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If you look at...: Lexical Bundles in University Teaching and Textbooks
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1 Applied Linguistics 25/3: 371±405 # Oxford University Press 2004 If you look at...: Lexical Bundles in University Teaching and Textbooks DOUGLAS BIBER 1, SUSAN CONRAD 2, and VIVIANA CORTES 3 1 Northern Arizona University, 2 Portland State University, and 3 Iowa State University This paper investigates the use of multi-word sequences in two important university registers: classroom teaching and textbooks. Following Biber et al. 1999), we take a frequency-driven approach to the identi cation of multiword sequences, referred to as `lexical bundles'. We compare the lexical bundles in classroom teaching and textbooks to those found in our previous research on conversation and academic prose. Structural patterns are described rst, and then we present a functional taxonomy, including stance expressions, discourse organizers, and referential expressions. The use of lexical bundles in classroom teaching turns out to be especially surprising, both in frequency and in function. Classroom teaching uses more stance and discourse organizing bundles than conversation does, but at the same time, classroom teaching uses more referential bundles than academic prose. The analysis indicates that lexical bundlesðthe most frequent sequences of words in a registerðare a unique linguistic construct. Lexical bundles are usually not complete grammatical structures nor are they idiomatic, but they function as basic building blocks of discourse. In the conclusion, we discuss the implications of our study for the theoretical status of lexical bundles. 1 INTRODUCTION There have been many linguistic studies of academic discourse published over the past 20 years e.g. the extensive survey of research in Grabe and Kaplan 1996). Most of these focus on the description of a speci c grammatical feature or lexical class in written academic registers, especially academic research articles in science or medicine e.g. Halliday 1988; Myers 1989; Swales 1990; Thompson and Ye 1991; Halliday and Martin 1993; Hyland 1994, 1996a, 1996b; Williams 1996; Crompton 1997; Grabe and Kaplan 1997; Swales et al. 1998; Chih-Hua 1999; Marco 2000; see also the survey of grammatical characteristics in Biber et al. 1999). Relatively few studies describe the linguistic characteristics of spoken academic discourse. However, some of these studies take a di erent approach, focusing on discourse markers and other relatively xed lexical `chunks' instead of grammatical features e.g. Chaudron and Richards 1986; Strodt- Lopez 1991; Nattinger and DeCarrico 1992; Flowerdew and Tauroza 1995). These studies of discourse markers and other lexical expressions in academic lectures are part of a growing research tradition focusing on the
2 372 LEXICAL BUNDLES IN UNIVERSITY TEACHING AND TEXTBOOKS use of multi-word prefabricated expressions e.g. in a nutshell, if you see what I mean). This research challenges the view that language is strictly compositional, arguing instead that much of our everyday language use is composed of prefabricated expressions see the reviews in Ellis 1996; Howarth 1996; Wray and Perkins 2000; Wray 2002). Multi-word sequences have been studied under many rubrics, including `lexical phrases', `formulas', `routines', ` xed expressions', `prefabricated patterns' or `prefabs'), and `lexical bundles'. Many previous studies have been primarily theoretical in nature, comparing the various perspectives and approaches to multi-word units, proposing new frameworks for analysis, and calling for further research. Hakuta 1974), Yorio 1980), Pawley and Syder 1983), Redeker 1991), Sinclair 1991), Lewis 1993), Weinert 1995), Howarth 1996, 1998a, 1998b), and Wray and Perkins 2000) are good examples of this type. Weinert 1995: 182) identi es two basic research issues: the best way to de ne and identify xed multi-word units, and analysis of the discourse functions that these multi-word units perform. Numerous empirical studies have addressed aspects of these two research issues e.g. Renouf and Sinclair 1991; Kjellmer 1991; Nattinger and DeCarrico 1992; Altenberg and Eeg-Olofsson 1990; Altenberg 1998; Aijmer 1996; Francis et al. 1996, 1997, 1998; Butler 1997, 1998; Hudson 1998; DeCock 1998; Granger 1998; Howarth 1998a, 1998b; Moon 1998a, 1998b; Partington 1998; Hunston and Francis 1998, 1999; Gledhill 2000; Schmitt 2004). However, despite the general consensus on the importance of multiword units, there is surprisingly little agreement on their de ning characteristics, the methodologies to identify them, or even what to call them; and, as a result, there is little agreement across studies on the speci c set of multi-word units worthy of description. These empirical research studies di er in terms of: 1 the research goals adopted: describing the full range of multi-word sequences vs. describing a small set of `important' sequences; 2 the criteria used to identify multi-word units: perceptual salience, frequency criteria, or other; 3 the formal characteristics of the multi-word units studied: continuous sequences, discontinuous frames, or lexico-grammatical patterns; twoword collocations or longer sequences; 4 the text samples drawn on: ranging from a few texts to very large corpora c.100 million words); 5 whether or not register comparisons are made: many studies disregard register completely; others analyse only spoken texts or written texts; a few studies explicitly compare multi-word units across di erent registers. Given the complexity of these issues, we take the position that no single approach can provide the whole story. Rather, the overall importance of multi-word units in discourse can be fully understood only by undertaking empirical research studies from di erent perspectives. In the present paper,
3 DOUGLAS BIBER, SUSAN CONRAD, and VIVIANA CORTES 373 we adopt a frequency perspectiveð`lexical bundles'ðto investigate the functions of multi-word sequences in university registers. 1.1 Previous research on lexical bundles The present study adopts a frequency-driven approach to multi-word units, based on analysis of the most frequent recurrent sequences of words. Salem 1987) carried out pioneering research of this type, based on analysis of a corpus of French government documents. Altenberg 1998; Altenberg and Eeg-Olofsson 1990) was probably the rst researcher to study recurrent word sequences in English based on the London-Lund Corpus), while Butler 1997) adopted a similar approach for his analysis of recurrent word sequences in a large corpus of Spanish texts. We extended this research approach in the Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English Biber et al. 1999, ch. 13; see also Biber and Conrad 1999), referring to these recurrent sequences of words as `lexical bundles' see section 2 below). That study used corpus-based research methods to compare the most common multi-word units in spoken and written registers. That research was distinctive in several respects:. it adopted a register perspective and explicitly compared spoken and written registers conversation and academic prose);. it was based on empirical analysis of large corpora c.5 million words for each register);. it relied exclusively on frequency criteria for the identi cation of multiword units;. it focused on longer multi-word units than in most previous studies: 4, 5, and 6-word sequences. In a subsequent study, we developed a preliminary taxonomy to classify the discourse functions of the lexical bundles found in conversation and academic prose Biber et al. 2003; Conrad and Biber, in press). This analytical framework has also been applied to other more specialized domains. For example, Cortes 2002, to appear) applies the lexical bundle framework to the study of university student writing in history and biology, comparing the use of lexical bundles by professional and student authors. Partington and Morley 2004) investigate the use of lexical bundles in spoken political discourse White House press brie ngs and political news interviews), showing how lexical bundles can be used to analyse the distinctiveness of particular registers. 1.2 Overview of the present study In the present paper we turn to the use of lexical bundles in universitylevel courses. Speci cally, we analyse the use of lexical bundles in university classroom teaching and textbooks. Classroom teaching and
4 374 LEXICAL BUNDLES IN UNIVERSITY TEACHING AND TEXTBOOKS textbooks are arguably the two most important registers in the academic lives of university students. However, we know surprisingly little about the language of these registers. To our knowledge, only one previous study has investigated the use of multi-word units in university lectures: the study by DeCarrico and Nattinger 1988; see also Nattinger and DeCarrico 1992) on `lexical phrases'. The present study extends the research ndings of Nattinger and DeCarrico by analysing the patterns of use in a large corpus and employing frequency criteria rather than perceptual salience as the basis for analysis. We compare the patterns of use in classroom teaching and textbooks to those found in conversation and academic prose. Conversation can be regarded as a stereotypically `oral' register, characterized by high interaction, expression of personal stance, and real-time production circumstances see Biber 1995). In contrast, academic prose can be regarded as a stereotypically `literate' register, characterized by an informational rather than personal focus, and extensive opportunity for crafting, revising, and editing the written text. As discussed in our previous work e.g. Biber et al. 2002, 2004), classroom teaching and textbooks are intermediate registers with respect to these characteristics. Classroom teaching is a spoken register, constrained by real-time production circumstances, and marked to some extent by speakers' personal concerns and interactions among participants. At the same time, classroom teaching has a primary informational focus, and instructors normally pre-plan the content and structure of their class sessions to achieve their informational goals. As a result, we would expect that classroom discourse would be intermediate between conversation and academic prose in its use of lexical bundles. Textbooks are more similar to academic prose in purpose and production circumstances, but the material must be presented in a way that is accessible to students. Given recent trends to make textbooks more engaging for students, we predicted that they would also be intermediate between conversation and academic prose in their use of lexical bundles. In section 2 below, we describe the methodology used to identify lexical bundles. Then, in section 3, we brie y summarize some of our earlier grammatical research on university registers. This research provides important background to the present study, because it raises expectations concerning the linguistic di erences among spoken and written university registers; it turns out that the patterns of use for lexical bundles are strikingly di erent from the patterns observed for other grammatical features. In sections 4 and 5, we turn to the analysis of lexical bundles in university registers. In section 4, we summarize our distributional ndings, describing the structural types of lexical bundles found in classroom teaching and textbooks, and comparing those to the common lexical bundles found in conversation and professional academic prose. Then, in section 5 we introduce a functional taxonomy of the lexical bundles in classroom teaching and textbooks, grouping bundles into categories that serve related discourse
5 DOUGLAS BIBER, SUSAN CONRAD, and VIVIANA CORTES 375 functions, and contrasting the use of these functional groups across spoken and written university registers. 2 METHODOLOGY 2.1 Corpus used for the study The present study is based on an analysis of texts from university classroom teaching and textbooks in the T2K-SWAL Corpus TOEFL 2000 Spoken and Written Academic Language Corpus; see Biber et al. 2002, 2004). The T2K- SWAL Corpus was designed to represent the range of spoken and written registers that university students encounter in the U.S. 1 The register categories chosen for the corpus are sampled from across a large range of spoken and written activities associated with academic life, including classroom teaching, o ce hours, study groups, on-campus service encounters, textbooks, course packs, and other written materials e.g. university catalogues, brochures). The study reported here analyses only two of those registers: classroom teaching and textbooks. Table 1 shows the composition of this sub-corpus by register category. Texts from classroom teaching and textbooks were sampled from six major academic disciplines Business, Education, Engineering, Humanities, Natural Science, and Social Science) and three levels of education lower division undergraduate, upper division undergraduate, and graduate). Texts were collected at four academic sites Northern Arizona University, Iowa State University, California State University at Sacramento, and Georgia State University); the four universities are situated in di erent regions of the USA and have di erent institutional pro les. Although this sampling does not achieve complete demographic/institutional representativeness, it does avoid obvious skewing for these factors. To provide a baseline for the analysis of university registers, we compare the patterns of use to our earlier descriptions of lexical bundles in conversation and academic prose, based on analysis of the Longman Spoken and Written English Corpus c.4 million words of British English conversation; c.3 million words of American English conversation; c.5.3 million words of academic Table 1: Composition of the sub-corpus used in the analysis Register No. of texts No. of words Classroom teaching 176 1,248,800 Textbooks ,600 Total 263 2,009,400 Source: The TOEFL 2000 Spoken and Writing Academic LanguageÐT2K-SWALÐ Corpus
6 376 LEXICAL BUNDLES IN UNIVERSITY TEACHING AND TEXTBOOKS prose; see Biber et al. 1999, ch. 1). The academic prose corpus comprises both academic research articles c.2.7 million words) and advanced academic books c.2.6 million words; see Biber et al. 1999: 32±4). While some advanced academic books can also be used as textbooks, especially in graduate courses, the corpora of academic prose and textbooks were sampled independently: textbooks are mostly written speci cally for students, while the articles and books included in the academic prose corpus are mostly written for other professionals. Identi cation of lexical bundles Lexical bundles are de ned simply as the most frequent recurring lexical sequences in a register Biber et al. 1999, ch. 13). In the analysis of lexical bundles, as in our previous corpus-based studies of grammatical patterns, we do not regard frequency data as explanatory. In fact we would argue for the opposite: frequency data identi es patterns that must be explained. The usefulness of frequency data and corpus analysis generally) is that it identi es patterns of use that otherwise often go unnoticed by researchers. Frequency data have additional importance for the study of multi-word sequences because they are one re ection of the extent to which a sequence of words is stored and used as a prefabricated chunk, with higher frequency sequences more likely to be stored as unanalysed chunks than lower frequency sequences. Of course, frequency is only one measure of the extent to which a multi-word sequence is prefabricated; sequences with idiomatic meanings are usually rare but clearly prefabricated.) The actual frequency cut-o used to identify lexical bundles is somewhat arbitrary. For the present study, we take a conservative approach, setting a relatively high frequency cut-o of 40 times per million words to be included in the analysis. Many of the bundles described here are actually much more common, occurring more than 200 times per million words. In contrast, we included word sequences that occurred only 10 times per million words in the Biber et al. 1999) study.) To further limit the scope of the investigation here, only four-word sequences are considered; for example, do you want to and I don't knowwhat are common four-word lexical bundles in conversation. The text excerpts in sections 4 and 5 below show that two four-word lexical bundles sometimes occur together to form a ve-word or six-word sequence; see Biber et al. 1999: 992 ) for discussion of these longer lexical bundles.) 2 A sequence must be used in at least ve di erent texts to be counted as a lexical bundle, to guard against idiosyncratic uses by individual speakers or authors. In practice, this restriction has little e ect, because most bundles are distributed widely across the texts in a corpus. Even the least common lexical bundles in the present analysis with a frequency of 40 per million words) are used in at least 20 di erent texts, while the more common bundles are distributed more widely. 3 In general, most lexical bundles are not idiomatic in meaning. In fact, most
7 DOUGLAS BIBER, SUSAN CONRAD, and VIVIANA CORTES 377 longer idioms are far too rare to be considered bundles. Stereotypical idioms such as kick the bucket meaning `die') and a slap in the face meaning `an a ront') are rarely attested in natural speech or writing. When idioms and xed formulas are used, they occur usually in ction rather than in actual face-to-face conversation. For example, kick the bucket and a slap in the face occur around 5 times per million words in ction, while they are rarely attested at all in actual face-to-face conversation see Biber et al. 1999: 1024±6). 4 Similarly, most lexical bundles do not represent a complete structural unit. For example, only 15 per cent of the lexical bundles in conversation can be regarded as complete phrases or clauses, while less than 5 per cent of the lexical bundles in academic prose represent complete structural units see Biber et al. 1999: 993±1000). Instead, most lexical bundles bridge two structural units: they begin at a clause or phrase boundary, but the last words of the bundle are the rst elements of a second structural unit. Most of the bundles in conversation bridge two clauses e.g. I want to know, well that's what I), while bundles in academic prose usually bridge two phrases e.g. in the case of, the base of the). Our research approach to the study of lexical bundles is deliberately exploratory. We start out by simply asking whether there are chunks of languageðsequences of wordsðthat are used repeatedly by speakers and writers. The answer to this question is `yes': there are many lexical bundles used with high frequency in texts, and it further turns out that di erent registers tend to rely on di erent sets of lexical bundles. These distributional facts raise a second set of research questions: what are these word chunks, what are their structural and functional characteristics, and how can we explain the repeated use of these extended word chunks? For the most part, linguists have not noticed these high frequency multi-word sequences, probably because most previous research has focused on grammatical phrases and clauses, disregarding the possibility of lexical units that cut across grammatical structures. However, we show below that lexical bundles have identi able discourse functions, suggesting that they are an important part of the communicative repertoire of speakers and writers, even though they do not correspond to the well-formed structures traditionally recognized by linguistic research. We return to discussion of the theoretical status of lexical bundles in section 6. 3 BACKGROUND: GRAMMATICAL DIFFERENCES AMONG SPOKEN AND WRITTEN UNIVERSITY REGISTERS In terms of their grammatical characteristics, spoken university registers are consistently di erent from written registers see Biber et al. 2002, 2004). Two general patterns are found: 1) spoken registers as a group are di erent from written registers, but 2) there are small di erences among spoken registers,
8 378 LEXICAL BUNDLES IN UNIVERSITY TEACHING AND TEXTBOOKS forming a cline from the more conversational registers to the more informational registers like classroom teaching. Figure 1 illustrates these patterns, plotting the use of nouns, verbs, and personal pronouns in the four registers considered in the present study: conversation, classroom teaching, textbooks, and academic prose. 5 The gure shows a major di erence between spoken and written registers in the use of these features: nouns are much more common in the written registers than spoken registers, while verbs and pronouns show the opposite distribution, being much more common in the spoken registers. Nouns are slightly more common in classroom teaching than in conversation, re ecting to some extent the primary informational purposes of teaching in contrast to the interpersonal purposes of conversation. The most surprising nding to emerge from these previous grammatical studies is the extent to which classroom teaching is similar to conversation, rather than combining the linguistic characteristics of speech and informational writing. The Multi-Dimensional analysis presented in Biber et al. 2002) shows these same patterns with respect to a much wider range of linguistic features.) This pattern of use contradicts our prior expectations. Given that classroom teaching is clearly pre-planned and has a primary informational focus, we expected that it would use grammatical features in a similar way to written registers like textbooks. Instead, we found that classroom teaching was most strongly in uenced by its `oral' situational characteristicsðthe real-time production circumstances, the interactions among participants, and a focus on the speakers' personal concerns. Given the importance of the speech/writing distinction for grammatical Figure 1: Distribution of nouns, verbs, and personal pronouns across registers
9 DOUGLAS BIBER, SUSAN CONRAD, and VIVIANA CORTES 379 features, we expected that this di erence would be equally important for the use of lexical features. Thus, we predicted that classroom teaching and conversation would be sharply distinguished from textbooks and academic prose in the use of lexical bundles. However, as the following sections show, these registers have surprisingly di erent patterns of use for lexical bundles. In particular, classroom teaching incorporates both `oral' lexical bundles and `literate' lexical bundles, in contrast to its reliance on stereotypically spoken patterns of use for grammatical features. 4 LEXICAL BUNDLES IN UNIVERSITY CLASSROOM TEACHING AND TEXTBOOKS As can be seen in Figure 2, there are 43 lexical bundles in conversation; 84 in classroom teaching; 27 in textbooks; and 19 in academic prose. Overall, then, Figure 2 shows that the two spoken registers use a much greater range of di erent lexical bundles than the written registers. However, the most surprising nding here is for classroom teaching: rather than being intermediate between conversation and the written registers, classroom teaching far exceeds conversation in the number of di erent lexical bundles. Figure 3 shows that lexical bundles occur most frequently in classroom teaching as well, although they are almost as frequent in conversation. Taken together, Figures 2 and 3 show that classroom teaching uses a large set of di erent lexical bundles, while conversation relies on the extremely frequent use of a smaller set of bundles. For example, conversation uses 44 highfrequency bundles occurring more than 60 times per million words). In contrast, classroom teaching has only 28 bundles that occur more than 60 times per million words. We can begin to explain these patterns by considering the structural Figure 2: Number of di erent leixal bundles across registers
10 380 LEXICAL BUNDLES IN UNIVERSITY TEACHING AND TEXTBOOKS Figure 3: Overall frequency of lexical bundles across registers characteristics of lexical bundles found in each register. We noted in section 2 that lexical bundles have strong grammatical correlates, even though they are not usually complete structural units. In the present study, we identi ed three major structural types of lexical bundle, shown in Table 2. Type 1 bundles incorporate verb phrase fragments. For example, Types 1a and 1b begin with a subject pronoun followed by a verb phrase e.g. it's going to be). Type 1c begins with a discourse marker followed by a verb phrase e.g. you knowthis is). Types 1d and 1e simply begin with a verb phrase e.g. is going to be), while Types 1f and 1g are question fragments. Type 2 bundles incorporate dependent clause fragments in addition to simple verb phrase fragments. Type 2a bundles e.g. I want you to) begin with a main clause followed by a complementizer e.g. to, if) or a WH-word introducing a dependent clause. Other Type 2 bundles are dependent clause fragments beginning with a complementizer or subordinator e.g. to be able to, if we look at, what I want to). In contrast to Types 1 and 2, which have clausal components, Type 3 bundles are phrasal. Types 3a±3c consist of noun phrase components, usually ending with the start of a postmodi er e.g. the end of the, those of you who). Type 3d consists of prepositional phrase components with embedded modi ers e.g. of the things that), while Type 3e incorporates comparative expressions. Figure 4 shows the distribution of these structural types across registers. Our earlier research on conversation and academic prose showed that the grammatical correlates of lexical bundles in conversation are strikingly di erent from those in academic prose. In conversation, almost 90 per cent of all common lexical bundles incorporate verb phrases. In fact, approximately 50 per cent of these lexical bundles begin with a personal pronoun + verb phrase such as I was going to, I thought that was). An additional 19 per cent of
11 DOUGLAS BIBER, SUSAN CONRAD, and VIVIANA CORTES 381 Table 2: Structural types of lexical bundles 1. Lexical bundles that incorporate verb phrase fragments 1a. connector +) 1st/2nd person pronoun + VP fragment Example bundles: you don't have to, I'm not going to, well I don't know 1b. connector +) 3rd person pronoun + VP fragment Example bundles: it's going to be, that's one of the, and this is a 1c. Discourse marker + VP fragment Example bundles: I mean you know, you knowit was, I mean I don't 1d. Verb phrase with non-passive verb): Example bundles: is going to be, is one of the, have a lot of, take a look at 1e. Verb phrase with passive verb: Example bundles: is based on the, can be used to, shown in gure N 1f. yes±no question fragments: Example bundles: are you going to, do you want to, does that make sense 1g. WH-question fragments: Example bundles: what do you think, howmany of you, what does that mean 2. Lexical bundles that incorporate dependent clause fragments 2a. 1st/2nd person pronoun + dependent clause fragment Example bundles: I want you to, I don't knowif, I don't knowwhy, you might want to 2b. WH-clause fragments: Example bundles: what I want to, what's going to happen, when we get to 2c. If-clause fragments: Example bundles: if you want to, if you have a, if we look at 2d. verb/adjective+) to-clause fragment Example bundles: to be able to, to come up with, want to do is 2e. That-clause fragments: Example bundles: that there is a, that I want to, that this is a 3. Lexical bundles that incorporate noun phrase and prepositional phrase fragments 3a. connector +) Noun phrase with of-phrase fragment: Example bundles: one of the things, the end of the, a little bit of 3b. Noun phrase with other post-modi er fragment: Example bundles: a little bit about, those of you who, the way in which 3c. Other noun phrase expressions: Example bundles: a little bit more, or something like that, and stu like that 3d. Prepositional phrase expressions: Example bundles: of the things that, at the end of, at the same time 3e. Comparative expressions: Example bundles: as far as the, greater than or equal, as well as the
12 382 LEXICAL BUNDLES IN UNIVERSITY TEACHING AND TEXTBOOKS the bundles consist of an extended verb phrase fragment e.g. have a look at), while another 17 per cent of the bundles are question fragments e.g. can I have a). In contrast, the lexical bundles in academic prose are phrasal rather than clausal. Almost 70 per cent of the common bundles in academic prose consist of noun phrase expressions e.g. the nature of the) or a sequence that bridges across two prepositional phrases e.g. as a result of). Classroom teaching uses about twice as many di erent lexical bundles as conversation, and about four times as many as textbooks. The distribution across structural patterns shown in Figure 4 helps explain this extremely frequent pattern of use. In marked contrast to the general patterns of use for grammatical features described in section 3 above), classroom teaching relies on the lexical bundles associated with both spoken and written registers. Similar to conversation, classroom teaching makes dense use of lexical bundles that represent declarative and interrogative clause fragments. At the same time, classroom teaching is similar to academic prose and textbooks in making dense use of noun phrase and prepositional phrase lexical bundles. Thus, the extremely high density of lexical bundles in classroom teaching exists because this register relies heavily on both `oral' and `literate' bundles. In addition, classroom teaching has a large inventory of lexical bundles associated with dependent clause fragments, especially conditional adverbial clauses and complement clauses 26 di erent bundles in classroom teaching, versus 16 in conversation, and only two in academic prose, and two in textbooks). This pattern is surprising, given previous claims that dependent clauses are more typical of written prose than speech e.g. O'Donnell 1974; Kroll 1977; Chafe 1982; Akinnaso 1982; Gumperz et al. 1984). However, it turns out that these lexical bundles are more common in both classroom teaching and in conversation than in the written registers similar to the Figure 4: Distribution of lexical bundles across structural types
13 DOUGLAS BIBER, SUSAN CONRAD, and VIVIANA CORTES 383 general grammatical patterns of use for verb+complement clause constructions; see Biber et al. 1999, ch. 9). We return to a discussion of these bundles in section 5.5 below. Textbooks and academic prose are at the opposite extreme from classroom teaching on Figures 2 and 3. 6 It is surprising that textbook authors do not incorporate more lexical bundles in their writing, given the heavy reliance on bundles in classroom teaching. Reasons for this absence might be that textbook authors tend to use fuller expressions, preferring full clauses rather than phrasal lexical bundles, as well as the fact that textbook authors are free of the real-time production constraints of face-to-face teaching and therefore make more diverse language choices. At the present stage of our analysis, we are able only to note this distributional di erence between textbooks and classroom teaching. A much fuller analysis of textbook discourse structures is required to interpret the relative absence of lexical bundles in that register. Given that the structural correlates of lexical bundles in these four registers are so dramatically di erent, it will come as no surprise that their typical discourse functions di er as well. We turn to a discussion of those functions in the following section. 5 A PRELIMINARY FUNCTIONAL TAXONOMY OF THE LEXICAL BUNDLES IN UNIVERSITY CLASSROOM TEACHING AND TEXTBOOKS In the present section, we turn to the discourse functions of lexical bundles, revising and extending our earlier functional taxonomy of lexical bundle types developed for conversation and academic prose Biber et al. 2003). For this analysis, we examined concordance listings to analyse the functions of common bundles in their extended discourse contexts, focusing especially on the lexical bundles used in classroom teaching and textbooks. We have two immediate goals in doing this analysis: 1) to develop a taxonomy that captures the major discourse functions served by lexical bundles, and 2) to describe the extent to which each register uses lexical bundles for each of these functions. Our approach to developing the functional taxonomy is primarily inductive. That is, we group together bundles that serve similar functions, based on the typical meanings and uses of each bundle. We used concordance listings to examine the use of each bundle in its discourse contexts. Once the bundles were assigned to groups, we attempted to determine the discourse functions associated with each of the groups. Of course this last step was in uenced by previous theoretical studies on the discourse functions of linguistic features e.g. Hymes 1974: 22 ; Halliday 1978; Brown and Fraser 1979; Biber 1988: 33, 1995). In some cases, a single bundle has multiple functions even in a single occurrence. For example, bundles like take a look at and let's have a look function as both directives and topic introducers. In other cases, a single
14 384 LEXICAL BUNDLES IN UNIVERSITY TEACHING AND TEXTBOOKS bundle serves di erent functions depending on the context. For example, bundles like the beginning of the and at the end of can function as a time reference, place reference, or text deictic reference. In general, however, most bundles have a primary function. We have examined potentially multifunctional bundles in concordance listings and classi ed them according to their most common use. Several of these cases are discussed in 5.1±5.3 below.) We distinguish among three primary functions served by lexical bundles in these registers: 1) stance expressions, 2) discourse organizers, and 3) referential expressions. Stance bundles express attitudes or assessments of certainty that frame some other proposition. Discourse organizers re ect relationships between prior and coming discourse. Referential bundles make direct reference to physical or abstract entities, or to the textual context itself, either to identify the entity or to single out some particular attribute of the entity as especially important. Each of these categories has several subcategories associated with more speci c functions and meanings. Table 3 lists the bundles grouped into each of these functional categories, showing the distribution of each bundle across registers. The following subsections describe each of these categories in detail. Table 3: Functional classi cation of common lexical bundles across registers Classroom teaching Textbooks Conversation Academic prose I. STANCE EXPRESSIONS A. Epistemic stance Personal: I don't know if ** ** I don't know what ** *** I don't know how ** ** I don't know I ** and I don't know **. I think it was ** ** and I think that ** you know what I ** ** I don't think so * ** I thought it was * ** well I don't know ** I don't know whether ** I don't know why ** oh I don't know ** Impersonal: are more likely to **. the fact that the. ** **
15 DOUGLAS BIBER, SUSAN CONRAD, and VIVIANA CORTES 385 Classroom teaching Textbooks Conversation Academic prose B. Attitudinal/modality stance B1) desire Personal: if you want to *** ** I don't want to ** *** do you want to * *** you want to go ** do you want a ** what do you want ** B2) obligation/directive Personal: I want you to *** you don't have to ** ** you don't want to ** ** you have to be **. you have to do ** * you look at the ** you might want to ** you need to know ** and you have to **. going to have to ** ** you want me to ** do you want me ** Impersonal: it is important to ** * it is necessary to ** B3) Intention/prediction Personal: I'm not going to ** ** we're going to do ** we're going to have ** * and we're going to ** I was going to * *** what we're going to ** are we going to * ** are you going to * *** Impersonal: it's going to be ** ** is going to be *** are going to be ** going to be a ** ** going to be the **
16 386 LEXICAL BUNDLES IN UNIVERSITY TEACHING AND TEXTBOOKS Table 3: cont. Classroom teaching Textbooks Conversation Academic prose not going to be ** * going to have a * ** B4) ability Personal: to be able to ***.. * to come up with ** Impersonal: can be used to ** * it is possible to * ** II. DISCOURSE ORGANIZERS A. Topic introduction/focus what do you think ** ** if you look at ** take a look at ** if you have a ** if we look at ** going to talk about ** to look at the ** to go ahead and ** I want to do ** * what I want to **. want to do is ** want to talk about ** you know if you ** a little bit about ** I would like to * ** in this chapter we ** I/I'll tell you what ** have a look at ** let's have a look ** do you know what ** B. Topic elaboration/clari cation has to do with **. to do with the **... I mean you know **. you know I mean **. nothing to do with *. ** on the other hand ** ** *** as well as the. ** * know what I mean **
17 DOUGLAS BIBER, SUSAN CONRAD, and VIVIANA CORTES 387 Classroom teaching Textbooks Conversation Academic prose was going to say ** what do you mean ** III. REFERENTIAL EXPRESSIONS A. Identi cation/focus that's one of the ** and this is a ** and this is the ** is one of the ** ** * was one of the **. one of the things *** and one of the ** one of the most * ** ** those of you who ** of the things that *** B. Imprecision or something like that ** ** and stu like that ** and things like that ** * C. Speci cation of attributes C1) Quantity speci cation there's a lot of ** * have a lot of ** and a lot of ** a lot of people ** a lot of the ** how many of you ** in a lot of ** the rest of the ** ** * * a little bit of ** a little bit more ** a lot of times ** than or equal to **. greater than or equal ** per cent of the ** C2) Tangible framing attributes the size of the. ** * in the form of. ** ** C3) Intangible framing attributes the nature of the. ** ** in the case of ** ** *** in terms of the ** ** *
18 388 LEXICAL BUNDLES IN UNIVERSITY TEACHING AND TEXTBOOKS Table 3: cont. Classroom teaching Textbooks Conversation Academic prose as a result of * ** ** on the basis of. ** ** in the absence of * ** the way in which * * ** the extent to which * ** in the presence of ** D. Time/place/text reference D1) Place reference the United States and * ** in the United States ** *** * of the United States * ** D2) Time reference at the same time ** ** * ** at the time of. * ** D3) Text deixis shown in gure N ** * as shown in gure ** * D4) Multi-functional reference the end of the ** ** ** ** the beginning of the * ** * the top of the * **.. at the end of ** *** ** ** in the middle of ** * * IV. SPECIAL CONVERSATIONAL FUNCTIONS A. Politeness thank you very much ** B. Simple inquiry what are you doing ** C. Reporting I said to him/her ** Key to symbols:. = 10±19 per million words * 20±39 per million words ** = 40±99 per million words *** = over 100 per million words
19 DOUGLAS BIBER, SUSAN CONRAD, and VIVIANA CORTES Stance bundles Stance bundles provide a frame for the interpretation of the following proposition, conveying two major kinds of meaning: epistemic and attitude/ modality. Epistemic stance bundles comment on the knowledge status of the information in the following proposition: certain, uncertain, or probable/ possible e.g. I don't knowif, I don't think so). Attitudinal/Modality stance bundles express speaker attitudes towards the actions or events described in the following proposition e.g. I want you to, I'm not going to). Stance bundles can be personal or impersonal. Personal stance bundles are overtly attributed to the speaker/writer, as in the examples given above. Impersonal stance bundles express similar meanings without being attributed directly to the speaker/writer e.g. it is possible to, can be used to) Epistemic stance bundles Personal epistemic bundles: Most epistemic stance bundles are personal. Although epistemic stance bundles can express certainty or uncertainty, most of these bundles express only uncertainty, as in: That's, kind of hard to tell, but again, the important thing is be resourceful when you do these. I don't knowwhat, I don't knowwhat the voltage is here, so, but, the real point is it's irrelevant. classroom teaching) Expressions with I don't) think express possibility but a lack of certainty. Thus compare the two bundles in the following: I don't knowif it will mean revolution in the same sense of the word, I don't think so because I think there are other political factors involved. classroom teaching) Several lexical bundles in classroom teaching combine epistemic stance with other functions. For example, bundles with I think/thought it serve a dual function of referential identi cation see III.A in Table 3, discussed in 5.3 below) combined with an uncertain epistemic stance; for example: The Wall Street Journal last week or I think it was the Wall Street Journal had something about NASA and this same problem. classroom teaching) Imprecision bundles like and stu like that, discussed in 5.3 below, also serve an epistemic function combined with referential identi cation. The bundle what do you think functions to introduce a new topic but also expresses an epistemic stance see 5.2 below). Impersonal epistemic bundles: In contrast to the personal epistemic bundles, the impersonal epistemic stance bundles express degrees of certainty rather than uncertainty.
20 390 LEXICAL BUNDLES IN UNIVERSITY TEACHING AND TEXTBOOKS Boys are more likely to be hyperactive, disruptive, and aggressive in class. textbook) Yet there was irony in the fact that the Russian Revolution, one of the most important Western revolutions, proclaimed itself to be Marxist in aims and character but happened in violation of Marxist historical logic. textboook) Attitudinal/modality stance bundles Attitudinal/modality stance bundles are also usually personal, expressing speaker attitudes towards the actions or events described in the following proposition. Four major subcategories are distinguished here: desire, obligation/directive, intention/prediction, and ability. Desire bundles: Desire bundles include only personal expressions of stance, which frame self-motivated wishes and desires or inquire about another participant's desires: So I may not want to see her face to face because I don't want to deliver bad news to her. classroom teaching) Several lexical bundles that express personal desire in classroom teaching are also used to initiate new topics, including what I want to do and I would like to; these are discussed in section 5.2 below. Obligation/directive bundles: The second subcategory of attitudinal/modality stance bundles expresses obligations or directives. Most of these bundles are personal stance expressions, but they di er from other personal bundles in that they have a second person pronoun you) rather than rst person pronoun as subject. However, they are still clearly understood as personal expressions of stance, directing the listener to carry out actions that the speaker wants to have completed. For example: Now you need to know how to read these. classroom teaching) All you have to do is work on it. classroom teaching) In some cases, these bundles include verbs of desire with a rst person pronoun, directly conveying the speaker's desire that the addressee carry out some action, and thus functioning as directives: I want you to take out a piece of paper and jot some notes down in these four areas. classroom teaching) In other cases, the directive force of some of these bundles can be very indirect, as in: You might want to look at a couple of examples just to remind yourself of how these look. classroom teaching) Several bundles can t either the desire category or obligation/directive, depending on the context of use. For example, the following would be a desire
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Dr.Atul Kumar completed M.Sc in "Engineering Physics" in 1991 from University of Roorkee (now known as IIT, Roorkee) and earned Ph.D in "Theory of OpticalSolitonsand Applications"from Department of Physics in 1998 from IIT, Delhi. Soon after PhD, Dr. Atul Kumar was invited to work as Postdoctoral research fellow (June 1998 – December 1999) for 18 months in "Light Wave Technology Laboratory" in Electrical Engineering Department at Korea Advanced Institute of Science & Technology (KAIST), South Korea. Where he worked on various aspects of DWDM based optical communication systems and networks.
During January 2000 – March 2003, Dr. Atul Kumar worked as Group Leader (R&D) at Renka Inc. (A US based and VC funded company) and was responsible for the design, development and manufacturing of optical fiber based passive and active components.
In April 2003 he won Japanese Government Research Fellowship (Monbugaku-sho) to work for 2 years (April 2003 – March 2005)in "Optics Devices Laboratory" at Research Center for Advanced Science & Technology (RCAST), University of Tokyo, Kobama Campus, Japan. In Japan he conducted research on high power pulses and supercontinuum generation.
In 2007 Dr. Atul Kumar joined Ansal Institute of Technology and since then besides teaching he has served AIT/AU in various academic and administrative positions such as resident warden, Faculty I/C (Library), Dean (SAS and SCA), Dean (Admissions) and Professor I/C (PhD Programme).
During June – August2009, Dr. Kumar visited North Carolina State University (NCSU), USA to work on thin film Nanostructure at CAMSS lab in MSE Department.
Dr. Kumar has more than 15+ years (post PhD)of post-doctoral research, Industrial research & development and teaching experience and have published 10 research papers in International Journals. His current research interest includes Non-linear fiber optics and Nano-photonics. He is a member of ISTE and Optical Society of India.

subset: commoncrawl


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The Deal
- $29 for a 60-minute Swedish massage (a $60 value)
Vitalize Massage
As a licensed massage therapist, Krystal keeps good company at Vitalize Massage. She combines her talents with those of an entire team that includes other therapists, licensed cosmetologists, and a licensed aesthetician. Together, they pamper bodies by rubbing away muscle tension, beautifying faces, and soothing skin with special treatments. Krystal herself specializes in Swedish and deep tissue massages, each one enhanced with soft light and music, and performed in a private room so that clients can easily let go of daily worries, like the fear that the sunset will permanently stain the sky pink.


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Hard to find crystal salt with intaglio Sealyham Cesky terrier by Heinrich Hoffman... carved dog detail shows intaglio eyes, nose, toes. great ears, lots of fur, collar..... very good vintage condition with 2 tiny chips and a few flea bites on edges and light scratches on base...Butterfly mark... 2.5" square .5"deep......check out the smaller Sealyham salt and my other art deco salts by Hoffman
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Serving: Dinner
Since 1985, Chef Walter Potenza has had a passion for fresh food, with influences from Italy and the Mediterranean. Potenza Ristorante , a Rhode Island institution, sets for itself high standards, and compliments its menu with warm and welcoming hospitality and atmosphere. Using fresh food from local sources and original recipes made from scratch, Potenza's is inspired by the food; making it authentic and approachable, feeding customers' increasing desire to experience, learn and discover.


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Data from: Genetic population structure in prickly sculpin (Cottus asper) reflects isolation by environment between two life history ecotypes
Date Published: June 19, 2014
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5061/dryad.12gh2
Content in the Dryad Digital Repository is offered "as is." By downloading files, you agree to the Dryad Terms of Service. To the extent possible under law, the authors have waived all copyright and related or neighboring rights to this data.
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|Genepop datafile for 14 microsatellite loci genotyped for Cottus asper in southwestern British Columbia.
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In a recent research study on the latest trends in mobile handset design, Microsoft Windows Mobile OS is found having the highest adoption rate among all newly launched mobile phones. Other trends include an increase in 3.5G models, GPS, the candy bar style and chip-sets. Analyst Celia Bo said in the research conducted by ABI, "In recent years the major technology and application trends in handset design have focused on 3G (and beyond) capabilities, including web surfing, social networking, multimedia, connectivity, better cameras, VOIP, pico projectors and more."
The ABI report suggests that in handset design, five trends are currently ruling the mobile market. One such trend is moving to 3.5G handsets, which accounted for 56% of all handsets in 2009 with the next important trend being the rise in use of GPS technology. The report further reveals the preference for candy bar style phones that accounted for 51% of new models in 2009, beating sliders and clamshell.
Another popular trend is handset chip-sets on which the report says, "While Qualcomm's Snapdragon, [Texas Instruments'] OMAP, Intel Atom and NVIDIA's Tegra are driving the markets for 3G and 3G.5 technology, the development of 4th Generation LTE and WiMAX chipsets is primarily led by Altair Semiconductor, Wavesat and Comsys Mobile, among others."
But the ultimate trend was the Microsoft Windows Mobile winning the highest adoption rate, although some experts suggest that Google's Android has been the fastest-growing mobile OS among them all.
People usually go for mobile phone recycling as soon as they find their handset obsolete. It helps the environment and fuels the continuous growth of the mobile market.
sell mobile phone for cash: If you're looking to upgrade your mobile phone then selling mobile phones couldn't be easier than mobile phone recycling with Fonebank. With Fonebank you sell mobile for cash and help the environment, all at the same time.


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Dome for Nielsen John Nielsen has put together a complicated package involving his personal backer, Karsten Ree (head of the Den Bla Avis publishing company), Team Goh, and the Dome Motor Company, to run a Judd powered Dome S-101 at Le Mans and in...
Dome for Nielsen
John Nielsen has put together a complicated package involving his personal backer, Karsten Ree (head of the Den Bla Avis publishing company), Team Goh, and the Dome Motor Company, to run a Judd powered Dome S-101 at Le Mans and in the FIA Sportscar Championship. His co-driver will be Hiroki Katoh, who has just driven his last race for Panoz Motorsports, and Caspar Elgard is expected to join them at Le Mans. No Le Mans Series events appear on Nielsen's calendar.
Larbre chooses Viper
Jack Leconte has decided to run a Chrysler Viper GTS-R in this year's FIA GT Championship, nominating Christophe Bouchut as his lead driver. Last year, Bouchut won the N-GT category in the FIA GT Championship in a Larbre Competition Porsche GT3R, which co-driver Patrice Goueslard will again campaign this year.
Says Bouchut: "The FIA GT series was really good last year and will be even better in 2001. I really wanted to stay and I am very happy to be moving up to the Viper. Our target is to go for overall victories next season. We don't know the car, but Larbre is a good team."
Rafanelli announces possible drivers
Gabriele Rafanelli has released names of seven drivers who may take the wheel of his two (or three) Ferrari 550 Maranellos in the FIA GT Championship. Marc Duez, who has tested the Italtechnica prepared 550, tops the list followed by Jean-Marc Gounon, Pierre-Henri Raphanel, Johnny Cecotto, Dieter Quester, Gunther Bleininger and possibly Steve Soper, if Peugeot UK, to which he has commited for the BTCC, gives permission. FIA GT champion Julian Bailey is working hard to get onto Rafanelli's list.
Ascari news
Ascari sports car boss Klaas Zwart has "more or less decided" to run the Judd powered A410 in the FIA Sportscar Championship, but has decided against sending a car to Valencia later this month for a final back-to-back test against Team Rafanelli's Lola B2K/10. "I don't think Rafanelli is really serious about our car, so we will control our own destiny" says the Dutchman. Ascari's single car entry in the FIA championship will be for Werner Lupberger and another young driver. Zwart will submit three entries for Le Mans and would, if successful, drive one himself.
Parkes hopes to contest the championship
Nick Parkes, son of the late Ferrari driver and designer Mike Parkes, hopes to put together a team to contest the FIA Sportscar Championship.


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Metal:Silver Tone Metal Marked/Tested:Hermes Paris,Made In Austria +L Gemstones/Diamonds:None Clarity:n/a Color: n/a Measurements:Bracelet Comfortably Fits Up To 7" Wrist. Bracelet Is 13.3mm Wide. Bracelet Inner Diameter Is 65mm (1 Inch = 25mm) Weight: 27.0g ***Comes With Hermes Pouch And Box***
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Harley Rider Virtual Icehouse
A Collection of Friends
The Harley Rider Mailing List.
Really Cool Bikes
1.1949 Harley Davidson FL
9-11-01 NOTE: Size is 2.5MB
Technical (thanks HogDoctor)
Roadside Diners
Links to Areas of Interest
Great Scott UMF #2
My friend. If you met him, you liked him.
1945 - 2005
|Road Captain to the UMF
|Pitstop Pete
|Great Scott
|HUH Jones
|Black Joe
|White Joe
|J. Arlen
|Renig Ron
|San Diego Lou
|Big Dave
|Cabin Boy Roy
|Fall Down Bill
Indian Larry
1949 - 2004
Upcoming Events
Pictures / Stories of Past Rides
|Our troops in Iraq- May 2004
|2004 Hail Storm - The Big Bend Ride- April 2004
|2003 Easter Run - March 2003
|2002 August Hill Country Run
|Year 2002 Easter Run -
March 2002
Jimmy, Braxton and their friends
|Old Route 66 - Charlie, Terry,
Jennifer and Wolfmedicine take the historic ride West.
|Bikers Go Western
- Easter 2001
|Livingston Ride
- Saturday, March 24th 2001
Dave's Flat tire
|Year 2001 Easter Run -
April 2001
Jimmy, Braxton and their friends
|NW San Jac High Rollers Toy Run - December 3, 2000
1000 bikes in spite of the cold. :)
|Dave Bayles and Friends - Dave Bayles and Friends
|Year 1999 Easter Run - Date: Easter Weekend,1999
2 days of muck + 2 days of perfection=4 days of perfection
|Frosty's Somerville
Ride - Date: April 18,1999
This day ride was just about as good as it gets. We had a 17 bike turnout and rode 200 miles on a perfect day.
|Esther and Jimmy's Wedding - May 1999
Those of us who have spent more than 5 minutes in the company of these two know that they are special people.
Doug Hall, Dave Aldridge and Valerie Burson
|First Road Trip
|George Mc Daniel - 1200 Sportster
|Riding in the Rain
|Mild Bill
|Pack Riding
|Mild Bill
|A GOOD Dealer Story...
|Charles A. Quist
|Ideas for playing Road "WARRIOR" Captain
|Braxton Ladner
|Riding Etiquette
|Bill Golightly and Wayne Fernandez
|Rider Down and a Sick Harley Dealership
|Dave Aldridge
|Complaint to Harley-Davidson regarding Jones Harley-Davidson
|Bob Bindon
|Technical FAQ
|maintained by Dave Aldridge
|Deer Whistles - Do they work?
|San Diego Motorcyclists


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1,500 Google Reviews
Web site is excellent. It was very easy to navigate and find what I was looking for. Item arrived right on time.
Hardware pack for performer grills
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Sunday 15 February 1942
It was Sunday, under the sign of Aquarius. The US president was Franklin D. Roosevelt (Democratic).
Famous people born on this day include Sherry Jackson and Masaomi Kondō.
Roxie Hart, directed by William A. Wellman, was one of the most viewed movies released in 1942
But much more happened that day: find out below..
You can also have a look at the whole 1942 or at February 15 across the years.
Old Newspapers
Have a look at the old newspapers from 15 February 1942 and get them!
Which were the most popular movies released in the last 30 days ?
TV Series
Which were the most popular TV series released in the last months ?
Find out your future
Get a FREE Numerology report based on the digits of 15 February 1942!
Wish him/her..
Historical Events
Which were the important events of 15 February 1942 ?
- John Frum Day in Vanuatu [1]
- Gummy Bear Day in United States
- National Day in Serbia
- Lupercalia
- Candlemas in Russia and other Eastern Orthodox countries
- Saint Siegfried of Sweden
- Saints Faustin and Jovita
- Saint Georgia
- Blessed Claude de la ColombiFre
- Flag Day in Canada
Famous Birthdays:
- Sherry Jackson: American actress and singer.
- Masaomi Kondō: Japanese actor.
Famous Deaths:
- Stanislav Binicki: Composer, dies at 69.
- Guido Adler: Austrian musicologist, dies at age 91.
- German U-boat shells at Antillian oil refinery
- Singapore surrenders to Japanese
- Japanese troops march into Palembang, South Sumatra.
- World War II: The Fall of Singapore. Following an assault by Japanese forces, the British General Arthur Percival surrenders. About 80,000 Indian, United Kingdom and Australian soldiers become prisoners of war, the largest surrender of British-led military personnel in history. The Sook Ching massacre begins.
Make this date unforgettable
Search For Your Ancestors
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Don't miss our monthly news, no spam guarantee Click here to Subscribe
...and if 15 February 1942 was your Birth Date then Join our Birthday Club!
Genealogy: find out your family heritage
Which were the most popular books released in the last weeks ?
Remember when
What videogames would you be playing back in the days ?


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Recent developments in Russia have evoked memories of a famous line by Vladimir Lenin: "The courts should not do away with terror … but should give it foundation and legality, clearly, honestly and without embellishments." In just the six months since he reseated himself as president, Vladimir Putin has been busy creating a legislative framework that might make Lenin proud.
Under the Soviet legal system, the court was an arm of the government, a system designed to protect the state from an individual, rather than to protect an individual from the state. Treason was defined in the Soviet Criminal Code as being part of a public group that acted "under the influence" of the bourgeoisie. This all sounds eerily similar to trends resurfacing in today's Russia, except that Putin has been less candid about what his framework could enable, beyond describing a need for "stability." More likely he wants to instill fear, albeit without the terror of the past. He wants a more civilized, acceptable reinterpretation of the Soviet period, although that is hardly consolation for Russia's beleaguered civil society and opposition.
Russians are afraid — and for good reason. Almost any conversation between Russian citizens and representatives of foreign organizations on human rights issues could now be construed by the courts as treasonous, with jail sentences of up to 20 years. The definition of espionage in the treason law, which went into effect on Wednesday, includes "furnishing financial, material, technical, consultative or other help to a foreign state, or international or foreign organization." This absurdly broad definition is already being applied in scary ways. Ivan Moseyev was charged earlier this week with treason by Moscow for allegedly destabilizing the frozen Arkhangelsk region through his studies of an ancient people who had ties to Norway.Read Full Article »


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Still Collecting Speaker Files via Email?
Problems with Collecting Speaker Files via Email
Whenever I hear that, I always ask, "How's that going for you?"
And the answers I hear time and time again are, "We have missing content, the data comes in different formats and there are errors in our data," whether that's from taking the data out of the email and into a spreadsheet, or from the submitter giving them the email.
All of this is time consuming and that's where an abstract collection system can help save you time. We can enforce fields, making everything required if you want. We can require them to upload a certain type of document. Each one of these things will help save you time and give you the right data.
|Free Download: Abstract Collection Systems
Nine Considerations for Choosing an Abstract Management System
Chock full of key questions and considerations you should be thinking about when evaluating your call for papers, review and collection system.


text: Not many have the work ethic these days. I know when I worked for my friend years ago I didn't have the "gotta get it done" factor of owning the business. But I still showed up and worked my tail off. I think in 5 years I called off twice. I couldn't find a better part time gig while in college. Hard work has go by the wayside with most but yet people claim they cant find work. I bet there are a lot of labor companies looking to hire. Sorry it's not white collar work but it is indeed a job. Ok rant done back to pictures and work comments Posted via Mobile Device


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Read an Excerpt
Chapter One
It was the class that created itself.
There is some old law of physics that speaks of Nature abhorring a vacuum. Nature must have been at work that fall. There must have been a vacuum we had not noticed because all at once there was a class where no class was ever planned. It did not happen suddenly, as the filling of some vacuums does, but rather slowly, as Nature does all her greatest things.
When the school year began in August I was working as a resource teacher. The slowest children from each of the elementary classes in the school would come to me in ones and twos and threes for half an hour or so a day. My job was to do the best I could to keep them up with the rest of their classes, primarily in reading or math, but sometimes in other areas as well. However, I was without a class of my own.
I had been with the school district for six years. Four of those years had been spent teaching in what educators termed a "self-contained classroom," a class which took place entirely within one room; the children did not interact with other children in the school. I had taught severely emotionally disturbed children during this time. Then had come Public Law 94-142, known as the mainstreaming act. It was designed to normalize special education students by placing them in the least restrictive environment possible and minimizeing itheir deficits with additional instruction, called resource help. There were to be no more closeted classrooms where the exceptional children would be left to sink or swim a safe distance from normal people. No more pigeonholes. No more garbage dumps. That beautiful, idealistic law. And my kids and me, caught inreality.
When the law passed, my self-contained room was closed. My eleven children were absorbed into the mainstream of education, as were forty other severely handicapped children in the district. Only one full-time special education class remained open, the program for the profoundly retarded, children who did not walk or talk or use the toilet. I was sent to work as a resource teacher-in a school across town from where my special education classroom had been. That had been two years before. I suppose I should have seen the vacuum forming. I suppose it should have been no surprise to see it fill.
I was unwrapping my lunch, a Big Mac from McDonald's -- a real treat for me because on my half-hour lunch break I could not get into my car and speed across town in time to get one as I had been able to do at the old school. Bethany, one of the school psychologists, had brought me this one. She understood my Big Mac addiction.
I was just easing the hamburger out of the Styrofoam container, mindful not to let the lettuce avalanche off, which it always did for me, trying for the millionth time to remember that idiotic jingle: Two-all-beef-patties-blah, blah, blah. My mind was not on teaching.
I looked up. Birk Jones, the director of special education in the district, towered over me, an unlit pipe dangling from his lips. I had been so absorbed in the hamburger that I had not even heard him come into the lounge. "Oh, hi, Birk."
"Do you have a moment?"
"Yeah, sure," I said, although in truth I didn't. There were only fifteen minutes left to gobble down the hamburger and french fries, drink the Dr Pepper and still get back to a whole stack of uncorrected work I had left in the classroom. The lettuce slipped off the Big Mac onto my fingers.
Bethany moved her chair over and Birk sat down between us. "I have a little problem I was hoping you might help me out with," he said to me.
"Oh? What kind of problem?"
Birk took the pipe out of his mouth and peered into the bowl of it. "About seven years old." He grinned at me. "Over in Marcy Cowen's kindergarten. A little boy; I think he's autistic, myself. You know. Does all sorts of spinningand twirling. Talks to himself. Stuff like your kids used to do. Marcy's at the end of her rope with him. She had him part of last year too and even with a management aide in the room, he hasn't changed a bit. We have to do something different with him."
I chewed thoughtfully on my hamburger. "And what can I do to help you? 'I
"Well..." A long pause. Birk watched me eat with such intensity that I thought perhaps I ought to offer him some. "Well, I was thinking, Tor...well, perhaps we could bus him over here."
"'What do you mean?"
"And you could have him."
"I could have him?" A french fry caught halfway down my throat. "I'm not equipped in my present situation to handle any autistic kids, Birk."
He wrinkled his nose and leaned close in a confidential manner. "You could do it. Don't you think?" A pause while he waited to see if I would reply or simply choke to death quietly on my french fry. "He only comes half days. Regular kindergarten schedule. And he's rotting in Marcy's class. I was thinking maybe you could work with him special. Like you did with those other kids you used to have."
"But Birk?...I don't have that kind of room anymore. I'm set up to teach academics. What about my resource children?"
Birk shrugged affably. "We'll arrange something."Somebody Else's Kids. Copyright © by Torey Hayden. Reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. Available now wherever books are sold.


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TOPEKA, Kan. (AP) Attorney General Paul Morrison announced his resignation Friday, less than a week after he acknowledged having an extramarital affair with a former employee who has accused him of sexual harassment, and of professional misconduct aimed at his predecessor.
"I have held others accountable for their actions, and now I must be held accountable for my mistakes," Morrison said in a statement read to reporters. At one point, he paused to gather himself. "Many people feel betrayed by my actions, and they have every right to feel that way."
Morrison's resignation is effective Jan. 31, 2008. Gov. Kathleen Sebelius, a fellow Democrat, will appoint his replacement.
The former employee, Linda Carter, has said she and Morrison had a two-year affair starting in September 2005 — meaning it continued while Morrison ran for attorney general last year and after he took office. Both are married.
Carter filed a civil rights claim against Morrison last month with the federal Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. According to her account, the affair began in September 2005 and lasted about two years. Linda Carter also accused him of attempting to influence a federal lawsuit involving Phill Kline, whom Morrison ousted from the attorney general's office in last year's election.
Kris Kobach, chairman of the Kansas Republican Party, said resigning was Morrison's only "plausible option."
"Paul Morrison has disgraced the office which he was elected to," Kobach said in a statement. "The people of Kansas deserve better than scandals, rumors and embarrassment from their chief law enforcement official."
Morrison was Johnson County's district attorney for 18 years, a Republican who switched to the Democratic Party last year to challenge the GOP conservative Kline. After Kline's defeat, Republicans picked him to take over Morrison's old job.
Carter, former director of administration for the district attorney's office, accuses Morrison of trying to pressure her to write letters on behalf of eight former employees who were dismissed by Kline. In August, a federal magistrate dismissed all but one count in a wrongful termination lawsuit they filed.
Carter also claims Morrison sought sensitive information about Kline's activities as district attorney. She detailed her allegations in a signed statement obtained by The Topeka Capital-Journal.
On Sunday, Morrison confirmed that he and Carter had had a relationship, but said many of her claims were "patently false." Sebelius said Monday that Morrison should resign if the allegations were proven, but a spokeswoman for Morrison had said then that he had no plans to resign.
During the campaign, Morrison faced allegations that he had drunkenly propositioned another female employee in a bar in 1990. But two federal lawsuits arising from those claims were dismissed, and when Kline raised the claims as an issue during the campaign's final weeks, the tactic backfired.
As Kline was failing to gain ground, Morrison and Carter were having their affair, according to her account. She said they had sexual encounters in the Johnson County Courthouse and in hotels in several Kansas cities and three other states.
Copyright 2007 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.
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