endowed with this property mirror neurons (Fig. 1). The response properties of mirror neurons to visual stimuli can be summarized as follows: mirror neurons do not discharge in response to object presentation; in order to be triggered they require a specific observed action. The majority of them respond selectively when the monkey observes one type of action (such as grasping). Some are highly specific, coding not only the action aim, but also how that action is executed. They fire, for example, during observation of grasping movements, but only when the object is grasped with the index finger and the thumb. All mirror neurons show visual generalization: they discharge when the agent of the observed action (typically a hand) is far away from or close to the monkey. A few neurons respond even when the object is grasped by the mouth. The actions most represented are: grasp, manipulate, tear, and put an object on a plate. Mirror neurons also have motor properties that are indistinguishable from those of F5 neurons that do not respond to action observation. In this review, they will be referred to collectively and regardless of their other properties, as canonical neurons. Typically, mirror neurons show congruence between the observed and executed action. This congruence can be extremely strict, that is, the effective motor action (for example, precision grip) corresponds with the action that, when seen, triggers the neuron (that is, precision grip). For other neurons the congruence is broader: the motor requirements (for example, precision grip) are usually stricter than the visual ones (for example, any type of hand grasping). An example of a highly congruent mirror neuron is shown in Fig. 2. What is 188 TINS Vol. 21, No. 5, 1998 Copyright 1998, Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved /98/$19.00 PII: S (98)
2 G. Rizzolatti and M.A. Arbib Language and mirror neurons V IEWPOINT Fig. 1. An example of a mirror neuron. The behavioral situation is schematically represented in the upper part of each panel. The responses of the neuron are shown in the middle and lower parts of each panel. The responses are shown as discharges using ten individual behavioral trials (each short vertical line corresponds to an action potential) and expressed as relative-response histograms. (A) The experimenter grasps a piece of food with his hand then moves it toward the monkey, who, at the end of the trial, grasps it. The neuron discharges during observation of the grip, ceases to fire when the food is given to the monkey and discharges again when the monkey grasps it. (B) The experimenter grasps the food with a tool. The subsequent sequence of events is as in (A). Note the lack of response of the neuron when the food is grasped with the tool. (C) The monkey grasps food in darkness. In (A) and (B) the rasters are aligned with the moment when the food is grasped by the experimenter (vertical line). In (C) the alignment is with the approximate beginning of the grasping movement. Each small vertical line in the rasters corresponds to a spike. Histogram bin width: 20 ms. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 7. the function of mirror neurons? The proposal that we 7,8 and others 9 have advanced is that their activity represents actions. This representation can be used for imitating actions and for understanding them. By understanding we mean the capacity that individuals have to recognize that another individual is performing an action, to differentiate the observed action from other actions, and to use this information to act appropriately. According to this view, mirror neurons represent the link between sender and receiver that Liberman postulated in his motor theory of speech perception as the necessary prerequisite for any type of communication 1,10,11. What is area F5? Although doubts have been expressed 12, most authors share the view that the rostral part of the monkey ventral premotor cortex (area F5) is the monkey homolog of Broca s area in the human brain. The reasons for this view are: that both F5 and Broca s area are parts of inferior area 6 (Refs 13 15) and their location within the agranular frontal cortex is similar (Box 1); and cytoarchitectonically, there are strong similarities between area 44 (the caudal part of Broca s area) and F5 (Refs 14,16,17). Functionally, a difference between Broca s area and F5 is that Broca s area is most commonly thought of as an area for speech, whereas F5 is often considered as an area for hand movements. F5 is somatotopically organized its dorsal part contains a representation of hand movements 2,3,18 and its large ventral part contains a representation of mouth and larynx movement 19,20 ; a similar organization is present in the ventral premotor cortex of other primates 21. Similarly, the motor properties of human Broca s area do not relate only to speech: recent PET data indicate that Broca s area might also become active during the execution of hand or arm movements 22,23, during mental imagery of hand grasping movement (mostly area 44) 24,25, and during tasks involving hand mental rotations (areas 44 and 45) 26. Finally, Broca s area becomes active in patients who have recovered from subcortical infarctions when they are asked to use their paralyzed hand 27. It is intriguing that the area, which in the monkey contains a system that links action recognition and action production, is precisely that area that, for completely different reasons, has been proposed as the homologue of Broca s area. Is this a mere coincidence? Or, on the contrary, has the mirror system been fundamental for the development of speech and, before speech, of other forms of intentional communication? Before discussing these points, we examine the evidence for a mirror system in humans. TINS Vol. 21, No. 5,
3 G. Rizzolatti and M.A. Arbib Language and mirror neurons Fig. 2. An example of a highly congruent mirror neuron. The behavioural situation is schematically represented in the upper part of each panel. The responses of the neuron are shown in the middle and lower parts of each panel; four sketches of continuous recordings are shown in each panel, with each vertical line corresponding to an action potential. (A) The monkey observes the experimenter who rotates his hand around an object in opposite directions as to break it. The neuronal response is present in one rotation direction only. (B) The monkey rotates a piece of food held by the experimenter who opposes the monkey movement making a rotation in the opposite direction. (C) The monkey grasps food using the same finger as during rotation. Small arrows above the records (A and B) indicate the directions of rotations. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 7. The mirror system in humans The first demonstration of a mirror system in humans was provided by Fadiga et al. 28 The rationale of their experiment was the following: if the observation of an action activates the premotor cortex in humans as it does in monkeys, then magnetic transcranial stimulation should induce, during action observation, an enhancement of motor-evoked potentials recorded from those muscles that are active when the observed action is executed. Their results confirmed the hypothesis: during the observation of various actions, a selective increase of motor evoked potentials occurred in the muscles that the subjects usually use for producing them. Although these data indicate that an action production and action observation matching system exists in humans, they do not give information on the circuits that underlie it. Data on this issue were provided by two PET experiments 25,29. The two experiments differed in many aspects, but both had a condition in which subjects observed the experimenter grasping a 3-dimensional object; object observation was used as a control situation. Grasp observation significantly activated the superior temporal sulcus (STS), the inferior parietal lobule and the inferior frontal gyrus (area 45); all activations were in the left hemisphere. Hemispheric differences aside, the cortical areas active during action observation in humans match well with those active in the monkey under the same conditions. Neurons that become selectively active in the STS during the sight of hand actions were described by Perrett and his co-workers 30,31. There is evidence, although limited, that mirror neurons might be present in area 7b in monkeys (Ref. 32). Finally, as discussed earlier, it is likely that F5 is the monkey homolog of Broca s area. Taken together, human and monkey data indicate that, in primates, there is a fundamental mechanism for action recognition. We argue that individuals recognize actions made by others because the neural pattern elicited in their premotor areas during action observation is similar to that internally generated to produce that action. This mechanism in humans is circumscribed to the left hemisphere. In the next section we will posit that this action recognition mechanism has been the basis for language development. Action recognition and communication Animals calls and human speech are undoubtedly different phenomena. Among the many aspects that differentiate them is a marked difference in the anatomical structures underlying the two behaviors. Animals calls are mediated primarily by the cingulate cortex plus some diencephalic and brain stem structures 33,34. Speech is mediated essentially by a circuit whose main nodes are the classical Broca s and Wernicke s areas, both located on the lateral cortical surface. Our proposal is that the development of the human lateral speech circuit is a consequence of the fact that the precursor of Broca s area was endowed, before speech appearance, with a mechanism for recognizing actions made by others. This mechanism was the neural prerequisite for the development of interindividual communication and finally of speech. We thus view language in a more general setting than one that sees speech as its complete basis. There is obviously an enormous gap between recognizing actions and sending messages with communicative intent. We offer now a hypothesis (for an earlier version, see Ref. 35) on how this gap might have been bridged. Whether an individual is about to perform an action or observes another individual performing an action, premotor areas are activated. Normally, a series of mechanisms prevents the observer from emitting a motor behavior that mimics the observed one, and the actor from initiating the action prematurely. In the case of action observation, for example, there is a strong spinal cord inhibition that selectively blocks the motoneurons involved in the observed action execution (L. Fadiga, pers. commun.). Sometimes, however, for example when the observed action is of particular interest, the premotor 190 TINS Vol. 21, No. 5, 1998
4 G. Rizzolatti and M.A. Arbib Language and mirror neurons V IEWPOINT Box 1. Cytoarchitectonic map of the caudal part of the monkey frontal lobe and possible homologies with human frontal cortex Figure A shows parcellation of prearcuate cortex a and agranular frontal cortex b of the macaque monkey and Fig. B shows parcellation of the region of the human frontal cortex defined as intermediate precentral cortex by Campbell c. The terminology of Foerster d and Vogt and Vogt e has been adopted for the human cortex. Similar colors in A and B indicate areas with anatomical and functional homologies. Brain regions colored yellow are areas with anatomical and functional homologies, mostly related to orienting behavior; areas colored red also share anatomical and functional homologies and are mostly related to interactions with the external world e h. A B F7 F2 spd F1 AS 8 C P 45 F4 F5 AI i pd IF SF 45 I Pa 44 6aβ 8 inf. 6 I Pd 6aα C 4 SP The homology is based on cytoarchitectonics, electrical stimulation i and sulci embryology j. The superior frontal sulcus (SF) and the superior precentral sulcus (SP) of human brain are drawn in dark green as the superior limb of the monkey arcuate sulcus (AS). The inferior frontal sulcus (IF) and the ascending branch of the inferior precentral sulcus (IPa) of human brain are drawn in blue as the inferior limb of the monkey arcuate sulcus (AI). The descending branch of the inferior precentral sulcus (IPd) of human brain is drawn in pale green and is labeled as the inferior precentral dimple (ipd) of the monkey brain Fig. A. The reasons for these homologies are the following. The precentral sulcus develops from two separate primordia. Both of them have, during development, a horizontal branch representing the primordia of SF and IF, respectively. Typically, in the adult brain, the precentral sulcus j is formed by two separate segments. Thus, we suggest that the human homolog of the monkey arcuate sulcus is formed by SF plus SP (dark green) and by the IF plus IPa (blue). The descending branch of inferior precentral sulcus (IPd, pale green) corresponds, in this view, to the inferior precentral dimple of the monkey. In humans it abuts IF. The proposed sulcal equivalence fits well the available data on the anatomical and functional organization of the premotor cortices in the two species. The equivalence between human IPd and monkey ipd is well supported by the fact that this sulcus marks the border between F4 and F5 in monkey and the border between inferior area 6 (inf. 6) and area 44 in humans. Abbreviations: 4, cortical area 4; C, central sulcus; F1, cortical area F1; P, principal sulcus; spd, superior precentral dimple. References a Walker, A.E. (1940) J. Comp. Neurol. 262, b Matelli, M., Luppino, G. and Rizzolatti, G. (1985) Behav. Brain Res. 18, c Campbell, A.W. (1905) Histological Studies on the Localisation of Cerebral Function, Cambridge University Press d Foerster, O. (1936) Brain 59, e Vogt, C. and Vogt, O. (1926) Naturwissenschaften 14, f Bruce, C.J. (1988) in Neurobiology of Neocortex (Rakic, P. and Singer, W., eds), pp , Wiley g Suzuki, H. and Azuma, M. (1983) Exp. Brain Res. 53, h Matelli, M. and Luppino, G. (1992) Exp. Brain Res. (Suppl.) 22, i Preuss, T.M., Stepniewska, I. and Kaas, J.H. (1996) J. Comp. Neurol. 371, j Ono, M., Kubik, S. and Abernathey, C.D. (1990) Atlas of the Cerebral Sulci, Thieme system will allow a brief prefix of the movement to be exhibited. This prefix will be recognized by the other individual. This fact will affect both the actor and the observer. The actor will recognize an intention in the observer, and the observer will notice that its involuntary response affects the behavior of the actor. The development of the capacity of the observer to control his or her mirror system is crucial in order to emit (voluntarily) a signal. When this occurs, a primitive dialogue between observer and actor is established. This dialogue forms the core of language. The capacity to notice that one has emitted a signal and associating it with changes of the behavior of others might or might not have developed simultaneously. However, there is no doubt that, once established, this new association should have yielded enormous benefits of adaptive value for the group of individuals that started to make use of it, providing the selective pressure for the extension of communicative capacities to larger groups. This new use of the mirror system, at both individual and species levels, marks the beginning of intentional communication. What actions were used for this new function in primates? Hand gestures or oro-facial movements? Before examining this issue, it is necessary to examine whether or not a prelinguistic grammar can be assigned to the control and observation of actions. If this is so, the notion that evolution could yield a language system atop of the action system becomes much more plausible. TINS Vol. 21, No. 5,
5 G. Rizzolatti and M.A. Arbib Language and mirror neurons A pre-linguistic grammar of action in the monkey brain In order to provide abstract expression of the meanings of neural activity in premotor cortex (monkey area F5), we have chosen case grammar as a representation of sentence structure. Case grammar organizes sentences around action frames with slots for different roles. The key paper for case structure is The Case for Case by Fillmore 36, although many of the ideas about case have now been absorbed in the thematic structure of the lexicon that is an integral component of the Chomskian approach to syntax known as government and binding theory 37. In a case analysis, the sentence John hit Mary with his hand is viewed as the surface structure for a case structure hit (John, Mary, John s hand), which is an instance of the case frame hit (agent, recipient, instrument), which makes explicit the roles of John, Mary and John s hand. Clearly, many different sentences can express the underlying case structure. Our analysis will deal with the two main types of F5 neurons: the mirror neurons and the canonical F5 neurons. (1) Imperative structure for canonical F5 neurons. We view the activity of canonical F5 neurons as part of the code for an imperative case structure, for example, Command: grasp-a(raisin) as an instance of grasp-a(object), where grasp-a is a specific kind of grasp, to be applied to the raisin. Note that this case structure is an action description, not a linguistic representation. raisin denotes the specific object towards which the grasp is directed, whereas grasp-a is a specific command directed towards an object with well specified physical properties, but whose semantic properties are unspecified. The idea is that grasp type generalizes across similar grasps of varied objects has been postulated in opposition space theory 38. Note that the slots in a case frame come with restrictions on what can fill those slots, for example, any x in grasp-a (x) must be a small object. As actions become more refined and as the transition to language occurs, the constraints on slot fillers might become more rigorous. From this, it follows that if the same principle holds for linguistic commands as for motor commands, Broca s area would code verb phrases and constraints on the noun phrases that can fill the slots, but not details of the noun phrases themselves. This knowledge (objects or noun phrases) could be completely outside F5 or Broca s area; for example, in the temporal lobe. (2) Declarative structure for mirror neurons. Having viewed the activity of canonical F5 neurons as coding a command (compared with an imperative sentence), we might say that the firing of mirror F5 neurons is part of the code for a declarative case structure, for example, Declaration: grasp-a(luigi, raisin) which is a special case of grasp-a(agent, object), where grasp-a is a specific kind of grasp, applied to the raisin (the object) by Luigi (the agent). Again, this is an action description, not a linguistic representation. If attention is focused on the agent s hand, then the appropriate case structure would be grasp-a (hand, object) as a special case of grasp-a (instrument, object). Thus, the same act can be perceived in different ways: who grasps versus what grasps. An interesting aspect of mirror-neuron properties is that they do not fire when the monkey observes the experimenter grasping the raisin with pliers, rather than his hand (Fig. 1B). However, after repetitive observation, a response to the tool may appear (G. Rizzolatti, unpublished). We thus see the ability to learn new constraints on a case slot: in this case the observed generalization of the instrument role from hands alone to include pliers. (3) Declarative structure for non-mirror canonical F5 neurons. In the case of grasp-a (object), once the grasp is initiated, can it be asserted that the activity in F5 now becomes part of the declarative grasp-a (self, object)? This is not an easy question. The neuronal discharge observed after hand-shaping onset might have command functions. It might, for example, reinforce the initial command to open the hand, or command the hand closure. Some canonical F5 neurons, however, when tested passively, show proprioceptive responses 3,4. For these neurons, the discharge that accompanies the hand movement might have a specific declarative function concerning the agent of the action. The sentence in this case would be grasp-a (self, object). From action to speech Returning to our previous query as to which was the initial communicative gestural system in primates, we now distinguish between systems that are closed in the sense that they have a small, fixed repertoire and systems whose elements can be combined to yield an open repertoire of meaning. We argue that: (1) the mimetic capacity inherent to F5 and Broca s area had the potential to produce various types of closed systems related to the different types of motor fields present in that area (hand, mouth and larynx); (2) the first open system to evolve en route to human speech was a manual gestural system that exploited the observation and execution matching system described earlier; and (3) that this paved the way for the evolution of the open vocalization system we know as speech. As far as the first point is concerned, both F5 and Broca s areas have the neural structures for controlling oro-laryngeal, oro-facial and brachio-manual movements. Furthermore, they are both endowed with mechanisms that link action perception and action production. This is true for brachio-manual gestures (as discussed in this review) as well as, in the case of human Broca s area, for linguistic tasks, including those not requiring speech production It is likely that the human capacity to communicate beyond that of other primates depended on the progressive evolution of the mirror system in its globality. Congruent with this view is the observation by Donald 42 that mimetic capacity, a natural extension of action recognition, is central to human culture (such as dances, games and tribal rituals), and that the evolution of this capacity was a necessary precursor to the evolution of language. Even so, it is interesting to speculate on the sequence of events that led from gestural communication to speech. The gestures of primates that were most likely to be first used for person-to-person communication (as distinct from signals that are directed 192 TINS Vol. 21, No. 5, 1998
6 G. Rizzolatti and M.A. Arbib Language and mirror neurons V IEWPOINT to everybody, rather than to a specific receiver) are the oro-facial ones. In favor of this view are the following facts: oro-facial movements are used for communication by monkeys, apes and humans, and neither monkeys nor humans use manuo-brachial gestures as their main natural way to communicate. Exceptions are deaf people who naturally use sign language 43, some Indian populations in North America and some Aboriginal Australian tribes 44. The open close alternation of the mandible that is typical of oro-facial communication of monkeys ( lipsmacks, tonguesmacks 45 ) appears to persist in humans where it forms the syllabic frame in speech production 46,47. Was speech, therefore, a direct evolution of oro-facial gestures, after which followed an expansion stage during which an open vocalization system appeared? A first reason for doubting this scenario is that by using oro-facial communication, the exchange of communication is essentially limited to two actors. The possibility of introducing a third element in this one-toone communication is very limited. By contrast, if manual gestures are associated with oro-facial communication, the sender s possibilities dramatically increase. The sender might indicate to the receiver the position of a third person or of an object, or even give a certain description of their characteristics. A second reason lies in the fact that the combinatorial properties for the openness of speech are virtually absent in the basic primate form of oro-facial communication. By contrast, they are inherent to the brachio-manual system, both when it is used for transitive actions (actions directed towards objects) and when it is employed for intransitive gestures (as in the case of American Sign Language). These considerations suggest that, at a certain stage, a brachio-manual communication system evolved complementing the oro-facial one. This development greatly modified the importance of vocalization and its control. Whereas during the closed oro-facial stage, sounds could add very little to the gestural message (for example, oro-facial gesture be scared ; oro-facial gesture plus vocalization be more scared ), their association with gestures allowed them to assume the more open, referential character that brachiomanual gestures had already achieved 48,49. An object or event described gesturally (such as, large object large gesture of the arms, and small object tiny opening of the fingers) could now be accompanied by vocalization. If identical sounds were constantly used to indicate identical elements (such as, large object large opening of the mouth, vowel a, and small object tiny opening of the mouth, vowel i ), a primitive vocabulary of meaningful sounds could start to develop 50,51. An important consequence of this new functional use of vocalization was the necessity of its skillful control. In the oro-facial communication system, the addition of a sound had only an emotional valence that simply reinforced the meaning conveyed by the facial expression; its precise execution had a relative importance. Therefore, vocalization could remain under the control of the old system located in the brain medial areas. The situation changed radically when sounds acquired a descriptive value and thus had to remain the same in identical situations and, in addition, had to be imitated when emitted by other individuals. These new requirements could not be fulfilled by the ancient emotional vocalization centers. This new situation was most likely to be the cause of the emergence of human Broca s area from an F5-like precursor that already had mirror properties, a control of oro-laryngeal movements and, in addition, a tight link with the adjacent primary motor cortex. The evolutionary pressure for more complex (combinatorial) sound emission, and the anatomical possibility for it, were thus the elements that moved language from its manuo-brachial origins to sound emission. Manual gestures progressively lost their importance, whereas, by contrast, vocalization acquired autonomy, until the relation between gestural and vocal communication inverted and gesture became purely an accessory factor to sound communication. At this point speech took off. A historical coda The debate on the origin of language has a long history. Clearly we side with those authors who see a common origin for human speech and some forms of communications in primates, with gestural communication playing an important role in human language genesis Chomsky has long argued that language is determined by innate, biologically determined abilities in conjunction with exposure to the language in the environment 57 ; to learn a grammar the child must simply use a few fragments of a particular language to set parameters in the Universal Grammar, a genetically determined, biological endowment relevant to language (for a critique of this view see Ref. 58). Chomsky also downplays the role of natural selection in language evolution. Pinker and Bloom 59 offer convincing arguments against this view, but their approach to language evolution differs from ours on one major point. They see what has evolved for language as Universal Grammar. Our suggestion, by contrast, is that natural selection yielded a set of generic structures for matching action observation and execution. These structures, coupled with appropriate learning mechanisms, proved great enough to support cultural evolution of human languages in all their richness. We hold that human language (as well as some dyadic forms of primate communication) evolved from a basic mechanism that was not originally related to communication: the capacity to recognize actions. Imprints in fossil cranial cavities indicate that speech areas were already present in early hominids such as Homo habilis (Ref. 60), but there is debate over whether or not such areas were already present 61 or not 62 in australopithecines. A plausible hypothesis is that the transition from the australopithecines to the first forms of Homo coincided with the transition from a mirror system, enlarged, but used only for action recognition, to a human-like mirror system used for intentional communication. Our view on the subsequent scenario is close to that of Corballis 53. The proto-speech areas of early hominids mediated orofacial and brachio-manual communication, but not speech. The long period from the appearance of these areas to the appearance of speech 63,64 coincided with an increased capacity to communicate with gesture and the progressive association of gesture with vocalization. In conclusion, the discovery of the mirror system suggests a strong link between speech and action representation. One sees a distinctly linguistic way of TINS Vol. 21, No. 5,
7 G. Rizzolatti and M.A. Arbib Language and mirror neurons Acknowledgements We thank Massimo Matelli for his help with the anatomical figure. The work was supported by HFSP and BIOMED 2. doing things down among the nuts and bolts of action and perception, for it is there, not in the remote recesses of cognitive machinery, that the specifically linguistic constituents make their first appearance 1. Selected references 1 Liberman, A.M. (1993) Haskins Laboratories Status Report on Speech Research 113, Kurata, K. and Tanji, J. (1986) J. Neurosci. 6, Rizzolatti, G. et al. (1988) Exp. Brain Res. 71, Hepp-Reymond, M-C. et al. (1994) Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 72, Jeannerod, M. et al. (1995) Trends Neurosci. 18, Di Pellegrino, G. et al. (1992) Exp. Brain Res. 91, Rizzolatti, G. et al. (1996) Cogn. Brain Res. 3, Gallese, V. et al. (1996) Brain 119, Jeannerod, M. (1994) Behav. Brain Sci. 17, Liberman, A.M. and Mattingly, I.G. (1985) Cognition 21, Liberman, A.M. and Mattingly, I.G. 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(1986) Knowledge of Language: Its Nature, Origin and Use, Praeger 58 Arbib, M.A. and Hill J.C. (1988) in Explaining Language Universals (Hawkins, J.A., ed.), pp , Blackwell 59 Pinker, S. and Bloom, P. (1990) Behav. Brain Sci. 12, Tobias, P.V. (1987) J. Hum. Evol. 16, Holloway, R.L. (1981) Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 56, Falk, D. (1983) Science 222, Lieberman, P., Crelin, E.S. and Klatt, D.H. (1972) Am. Anthropol. 74, Lieberman, P. (1984) The Biology and Evolution of Language, Harvard University Press In the other Trends journals Ataxia, arrythmia and ion-channel defects, by Johannah L. Doyle and Lisa Stubbs Trends in Genetics 14, Genetic blindness: current concepts in the pathogenesis of human outer retinal dystrophies, by Kevin Gregory-Evans and Shomi S. Battacharya Trends in Genetics 14, Inhibition of TNF-induced apoptosis by NF- B, by Daniel J. Van Antwerp, Seamus J. Martin, Inder Verma and Douglas R. Green Trends in Cell Biology 8, New aspects of G-protein-coupled receptor signalling and regulation, by Graeme Milligan Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism 9, Neural basis of motor control and its cognitive implications, by Emilio Bizzi and Ferdinando A. Mussa-Ivaldi Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2, Magnetic stimulation studies of visual cognition, by Vincent Walsh and Alan Cowey Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2, Endocannabinoids: a new class of vasoactive substances, by M.D. Randall and D.A. Kendall Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 19, TINS Vol. 21, No. 5, 1998
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October 13th - October 20th, 2012
Stayed for 1 week in Flat A
Location: central to everything. 15 minutes by car to the zoo, 45 minutes to the safari, within easy walking distance to good food, Sea Port Village, and the San Diego convention center
Owners: Mike and Linda are a traveler's dream. Relaxed and helpful, they anticipate the needs of their guests. They were understanding of our check in and check out needs due to our odd flight times. Linda greeted us with a genuine and charming smile despite the fact we were an hour later than we originally predicted. She escorted us through our room and the building. During our trip she would check in with us to see if we needed anything or had any questions. When we arrived there were a list of recommended restaurants and cafes in the area in the room along with menus. Before we even arrived Mike and Linda both answered my emails quickly and accuratly. Linda and Mike live on the premises and are very easy to get a hold of if needed.
Kitchen was spotless. Bed was super comfortable. It was easy to keep the room dark with the blinds and curtains.
WiFi included and signal was good.
Location: this is not a "nice" part of town. Probably not the worst part of town either, but early mornings and late nights were a bit creepy. Homeless sleep on the street just outside. There were police and emergency vehicles sirens every couple hours and several nights between 2 and 4am we were woken by fighting just outside our window. In general because of its proximity to the road, the room is a little noisy. The window AC unit is, too.
Bathroom door does not close all the way. Not a huge problem for a married couple, but there is a pullout provided so it could be awkward depending on who is staying in the room. There is also a slippery patch on the floor just outside the bathroom.
This is so silly to say, but - the bath tub is hard to get into and harder to get out of. At 5'2", the side of the tub comes up to my thighs. There isn't anything to hold on to, even a wall to brace yourself again, when getting out, so I worried about falling.
Additional notes:
Parking is not on site. It is in a little underground parking garage about half a block up the street. Linda will escort guests there and show them where to park. The spots can be tight and not everyone is careful to stay inside the lines. A little creepy at night and hard to find the outside entrance. The street parking is very limited and metered.
- Official Description (provided by the hotel):
- Located in the heart of the action Mudville Flats features century old charm built in the Classic California Craftsman style in 1905. Each Flat is its own large luxury apartment complete with a full size kitchen,heavenly California King size bed and full living rooms with comfortable high end furnishings. Mudville Flats provides free wi-fi,secure underground parking, 42"Hi-def lcd flat screen TV. Walking distance to all major city attractions, the Convention Center,Petco Park,Gaslamp Quarter,Harbor, Balboa Park,Little Italy.24 on-site concierge service. ... more less
- Also Known As:
- Mudville Flats Hotel San Diego

subset: commoncrawl


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Thank you for posting all of this interesting information. You've done a lot of research. My mom is also being treated at Sloan Kettering and I also have to say that her doctor is not very "creative" with different treatment options. We've mentioned a few ideas to him but for now he seems to want to stick to the standard care therapies. We did consult with Dr. Bruchner of Bruchner Oncology in NYC who has a great track record with CC patients and uses various treatment therapies tailored to individual patients. Unfortunately, he is not covered by my parents' insurance so mom couldn't be treated by him. I assume that you live in NYC area, so if you're looking for another opinion, this may be a good option.
Thanks again for posting your research and all the best to you mom.
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Off the heels of Bethesda Softworks' announcement of first-person shooter Prey 2, the publisher has now unveiled the first teaser trailer for the game.
The shooter is slated to release in 2012 for PC, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360.
Place strong emphasis on the term "teaser." There's no gameplay footage and no real indication of what players can expect from the story. But it's pretty intense nonetheless.
Mike Snider began covering the video game industry during the Super Nintendo-Sega Genesis clash in 1992. An original pinball wizard, he eventually was seduced by Robotron: 2084 and Tempest. These days he is a fan of action/shooters and lives out his Keith Moon fantasies playing a mean drum kit on music games. More about Mike.
Brett Molina has been writing about video games for USA TODAY since 2005. He is well-versed in Madden NFL, the fighting genre and first-person shooters. The first video game he played was Asteroids at a local arcade. He has been hooked ever since. More about Brett.


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Sugary drinks and high protein meals recipe for getting fatter: scientists
Sugary drinks and high protein meals make a highly unhealthy combination, new research suggests.
Sugary drinks and high protein meals make a highly unhealthy combination, new research suggests.
An estimated 10,000 women from across the UK are suffering physical pain as a result of vaginal mesh implants, in what has been described by the Shadow Secretary of State for Northern Ireland as a "massive health scandal".
An autism charity has been accused of leaving hundreds of families without support after axing a group of volunteers in an internal dispute.
A tightening of regulations means that nurses coming to Northern Ireland to work must demonstrate their competence in the English language.
Police have made a fresh appeal for the public's help, to identify a man pulled from the water at a South Belfast beauty spot.
Almost a third of long-term carers (32%) have not had a day off in five years, according to a new report.
Coffee not only helps you feel full of beans - it might add years to your life as well, two major studies have shown.
A health expert living in Co Armagh has told how he had to go back to Australia to get to see a doctor.
An abortion rights group has announced it will no longer charge women from Northern Ireland for abortion care.
There's no question a good tidy-up can be good for the soul. Restoring calm to our surroundings means a calmer mind, freeing us from the disorder that can clutter and clog our brains as much as our rooms.
After Prince Harry spoke out about suffering from panic attacks following the death of his mum, Princess Diana, Karen Ireland talks to two women who applaud his efforts to help break down the stigma attached to a mental illness both have struggled with for years.
Some people in Northern Ireland are left waiting for more than nine months for a memory clinic to confirm or rule out a diagnosis of dementia.
Co Down parents Aurla and Feargal Ward hoped for a miracle when their baby daughter was born very early. Despite needing 19 blood transfusions and sight-saving operations, her mum and dad are grateful she is now a thriving toddler.
It's a sweltering hot day in Los Angeles and, in a bohemian cafe in the understated neighbourhood of Echo Park, Margaret Qualley is telling me how she spends her free time. "We call it coyote hunting but actually it's more like coyote nurturing," says the 22-year-...
Caroline Quentin's rarely been off our screens since she found fame in Nineties BBC comedy Men Behaving Badly, alongside roles in dramas from Jonathan Creek to crime series Blue Murder, and presenting roles on series such as Restoration Home.
Last week it was revealed that TV presenter Anthony McPartlin had entered rehab to deal with prescription drug and alcohol problems. Ahead of his hard-hitting documentary screened on BBC 3 iPlayer today, Belfast photojournalist Adam Patterson writes about the...
A number of public leisure amenities in Belfast are at risk of closure or reduced access, Unite trade union has warned.
Specialist training programmes for nurses in Northern Ireland are being hit with a £1.8 million cut in funding.
A Northern Ireland woman has spoken movingly about her ongoing battle with excruciating pain, caused by hundreds of tiny pea-sized tumours growing all over her face and body.
The long-awaiting new hospital and primary care complex in Omagh opened its doors on Tuesday.
The use of psychometrics testing by employers in recruitment and selection processes will now require further consideration in light of the recent Employment Tribunal Decision (The Government Legal Service v T Brookes EAT) in which the tribunal held that the...
One in seven people in Northern Ireland are on a waiting list for an outpatient appointment.
More than a quarter of children in Northern Ireland are overweight or obese, a report has claimed.
Significant numbers of 11-16-year-olds in Northern Ireland are concerned about their mental health, according to a government report.
The UK's highest court has narrowly rejected an appeal by a mother and daughter in their legal battle for women from Northern Ireland to receive free abortions on the NHS in England.
Over half of adults in Northern Ireland eat no more than three portions of fruit and vegetables a day - well below the recommended five portions.
A former Presbyterian Moderator has strongly criticised recommendations for liberalising abortion in the Irish Republic.
An inquiry into the deaths of five children in Northern Ireland hospitals will publish its report in the autumn.
Theresa May has backed a plan that describes NHS resources as a "source of untapped value" and called on the health service to take "a more commercial approach" to selling off its assets.
Researchers at Queen's University in Belfast have made a significant advance in the treatment of bowel cancer.
Concerns have been raised after it emerged that more than half of a £6.2m fund earmarked for dementia care in Northern Ireland has not been spent.
University professors are taking the same banned 'smart' drugs as their students to help them get through heavy workloads, a Cambridge University academic has said.
Trauma aide Barry Rowan (39) lives in Ballymena with his wife Nicola their two daughters, Abigail (6) and 18-month-old Emily. He says:
The Lagan Dragons, Northern Ireland's only breast cancer survivors' dragon boat team, is gearing up to host its first ever regatta on Saturday at the Waterfront Hall in Belfast.
Mallusk designer Ian Price showed the Duchess of Cambridge his floral creation Mind Trap recently when he became the first person from Northern Ireland to reach the final of the Chelsea Flower Show in 30 years. But you don't need his skills to enjoy the physical and mental health benefits of gardening. Horticulture therapist Caitriona Kelly explains why ...
Increasing coffee consumption may help to prevent liver cancer, a new study suggests.
At her lowest ebb Amber Harkin, from Londonderry, was so ill with anorexia that she weighed just five stone, couldn't stand upright at her uncle's funeral, and wasn't expected to live another year. Amazingly, she says, developing an interest in pole dancing and...
People who regularly eat chocolate may have a lower risk of developing an irregular heartbeat, a new study has found.
Eating a diet rich in fruit and veg while cutting down on meat substantially lowers the risk of obesity, research shows.
A doctor has said paying for health care needs to be debated in a bid to try and resolve the continuing and worsening crisis in the National Health Service.
A Belfast mum who had a stroke when she was just 10 weeks pregnant is calling on people from across Northern Ireland to 'Make May Purple' to raise awareness for the charity which helped her to recover.
Hundreds of members of the public joined politicians and trade unionists at a rally in Newry on Saturday demanding investment to protect services at the troubled Daisy Hill Hospital.
A young American tourist who was raped by a teenager in a Belfast forest has spoken of how she has dedicated her life to advocating for the rights of sexual assault victims.
Just four years ago Strabane man Mark Hegarty was lying desperately ill in a hospital bed being fed through a tube and hours from death.
As Northern Ireland's asthma deaths hit a 12-year high, teachers say they need more support to help children cope with the life-threatening condition.
NHS hospitals and surgeries across England and Scotland have been hit by a huge ransomware cyber attack.
Local children are increasingly turning to Childline for help and counselling as they struggle to cope with the pressure of exam stress. New figures from the NSPCC-run helpline reveal it delivered 93 counselling sessions to children from here in 2016/17 - up...
A drug that's up to 10,000 times more potent that morphine and is used to tranquilise elephants could be present in heroin in Northern Ireland.
Prince Charles promised to pray for a cancer patient he met during his visit to Londonderry's new £50m Cancer Care Centre at Altnagelvin Hospital on Tuesday.
A new study has found that eating cheese, milk or yoghurt does not increase the risk of heart attack or stroke, despite common conceptions about the fat rich foods.
The Open
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text:
- With Kansas on the verge of capturing its 63rd straight home win, the A.P. writes, "Not every win during the streak has been a runaway. There was a 76-72 overtime squeaker against Arizona, a 5-point win over Cornell and a 66-61 scare against Colorado, to name a few." Kansas guard, Tyrel Reed said KU's 71-66 victory over Cornell last season was his favorite victory in the fieldhouse because of the way the Jayhawks "grinded" out the victory.
- Brian Delaney of the Ithaca Journal shares his thoughts on Cornell-Lehigh from Monday night:
Well, Cornell officially has a bad loss on the resume. Bad took many forms Monday night, and is less a description of Lehigh's personnel (for a Patriot League team) than it is the Big Red's play in various facets.
This was the first true barometer game for the Big Red. It was Chris Wroblewski's third game back from injury, and it came against a team with similar frontcourt personnel (i.e., a team that relies on its guards; i.e. i.e a team that does not possess a strong inside defensive presence). The results didn't tell us much: Cornell played so uncharacteristically poorly that it's difficult to discern - although not impossible - where the real trouble spots are to watch going forward.
In talking about Josh Figini's contributions off the bench, Wroblewski acknowledged the starters' struggles.
"It was great to see Josh Figini kickstart us back in the game because we were really showing no life in the first half," he said.
That was indeed the case. Cornell averaged a little more than a turnover per minute for the first 12 minutes of the game, and finished the half with 14 turnovers. That's five more then they had all game against Delaware, and the final tally, 21, was six more than their previous season high of 15 against Seton Hall. It was ugly, pure and simple, and the culprits were many. It put Cornell in an early hole for the fifth straight game.
Vs. Albany: The Great Danes opened up a 22-10 lead before Cornell rallied.
Vs. Seton Hall: The Pirates got up quickly, never trailed and led 27-8 a little more than 8 minutes in.
Vs. Delaware: The Blue Hens scored seven of the game's first nine points before Cornell recovered.
Vs. St. Bonaventure: Bona scored the game's first five points, then fell behind as Cornell surged. Recovered to win.
Vs. Lehigh: Mountain Hawks exploit turnover-happy Cornell for a 20-9 first-half lead. Win by 3.
"I don't know," said a clearly frustrated Bill Courtney, when asked how his team can address slow starts. "I don't know how to fix turning it over 14 times, and just careless turnovers. It wasn't like Lehigh was pressuring us; we were just careless with the basketball."
Cornell now enters into the toughest part of its non-conference schedule: a trip to Boston University on Saturday, followed by road games at No. 10 Syracuse (Nov. 30) and No. 17 Minnesota (Dec. 4). Let's look at specific parts of last night's loss.
* The good
Figini: The 6-9 sophomore played 8 first-half minutes after Mark Coury picked up two fouls (later three) and Aaron Osgood was pulled twice for poor play. Figini played with confidence; he hit 3 of 5 shots for 8 points, grabbed one rebound and was one of three Cornell players not to turn the ball over. Offense aside, I liked how Figini defended, worked hard guarding the post, boxed out and contested. He competed hard, and I expect Bill Courtney will give him a long look for bigger minutes.
Anthony Gatlin: The 6-8 junior gave Cornell 13 very good minutes off the bench. The official scorekeepers had Gatlin down for two blocks; I had four, three definitely. He made his only shot, grabbed two rebounds and played outstanding interior defense.
Errick Peck: Forget the 3 for 10 shooting. Peck was much better. He had many more good defensive possessions than bad, he was credited with two blocked shots and he hustled. In the first half he missed a couple shots when he didn't get his shoulders square to the basket, but that kind of stuff is fixable. When the effort's there, the production will follow.
Drew Ferry: Ferry's line was terrific: 10 points, 3 assists, 2 steals, 0 turnovers. He spent a good chunk defending C.J. McCollum, and despite not being as quick, he managed to stay in front of Lehigh's sophomore most of the time. When he got beat, help was quick to rotate. Ferry's footwork is excellent. He hit two 3's in transition when he caught the ball on the run, stopped on a dime and released. He played 26 very effective minutes.
Defense: Cornell forced McCollum into a 6-for-19 evening. On the whole, Lehigh shot 35.2 percent (19 for 54). CU's help defense was very good, it hustled on every possession, took charges and blocked shots.
* The bad
None of the four names mentioned above are starters. That's a problem. Will it spur a change?
21 turnovers: 8 came from Wroblewski, who is still recovering from that ankle injury. He's not as quick yet as he will be when that thing fully heals, and a couple of his turnovers came from him trying to create off the dribble. Forgiveable in part, considering Cornell once again didn't perform well offensively inside the three-point arc and Wroblewski was doing what he could to make something happen. But it's still too many - clearly the rust is still coming off his game. Lehigh scored 26 points off Cornell's 21 turnovers. Conversely, Cornell had eight points off 15 Lehigh turnovers.
Interior scoring: Cornell had 12 points in the paint, but only one bucket came out of a halfcourt set post-up (Osgood). On the night, Cornell shot 9 for 29 inside the arc (.310). Not good.
The officiating: Tough night for the zebras, and both coaches had good reason to gripe. When you rely on jumpers as much as Cornell does, a free throw disparity in the opponent's favor is going to happen. But what was a foul in the first 35 minutes of last night's game was not a foul late when Errick Peck twice went to the rack and appeared to absorb contact. Final FT stats were 23-30 for Lehigh, 9-10 for Cornell. Fouls were 24-13 Cornell. In the Bona game, fouls were 28-14 Cornell.
Osgood: He was pulled twice in the first half, after a mistake-prone first two minutes and then again after commiting back to back turnovers. He played 10 first half minutes and turned it over four times. He allowed McCollum to get two offensive rebounds over him, and a putback, in the latter stages of the game, and on the backbreaker, he didn't hedge out on the high screen that freed McCollum up for the go-ahead 3. Now that film is out on Cornell, opponents are doing whatever they can to muscle Osgood off the block. Delaware and Bonaventure did it successfully, and Lehigh mirrored that plan. Osgood was catching the ball 3 or 4 feet beyond the box, which does him and Cornell no good. He must establish better position inside, and then he can use his athleticism to score. He had four points on 1-for-5 shooting, and got to the line only twice.
Max Groebe: Groebe's shot was off, and Cornell suffered without his scoring. He went 0-for-7 from the floor, 0-for-5 from the arc. When he tried to score off the bounce, Lehigh's defenders were quick enough to stay in front.
Offensive droughts: Cornell went 8:10 in the second half between field goals, just a killer stretch. They went up 48-43 with 10:34 left, and didn't get another field goal until a Peck dunk with 2:24 on the clock. The only scoring during that drought came from two Wroblewski free throws.
Where's the back door? Courtney may need to do some tinkering with his sets. Right now, he's got an offense that's overly reliant on the three-point shot, and an interior post-up game that has been missing for three games despite repeated efforts to get it untracked. Opponents are overplaying the perimeter, which should open up backdoor opportunities. It would be worthwhile to clear out some space underneath and start using backdoor cuts to take the immense amount of scoring pressure off the guards.
That's it from me. We'll do the twitter thing again Saturday from Boston U., which should be a good one. Best wishes for a great Thanksgiving to everyone out there. Enjoy the time with your families. - BD
- Delaney also notes the following in his Around the Rim article:
Last week was a bitter one for the members of Steve Donahue's coaching staff -- current and past -- at Boston College.
The Eagles, in Donahue's first season, lost to an Ivy League team for the third straight year, dropping a surprising 75-67 decision to Yale on Thursday at Conte Forum. Harvard had beaten BC the two previous years, and those outcomes helped further disgruntle an apathetic fan base and eventually helped lead to Al Skinner's firing.
Donahue is essentially rebuilding a program from scratch. Judgments should be withheld until probably Year 3 of his tenure, though in the world of major college sports patience is not always a bountiful virtue.
John Gallagher, whom Donahue hired to his BC staff before Hartford made him its head coach a short time later, saw his Hawks lose 71-57 to Dartmouth on Friday night.
The Big Green jumped out to a 39-24 halftime lead and won, giving Paul Cormier his first win of his second stint as Dartmouth head coach. That 39 points marked Dartmouth's highest first-half scoring output against a Division I opponent since a win over VMI on Nov. 10, 2007.
Gopher tough
Cornell knew its trip to Minnesota on Dec. 4 would be difficult one way or the other (the Big Red lost at Minny 71-54 in 2008), but the Golden Gophers are 5-0 and rolling up the national rankings.
They beat North Carolina on Friday night, then followed that with a quality 74-70 win over West Virginia on Sunday. In Monday's new poll, they were ranked No. 17.
After that game, Cornell will take its customary two-week finals break before returning at Binghamton on Dec. 18, and at home against Bucknell on Dec. 20.
Weekly honors
* Yale guard Austin Morgan and Harvard guard Christian Webster, both sophomores, shared this week's Ivy League player of the week.
Morgan had 25 points in Yale's win over Boston College last Thursday. Webster had 29 in Harvard's win over Mercer.
- The Buffalo News writes, "Oddities: Bona had 17 field goals in its 56-54 victory over Cornell on Friday night. Center Andrew Nicholson and swingman Demitrius Conger produced 16 of them on a combined 26 attempts. Michael Davenport was the only other Bonnie to score from the floor as he and the rest of the team went 1 for 23. Was this a breakout game for Conger? We shall see how it carries over."
- WEEI writes of Boston College's Danny Rubin:
He came to BC as an unheralded recruit, bound for Colgate as a preferred walk-on until Donahue invited him to Chestnut Hill. Had he gone to Colgate, Danny Rubin would have faced Holy Cross in Patriot League play. Monday night, he faced the Crusaders as a member of the Eagles.
The 6-foot-6 shooter played 22 minutes in the opener vs. St. Michael's, scoring nine points. Then he never left the bench in the loss to Yale.
"That's one of the things I was upset with myself the other night was I didn't play him," Donahue said. "He's been playing well in practice. I think I learned last year in particular with this kid John Jaques that I had at Cornell. John taught me a huge lesson. He was kicking butt in practice for about a month. And I, for some reason, wasn't putting him in the game because, well, 'That's John, he's a sub. He's a deep sub.' But if you do it in practice, you should be rewarded. And Danny's been doing it in practice. It's as simple as that. He knows how to play, he plays hard, he's got great instincts, and he can make shots. If he continues to play well, then he'll continue to play."
- Donahue said during his post game conference, "I don't (differentiate) from walk-ons to scholarships. Maybe that's from 20 years of only walk-ons."
- Cornell RPI Watch: The RPI (Rating Percentage Index) is a measure of strength of schedule and how a team does against that schedule. It does not consider the margin of victory, but only whether or not a team won and where the game was played (home/away/neutral court). The formula is 25% team winning percentage (WP), 50% opponents' average winning percentage (OWP), and 25% opponents' opponents' average winning percentage (OOWP). (See: CollegeRPI.com for a further explanation of the formula.) The RPI may be the most influential factor in NCAA Tournament seeding. Cornell's RPI rank as of November 22 is No. 207 out of 347 total Division I teams. While neither the Ken Pomeroy or Jeff Sagarin rankings are used by the NCAA Tournament Selection Committee, the KenPom.com site ranks Cornell No. 190 in the nation, while the USA Today Sagarin rankings have Cornell at No. 160. Both sites are predominantly used by fans and the media.
- Game Recaps-Below are links to our game recaps from each of Cornell's games this season. Associated press recaps courtesy of Rivals.com/YahooSports.com are always available by clicking on Cornell's schedule/results on the right column of this blog.
- at Albany W 65-61 (video recaps)
- at Seton Hall L 68-92
- vs. Delaware W 75-61 (video recap)
- vs. St. Bonaventure L 54-56
- at Lehigh L 57-60
- Here is a look at Ivy League results and upcoming games. A full Ivy composite schedule may viewed by clicking here.
Friday, November 12
Columbia 71 La Salle 82 Box Score - Recap
Rutgers 73 Princeton 78 OT Box Score - Recap
Cornell 65 Albany 61 Box Score - Recap
Brown 69 Fordham 65 Box Score - Recap
Saturday, November 13
Harvard 53 George Mason 66 Box Score - Recap
Davidson 64 Penn 69 Box Score - Recap
Dartmouth 52 Providence 87 Box Score - Recap
Yale 75 Quinnipiac 84 Box Score - Recap
Sunday, November 14
Cornell 68 Seton Hall 92 Noon [SNY/ESPN3/ESPN Full Court] Box Score - Recap
Princeton 60 Duke 97 [ESPNU] Box Score - Recap
Monday, November 15
Maryland-Eastern Shore 74 Columbia 108 Box Score - Recap
Yale 55 Providence 58 Box Score - Recap
Tuesday, November 16
Brown 67 Rhode Island 92 Box Score - Recap
New Hampshire 55 Dartmouth 53 Box Score - Recap
Wednesday, November 17
Delaware 61 Cornell 75 Box Score - Recap
Holy Cross 49 Harvard 72 Box Score - Recap
Penn 54 Manhattan 59 Box Score - Recap
Columbia 66 St. John's 79 Box Score - Recap
Thursday, November 18
Yale 75 Boston College 67 Box Score - Recap
Friday, November 19
St. Bonaventure 56 Cornell 54 Box Score - Recap
Dartmouth 71 Hartford 57 Box Score - Recap
Saturday, November 20
Harvard 75 Mercer 69 Box Score - Recap
Sacred Heart 67 Brown 81 Box Score - Recap
Columbia 76 Longwood 95 Box Score - Recap
Drexel 77 Penn 56 Box Score - Recap
Sunday, November 21
Dartmouth 59 Loyola (Md.) 73 Box Score - Recap
Monday, November 22
Cornell 57 Lehigh 60 Box Score - Recap
Princeton 64 James Madison 65 Box Score - Recap
Tuesday, November 23
Bucknell at Princeton, 4:30 pm
Colgate at Columbia, 7 pm
Quinnipiac at Dartmouth, 7 pm
Lafayette at Penn, 7 pm
Yale at Illinois, 9:45 pm [ESPNU]
Wednesday, November 24
St. Francis (N.Y.) at Brown, 4 pm
Harvard at Bryant, 4 pm
Presbyterian vs. Princeton, 4:30 pm
Saturday, November 27
Brown at New Hampshire, 1 pm
Army at Yale, 2 pm
Colgate at Dartmouth, 2 pm
Cornell at Boston University, 5 pm
Penn at Pittsburgh, 7 pm [ESPN3.com]
Sunday, November 28
Colorado at Harvard, 2 pm
Columbia at American, 2 pm
Siena at Princeton, 2 pm


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We're very sorry, this item barely there Go Girlie Flirt Lace-Trim Thong is out of stock.
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