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If you know what you are studying, here are links to recommended sites for information on topics commonly studied at Friends School. Country Studies and Animal Studies are among the most popular.
Repository of Primary Resources
Links to 5,000 websites w/manuscripts, archives rare books, photos and other primary sources for research
NARA 100 Milestone
100 milestone documents compiled by the National Archives and Records Administration chronicling U.S.
Ad Access Database (advertisements) Search ads from beauty and hygiene, radio, television, transportation and WW II
American History and Government Hotlist List of important historical events, historical document links and teacher resources
American Hypertexts American studies program that provides links to museums, hypertexts, cultural maps and historical figures
American Memory Learning Page (Primarily a resource for teachers) contains historical docs, photos, maps, film and audio. Includes lesson plans and collection connections
American Memory Collection Finder Contains historical docs, photos, maps, film and audio, sheet music, song sheets and other printed text
Black History: Primary Source Links Provides links to gateway websites, collections and curriculum pieces (i.e. African American poetry unit, for teachers)
Boondock's Net Lots of ads/pop-ups. Devoted to forgotten and contested history.
Census Statistics Census info on people, households, business, industry and geography. Includes features such as: "Newsroom", a special topics section and population clock
Charters of Freedom From the National Archives, includes historical docs, exhibits, presidential libraries, federal records and government docs
Chronology of US Historical Documents (U. Oklahoma) Documents ranging from pre-Colonial to the 21st Century
Conversations with History (interviews with notables) Provided by University of California, includes mix of Google video, podcasts, blogs and a radio library all focused on interviews of distinguished men and women
Documents in Early American History
Emergence of Advertising in AmericaAdvertising in the U.S. from 1850-192 Includes timeline and category search. From Duke University
Federal Resources for Educational Excellence Variety of subjects and special collections such as the U.S. Constitution and Lewis and Clark
Conversations with History (Interviews)
Electronic Literature Foundation (ELF) of texts in different languages and editions
Eyewitness to Labor History NYU's libraries' historical image collection, focused on American labor
From Revolution to Reconstruction A hypertext on American history from the colonial period until modern times. Includes docs, essays and biographies
Founders' ConstitutionSponsered by the University of Chicago's "Press & Liberty" Fund; includes major themes of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights and Amendments
Historical List of Policy DocumentsProvides links to policies related to "focus features" or current events (i.e "War on Terror")
Historical Text Archive Links to historical archives of articles, books, essays, documents, historical photos, and links
History and Politics Out Loud (HPOL) Searchable archive of politically significant audio materials for scholars, teachers and students
Images of American Political History Over 500 public domain images of American political history
HistoryNet Commercial site, but includes historical figures, historical conflicts, discoveries and magazines.
Life Magazine Digitized archives on Google
Making of America Project (American social history in journals and books--antebellum through reconstruction)
National Museum of American History Timeline
The Smithsonian's deeply informative timeline with visual images.
New Deal Network Documents library, photo gallery, network classroom, archives and forums
New York Public Library Digital Library Digitized collection of rare and unique photos, manuscripts, music, video and exhibitions
Nineteenth Century DocumentsEarly national politics, slavery and sectionalism, Nebraska Bill, Dred Scott Case, etc. Doesn't extend beyond Civil War time period
Texts and Documents Archive of texts and docs--primary texts and secondary sources
Thomas: Legislative Information on the Internet Legislative info, bills, resolutions, congressional records, treaties and resources for teachers
U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates 1774-1873 Congressional docs
Yale University Library Primary Sources Research Manuscripts, books, serials, government docs, maps, dissertations, visual material and music data files
Ancient Beliefs and Early Astronomy
A brief overview by Cosmos Frontier. Includes information about early beliefs in Mesopotamia, China, Greece, India, Mesoamerica (mayan), and "Islamic" astronomy.
Astronomy in Ancient Egypt
From Egyptology Online.
Astronomy in Japan: Science, History, & Culture
Compiled by Steve Renshaw. Includes a list of links for further study.
Lords of the Earth
This site analyzes Mayan, Aztec, and Incan astronomical art to determine their ancient beliefs from primary sources. However, the information on this site is not authenticated, and must be verified from other sources.
The Maya Astronomy Page
Interesting information by an amateur scholar in the field. Information from this source must be cross-referenced for authority.
Pamona Astronomy
The website of the Astronomy Department of Pamona College. Includes an interactive atlas of world astronomy. Click on a continent for more information about ancient astronomical beliefs of that area.
Windows to the Universe: Myths, Stories, Art
A collection of myths, folk tales, and stories of many types about the Earth and sky. Check out artwork, poetry, books, and movies that portray the natural world. Or take a guided tour that tells the tale of a particular scientific topic.
Windows to the Universe: Mythology
For thousands of years people have associated objects in the sky, the Earth, and aspects of their physical world with the gods and goddesses of their cultures. Through these pages, find out about the gods and goddesses of different cultures around the world, and the works of art people have created to give them expression.
Animal topic categories, in the order they appear below: General Information; Specific Animal Sites; Endangered Species; Threatened Species; Images; Polar Animals; Zoos; Fun and Literature. Scroll down to see the links within any of these topics.
General Information
Animals A to Z (http://www.oaklandzoo.org/atoz/atoz.html)
Wonderful information about many zoo animals from the Oakland Zoo.
Animal Facts (http://www.ypte.org.uk/animal-facts.php)
From the Young People's Trust for the Environment.
Animal Planet (http://animal.discovery.com/)
Includes Animal Guides and Animal cams. Also provides sound and video clips.
Animals at the Indianapolis Zoo (http://www.indyzoo.com/content.aspx?CID=455)
A guide to all 360 of the animals at the Indianapolis Zoo.
BBC Animals Page (http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/)
A searchable site with an index, and some fun features like postcards and quizzes.
Britannica Online Animal Kingdom (http://school.eb.com.proxy.elm4you.org/elementary/animalkingdom)
Explore by habitat, group, or alphabetically.
CyberZoomobile (http://home.globalcrossing.net/~brendel/)
Scroll down and click on the picture of your animal to read more information. Includes mostly info on large wildcats.
The Electronic Zoo (http://netvet.wustl.edu/ssi.htm)
Select a species from the pick list, and then explore the links for your animal!
E-Nature.com (http://www.enature.com/)
Wow! Includes information on over 4800 plants and animals of North America, with great features like Ask an Expert, Bird Audio, and Habitat Guides. Excellent for grades 4 and up.
Field Guide to the Prairie (http://www.bellmuseum.org/distancelearning/prairie/fieldguide/index.html)
From the Bell Museum of Natural History.
Kidsclick Animal Sites (http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/KidsClick!/midanim.html)
A great directory of animal sites just for kids.
The National Marine Mammal Laboratory's Education Site (http://nmml.afsc.noaa.gov/education/)
A great site with information on dolphins, whales, manatees, and more.
Sounds of the World's Animals (http://www.georgetown.edu/cball/animals/animals.html)
Look up your animal, and read what sound it makes it many different languages.
Virtual Zoo (http://library.thinkquest.org/11922/index.htm)
A great thinkquest project that has lots of information on different animals, pictures, and sounds.
Specific Animal Sites
All About Turtles (http://octopus.gma.org/turtles/index.html)
From the Gulf of Maine Aquarium, information and fun activities about turtles.
Animals of the Rainforest (http://www.animalsoftherainforest.com/frames.htm)
Whether you're looking for amphibians, reptiles, birds, fish, insects, or mammals, this site has the information for you.
Desert Animals (http://www.desertusa.com/animal.html)
From Desert USA, information on all types of desert animals.
Elephants of Cameroon (http://www.nczooeletrack.org/)
Details a project to save the African elephant, with an option to adopt an elephant.
Farm Animals (http://www.kidsfarm.com/farm.htm)
Photographs of all different farm animals.
Farm Animals Around the World (http://www.enchantedlearning.com/coloring/farm.shtml)
Great pictures and information from Enchanted Learning.
International Wolf Center: Facts for Kids (http://www.wolf.org/wolves/learn/justkids/kids_facts.asp)
Quick facts on wolves.
What is a Whale? (http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/whales/allabout/)
A brightly colored site from Enchanted Learning that answers the commonly asked questions about the species.
Endangered Species
Endangered! Exploring a World at Risk (http://www.amnh.org/nationalcenter/Endangered/index.html)
From the American Museum of Natural History.
Animal Info (http://www.animalinfo.org)
A searchable index for the rarest species.
Bagheera: A Website for Endangered Species (http://www.bagheera.com)
Great animal images and graphics, along with endangered species info.
Defenders of Wildlife (http://www.defenders.org)
This organization is dedicated to the protection of native wild animals and plants. They advocate new approaches to wildlife conservation that will keep species from becoming endangered.
Especies Fact Lists (http://www.kidsplanet.org/factsheets/map.html)
Discusses what the Endangered Species Act is, and list endangered species by continent, with links to information.
EE Link Endangered Species (http://eelink.net/EndSpp/)
Species lists, laws, organizations, and much more — excellent!
Endangered! (http://www.amnh.org/Exhibition/Expedition/Endangered/index.html) This site by the American Museum of Natural History lets you take an expedition through the world of endangered species.
Endangered Species Project North America (http://www.endangeredspecies.org/) Photographs of endangered species.
National Wildlife Federation (http://www.nwf.org)
Contains links to the U.S. Endangered Species Act, habitat conservation plans, and fact sheets on animal life cycles and migration patterns.
NESARC (http://nesarc.org)
What the government is doing about the endangered species problem.
Out of the Classroom and Into the Wild (http://www.ckmc.com/bagheera)
Contains a series of stand alone modules, each providing information about a specific endangered species issue. The database module centers on animals listed as endangered and includes information about why they are endangered.
Redlist (http://www.redlist.org)
The IUCN Redlist of Endangered Species, that includes statistics and references.
Searchasaurus: Animals (http://web.ebscohost.com/sas/themes?vid=2&hid=104&sid=dd001fcd-cdeb-44c2-af0b-e2f6a6b2e5d2%40sessionmgr111)
The IUCN Database of animal facts from EBSCO Host.
Threatened and Endangered Species in the Chesapeake Bay Area (http://www.fws.gov/r5cbfo/Endblurb.htm)
Threatened Species
Lists and information from the WWF.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Endangered Species Program (http://endangered.fws.gov/index.html)
A searchable site with species information and regulatory profiles.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (http://endangered.fws.gov/)
The Service's Endangered Species Program, which lets you submit a species and get its regulatory profile.
The Wild Ones (TWO) (http://www.thewildones.org/wildOnes.html)
A network of children, teachers, and conservation professionals in 25 countries that provides students with opportunities for cooperative science activities. Contains an index of articles that describe the habits and habitats of various species and the threats to their survival. Includes e-mail links to conservation biologists.
The World Wildlife Fund (http://www.worldwildlife.org/)
Read breaking news, look at featured sites, or read the list of endangered species and spaces.
A-Z of Nature (http://www.nhpa.co.uk/nhpa/az1.htm)
Need a picture for a report? This is the place — just look up your animal and save the image.
Polar Animals
Animals and Birds of the Arctic and Antarctic (http://www.spri.cam.ac.uk/resources/kids/animals.html)
Great information on penguins and polar bears, along with other Antarctic wildlife.
Animals of the Arctic Ocean (http://www.cuug.ab.ca:8001/~animal/photoquizarcticocean.html)
Animals of the Arctic Tundra (http://www.cuug.ab.ca:8001/~animal/photoquizarctictundra.html)
Emperor Penguin (http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/birds/printouts/Emperorpenguin.shtml)
Polar Animal Photographs
The Blue Whale (http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/whales/activities/whaletemplates/Bluetemplate.shtml)
Weddell Seal (http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/mammals/pinniped/Weddellsealprintout.shtml)
The National Zoo (http://natzoo.si.edu)
The Philadelphia Zoo (http://www.phillyzoo.org)
The San Diego Zoo (http://www.sandiegozoo.org/apps/animals/index.html?siteloc=8)
The world famous zoo has a wonderful website, which is searchable by type of animal. Includes photo archive.
Fun and Literature
Animals of the World (http://www.kidscom.com/games/animal/animal.html)
Great games with clues to guess the hidden animals.
DLTK's Farm Animal Crafts for Kids (http://www.dltk-kids.com/animals/farm.html)
Great crafts and activities revolving around farm animals
Farm Animals at Enchanted Learning
Rhymes, songs, crafts, and a calendar about farm animals.
Infostuff's Animal Alphabet
(http://www.infostuff.com/kids/a.htm) Follow the alphabet with animals!
Little Animals Activity Center
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/education/laac/menu.html) Great stories and activities that are animated with great sounds and music.
Ranger Rick's Kids Zone (http://www.nwf.org/kids/)
Home of Outdoor Stuff, Games, Tours, and a Reading Corner. Enough to keep you busy on a rainy day!
ArtsConnectEd: Tools for Teaching the Arts
Explore the combined collections of the Minneapolis Institute of Arts and the Walker Art Center through hundreds of new features in ArtsConnectEd. Search over 100,000 resources in the Art Finder, including works of art, texts, audio, video, and interactive resources. Save and customize items in the redesigned Art Collector. Comment, tag and rate everything!
A database of 25,000 biographies
Almanac: Biography. Search 30,000+ biographies.
s9.com Biographical Dictionary
Atlapedia Online contains full color physical maps, political maps as well as key facts and statistics on countries of the world.
CIA World Factbook
Extensive, updated information about every country, including geography, people, government, economy, communications, transportation, military, and transnational issues.
Flags of the World at CIA Factbook
US Department of State: Country Background Notes
These publications include facts about the land, people, history, government, political conditions, economy, and foreign relations of independent states, some dependencies, and areas of special sovereignty. For more detailed information, go to the Country Pages, which can be found on the main background page for that country.
BBC News: Country Profiles
Full profiles provide an instant guide to history, politics and economic background of countries and territories, and background on key institutions. They also include audio or video clips from BBC archives.
Library of Congress Country Studies
The Country Studies Series presents a description and analysis of the historical setting and the social, economic, political, and national security systems and institutions of 101 countries throughout the world. Sponsored by the United States Army.
Country Reports
"The Leader in Historical, Cultural, and Statistical Country Information." Updated daily, this site offers more than 26,000 pages of content covering a wide range of statistical data and cultural information. Includes National Anthems of the World, at: http://www.countryreports.org/anthems/anthemindex.aspx
Yahoo! Kids: Countries
Includes an extensive directory of countries, but the home page opens very slowly. A high-speed connection is essential for using this site. Each country includes links to sites like the others on this pathfinder, especially the CIA World Factbook and flag charts.
A massive central data source and a handy way to graphically compare nations. NationMaster is a vast compilation of data from such sources as the CIA World Factbook, UN, and OECD. Generates maps and graphs on all kinds of statistics. You can also view profiles of individual countries including their maps and flags, use correlation reports and scatterplots to find relationships between variables, and refer to fully integrated encyclopedia with over one million articles.
National Geographic Map Machine
An online atlas including satellite images and street maps.
International Digital Children's Library
The full text of books and resources in many languages, listed by continent and language.
In addition to maps, this site shows flags, distances, currency conversions, current time and date anywhere, populations, various specific aspects of maps, customizable maps, and free map clip art. Fun interface.
Global Issues
Social, Political, Economic and Environmental Issues That Affect Us All
The Newseum diplays the unedited front pages of daily newspapers from across the U.S. and 80 other countries for today's date.
What is History Day? An explanation from the Minnesota History Center.
History Day Topics Suggested History Day topics from the Minnesota Historical Society www.mnhs.org/library/tips/history_topics/index.htm
Life Magazine Digitized archives available through Google
Census Bureau
The official website of the Census Bureau www.census.gov
Census Bureau: Immigration Statistics by Population
Immigration Population Statistics from the Census Bureau web site. Information available as Excel spreadsheets and pdfs.
Center for Comparative Immigration Studies
A research unit of the University of California-San Diego, the center conducts basic and policy-oriented research projects on international migration and refugee flows. The center's aim is to illuminate the U.S immigration experience by comparing it to that of other regions of the world. www.ccis-ucsd.org
Center for Immigration Studies
The center advocates for lower immigration and focuses on the impact of immigration on the United States. www.cis.org
Center for Migration and Development
Part of the Department of Sociology at Princeton University, the center promotes sociological and interdisciplinary research on international migration and national development. cmd.princeton.edu/
Center for Migration Studies
Studies socio-demographic, historical, economic, political, legislative and pastoral aspects of human migration and refugee movements. www.cmsny.org/
Division of Immigration of Policy and Research
Part of the U.S. Department of Labor, this division has a listing of reports that analyze the effects of immigration on the labor force. www.dol.gov/ILAB/programs/
Historical Census Statistics on the Foreign-born Population of the United States: 1850-1990
From the US Census Bureau, this page includes many tables with national data about immigrant populations.
Immigration Policy at Brookings
Policy papers and commentary on the effects of immigration in the U.S. http://www.brookings.edu/topics/immigration.aspx
Immigration Policy Overview
A project of the National Conference of State Legislatures, it provides legislative research and analysis on immigration policy issues. http://www.ncsl.org/programs/immig/immigpolicyoverview.htm
Independent Lens A video project of PBS. This site focuses on what it's like to be a new American, where you can "meet the New Americans," "experience their cultural riches," or take the "Myths & Realities Quiz." http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/newamericans/index.html
Institute for the Study of International Migration
Studies the effects of international migration on social, economic, demographic, foreign policy and national security concerns.
International Migration Review
An inter-disciplinary quarterly journal on all aspects of human mobility published by the Center for Migration Studies.
Latin American Migration Project
An extension of the Mexican Migration Project Includes data that can be downloaded from Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Paraguay, Peru and Haiti. http://lamp.opr.princeton.edu/
Latino National Survey
National poll of Latinos that was released in December 2006. Based on a telephone survey of 8,600 Latino adults, this survey is part of the Latino National Contextual Database (LNCD). The database itself will be available some time in the near future. http://depts.washington.edu/uwiser/LNS.shtml
Legalized Population Survey
Public use data file contains information on a sample of 6,193 undocumented migrants who were living in the United States in 1986/87 when they sought legal permanent residence through the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986. Survey data was collected from the entire group in 1989 and again in 1992.
Library of Congress for Teachers
Input "immigration" in the search field to find many sources for immigration information.
Mexican Migration Project
A multi-disciplinary research effort between investigators in Mexico and the United States that studies the Mexican immigrant experience.
Migration Dialogue
Online resource provides information and analysis of international migration http://migration.ucdavis.edu/
Migration Information Source
A project of the Migration Policy Institute, this online resource offers data and other information on the movement of people worldwide.
Migration Policy Institute
Think tank dedicated to the study of the movement of people worldwide. http://www.migrationpolicy.org/
Minnesota History Magazine
Includes all back issues of the Minnesota History Center's quarterly publication. Search engine allows researchers to search keyword of the full text. Many articles are about Minnesota immigrants.
Minnesota State Demographer
Immigration resources from The Minnesota State Demographic Center, which analyzes and distributes data from state, U.S. Census Bureau and other sources.
National Immigration Forum
Provides policy research and news on immigration in the U.S.
New Immigrant Survey
A nationally-representative, multi-cohort longitudinal study of new legal immigrants and their children based on nationally representative samples of administrative records, compiled by the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services.
Office of Immigration Statistics
An office of the Department of Homeland Security, it publishes yearly reports on refugees, naturalized citizens and legal permanent residents. http://www.dhs.gov/files/statistics/immigration.shtm
The Urban Institute Immigration Studies Program
Focuses on the impact, settlement patterns, incorporation, and integration of immigrant families and children.
U.S. Foreign Born Population
Yearly report published by the Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/foreign/reports.html
U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services
U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) is the government agency that oversees lawful immigration to the United States. This site is focused on information for those who seek to become U.S. citizens.
Where did Minnesota's new refugees come from in 2008 and early 2009?
Web Junction Minnesota provides Minnesota immigration statistics and an informative 3-slide Powerpoint show featuring pie charts describing Minnesota immigrants.
General Information
MN 150 Wiki
The MN150 exhibit documents responses to the following question: What person, place, thing, or event originating in Minnesota do you think has transformed our state, our country, or the world? The MN150 wiki contains all the topics nominated for the MN150 exhibit at the Minnesota History Center.
Primary Sources
Minnesota Historical Society Library
On-line collections catalog and a variety of specialized collections. www.mnhs.org/collections/index.htm
Minnesota Reflections
Primary source photos and documents on Minnesota topics.
Our Documents
Provides on-line access to 100 milestone documents of American History. www.ourdocuments.gov
American Memory Project
Primary source materials relating to the history and culture of the United States. memory.loc.gov/ammem/index.html
National Archives
Federal agency that provides ready access to essential goverment records. www.archives.gov/index.html
American Journeys
More than 18,000 pages of eyewitness accounts of North American exploration. www.americanjourneys.org/index.asp
Library of Congress
Largest library in the world with more than 120 million items.
Internet publisher with access to historical documents, books and other resources. www.bartleby.com
The African-American Registry
Database of secondary accounts of African-American history.
Internet History Sourcebooks Project
Links to a wide variety of historical texts from around the world.
Euro Docs
Links to sites with full text and translations of documents from European History. eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Main_Page
Image Searches
Google Image Search
Minnesota Historical Society - Visual Images Database collections.mnhs.org/visualresource
Historic Places
Minnesota Historical Society and Historic Sites
James J. Hill Reference Library
Minnesota Legislative Reference Library http://www.leg.state.mn.us/lrl/issues/ratings.asp
Minnesota Historical Society Library
On-line collections catalog and a variety of specialized collections.
Minnesota Reflections
Primary source photos and documents on Minnesota topics.
Our Documents
Provides on-line access to 100 milestone documents of American History.
American Memory Project
Primary source materials relating to the history and culture of the United States.
National Archives
Federal agency that provides ready access to essential goverment records.
American Journeys
More than 18,000 pages of eyewitness accounts of North American exploration.
Library of Congress
Largest library in the world with more than 120 million items.
Internet publisher with access to historical documents, books and other resources.
The African-American Registry
Database of secondary accounts of African-American history.
Internet History Sourcebooks Project
Links to a wide variety of historical texts from around the world.
Kidipede A kid-friendly article about the basic beliefs and history of the Society of Friends. www.historyforkids.org/
Project Vote Smart
Find your representatives by inputting your zipcode.
Franklin D. Roosevelt Library and Museum
"I Do Solemnly Swear . . .": Presidential Inaugurations Collection of presidential inauguration materials from Washington to Bush
The Inaugural Addresses of US Presidents -- Square Deal provides links to every inaugural address.
Nixon White House Tapes -- History of Nixon White House tapes, audio-national archives and records administration
Presidential Debates -- Watch past debates and read old transcripts--can search site by candidate and debate history
Presidential Libraries -- Website links for all presidents, includes Presidents directory.
White House.gov -- Speeches of the President, Vice Presidents, First Ladies
Supreme Court & Legal Documents
FindLaw, a Thomson Reuters business, is the world's leading provider of online legal information and Internet marketing solutions for law firms.
American Memory from the Library of
Primary source material about US History including maps, photos, sheet music, sound collections all from Library of Congress.
Historic Decisions from the US Supreme Court
Full-text of select Supreme Court decisions.
The Avalon Project at Yale Law School
Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy Full-text documents related to US History, law, economics, politics, diplomacy & government. Provides links to supporting documents.
FedWorld/FLITE U.S. Supreme Court Decisions
Home Page
Full-text of Supreme Court decisions between 1937 and 1975.
Foreign Governments: Constitutions, Laws and Treaties
Links to world government documents and other general information and other countries.
Court of the United States
Gives definitions of and calendars for Supreme Court proceedings.
Boiler Plate
Mechanical marvel of the 19th century. The history of a mechanical man, developed in the 1880s by Professor Archibald Campion.
Dog Island
Where dogs are free to roam and play together.
Patented biotech from Bio-Genetica. Bio-engineered pets.
Hitler Historical Museum
The Hitler Historical Museum is a non-profit museum devoted to the study and preservation of the world history related to Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist Party.
Jetlag Travel Guides
Travel Guides for the undiscerning traveller including remote destinations such as Molvania, Phaic Tan, and San Sombrero.
Mothers Against Videogame Addiction and Violence
MAVAV "is dedicated to educating parents of the world's fastest growing addiction and the most reckless endangerment of children today: video game addiction and violence in underground video game cultures.
Save the Pacific Northwest Tree Octopus
This site is sponsored by an organization dedicated to saving this endangered species.
Over 1000 pages of thought-provoking content, music, artwork, animation, poetry, and transmissions of profound insight.
Eurodocs Primary source material about Western Europe
EyeWitness: History Through the Eyes of Those Who Lived It Material (journals, maps, newspapers, photos) alongside brief summaries and commentaries about World History
German Propaganda Archive German propaganda (essays, posters) and materials produced for propagandists. Also provides background info about the authors
Hanover Historical Texts Project
Historical Atlas of the 20th Century Maps showing trends in government, economics, etc. Some text summaries of info are displayed in the maps
History of the United Kingdom Primary Documents History of the UK through links to primary documents. Links provide commentary, forum discussions, maps and photos
Internet Medieval Sourcebook Full-text medieval sources and links to Ancient, Medieval and Byzantine sources about Saints' lives
Middle East Peace Process Documents Middle East sources, including books, links, maps and newsletter
National Archives Learning Curve (British documents) Teaching/learning resource tool with links to British National Archives sources
United Nations Treaty Collection
University of Texas Historical Maps Links to historical map web sites


text: The Mac OS 8.1 Special Report continues to get updated regularly. A word of clarification: I had previously stated that "Eventually, all the Mac OS 8.1 items that appear here on the Late-Breakers page will wind up in the joint Special Report." As it turns out, this is not quite true. In the interests of brevity, some 8.1 Late-Breakers (mainly those that remain unresolved) will not make it to the joint page. I have considered making a second page that brings together all "unincluded" items. But for now, the only way to get all the posted items is to read this Late-Breakers page and/or check the MacFixIt Archives.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Nova Launcher Pro or any other 3rd party launcher, I recommend Nova.
- In Nova settings select "4 screens" and wallpaper scrolling "ON".
- In klwp settings select "4 screens", then "load preset" then "installed" and select "CardS for Kustom, save and you are done!!!
- 4 screen setup plus sidebar toggled via global.
- 1st screen: musicplayer,
- 2nd screen: homescreen with appointment for the next day and favourite apps.
- 3rd screen: weather page with current weather image/6 day forecast, graph and sunrise/sunset indicator.
- 4 th screen: sports news with images, rotates every15 seconds (change via Komponent global settings)
- sidebar with avatar, apps and system information.
****If one of the icons doesn't open the app: Go to "overlap group home", "Material Icon Set" - unlock the Komponent with the lock icon in the upper right corner. Choose overlap group, then "Touch", set the tap action again please.
Select "SB", then "sidebar", "favourite apps", and choose your stack group, then "Touch", set the tap action again please****
- DeeZigneZ for RSS feed komponent: https://goo.gl/SQGMSq
- Arun Kumar for Graphs Komponent: https://goo.gl/csBdg4
- Stephan Mathias for Appiontment loop modifyd: https://goo.gl/XFyVQW
Hope you like it and remember, if you need help drop me an email or contact me via Hangout!!!
Share your screenshots and MORE, please visit my website (Community) https://goo.gl/Jsuzbm !!!


text:
Helsinki: The World Athletic Championships began in Helsinki on Saturday and the first of the Indians to take to the field failed to qualify for the final of his event. Vikas Gowda registered a throw of 62.04m to finish ninth in his qualifying group. The next Indian to compete will be Neelam Jaswant Singh whose qualifying round in the discus throw event starts later today. Meanwhile, the first medal of the championships was won by Jefferson Perez. The Ecuadorian retained the title he won two years ago in Paris in the men's 20km walk. In the other two finals on Saturday, Tirunesh Dibaba led a clean sweep of the medals for Ethiopia in the women's 10,000m event. Briton Paula Radcliffe came in ninth. American Adam Nelson won the men's shot put event with a season's best throw.
Topics : Athletics
Get the latest ICC Women's World Cup 2017 news, check ICC Women's World Cup 2017 schedule, WWC live score & WWC Points Table. Like us on Facebook or follow us on Twitter for more ICC Champions Trophy updates. You can also download the NDTV Cricket app for Android or iOS
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Sam Brody Jenner is an American television personality. In 2005, Jenner starred in The Princes of Malibu alongside his brother Brandon and Spencer Pratt. He was also featured on The Hills. In 2009, he had his own reality show, Bromance.
Brody appears in "We Love You, Conrad" on the set of The Hills.


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Nothing Like It in the World: The Men Who Built the Transcontinental… (original 2000; edition 2000)
by Stephen E. Ambrose
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Nothing Like It In the World: The Men Who Built the Transcontinental Railroad 1863-1869 by Stephen E. Ambrose (2000)
No current Talk conversations about this book.
Amazing story of the building of the transcontinental railroad with insight into the broad cast of characters who made it happen.
Review: Nothing Like It In The World by Stephen Ambrose.
I enjoyed what knowledge I got out of the book but it wasn't one of Ambrose best. I found it to technical, repetitions and floundering back and forth with dates. There were too many dates, noted events, mathematical techniques to remember and keep up on and not enough story contexts. The book, as I thought was about the men who built the railroads but there was not one person's short tidbit about life building the railroads. I like reading about history but not in a straight forward writing style. I got more out of the photos and Epilogue then the book itself. However, I did manage to learn some more history data so the book was still interesting. Ambrose's didn't relate about the men building the railroad he wrote how the railroad was achieved during the six years by, "The Big Four". Collis Huntington, who borrowed the money for capital expenses in New York, Boston, Washington, and lobbied Congress for more help, Charles Crocker, was in charge of the construction, Leland Stanford, was president and chief politician, and Mark Hopkins handled the books.
It took four years for interested Professional's, Politicians, Congress and the President of United States to just communicate about the building a railroad from Atlantic coast to the Pacific coast. When the issue finally got settled they decided on two companies, The Union Pacific and The Central Pacific to begin construction of the Transcontinental railroad along with a Telegraph Communication system at the farthest place of each other and finishing together in the middle. There were many issues and events that happened during the six year stretch that hindered their work. Abraham Lincoln was voted into office at that time, the War, what to do about the slave states, bickering over area's of interest to lay the track, tunnels to be blasted, and the Indians who were murdering and harassing some of the workers. Ambrose wrote a lot of information on other civil and presidential issues and events throughout the book. Especially the financial part of the project, political maneuvering and construction heartaches come into play when there is deceit among top people filling their pockets for gain. Too much detail on the creators and financiers of the project and not enough on the grunt labor side of the working men.
Near the last year the two companies' became competitive, having spies in each camp to relate what each team was doing. This accounted for many mistakes being made on both sides as far as doing the work with accuracy and using the strongest material. The only amount I read about the laborers that they were some Irish immigrants, many Chinese, Mormons, ex-Confederate soldiers, and other laborers who frequently sacrificed life and limb to build the railroad. These men surveyed the routes, laid road beds, built bridges, excavated tunnels, erected trestles, set down ties and track, and drove spikes across the heartland of America.
This book is fine. It is entertaining and seems to be mostly rooted in actual events. Ambrose sometimes strays into hyperbole and makes statements that seem to be unsubstantiated. It can at times be the essence of what can go wrong with 'popular history'. But nevertheless he takes an interesting part of American history and tells a pretty good story about it. I liked the book.
Coverage of the making of the transcontinental railroad from start to finish, including the Credit Mobilier scandal. Reviews the decisions made, and the hardships faced by those who built it, from the Irish in the east, to the Chinese in the west, and the Mormons in the middle.
References to this work on external resources.
Wikipedia in English (15)
Amazon.com Amazon.com Review (ISBN 0743203178, Paperback)Abraham Lincoln, who had worked as a riverboat pilot before turning to politics, knew a thing or two about the problems of transporting goods and people from place to place. He was also convinced that the United States would flourish only if its far-flung regions were linked, replacing sectional loyalties with an overarching sense of national destiny.
Building a transcontinental railroad, writes the prolific historian Stephen Ambrose, was second only to the abolition of slavery on Lincoln's presidential agenda. Through an ambitious program of land grants and low-interest government loans, he encouraged entrepreneurs such as California's "Big Four"--Charles Crocker, Collis Huntington, Mark Hopkins, and Leland Stanford--to take on the task of stringing steel rails from ocean to ocean. The real work of doing so, of course, was on the shoulders of immigrant men and women, mostly Chinese and Irish. These often-overlooked actors and what a contemporary called their "dreadful vitality" figure prominently in Ambrose's narrative, alongside the great financiers and surveyors who populate the standard textbooks.
In the end, Ambrose writes, Lincoln's dream transformed the nation, marking "the first great triumph over time and space" and inaugurating what has come to be known as the American Century. David Haward Bain's Empire Express, which covers the same ground, is more substantial, but Ambrose provides an eminently readable study of a complex episode in American history. --Gregory McNamee
(retrieved from Amazon Thu, 12 Mar 2015 18:19:05 -0400)
The account of an unprecedented feat of engineering, vision, and courage. It is the story of the men who built the transcontinental railroad-the investors who risked their businesses and money; the enlightened politicians who understood its importance; the engineers and surveyors who risked, and sometimes lost, their lives; and the Irish and Chinese immigrants, the defeated Confederate soldiers, and the other laborers who did the backbreaking and dangerous work on the tracks. The U.S. government pitted two companies, the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific Railroads, against each other in a race for funding, encouraging speed over caution. At its peak, the work force approached the size of Civil War armies, with as many as 15,000 workers on each line. Nothing like this great work had ever been seen in the world when the golden spike was driven in Promontory Peak, Utah, in 1869, as the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific tracks were joined. This is the story of the brave men, the famous and the unheralded, ordinary men doing the extraordinary -- who accomplished the spectacular feat that made the continent into a nation.… (more)
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Grassland management refers to the manipulation of natural vegetation in order to achieve some predetermined goals. Grasslands are often managed to improve productivity and to maximize benefits for human use. An understanding of the relationships between environmental forces and the plants and animals that make up grassland ecosystems is key to ensuring the proper balance of rest and disturbance.
Grassland management science includes the study of the various plants and animals that live in BC's grasslands and the interactions between them. As we gain more knowledge about grassland ecosystems and how they function, we are better able to make management decisions to ensure their long-term health.
Proper grazing management also maintains wildlife habitats, conserves the soil upon which we all depend, and preserves the natural beauty of grassland landscapes.
Ecological systems (ecosystems) consist of all the living organisms in an area and their physical environment (soil, water, air). Ecosystems are influenced over time by the local climate, variations in the local landscape, disturbances such as fire and floods, and the organisms that inhabit them. Grassland ecosystems in British Columbia generally occur in areas where the climate is hot and dry in summer and cool to cold and dry in winter, where the parent material is composed of fine sediments, and in valley or plateau landscapes. The organisms that live in grasslands include plants and animals that have adapted to the climatic conditions in a variety of ways. Differences in elevation, climate, soils, aspect and their position in relation to mountain ranges have resulted in many variations in the grassland ecosystems of British Columbia. The mosaics of ecosystems found in our grasslands, including wetlands, riparian areas, aspen stands and rocky cliffs, allow for a rich diversity of species.
Grassland ecosystems have both biotic and abiotic components. The biotic components of an ecosystem are the living organisms that exist in the system and can be classified as producers (including grasses, shrubs and trees), consumers (including grazing ungulates, birds and insects) or decomposers (including fungi, insects and bacteria). Abiotic components of the ecosystems are the non-living components on which the living components depend, including climate, soil and topography.
Approximately 1,990 of types of vascular plants are found in plant communities that are dominated by steppe vegetation, which includes our native Bunchgrass Zone. This wide diversity of plant species requires managers to have a thorough understanding of plant physiology and morphology. Plants are generally grouped into six classes:
Trees can be either coniferous or deciduous. Coniferous trees, including Douglas fir and ponderosa pine, have needle-like leaves and seeds borne in cones. Coniferous trees are often referred to as "evergreens" because they retain their leaves throughout the year. Ponderosa pine is common as scattered trees on BC's open grassland landscape or as semi-open stands. Douglas fir is abundant in swales and ravines, or in semi-open stands at higher elevations. On the upper grassland slopes, fire kept coniferous trees from encroaching and foresting the landscape. In recent decades as a result of fire suppression, vast acreages of the upper grasslands have been lost to forest.
Deciduous trees, such as trembling aspen, generally have broad, net-veined leaves and seeds that are produced from flowers. The leaves of deciduous trees usually change colour before they are shed in the autumn. Shrubs, such as Saskatoon and snowberry, are woody plants that have shorter, bushier appearances than trees. Aspen groves or 'copses' on the open grasslands and shrubby ravines or draws provide valuable food and cover habitat for wildlife and birds. Heavy grazing by cattle on these species competes with wild animals, such as deer, for forage. Cattle preference for browsing small aspen and deciduous shrubs in fall months can occur when protein levels in grasses are low.
Grasses are herbaceous plants, which mean that they die back to ground level each year. The flowers and seeds of grasses can vary greatly and are used to distinguish between different grass species. Bluebunch wheatgrass and Rough fescue (found in steppe vegetation of the Southern Interior), pinegrass (found beneath forest canopies throughout central and southern BC) and Altai fescue (found in northern BC) are some common grasses of BC's rangelands. The most palatable grass species for cattle and wildlife are more sensitive to grazing than weedy or annual grass species. Continued, heavy grazing can negatively impact the desirable grasses reducing their ability to compete with unglazed plants.
Sedges and rushes are similar to grasses in that they have slender, parallel-veined leaves, but their stems are unjointed and solid. Rushes have round stems and sedges usually have three-sided stems. Both sedges and rushes are associated mainly with wetlands but a number of sedges are also found in grasslands, forests and alpine areas throughout BC's rangelands. Grazing values of sedges and rushes are quite high in spring months; however, this timing conflicts with the value of these species in the wetlands for nesting waterfowl habitat.
Forbs are generally small plants that produce flowers. They flower at different times throughout the growing season and die back after flowering. Forbs are broad-leaved plants with fleshy stems and net-veined leaves. Yarrow, low pussytoes, lupines, arrow-leaved balsamroot and heart-leaved arnica are some of the common forbs in BC grasslands. The amount of forbs on the grassland landscape varies with site aspect, moisture and elevation. Although a seasonally spectacular when in flower, a high abundance of forbs can indicate that the sensitive grasses have disappeared from overgrazing.
Plants that are either poisonous or injurious to livestock naturally exist in BC's grasslands. Five species are considered to be major poisonous plants in BC: Seaside arrow-grass, tall larkspur, low growing larkspur, timber milk-vetch, and Douglas's water hemlock. Poisonous plants are often unpalatable however grazing animals sometimes will be addicted to plants such as timber milk-vetch if animals are hungry and little good quality forage is available. The best way to avoid livestock poisonings is to be aware of the location and extent of poisonous plants in grazing areas. In addition to those poisonous, plants may also injure animals mechanically, such as the awns of cheatgrass and needlegrasses.
Cryptogams are rather complex and have both visible and microscopic components that grow over the surface of soils. The visible part includes lichens, mosses and liverworts, while the microscopic component is made up of algae, fungi and bacteria. Because of this complexity, cryptogams are more commonly referred to as the microbiotic crust of soil surfaces. Some common lichens and mosses on BC's bunchgrass ranges include pixie-cup lichens and rusty steppe moss. Crypotrams, or microbiotic crust, is sensitive to disturbance that occurs from motorized and non-motorized vehicles, human foot traffic, and animal hoof action. Overgrazing or recreational disturbances can result in a substantially reduced cover of cryptograms, reducing the soils nutrient and water functions. A lack of cryptogram crust and evidence of surface soil erosion indicates past soil disturbance or continued heavy use.
Detailed information on ecosystem processes such as nutrient cycling and energy flow, on the Understanding Grasslands pages.
Plant communities consist of groups of plants that are adapted to similar combinations of climatic conditions and soils. Each different plant community by itself, or with other communities, provides a variety of habitats that are used by animals for food and shelter. Vegetation in British Columbia's grasslands is very diverse due to the wide variations in climate, soils and topography throughout the province. Biogeoclimatic zones, defined as the broadest vegetation complexes that reflect the same regional climate, are used for range classification and management. The zones are generally named after one or two dominant plant species that are present over a wide range of conditions. Biogeoclimatic zones can be further broken down into subzones, which have less climatic variability and narrower geographic distribution than zones. Biogeoclimatic phases are areas within a zone that contain non-zonal ecosystems. In the Southern Interior, the most important zones in terms of area and forage production potential for livestock and wildlife are Bunchgrass, Ponderosa Pine, Interior Douglas-fir and Montane Spruce.Different communities are present on north-facing slopes as compared with south-facing slopes and still others in swales as compared with knolls. Some plants are more sensitive than others to factors in the environment, such as grazing pressure. Overgrazing can change the plant species present and total forage production.
The Bunchgrass Zone is located in the hot, dry valley bottoms of southern BC. It is found in the Okanagan Valley south of Summerland, the Similkameen River Valley to Keremeos, the Thompson River Valley from Spences Bridge to Pritchard, the Nicola Valley, and the Middle Fraser and Lower Chilcotin River valleys from the Farwell Canyon to Big Bar. In BC, this biogeoclimatic zone usually occurs at lower elevations, 300 to 1000 meters. In BC, grasslands cover about 1.2 million hectares but only 300,000 hectares are classified as bunchgrass. The climate of the Bunchgrass Zone is characterized by hot, dry summers and moderately cold winters often with little snowfall. Winter moisture is critical to plant growth because of heavy evaporation losses with spring and summer rains. The lowest elevation and hottest grasslands at 300 to 700 m are typically dominated by wide-spaced bluebunch wheatgrass with big sagebrush. Antelope-brush survives the slightly warmer winters in the southern areas. At elevations from 700 to 100 meters elevation in the dry warm bunchgrass, big sagebrush is absent and bunchgrass plants are closer spaced.
Bluebunch wheatgrass along with big sagebrush are the dominant species found throughout the zone, along with well-developed lichen crusts. Dominant grasses vary with site latitude, elevation and aspect, with porcupine grass being common at the north end of the zone, while Idaho and Rough fescue can dominate on north and east facing slopes in the south. As sites are modified by heavy grazing pressure, other plants become common include prairie sagewort, rabbit-brush, junegrass, Sandberg's bluegrass, needle-and-thread grass and yarrow. Past grazing history has influenced the bunchgrass zone in BC and many hectares are dominated with weedy annual species from disturbance and prolonged misuse. Moisture and range condition cause wide fluctuations in forage production in the bunchgrass zone from 200 to 1000 kg/ha. Employing cattle grazing practices to ensure proper use and rests are critical in this zone.
Despite the arid climate, a variety of wetlands occur in the bunchgrass. They include cattail marshes, saline meadows, and riparian zones lined with shrubs. These wetlands are important sources of water for livestock as well as habitat for wildlife, supporting a high density and diversity of reptiles, birds, small mammals, and large ungulates.The majority of the Bunchgrass Zone occurs on private land and is extensively used for cultivated crops or non-agricultural purposes. The remaining grasslands are critical to the livestock industry in BC because they provide spring, fall and winter range.
The Ponderosa Pine Zone is characterized by open, savannah-like stands of ponderosa pine with a well developed ground cover of grasses and forbs. This zone occupies 0.3% of the province or about 300,000 ha, and occurs at higher elevations than the Bunchgrass Zone and below the Douglas-fir Zone on the lower slopes and terraces of the driest, warmest valleys of the Southern Interior, typically between 300 to 900 m. This zone is the warmest and driest forest zone in the province.
The zone most frequently exists as a mixture of open forest and grassland. Plants found under the pine canopy are similar to those found in the Bunchgrass zone. Ponderosa pine is the dominant tree throughout the zone but Douglas-fir can also be found in the moist areas and gullies, as well as on drier sites in cooler northern areas. Few shrubs are present in the Ponderosa Pine Zone except for big sagebrush and rabbit-brush, and scattered plants of wild rose and Saskatoon in swales. Antelope-brush contributes to the understory in the southerly portions of the zone. Bluebunch wheatgrass, big sagebrush, and rough fescue or Idaho fescue dominate sites in good range condition. Fescues may replace bluebunch weheatgrass or become a co-dominant with it in the southern part of the zone. As in the Bunchgrass zone, grazing history has played a role in determining the composition of plants present. Under heavy grazing, less bluebunch wheatgrass and fescues are present, and more Sandberg's bluegrass, needlegrass, cheatgrass and low-growing weeds.
The Ponderosa Pine Zone is an important source of early spring and late-fall range for cattle in the Southern Interior Forest Region. In most years there is sufficient fall regrowth to provide supplemental forage. Ponds, which occur in depressions, provide water for livestock and wildlife in the spring, but often dry up during the summer.
These middle elevation grasslands have lesser big sagebrush and an increased dominance of bunchgrass than the Bunchgrass zone. Bluebunch wheatgrass is the primary forage plant on excellent condition range in both subzones and can account for 25 to 65% of the total forage production. Rough fescue and Idaho fescue are also important forage species in some areas. Forage production is influenced by soil type, range condition and tree canopy closure but can range from 480 to over 800 kg/ha.
The Ponderosa Pine Zone has relatively light snowfall and short winters, so it provides winter and spring forage for deer, big-horn sheep and Rocky Mountain Elk. The conifers also provide food and cover for many birds and small mammals. Rugged cliffs and talus slopes, which are common to the zone, can provide lambing grounds for bighorn sheep.
The Interior Douglas-fir Zone occupies most of the low- to mid-elevation terrain in the Southern Interior plateau, the Southern Rocky Mountain trench and portions of the lee side of the Coast Mountains. Topography varies from nearly level to rolling and steep slopes. The zone occurs over a wide range of elevations from 350m in some valley bottoms to over 1450m where it often joins with the Montane Spruce Zone. Cool winters, warm dry summers and a fairly long growing season characterize the climate of the Interior Douglas-fir Zone. Both moisture deficits and deep frosts during the growing season can limit plant growth. The landscape of the Interior Douglas-fir Zone includes grasslands, savannahs with open canopies and grass understories, as well as closed forests with a ground cover consisting of a mix of shrubs, forbs and grasses.
Douglas-fir is the dominant tree species in the forested parts of this zone. Lodgepole pine commonly occurs at higher elevations where it forms even-aged stands after disturbance such as fire. Trembling aspen also occurs, especially on deep, rich soils. Generally the understory is well developed in Douglas-fir forests but few plants other than Saskatoon, birch leaved spirea, pinegrass, and feathermoss occur constantly across all subzones. Common shrubs and forbs include rose, willow, timber milk-vetch, creamy peavine and lupine. The upper grasslands, as grassland phases in the Interior Douglas-fir Zone are commonly known, are important forage resources for livestock and wildlife. These grasslands occur due to a combination of soil, topographic conditions and fire. Grassland plant communities in the Interior Douglas-fir Zone share common species with the lower elevation grasslands in the Bunchgrass and Ponderosa Pine zones. In comparison with the lower grasslands however, they are characterized by the absence of big sagebrush and by having more forbs, taller grass growth, and denser plant cover. Under prolonged periods of heavy grazing, grasses can be replaced by forbs.
Bluebunch wheatgrass can be the sole dominant species on dry grassland sites throughout the zone, but with different moisture conditions it often co-dominates with rough fescue, Idaho fescue, or needlegrasses.
Many of these grasslands are like those found at lower elevations and contain plant communities altered by past grazing practices. Species composition on these sites generally contain less bluebunch and rough fescue, more Kentucky bluegrass and smaller bunchgrasses such as needle-and-thread, junegrass, and Columbia needlegrass.
The Interior Douglas-fir Zone is one of the most important zones for cattle and wildlife in BC. The open grasslands provide important range for livestock grazing in spring and fall months, as well as extensive grazing in semi-open forests and cut blocks in the summer. Pinegrass comprises 40 to 60% of the ground cover under the forest canopy and provides 50 to 65% of the available livestock forage. In open forest stands and grasslands, bluebunch wheatgrass, rough fescue or Idaho fescue can be the principal forage speices. Forage yields can range from 270 to 800 kg/ha in forest, and up to 1120 kg/ha in grasslands.
Rangeland plants have evolved with a long history of grazing and browsing, although there are considerable differences in resistance to grazing among species. Plants have either positive or negative responses to grazing depending on the intensity of defoliation. Studies have indicated that degree and season of defoliation are the primary indicators that determine the level of damage.
Proper grazing management can stimulate plant growth, enhance nutritive value, remove excessive litter, and accelerate nutrient cycling. Positive impacts are typically associated with light to moderate grazing. Grasses that have been lightly defoliated usually show increased tillering and leaf growth. They tend to be shorter but leafier and cover more ground surface than ungrazed grasses. The new leaves also have higher nitrogen and nutritional content than those of ungrazed grasses. The effect of defoliation on forage plants also depends on the season of grazing. Generally, plants are little affected if defoliation occurs during dormancy because photosynthesis has already ceased. Plants may also quickly recover from defoliation early in the growing season because there is still time for the plant to produce new growth while moisture and temperature levels remain favourable. Browsing of shrubs removes the terminal bud causing an increase in the growth of lateral buds. This leads to increased sprouting and bushier shrub growth. Antelope-brush that has not been browsed shows a decline in annual branch and leaf growth. The amount of forage and nutrient content of forage plants can often be enhanced with certain levels of grazing.
Heavy grazing negatively impacts range plants by causing decreased photosynthesis, reduced root growth and seed production, and a reduced ability to compete with plants that are ungrazed. Plants are considered to be most vulnerable to grazing damage when carbohydrates in the roots are not sufficient enough to initiate regrowth. With intense defoliation, the entire root system becomes smaller, shallower, and less branched. This affects the plant's ability to absorb water and nutrients from the soil. Eventually, with continued heavy grazing, the plant's health declines to the point where death may occur.
The most critical time for defoliation of grasses usually occurs just before the plants begin flowering and setting seeds. This is because carbohydrate stores are still recovering from winter dormancy, and the rapid part of the growing season is coming to an end because of declining soil moisture. If heavy defoliation occurs every year during early bloom, bluebunch wheatgrass decreases as a proportion of the plant cover, and may virtually disappear from the plant community after only a few years.
This illustrates how changes in the plant community will occur if heavily grazed in spring months year after year. Grazed plants are replaced by weedy species that are more resistant to grazing. These weedy plants are generally less productive and palatable than those with low grazing resistance. This overgrazed state generally reduces the value of grasslands for forage, livestock, and wildlife production. Overgrazed plant communities also bring about changes in the physical micro-environment of forage plants. As there is less plant leaf material to intercept rang and trap snow, more moisture is lost to the system by runoff and erosion.
Succession is the replacement of one plant community by another. The changes may come about as a result of the natural development of a community or as a result of disturbance caused by animals or man, or climate and soil changes. Overgrazing can force the grassland to shift the successional pattern and move down in productivity. The goal of the grassland manager is to maintain or restore the desirable plant species.
Proper Range Management
BC's grasslands are valuable spring and fall forage grazing areas. Proper range management commonly focuses on 2 objectives: leaving sufficient leaf area for plants to photosynthesize; and maintaining carbohydrate reserves of perennial forage plants. These goals can be achieved with a variety of techniques:
Grasslands have evolved with grazing. Even before European settlement, native herbivores such as deer, elk, pronghorn and bison applied grazing pressure. Some wildlife species require grazing for their existence - a prime example of this is the endangered Burrowing Owl which prefers shorter vegetation so it can see predators. For more information on grassland wildlife in BC, see Species at Risk.
Rocky Mountain elk were in much greater abundance than they are today. Elk numbers dropped dramatically during the late 1880s, possibly due to very severe winters. Elk began to increase in the Kootenays by the turn of the century but remain sparse and scattered in the Okanagan and Thompson River areas, and the Central Interior. Elk feed extensively on a variety of grasses, forbs, sedges, and ferns. When these preferred foods are unavailable or in short supply they turn to shrub species and deciduous tress such as willow, red-osier dogwood, trembling aspen, alder and Douglas maple. Nearby coniferous forests provide cover from harsh winter conditions and protection from predators. Elk required low-elevation open parkland containing deciduous tree/ grassland associations for feeding in winter and spring months, frequently sharing the same ranges as cattle. Competition for food between elk and cattle requires integrated wildlife and cattle management in elk-populated grasslands, as in the Kootenays.
Deer are known to be grazers of grasses and forbs in early spring months, but are primarily browsers throughout the year feeding extensively on aspen, willow, Saskatoon, snowbrush, red-osier dogwood, antelope brush, and big sagebrush. They utilize shrubby ravines and aspen copses on the grasslands for forage and cover, and populate the fringe areas between grassland and dense coniferous forest.
Mule deer are plentiful the mixed grass and open forests of the Interior and Kootenays of BC. They prefer grasslands and low-elevation shrublands close to cover, open forests of ponderosa pine and Douglas fir, and aspen parklands. Mule deer also thrive in logged forests where blocks of mature timer remain adjacent to early successional stages of shrub, grass and forb vegetation. The critical areas for mule deer are the low-elevation winter ranges. Mule deer remain on their winter ranges until early spring green-up occurs on nearby grasslands. Heavy grazing, particularly in fall or winter months, can cause livestock to switch from grass to shrubs directly competing with mule deer. Managed cattle grazing may benefit mule deer if the growth of palatable shrubs is stimulated or where the mature growth of large bunchgrasses is removed to make new growth available.
White-tailed deer are numerous in the Kootenays and Peace River regions, and, because they are migratory, are spreading through much of the Southern and Central Interior. White-tailed deer are more adaptable than mule deer, co-existing with humans and agriculture, and making greater use of dense forests for wintering. As with mule deer, heavy cattle grazing during late fall and winter may reduce the available forage for white-tailed deer, but alternatively, heavy spring use of grass by white-tails, such as in cultivated fields, may result in a shortage of forage for cattle.
Wild sheep are primarily grazers and rely more on grasslands than any other wild ungulate. Historically, wild sheep were important to the First Nations diet, their mythology, and in tool-making. Today, the majority of Ricky Mountain bighorn sheep are found in the southern Rocky Mountains and Rocky Mountain Trench east of the Columbia River. Successful transplants have resulted in small bands from Castlegar, Kamloops to Spences Bridge. California bighorns are present in scattered herds on the mountains and grassland of the Similkameen, Okanagan and Fraser basin north of Lillooet. Sheep numbers fluctuate due to die-offs from disease, and competition with domestic livestock for forage and disease transfer from domestic sheep have been concerns to wildlife managers over the last century. Winter range is critical to maintaining bighorn sheep numbers. In the winter, the majority of bighorns move to low-elevation grasslands on south- and west-facing slopes with relatively warm temperature and little snow. Preferred foods are grasses, particularly bluebunch wheatgrass, and several species of bluegrasses and fescues. Heavy cattle grazing, and any other disturbance that impacts the abundance of these species, affects the value of the grassland to wild sheep.
Horses arrived in BC in the late 1700s. They became prominent for transporting furs after 1821 and later in the mid-1800s in the mining areas, for road, trail and railway construction. Although horse numbers in the 1800s is poorly documented, there were a reported five or six thousand head at Fort Kamloops alone by the 1948. Horse numbers in the last half of the nineteenth century and the first few decades of the twentieth century likely contributed to overgrazing the grasslands. Between 1950 and 1970, the ranchers and BC Forest Service made a concentrated effort to remove horses from Crown land. Horses are presently used by most cattle ranchers, guides and outfitters and for recreational riding, but are mostly confined to private lands.
Following horses, cattle and domestic sheep were introduced into southern BC about 1840 by the Hudson's Bay Company. The first large imports of cattle were the result of the Cariboo gold rush. Between 1858 and 1868 approximately 22,000 head of cattle entered BC from the United States at Osoyoos. Most of these cattle were destined for consumption by the gold miners, but some became the nucleus for ranches which sprang up between Osoyoos and Quesnel. Another gold rush at Wild horse Creek in the East Kootenay in 1864 resulted in cattle being driven there from Montana. Cattle numbers in BC increased very rapidly after 1860 and the establishment of the ranching industry.
In early days, cattle grazed year round on the lower elevation grasslands. Since the introduction of fencing in the early 1900s, grasslands are used primarily for spring and fall grazing, with cattle utilizing higher elevation forested ranges on Crown land in summer months.
Sheep arrived in the Southern interior a few years after cattle. Sheep numbers increased in the 1920s with the use of high elevation alpine ranges for summer grazing. Following decades of a reduced sheep industry, numbers have again risen in parts of the province and are frequently used on forested Crown lands to remove shrub and vegetation from tree plantations.
Throughout history, humans have interacted with grassland ecosystems causing change. For thousands of years before European settlement, the grassland ecosystems provided food, clothing, fuel, and shelter for aboriginal people. From the 1800s through the 1900s, the grasslands provided forage to support livestock for growing communities and the building of BC's ranching industry. Today, pressures from population growth are impacting our remaining grasslands.
An additional 70,000 individuals are predicted to move into the Central Okanagan over the next 20 years. Steady growth is also predicted for the North Okanagan, Thompson and Nicola regions. As communities grow, they expand onto adjacent remaining grasslands. Housing and development results in loss of the grassland land base, and fragmentation of remaining grassland parcels impeding wildlife travel and isolating populations. Urban sprawl is only part of the problem - fragmentation of grassland for development of recreational properties, resorts or other tourism developments also impact grasslands. Along with community growth and development on the grassland, comes increased recreation on the remaining adjacent grassland parcels.
Mapping currently underway by the GCC will show the location and extent of remaining priority grassland areas. With development pressure on remaining natural ecosystem being intense and increasing, this mapping information will be of use to local governments struggling to find a balance between managing growth and protecting natural values. The majority of land use decisions in areas of human settlement are made at the local government level, and local governments have been empowered in recent years to enact legislation to protect sensitive ecosystems within their jurisdictions.
The grasslands of BC offer great opportunities for recreation, from bird watching to all terrain vehicle (ATV) use. In more recent years, mountain biking through grasslands near communities has increased. For all users that travel off trails, or build new networks of trails, impacts on the grassland ecosystem are realized. Soil disturbance and trampled microbiotic crust lead to erosion, weed infestations, and reduced forage production. Some recreational uses have minimal impact on the grassland ecosystem, but heavy foot or mechanical traffic can cause changes to the cryptogrammic crust, individual plants and animals, and ultimately threaten plant communities.
Grassland recreation is becoming increasingly popular as more people settle in grassland communities. Well-managed recreational activities can minimize impacts to sensitive grasslands and the species they support. In order to ensure that grasslands are used in a sustainable manner, recreationists must take responsibility for grassland stewardship and adopt appropriate management practices. The GCC in partnership with the Ministry of Environment developed the Best Management Practices for Recreational Activities on Grasslands in the Thompson and Okanagan Basins document. Developed with input form more than 40 organizations, this comprehensive code of practices was created by the user, for the user.
Cultivation of the native plant communities in grasslands results in loss of natural values and long-lasting modification of soil and plant ecosystem function. In the later 1800s and early 1900s, significant acreages of grasslands were cultivated by European settlers. Many acreages remain in hay production throughout the 1900s to support the ranching industry by producing winter feed. Increasing agricultural pressures on the remaining grassland parcels throughout the Southern and Central Okanagan is realized for orchard and vineyard production. Much of the grassland landscape dominated by antelope brush in the South Okanagan is known to be also ideal for grape production. Most remaining grassland parcels in this region are fragmented, limiting their values for threatened wildlife populations.
Fire, or the absence of fire, has affected the extent of BC grasslands. First Nations peoples used fire to remove brush for improving travel and attracting wild game to new growth. By the late 1960s, the BC Forest Service had effectively began to control large wildfires. With the absence of fire the forest vegetation is creeping into the grasslands and replacing the bunchgrass with Douglas fir and lodgepole pine.
Before European contact, interior forests and grasslands experienced frequent, low intensity fires, possibly every five to 20 years, many probably set by the native inhabitants. In the twentieth century, preventing fires was taken more seriously because of the economic value of forests, ranches and the increasing threat to public safety.
The GCC supports a balanced approach to restoring and maintaining grassland and dry open forest ecosystems. The GCC's position with respect to fire as a management tool is as follows:
Fire science should continue to improved our understanding of the historic role of fires in BC and simulate as much as feasible, its past role in restoring and maintaining our grasslands and dry open forests
Change is part of every ecosystem. Fire, grazing, disease, drought, and earthquakes are examples of variable forces that cause change. Grassland vegetation changes over time in response to these forces. Grassland managers are usually interested in successional changes, which are changes to the plant community that may have resulted from a management action. Assessment and monitoring is required to understand the impact of use and management on changes in the grassland ecosystem.
In 2003, the Grasslands Conservation Council of British Columbia, in partnership with other non-government and government organizations, took the initiative to develop an assessment and monitoring tool that would provide a basic level of grassland evaluation. While the procedure is primarily intended for ranchers to use on their private land, the tool will be consistent with government objectives and can be applied to grasslands anywhere. The simple and rapid procedure allows users to make visual assessments of five principal indicators that determine the relative condition of grasslands compared to reference conditions.
Grassland assessment is simply a process for comparing the present condition of a site to its ecological potential. Monitoring is a process of collecting information from several assessments to detect changes over time. Both assessment and monitoring provide valuable information that determines if management programs are achieving their goals and objectives.
Most grassland assessments compare the present condition of a site to a reference that would exist with little or no disturbance. Generally, the climax plant community, which is primarily controlled by climate, soils and topography, serves as the best benchmark for a site. These communities represent the most stable combination of plant, water and soil factors, and are only minimally disturbed by outside influences. Disturbances such as fire, grazing and recreational activities sometimes cause significant changes in plant communities depending on their intensity, frequency and duration. These events can not only change the composition and structure of plant communities, but they also affect water relations and soil stability.
Ecological changes in grasslands are often complex and difficult to measure. Therefore, indicators are often used as indices to describe the status of an ecological factor or process that cannot be seen or measured. Grassland status indicators are visually estimated with this procedure, but scientific facts must support the decisions that will be made using each indicator. In order for these indicators to be effective, they must be easily observed, their present condition must be simple to describe, and changes in their condition must be conspicuous. The following five indicators are used to make grassland assessments:
Assessments of grassland sites evaluate each of the five indicators to determine how close, or how far, a site is from the Reference Condition. Changes in each indicator are determined using thresholds that relate the conditions on the site to a set of standards. Each indicator is evaluated and scored independently against the threshold information provided. The sum of the scores for each of the five indicators produces an overall score for the site. The relative status of the site is finally established by comparing this score to a set of standards as follows: Reference Conditions (75-100 percent), Slightly Altered (51-75 percent), Moderately Altered (25-50 percent), and Greatly Altered (<25 percent).
Trend in grassland condition can also be evaluated using this method by making repeat assessments over time. Monitoring for trend also uses a series of photographs that accompany the visual assessments to provide photographic documentation of conditions on the site over time.
For more details on grassland assessment, please visit the the Grassland Monitoring Manual pages.
Grazing management can improve and maintain the health and functions of grasslands if proper grazing strategies are implemented. All grasslands require particular planning and management considerations that, when applied, should ensure high yield, high quality and sustainable utilization. However, each management plan must be developed as a specific treatment designed to accomplish a particular management objective.The basic principles to be followed when developing a management plan for grazing include:
The following terminology is commonly used in grazing and grassland management:
Animal unit months (AUM):
The amount of dry forage resources required for one animal unit for one month. One animal unit is defined as a 1,000 lb (450kg) beef cow with a calf. Carrying capacity:
Expressed in animal unit months, carrying capacity reflects forage productivity and pasture size. It is the pasture's ability to produce forage to meet the requirements of grazing animals.
Stocking rate:
The number of animals on a pasture during a month or grazing season, usually expressed in animal unit months per unit area. Using a stocking rate too high for the land to support over a period of time can result in overgrazing.
Proper Stocking Rate:
Range managers ensure that the amount of forage required by livestock does not exceed what an area can provide, while also leaving enough residue to protect the soil, reducing erosion and increasing moisture retention.
Proper Distribution of Grazing:
Grazing pressure should be distributed to ensure that no one area is under more pressure than another. This can be accomplished through salt and mineral placement, water developments, fencing, herding and density.
Proper Season of Use:
Grazing should be scheduled to minimize relative impacts on grassland plants. Plants are most susceptible to damage from grazing early in the season during the latter half of the rapid growth period. Grazing systems such as deferred rotation allow for a mosaic of conditions across the landscape and therefore ensure grassland sustainability.
Proper Rest for Recovery:
Plants require a rest period after being grazed to replenish growth reserves, roots and vigour. Without adequate rest, plant health may be diminished.
Continuous, or year-long, grazing with no provision for winter feed was the system used in BC in the 1800s. Preferred areas became overgrazed by horses and cattle. In the late 1890s and early 1900s, grazing systems were implemented to reserve winter grazing and feeding. Grazing systems are now used to manage the health of BC's grasslands. Each grazing system is unique and focuses on the requirements of the particular area to be grazed, forage production, season of use, and duration of grazing. Numerous factors must be considered when implementing the type of grazing system including: types of animals to be grazed, availability and distribution of water, topography, and the level of forage utilization desired.There are many different types of grazing systems commonly used in BC's ranching industry including:
Seasonal Grazing
This entails grazing animals on a particular area for only part of the year. Many grassland acreages in BC are commonly grazed by cattle either in spring or fall months. Very dry bunchgrass ranges are particularly suited to winter grazing. Late summer and fall use of grassland pastures is frequently restricted by water availability. Higher elevation forested ranges on Crown land are typically used for late spring and summer grazing.
Rotational Grazing
This type of grazing involves dividing the range into several pastures and then grazing each in sequence throughout the grazing period. This type of grazing can improve livestock distribution, utilization of forage that might otherwise not be grazed and allows for periods of rest on preferred areas. Wildlife or waterfowl sensitivities can also be incorporated into rotational grazing systems by deferring grazing in specified pastures until nesting or other activity requiring protection is completed.
Rest-Rotation Grazing
This system involves dividing the range into at least four pastures. One pasture remains rested throughout the year and grazing is rotated amongst the residual pastures. This system is particularly useful for sensitive grassland or alpine ranges that require periods of recovery.
Deferred-Rotation Grazing
This system involves at least two pastures with one not grazed (deferred) until after seed-set. This system provides opportunity for grasses to achieve maximum growth and seed production during the critical growing season on the deferred area. Pastures are grazed under this system at a different stage of growth during consecutive years. This system can be appropriate for grassland ranges used during the spring and fall.
Riparian Area Grazing Management
Cattle and many wildlife species tend to congregate along stream areas and around wetlands due to the higher availability of water, shade, shelter and forage quality. Fencing can be utilized to either eliminate livestock use, defer grazing use until after sensitive wildlife or waterfowl periods, or managing a limited amount of grazing use within the riparian pasture for a defined period to utilize cattle browsing to stimulate deciduous shrub and tree suckering.
Livestock behaviour plays a key role in the relationship between grazing animals and plant communities. Key grazing behaviour that impact grassland management are affected by the abundance of forage, the topography of the land and availability of water, season of use, and class of animal.
Cattle that have access to abundant, good quality forage will graze for about nine hours during a 24-hour time period. The length of time for grazing can be lengthened under high stocking rates, low forage availability or when the quality of feed is reduced. This daily grazing period may also be extended when cattle graze vegetation of mixed quality and growth such as shrubs and grasses.
Livestock have inherent responses to natural phenomena, including their ability to seek out the best forage. This ability has developed from generations of natural selection under range grazing conditions; individuals that are capable of selecting superior forage and being able to utilize it efficiently were more likely to survive. When left to natural habits, cattle graze readily accessible areas first and forage may be underutilized on less accessible range. Unless these habits can be overcome, preferred areas may be overused while other areas are passed up. On rangeland with variable topography, such as in the BC interior, cattle prefer areas with the least slope gradient, to the extent that gently sloping or flat rangeland usually receives the highest grazing pressure. This preference is pronounced where water is more abundant or the forage type more attractive on the bottom lands. Areas of low topographical relief, particularly around watering areas, are generally heavily grazed relative to steeper slopes or acreages a greater distance from water.A definite response is demonstrated by all livestock during the changing of the seasons, particularly when grazing on range with variations in elevation and vegetation types. Cattle generally tend to graze immature versus mature plants, leaves versus stems and plants with fine versus coarse stems. Seasonal shifts from one preferred species to another often occur when plant species mature at different times throughout the grazing season. Grass re-growth is highly preferred and, when continuous grazing throughout the season can lead to overgrazing of plants grazed earlier in the year. Such seasonal preferences for forage and forage species tend to be associated with plants higher in protein and other nutritive parameters.Cattle inherently return to familiar areas. Older animals (cows with their calves) become familiar with certain routines throughout the year. Younger, un-bred animals (yearlings) will utilize range with rougher topography and steeper slopes, traveling further from water. Bulls will travel a greater distance from water and utilize extreme areas of the range, but may isolate themselves in the fall months and be difficult to find.
Cattle distribution is managed to ensure effective use of grassland resources. The following practices are commonly used to improve cattle distribution:
Watering Systems
Water availability on grasslands often dictates the grazing season and the number of livestock that may be grazed. BC's grasslands are often deficient of stock water in late summer and fall months. When water sources are scant, excessive utilization of forage may occur adjacent to watering sites. In addition, more watering sites are required on rough or steep terrain than on level or rolling terrain. There are various types of water developments available, and the site conditions usually indicate which are appropriate. Fencing to restrict livestock access to a portion of a natural water body can reduce the damage potential along the reserved shoreline, but can concentrate any impact to a smaller area. Complete fencing of sensitive riparian areas along with providing an alternative water source is often desirable.
The consumption of salt by cattle is variable and may be due in part to the amount available from natural sources. Cattle graze as they travel between salt and watering sites, and salt placement can be used to encourage grazing in under-utilized areas. Salt is normally placed well away from water and preferred grazing areas, wildlife and waterfowl sensitive habitats and tree plantations. The location of salting grounds, and the appropriate distance between them, depends on water location and terrain.
Fertilizer can be effective for improving cattle distribution and forage production. The application of fertilizer to small areas enhances grazing use of the fertilized and adjoining unfertilized range. Fertilizer usually enhances the palatability and nutritional value of growing plants by increasing their protein content and succulence; however, large-scale application of fertilizer to BC's rangelands is usually not feasible due to product and application costs.
A well maintained fence is the prime management tool for controlling cattle and confining them to a particular grazing area for an appropriate time. In the majority of BC's grasslands, fences are required to implement a grazing system. Fences require significant resources for annual maintenance.
Herding is required to distribute cattle over the rough terrain of BC's grasslands. Frequent riding to remove cattle from preferred areas to less utilized areas improves forage utilization across the pasture and, generally, cattle weight gains as well.
Undesirable plants, or plants growing in locations that are not consistent with the land use objectives, are referred to as weeds. Weeds have an economic, ecological, and aesthetic implication on BCs grasslands. Weed management is developing a response to weed infestations or to prevent weed encroachment of currently weed-free communities.
Noxious weeds are usually non-native species introduced to BC through human activities. The BC Weed Control Act and its regulations require control of noxious weeds. Invasive species are non-native plants that have been introduced to an area where their natural controlling agents such as insect predators and plant pathogens do not occur. They are aggressive and have the ability to spread and thrive. Invasive plants are undesirable to humans either because they have no obvious beneficial qualities or because they interfere with our land management objectives.
Many hectares of native plant communities in BC have been overtaken by plant species that are referred to as invasive. Knapweed is an invasive weed of considerable concern with respect to BC's grasslands. Both spotted and diffuse knapweed are highly competitive and capable of invading grassland sites to the exclusion of native vegetation. Knapweed species have been causing major environmental deterioration and reduced forage production in BC's Southern Interior for more than 50 years.
Weeds are responsible for reductions in forage yield and quality and lead to ecological degradation through modification of plant communities and destruction of animal habitat. To the ranching industry, the economic impact of weeds on grasslands is a sum of the direct losses associated with reduced forage yield and quality, animal performance and stocking rate, plus the costs incurred in managing or controlling the infestation.
Weeds become established from improper grazing practices weakening the plants, soils disturbance arising from motorized and non-motorized vehicles, and dispersal of seed from humans and animals.
Weed control requires a high level of management. Ideally, the resource is managed to prevent weeds from invading. Once weeds are established, an approach potentially using a variety of tools may be required to eliminate the infestation or control its spread. Cultural and mechanical control, which include cultivation and mowing, are not generally feasible on natural grasslands. Manual control, such as hand pulling, can be very effective for small areas, but generally impractical on large scale grassland ecosystems. Biological control is commonly thought of in terms of the effect specific insects have on noxious weeds, such as Urophora flies on knapweeds. Chemical control with herbicides has been conducted on BC grasslands since the 1950s. Some herbicides are effective in the selective control of broad-leafed plants, including knapweeds.
Integrated weed management includes techniques that focus on prevention rather than eradication. Integrated weed management must be an essential part of the ongoing maintenance program for any property. This strategy is a balanced approach to resource management and must include the following processes for long term results:
Range research started in the western US about 1900. Early research on grasslands in BC included seeding trials and erecting exclosures on the grasslands to exclude grazing. Some of those exclosures have been maintained to this day and provide valuable information on plant succession.
Grassland research in BC has included studies of plant identification and species characteristics, relationships between soil and vegetation types, plant succession, grassland health, and weed control. All these studies help determine ecosystem management techniques for sustaining plant communities for optimal forage production and wildlife values.
Communicating the results of these research programs through extension is the GCC's strategy for educating land owners and organization, and assist them in applying new information and knowledge in their day-to-day activities.Extension is best defined by the following actions:
For more information, please go to the following websites:
Thompson Rivers University
Society for Range Management
University of British Columbia
University of Calgary
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