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1 Oleg Poldin, Dilyara Valeeva, Maria Yudkevich HOW SOCIAL TIES AFFECT PEER-GROUP EFFECTS: A CASE OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS BASIC RESEARCH PROGRAM WORKING PAPERS SERIES: SOCIOLOGY WP BRP 15/SOC/2013 This Working Paper is an output of a research project implemented as part of the Basic Research Program at the National Research University Higher School of Economics (HSE). Any opinions or claims contained in this Working Paper do not necessarily reflect the views of HSE.
2 Oleg Poldin 1, Dilyara Valeeva 2, Maria Yudkevich 3 HOW SOCIAL TIES AFFECT PEER-GROUP EFFECTS: A CASE OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS 4 Among the key issues of peer effects estimation is the correct identification of relevant peers. In this study, we explore how the individual performance of university students is influenced by characteristics and achievements of peers from individual s social network. The analysis uses data from two directed networks: a network of friends and a network of study partners for thirdyear students at a top-tier Russian university. Data on network ties in randomly formed student groups enables us to address the endogeneity problem and disentangle the influence of peers performance from the effect that a peer s background has on students. We show that both the GPA of peers and their ability measures are significant in the estimated regression model. A onepoint increase in the average GPA of peers is associated with an increase in an individual student s own GPA of approximately one fourth. The regression on the data from the network of study partners has slightly greater explanatory power than the analysis based on data from the network of friends. No effect from a student s classmates is found in the model that assumes group interactions occur between group mates. Keywords: peer effects, higher education, student achievement, social networks. JEL classification: I23; I24 1 Associate professor, National Research University Higher School of Economics (HSE), 25/12 Bolshaja Pecherskaja Ulitsa, Nizhny Novgorod , Russia, researcher at Center for Institutional Studies, HSE. 2 Junior researcher, Center for Institutional Studies, HSE. 3 (Corresponding Author) Director, Center for Institutional Studies, HSE, Russia, Moscow, Myasnitskaya street, The authors wish to thank all participants of the Center for Institutional Studies research seminar for their valuable comments and a fruitful discussion. The financial support of the Basic Research Program (HSE) is also greatly appreciated.
3 1. Introduction A wide range of factors affects individual learning. Some of these are in the sphere of traditional research interest because they are inputs of the educational production function, including a student s characteristics and personal ability, teacher quality, school resources, and peer characteristics. Peer characteristics and behavior can also play an important role in educational achievement. This influence is called the peer effect. While there is much research devoted to estimating the effect of peers in secondary schools, studies of these effects in higher education are not so abundant. One strand of empirical work on the effect of peers in institutes of higher education is based on the data analysis of students living in either one room or one section of a student dormitory. Sacerdote (2001), Zimmerman (2003), and Brunello et al (2010) consider randomly assigned roommates as peers. Sacerdote (2001) found that average grades were higher for those students whose roommate was in the top 25% of the class. In a study conducted by Zimmerman (2003), students in the middle of the distribution for SAT scores receive worse grades if their roommates are students with low grades. In Brunello et al (2010), positive and significant effects are found for students specializing in engineering and mathematics. Another approach considers an entire study group as the peer group. However, having a free choice of subjects to study in most universities implies an endogenous formation of study groups, which impedes upon the correct estimation of peer effects. One exception of this practice is found in military institutions. In the specific environment of these institutions, students interact intensively within the groups that are formed administratively. Lyle (2007) finds a significant relationship between the achievement of individual first-year students and the average achievement of the entire group in the US Military Academy. It was also revealed that an increased dispersion of SAT math scores in a group correlated with improved overall student achievement, and that the observed effect was achieved due to the presence of more able students (Lyle 2009). Carrell, Fullerton, and West (2009) find significant peer effects among students at the US Air Force Academy: Students with low SAT verbal scores benefit from their communication with students who have high SAT results. In some countries, institutions of higher education practice exogenous formation of student groups and have curricula dominated by compulsory courses. De Giorgi, Pellizzari, Redaelli (2010) find peer effects in the choice of college major among students of Bocconi University in Italy. During the first three semesters, all students took nine compulsory courses and attended lectures in randomly assigned classes for each course. De Paola and Scoppa (2010) use the exogenous assignment of students to different teaching classes in the compulsory courses in the University of Calabria in Italy. They find statistically significant positive peer group effects Androuschak et al (2012) estimate the influence of the ability of randomly assigned classmates on the achievement of first-year students at a top-tier research university in Russia. The presence of high-ability classmates has a significant positive 3
4 effect on individual grades in key economic and mathematical courses, as well as on overall academic performance. Students at the top of the ability distribution derive the greatest benefit from high-ability classmates. Less-able students are not affected by peers and have no significant influence on the outcomes of peers. Arcidiacono, Foster, Goodpaster, and Kinsler (2012) study University of Maryland data on groups formed endogenously but heterogeneous over time. They find statistically significant peer effects on course grades, particularly in courses that demand collaboration among students. However, studying the effects of peers based on an entire entire group has certain drawbacks. Thus, we suppose that all members of a group have the same influence on a student. This assumption is quite possible in the first year of study, yet it fails later because students form their own specific social ties. Almost all previous work on peer effects in higher education focuses on the first year, so the study of how social interactions affect student achievement beyond the first year is of obvious interest. Also, the group-interaction assumption complicates the differentiation between the effects of peer characteristics and the effect of peer outcomes. This differentiation is very important both for understanding the mechanisms of peer group effects and for educational policy. Some characteristics of peers such as abilities and socio-demographic characteristics are fixed and cannot be changed. Peer behavior (achievement) can be changed by the influence of educational policy. For example, if peer outcomes are a concern, then stimulating the achievement of a target group of students can affect the achievement of their peers, who will then in turn affect their peers (including target students), and so on, thereby creating a social-multiplier effect. An analysis of each student s individual connections allows researchers to overcome the abovementioned limitations imposed by our assumption of group interaction. In fact, several studies recently addressed the effect of social ties on the achievement and behavior of students. Lavy and Sand (2012) study the influence of different types of friendship relationships on the achievement and behavior of schoolchildren in Israel. Their results suggest that the presence of reciprocal friends (students who list each another as friends) and followers (those who listed fellow students as friends, but were not listed as friends by these same fellow students) in a class has a positive and significant effect. Empirical research by Calvó-Armengol et al (2009), Bramoullé et al (2009) and Lin (2010) is based on the extensive Add Health database on high school students in the USA, which contains information about friendship relations between respondents. Calvó-Armengol et al (2009) show that the number of friends has a positive significant influence on academic achievement. Bramoullé et al (2009) show that the mean level of recreational activities (participation in artistic, sports, and social organizations and clubs) and friends has a positive and significant 4
5 influence on a student s recreational activity. Lin (2010) finds that both the achievements of friends and their social-economical characteristics significantly correlated with a student s own achievement. The above papers on peer effects in social networks use data on students in secondary schools. Studies of the network on student achievement in a university environment are mostly limited to data from Internet activities (chats, on-line social networks) or exchanges. Mayer and Puller (2008) use data generated from the Facebook accounts of students from an American university. Among other results, they find that student performance is highly correlated with the average performance of friends: An increase of one point in the GPA of friends increased a student s own GPA by However, web data should be used with caution, since they give rather raw estimates of real world friendship ties. In this study, we use data on the social connections of third-year students from a Russian university. Data were gathered via questionnaire survey. In addition to friendship ties, data regarding ties with study helpers are also used. We find significant positive peer group effects from both academic achievement and peer abilities. The influence of group mates as a whole is insignificant. The results of this study help to better understand the actual mechanisms of peer effects in group interactions. where 2. Empirical models of peer effects We start with the following specification of the empirical peer effects model: peer peer yi y i γ ' xi δ' x i i, i 1,2,..., n., (1) y i is an indicator of academic achievement of student i, characteristics of student i, group for student i, x i is k 1 vector of individual peer x i is k 1 vector of the mean exogenous characteristics of the peer peer y i is the mean academic achievement of the peer group of student i, i are random disturbances, and n is the number of students in the sample. Coefficient β in model (1) measures the degree to which individual achievement depends on the achievement of peers (endogenous effect). The components of vector measure the influence of exogenous characteristics of peers (exogenous or contextual effect). The important difference between these s is that only an endogenous effect (β 0) has a social multiplier property. Indeed, suppose that the achievement of a certain student becomes higher as a result of some external influence (ε i in equation (1)). This improvement influences the performance of his or her peers. In turn, a change in peer achievement also has a feedback influence on the student, etc. Pure exogenous peer effects ( 0, β=0) do not have a multiplier effect because external shocks do not influence the fixed characteristics of students. 5
6 The presence of endogenous effects is significant for educational policy. For example, additional training with certain students can lead to the better performance of not only those students that attend the additional classes, but also of their peers. Since both the achievements of a student s peers have an effect on his or her academic outcomes and a student s own performance influences the outcomes of his or her peers, estimates of the coefficients of model (1) obtained by the least-squares regression method are biased. To avoid this bias, the reduced form model is frequently used: peer yi γ ' xi δ' x i i. (2) Estimates of reduced form can answer questions regarding the presence of peer effects, but they are of no help when differentiating endogenous and exogenous effects. However, one may estimate endogenous and exogenous peer effects separately if data on student s personal social ties are available. We assume that students that are connected to one another via social ties influence academic achievement. Each student has his or her own social network. We can then write the mean values of peers from (1) this way: x 1 1,, ni ni peer peer i xj y i yj ni j 1 ni j 1 (3) where we average over the set P i, which consists of n i peers linked to a student i. When the means are calculated, the characteristics of student i are not included. Model (1) for the sample of n students can then be written in matrix form: y i Gy Xγ GXδ ε, Е ε X 0, (4) where y is n 1 vector of the achievement for n students, i is n 1 unit vector, X is n k matrix of student characteristics, G is n n matrix of interactions between elements G ij 1/ ni, если j Pi, 0, если j Pi. G is the row-normalized matrix with zero diagonal elements. Row i of matrix GX consists of mean values for k characteristics of the peers of student i, and element i of vector Gy is the mean achievement of the peers of student i: 6
7 peer peer X 1 Y 1 GX, Gy. peer peer X n Y n (5) Structurally, model (4) looks like an autoregression model of spatial interaction (LeSage, Pace (2009) classifies this model as Spatial Durbin Model) that can be estimated by the maximum-likelihood method. In spatial statistics, matrix G is similar to the matrix of spatial weights that describes the geographical proximity between different objects in space and is therefore symmetrical. In the case of social ties, matrix G can be non-symmetrical if student i nominates student j as a friend, but not vice versa. The problem of estimating vector parameters α, β, γ, δ in model (4) is related to the endogeneity of GY on the right side. As Bramoullé, Djebbari, and Fortin (2009) showed, the parameters can be identified if matrices I, G, and G 2 are linearly independent. In network interactions, linear independence is assured by the presence of intransitive triads in a network structure. The triad of students A, B, and C is intransitive if A affects B and B affects C, but A does not affect C. This requirement usually holds in the case of social ties because not all friends of friends are normally also the friends of a student. As mentioned above, a change in student characteristics affects both the student s own achievement (direct ) and the achievement of other students (indirect ). Estimations of the coefficients of spatial (network) regression take into account the interdependence between observations for a particular student. These characteristics advantageously differentiate this model from a simple regression model where observations are independent from each other. Some quantitative measures that characterize connection between dependent and independent variables and reflect the specificity of network interactions are described in the Appendix. Average direct characterizes an of a student s characteristics on his or her own outcome averaged over the sample. Average total measures the influence on the achievement of one student from characteristics of all other students or, equivalently, measures the influence from a student s characteristics on all other students. Average indirect, by the definition, is the difference between average full and average direct. In Section 3 we present estimations of these parameters for the observed network. 3. Estimation of peer effects in a social network Data In this study, we use data on the academic achievement and characteristics of third-year students in the Economics Department at the Higher School of Economics during the academic 7
8 year. As a measure of academic achievement, we use student grades averaged over three years. At the Higher School of Economics, a 10-point grade system has been adopted. The higher the grade, the higher is the achievement in a certain subject. The student cohort consists of 231 students divided into 8 student groups, which are formed prior to beginning of first academic year by the university administration and which remain in force for the first three years of study. Lectures are usually delivered to several groups simultaneously, while seminars and tutorials (classes) are delivered to each group separately. Therefore, HSE students spend one part of their study time together, while the other part of their study time is spent in groups. In order to correctly determine each student s peer group, we used a questionnaire survey in the middle of the third year of study. Students were asked to indicate no more than five students with whom they usually spend their free time ( friends ) and no more than five students to whom they approach for educational help ( study partners ). The data sample used is smaller than the number of all enrolled students. Some students missed the classes when the survey data were collected. Also, we exclude students who were nominated neither as friends nor study partners. After processing the data from the questionnaire, we formed two types of matrices of social relations for each student: one matrix for friends and another for study partners. The proportion of friends among study partners is 60 %. The most important predictor of a student s academic achievement in college is personal ability, which is measured by previous achievement (Burton and Ramist, 2001; Noble and Sawyer, 2002; Bauer and Liang, 2003; Shaw et al, 2012). In our study, as an exogenous measure of individual student ability, we used the grades on the Unified State Examination (USE) in Mathematics and Russian language. The USE in Mathematics and Russian language are national standardized tests that are compulsory for all secondary school graduates and used as the sole basis for university admission decisions. Besides test scores, we measure ability using dichotomous variables, which are indicators of awardees for the All-Russian and regional s for secondary school students. Awardees of s have the right of priority in admission to higher-education institutions in Russia. Although HSE students come from different regions of the country, ethnic composition is homogeneous, eliminating the need to introduce ethnic dummies. Descriptive statistics are presented in Table 1. Table 2 presents some network characteristics. All the values are measured from 0 to 1. The help network is more centralized than the friendship network. We can explain this by the fact that students usually tend to approach the same high-achieving students for help. The friendship network is more reciprocal than help networks; almost half of all possible ties are mutual. 8
9 Estimation results We estimate the model both in a reduced form without an endogenous term and in a full specification that differentiates between endogenous and contextual peer effects. In addition to the full set of the exogenous parameters characterizing abilities (USE scores on Math and Russian language and status of winners and awardees), we also consider specifications with only USE scores as exogenous variables. Table 3 reports the least squares estimates of the reduced form model for friendship ties: y r i Xγ r GXδ r ε r. (6) A student s own characteristics are significant at the 1% level. The effect of USE scores in Russian language on GPA is weaker than the effect of USE scores in Math: An increase of 10 points in math USE scores leads to an increase in GPA of 0.41, while an increase in Russian-language USE scores leads to an increase in GPA of The status of an awardee of the All-Russian considerably increases GPA by 0.81 points, which is larger than status of an awardee of the Regional of the HSE (0.43 points). In this model, coefficient δ r mixes endogenous and exogenous effects, not allowing us to identify them separately. The mean USE Math scores of friends and the mean number of friends that are awardees of the All-Russian are significant variables. Thus, there is an evidence of peer effects: A student s own achievement increases when the USE Math scores of his or her friends grow, as well as when this student has friends who are awardees of the All-Russian. The natural assumption is that strong friendship ties involve reciprocity. In Columns 3 and 4 of Table 3, we report the estimates for a case with reciprocal friendship ties: Two students are considered to be friends if their nominations are mutual. For reciprocal ties, the math USE scores of friends are significant at the 1% level. Table 4a shows estimates of the model in a full specification spatial autoregression model (4) using the method of maximum likelihood. The values of the coefficients β are significantly positive. A one-point increase in the GPA of friends is associated with an increase in a student s own GPA of The coefficients of exogenous variables are not significant for directed ties. In case of reciprocal ties, the mean value of the math USE scores of friends is significant at the 10% level. This result supports the assumption that the success of a student is influenced by the actual achievement of friends, rather than by their exogenous characteristics. Table 4b presents estimates of average direct, average indirect, and average total of exogenous characteristics of friends. Students that are connected by friendship ties usually study in the same student group. To compare peer effects generated by friends and by the entire study group, we estimated models (1) and 9
10 (2) for the situation where the peer group is supposed to include all students of a group. The results are presented in Table 5. The influence of exogenous characteristics of a student group is positive, but weaker than the influence caused by friends. Both exogenous and endogenous effects are statistically insignificant. In the questionnaire, besides nominating friends, students nominated students whom they approach for help in studying. The lists of friends and study partners are partly overlapping, but generally, for an obvious reason, students tend to consult with the fellows that have higher achievement on educational questions. In Table 6a, we present the results for networks of study partners. The results are nearly similar to the results from Tables 3 and 4 for friendship network. The coefficient of determination for the help network model is a little bit higher than for the friendship network model. The estimates show the presence of statistically significant peer effects. The higher the abilities and outcomes of a student s study partners, the higher the achievement of the student himself. The values of endogenous effects for the help network are similar to those of the friendship network. The exogenous effects of a study partner s USE score in Math and his or her status of being an awardee at the s are statistically insignificant. Table 6b presents the estimates of average direct, average indirect, and average total s for study-assistance networks. Table 7 summarizes the qualitative results. The results of this study may be useful in identifying mechanisms in which peer group effects work. Our previous study (Androushchak, Poldin, Yudkevich, 2012), made on the same sample of students during their first year of study, reveals significant peer effects from those group mates that become non-significant by their third year. Highly able students in the group had the positive influence of students who also performed well. There were no effects from less-able group mates. However, in the second and the third year the influence of the group on the whole became insignificant. We can suppose that high-achievers can act as role models and study helpers for other students in the group. As time goes, students with close abilities form tighter friendship relationships. A good student may affect a friend s attitude toward learning, help them in doing homework, and assist in preparing for examinations. The influence on more distant group mates becomes weaker. This explains why the peer effect caused by the group in the second and the third year became insignificant, while the effect of friends and study partners is distinct. 10
11 4. Conclusion Studying the influence of student social interactions on academic achievement is of significant interest because it helps to better understand the nature of the learning process and find a way to increase educational achievement. Correctly estimating peer effects is not an easy task. One of the difficulties is correctly identifying those students who interact during their study and therefore who can influence each other. Another issue is disentangling the influence of current outcomes which are subject to change from the effect of a peer s exogenous unchangeable characteristics, such as his or her capabilities. In this work, we use data on social connections obtained from third-year students studying at a top-tier research university in Russia. Using questionnaire data, we construct a network of ties of two types: directed friendship ties and connections to study partners. Information about the individual social ties of each student allows us to apply a spatial regression model to analyzing individual outcomes. Using this model, we solve the problem of separating overall peer effect into the influence of the current achievements of peers (endogenous effect) and the influence of their abilities (exogenous effect). We find significant positive peer effects both from academic achievement and from the abilities of students. A one-point increase in the GPA of study partners is associated with an increase of a student s own GPA of The presence of peer effects matters for educational policy. To exploit positive peer effects, a university may offer additional classes to help some students, or perhaps even provide financial aid to bright students in order to distract them from part-time working. Such help has a positive on the treated students and has a spillover effect on their peers. If there are endogenous peer effects, overall gain increases even further due to the multiplication effect. Another use of positive peer effects implies promoting a teaching practice that encourages intensive social interactions, such as group project assignments. Appendix. Interpretation of coefficients of the spatial regression model A change in the explanatory variable for one student influences his or her own achievement (direct ) as well as indirectly influences the achievement of other students (indirect ). The estimates of the coefficients of a spatial (network) regression take into account the interdependence between observations (students). The quantitative relation between dependent and independent variables is described by a marginal effect. Following LeSage and Pace (2009), we can get values for marginal effects in a network regression. 11
12 Modifying equation (4), we receive y I G i I G Xγ I G GXδ I G ε ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) Vi V( Xγ GXδ) Vε k Vi S x Vε, j 1 j j (П1) where V I G I G G G ( )..., S I G I G 1 j ( ) ( j j). (П2) x j is n 1 vector equal column j of matrix X, and its elements are the values of exogenous variable j for n students. From equation (П1), the achievement of student i is: n k n n y V ( S ) x V. i il j il lj il l l 1 j 1 l 1 l 1 The influence of exogenous variable j on y i consists of the sum n l 1 ( S ) x ( S ) x ( S ) x... ( S ) x. j il lj j i1 1j j i2 2 j j in nj In this equation, we can clearly see the influence on a student s outcome that is caused by changing the characteristics of other students. The marginal effect from the change of a continuous variable is measured by the partial derivative yi x lj ( S ). j il (П3) The marginal effect for the discrete independent variable is defined by the difference: yi [ yi xlj=1] [ yi x lj 0]. x lj The diagonal elements of matrix S j describe the direct on a student s achievement caused by changing his or her own characteristics. They are not equal to the parameters j in equation (П2), because they take into account network interactions between students: Student A affects (when β 0) the performance of other students connected to student A, and they, in turn, have a feedback effect on student A. 12
13 The non-diagonal elements of S j represent the indirect of the characteristics of student l on the achievements of student i. This interdependence exists not only between friends; it is expanded further to the friends of the friends, etc. Elements of S j differ and this variation reflects the difference in the position of students in a network of social ties. LeSage and Pace (2009) proposed scalar aggregated measures that measure the averaged influence of exogenous variables. Average direct is an average value of elements of the main diagonal of matrix S j : ADI 1 n ( S ). j j ll n l 1 The average total to an observation (student) is the average value of the sum of rows in matrix S j and is interpreted as change in the achievement of a student associated with an increase of independent variable j of one unit for all students. The average total from an observation (student) measures the influence on all the students from changing a student s characteristic by one unit. These two measures differ by definition, but they are equal to each other: n n n n 1 1 ATI ( S ) ( S ). j j lm j lm n l 1 m 1 n m 1 l 1 By definition, average indirect is the difference between average total and average direct : AIM ATI ADI j j j. Literature Androushchak, G.V., Poldin, O.V., and Yudkevich, M.M. (2012). Peer effects in exogenously formed university student groups. Working paper. Arcidiacono, P., Foster, G., Goodpaster, N., and Kinsler, J. (2012). Estimating spillovers using panel data, with an application to the classroom. Quantitative Economics, 3 (3), Bauer, K. W., and Liang, Q. (2003). The effect of personality and precollege characteristics on firstyear activities and academic performance. Journal of College Student Development, 44(3), Bramoullé, Y., Djebbari, H., and Fortin, B. (2009). Identification of peer effects through social networks. Journal of Econometrics, 150, Brunello, G., De Paola, M., and Scoppa V. (2010). Peer effects in higher education: Does the field of study matter? Economic Inquiry, 48 (3),
14 Burton, N. W. and Ramist, L. (2001). Predicting success in college: SAT studies of classes graduating since Research Report New York: College Entrance Examination Board. Calvó-Armengol, A, Patacchini, E, and Zenou Y. (2009). Peer effects and social networks in education. Review of Economic Studies, 76, Carrell, S., Fullerton, R., and West J. (2009). Does your cohort matter? Measuring peer effects in college achievement. Journal of Labor Economics, 27 (3), De Giorgi, G., Pellizzari, M., and Redaelli S. (2010). Identification of Social Interactions through Partially Overlapping Peer Groups. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 2(2), Lavy, V., and Sand, E. (2012). The friends factor: How students social networks affect their academic achievement and well-being. Working paper. LeSage, J.P., and Pace, R.K. (2009). Introduction to spatial econometrics. Boca Raton, US: CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group. Lin, X. (2010). Identifying peer effects in student academic achievement by spatial autoregressive models with group unobservables. Journal of Labor Economics, 28 (4), Lyle, D. (2007). Estimating and interpreting peer and role model effects from randomly assigned social groups at West Point. Review of Economics and Statistics, 89 (2), Lyle, D. (2009). The effects of peer group heterogeneity on the production of human capital at West Point. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 1 (4), Mayer, A., and Puller, S. (2008). The old boy (and girl) network: Social network formation on university campuses. Journal of Public Economics, 92, Noble, J. P., and Sawyer, R. L. (2002). Predicting different levels of academic success in college using high school GPA and ACT composite score. ACT Research Report Series, Sacerdote, B. (2001). Peer effects with random assignment: Results for Dartmouth roommates. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116, Shaw, E. J., Kobrin, J. L., Patterson, B. F. and Mattern K. D. (2012). The validity of the SAT for predicting cumulative grade point average by college major. Research Report New York: College Entrance Examination Board. Zimmerman, D. (2003). Peer effects in academic outcomes: Evidence from a natural experiment. Review of Economics and Statistics, 85 (1),
15 Table 1. Descriptive statistics Variable Friends Number of observations Mean Std. dev. Min Max USE in Russian language USE in Math Awardee of All-Russian Awardee of Regional GPA Study assistants USE in Russian language USE in Math Awardee of All-Russian Awardee of Regional GPA Table 2. Descriptive statistics of network characteristics Help network Friendship network Density Centrality (indegree) Reciprocity Clasterization Notes: The density of a network is the observed proportion of ties (both in and out) in a network in relation to all the possible ties in this network. Centrality (indegree) is the proportion of observed incoming ties in relation to all possible incoming ties in this network. Reciprocity is the observed proportion of mutual ties in relation to all the possible mutual ties in this network. Clasterization is a coefficient showing the probability of a tie between A and C in the event that they are both connected with B. 15
16 Table 3. Estimation of peer effects for friends (without differentiation of endogenous and exogenous effects). Dependent variable: GPA Constant USE in Russian language USE in Math Status of awardee of All-Russian Status of awardee of Regional Mean USE in Russian language of friends Mean USE in Math of friends Mean number of awardees of All- Russian among friends Mean number of awardees of Regional among friends (0.063) 0.023*** (4.063) 0.041*** (6.097) 0.808*** (5.361) 0.429*** (3.465) (0.181) 0.024* (1.817) 0.545** (2.213) (1.371) Nominated ties Reciprocal ties (1) (2) (3) (4) (0.338) 0.021*** (3.445) 0.047*** (6.331) (-0.905) 0.032** (2.346) (0.258) 0.024*** (4.306) 0.036*** (5.180) 0.843*** (5.399) 0.479*** (3.838) (-0.491) 0.032*** (3.222) (1.417) (-0.400) Number of observations R Notes: t-statistics are in parentheses. * significant at the 10% level. ** significant at the 5% level. *** significant at the 1% level (0.384) 0.022*** (3.437) 0.044*** (5.789) (-0.959) 0.032*** (3.062) 16
17 Table 4а. Estimation of peer effects for friends (with differentiation of endogenous and exogenous effects) Dependent variable: GPA Constant USE in Russian language USE in Math Status of awardee of All-Russian Status of awardee of Regional Mean USE in Russian language of friends Mean USE in Math if friends Mean number of awardees of All-Russian among friends Mean number of awardees of Regional among friends Nominated ties Reciprocal ties (1) (2) (3) (4) (-0.059) 0.024*** (4.497) 0.038*** (5.971) 0.772*** (5.443) 0.416*** (3.572) (-0.470) (0.850) (0.961) (0.802) (0.115) 0.022*** (3.865) 0.043*** (6.219) (-1.428) (0.864) (-0.249) 0.025*** (4.812) 0.032*** (5.004) 0.806*** (5.563) 0.448*** (3.876) (-1.205) 0.024** (2.492) (0.363) (-1.183) (-0.123) 0.023*** (4.000) 0.040*** (5.621) (-1.462) 0.018* (1.786) β (endogenous effect) 0.253*** 0.339*** 0.232*** 0.277*** (2.612) (3.662) (3.172) (3.860) Number of observations R Notes: t-statistics are in parentheses. * significant at the 10% level. ** significant at the 5% level. *** significant at the 1% level. 17
18 Table 4b. Average direct, indirect, and total of exogenous characteristics for friendship network (for models (1) and (2) in Table 4a). (1) (2) USE in Russian language Direct Indirect Total Direct Indirect Total 0.024*** * 0.021*** USE in Math 0.039*** *** 0.044*** 0.039** 0.083*** Status of awardee of All-Russian Status of awardee of Regional 0.793*** 0.560* 1.353*** 0.428*** ** Notes: ** significant at the 5% level, *** significant at the 1% level. 18
19 Table 5. Estimation of peer effects for group mates. Dependent variable: GPA Constant USE in Russian language USE in Math Status of awardee of All-Russian Status of awardee of Regional Mean USE in Russian language of group mates Mean USE in Math of group mates Mean number of awardees of All- Russian among group mates Mean number of awardees of Regional among group mates Without endogenous variable (-0.233) 0.025*** (4.243) 0.040*** (5.720) 0.906*** (6.057) 0.478*** (3.680) (0.468) (0.258) (1.250) (0.575) With endogenous variable (1) (2) (3) (4) (0.946) 0.020*** (3.235) 0.048*** (6.281) (-0.516) (0.297) (-0.254) 0.025*** (4.377) 0.040*** (5.892) 0.912*** (6.244) 0.480*** (3.799) (0.558) (0.430) (1.306) (0.673) (0.870) 0.021*** (3.295) 0.048*** (6.377) (-0.518) (0.134) β (endogenous effect) (-0.441) (-0.322) Number of observations R Notes: t-statistics are in parentheses. *** significant at the 1% level.. 19
20 Table 6а. Estimation of peer effects for study partners. Dependent variable: GPA Constant USE in Russian language USE in Math Status of awardee of All-Russian Status of awardee of Regional Mean USE in Russian language of study partners Mean USE in Math of study partners Mean number of awardees of All- Russian among study partners Mean number of awardees of Regional among study partners Without endogenous variable With endogenous variable (1) (2) (3) (4) (-1.650) 0.024*** (4.547) 0.034*** (5.210) 0.857*** (6.100) 0.440*** (3.699) (1.026) 0.043*** (3.969) 0.625** (2.482) 0.407** (1.983) (-0.836) 0.022*** (3.605) 0.039*** (5.419) (-0.302) 0.051*** (4.221) * (-1.933) 0.024*** (4.756) 0.032*** (5.160) 0.821*** (6.188) 0.427*** (3.801) (0.464) 0.031*** (2.668) (1.517) (1.156) (-1.321) 0.021*** (3.842) 0.037*** (5.387) (-0.919) 0.033*** (2.564) β (endogenous effect) 0.250** 0.337*** (2.481) (3.520) Number of observations R Notes: t-statistics are in parentheses. ** significant at the 5% level. *** significant at the 1% level. 20
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Some Typical Flower Tattoo Types as well as their Meanings!
Pretty ladies like quite bouquets. So all the women available need to get themselves inked with a very flower tattoo design!! But beware these pretty flowers might not necessarily mean whatever you consider. There are so many pretty flower tattoos like roses, daisies, lotus, lily, jasmine, sunflower, orchids and a lot of other people, why sunflower tattoo? But be sure to determine what all of them signify prior to you can get one particular.
Flowers are regarded as sweet, serene and delightful. From ancient periods bouquets are actually affiliated with gals. They may be image of love, attractiveness and in many cases procreation in various sorts. And so are these flower tattoo style and design
Let's begin with rose tattoo design and style. Rose is usually a image of love. It shows adore in its genuine and many pure sort. But rose with distinguished thorns reveals that correct really like implies not merely wonderful flower but even concealed thorns which is able to prick you and bleed you. It demonstrates that correct really like arrives with fantastic sacrifices.
Lotus flower models means pure and non secular. It is actually derived from Buddhist lifestyle. Lotus also has excellent significance in Indian faith.
Jasmine tattoo designs will also be affiliated with enjoy. It truly is a logo of love in Indian society. But it is different from rose. The fragrance of jasmine is distribute all over the place even if the flower is not really seen. It reminds one of their deep Loves even inside the absence of your lover.
During the tattoo environment orchid is definitely the image of replica and sexual intercourse. But besides that an orchid also indicates like, splendor as well as other feminine attributes. So if you will be acquiring a tattoo consider what orchid tattoo suggests.
The white petals of lily undoubtedly are a symbol of purity and innocence. Nonetheless in specified cultures it also signifies really like in bodily type. What do you want your tattoo style and design to necessarily mean!
Sunflower tattoo patterns necessarily mean more than one issue. It signifies love for sun or God. What's more, it symbolizes the solar by itself inside of a beautiful way. Nevertheless numerous assume of it as aimless appreciate of sunshine and point out infatuation and never accurate meaningful really like.


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At JotForm, we want to make sure that you're getting the online form builder help that you need. Our friendly customer support team is available 24/7.
We believe that if one user has a question, there could be more users who may have the same question. This is why many of our support forum threads are public and available to be searched and viewed. If you'd like help immediately, feel free to search for a similar question, or submit your question or concern.
How do I make a checkbox default selected on a form?Asked by RodneyHand on November 28, 2016 at 04:34 PM
I have an option at the bottom of my page where i want the readers to have to deselect the box if they do not want to receive our newsletter.
How do i make the box already pre-selected on the form i made?
JotForm Support
You may have the checkbox selected by default by clicking on Selected icon. Please see the screenshot below:
You may also select this option from the Advanced section of the field properties.
Hope this information helps!


text: Until then, posting here from me may be a little sparse around these parts for a week or two anyway, so see you all back at the ranch then. I'm sure my fellow blogging range riders will get the cowpokes organized and rounding up the pokes, and posts. See you back around these parts before you know it.


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Green Bean Casserole
November 24, 2010 by staff
Green Bean Casserole, (Media Newswire) – Instead of the Green bean casserole served every year at the Easter dinner, try the newly added Italian Green Bean salad recipe posted to the EIDB.net portal. With fresh ingredients, this side dish is sure to please all guests.
To start preparation, remove ends from the beans. If beans are large, cut them French style into lengthwise strips. Heat beans and 1 inch of salted water ( ratio: 1/2 teaspoon salt to 1 cup water ) to boil.
Cook uncovered for 5 minutes, then cover and cook until tender for 10 to 15 minutes. If done French style, cook only 5 to 10 minutes. Once done, then drain.
Check out the rest of the recipe complete with ingredients at: http://eidb.net/2738/italian_green_bean_salad.html
Please feel free to send if you have any questions regarding this post , you can contact on
Disclaimer: The views expressed on this site are that of the authors and not necessarily that of U.S.S.POST.


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I would like to create a dvd or cd that when inserted in a computer, opens up with a custom menu. It would be a splash screen that has button links to pdf's, a picture slide show, and website links. I could create a website and have all the info on the dvd but I would rather just make a simple menu. I've tried Nero, roxio, and cnet but haven't found anything useful.
Any suggestions?
Apr 10, 2012 at 10:59 UTC
I wanted to post an update to the thread. I found a program by samlogic to create custom menus. It can be found here http:/
Easy to use with a LOT of options.
5 Replies
Apr 4, 2012 at 2:12 UTC
I use VSO ConvertXtoDVD which would do what you want, easy to use and very fast and reliable. I am sure there are some freebies out that will do the same. Been a little too long since I've been in the market for this type of software so can't really recommend anything else.
Apr 4, 2012 at 2:54 UTC
ConvertXtoDVD has a lot of customization options but it doesn't seem like linking to a non video file is one of them.
Apr 4, 2012 at 4:07 UTC
Ah, I made an assumption about the pdf's.
Apr 4, 2012 at 4:27 UTC
You don't need any special software to create a menu that opens when the disk is inserted. Just create a text file called autorun.inf containing thee two lines
open=start NAME_OF_FILE_TO_OPEN
In my case I generally use an HTML page as the menu, so I'd put
open=start menu.html
Put the menu.html and the autorun.inf on the root of the DVD.
You can do the same thing with a PDF, or a PowerPoint file, or an executable program.
Be aware that for security reasons, some people disable the autorun function, as it's sometimes used by malware.
Apr 10, 2012 at 10:59 UTC
I wanted to post an update to the thread. I found a program by samlogic to create custom menus. It can be found here http:/
Easy to use with a LOT of options.
This discussion has been inactive for over a year.
You may get a better answer to your question by starting a new discussion.


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Mr. David Broadbent
London - UK
No approved endorsements
About Mr. David Broadbent
Over 25 years experience in delivery of new software application to the telecomms industry, focussing on CRM application (Siebel, Clarify etc). I have in depth experience in training development and delivery together with project management in delivering new applications.
If you notice offensive or incorrect information, please contact us.


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Afternoon Fraser School Classroom Volunteer
Cause Areas
WhenIt's flexible! We'll work with your schedule.
WhereFraser School2400 W. 64th St.Minneapolis, MN 55423
Explore the power of imagination with young learners! Under the guidance of our experienced staff, you'll work with children ages 6 weeks to 6 years old on activities that integrate the imagination into various aspects of learning. Through this program you'll travel through the unpredictable adventures in literature, provide important enrichment opportunities through art projects, and conquer the uncharted terrains of the playground. Fraser School Classroom Volunteers encourage learning and give valuable individual attention and encouragement to students. Volunteers must be at least 16 years old and available during Fraser School business hours (Monday through Friday 7am-6pm).
We are specifically looking for volunteers for the 3:30-6pm shift. If you are interested in volunteering, please complete our application found on our website (fraser.org/volunteer).
- General Education
- Child Development
- Mentoring
- Literacy / Reading
- Child Care
Good Match For
Requirements & Commitment
- Background Check
- Must be at least 16
- Orientation or Training
- 1-2 hours a week between the hours of 3:30-6:00pm


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On August 16 the Marikana massacre brought to the fore two forms of violence present in the everyday lives of workers. The first is an asymmetric violence expressed through the coercive capacity of the state: the hi-tech and militarised fire power of the police force. The second, less visible but shaping the lives of the workers, is the structural violence of financialised capitalism.
Read Full Article »


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Power transmission and distribution company, Diamond Power Infrastructure Ltd (DPIL) said it won an order, worth Rs117 crore, from Gujarat Urja Vikas Nigam Ltd for the supply of various products. The company has to complete this order in the next seven months, it said in a regulatory filing.
On Monday, Diamond Power Infrastructure shares ended 1.7% up at Rs179 on the Bombay Stock Exchange, while the benchmark Sensex closed 0.5% higher at 16,944 points.
Japan hopes to land a robot explorer in the moon by 2015.
Read Article...
The corporate affairs ministry, which had ordered scrutiny of the books of GTB by the Registrar of Companies earlier this month, has "prima facie found evidence of fund diversion, serious financial irregularities and accounts manipulation by the management
The government has ordered an Serious Fraud Investigation Office (SFIO) probe into alleged fund diversion and accounts manipulation by the management of erstwhile Global Trust Bank (GTB), involved in the stock market scam of 2001 engineered by share broker Ketan Parekh, reports PTI.
The corporate affairs ministry, which had ordered technical scrutiny of the books of GTB by the Registrar of Companies (RoC) earlier this month, has "prima facie found evidence of fund diversion, serious financial irregularities and accounts manipulation by the management," official sources told PTI.
"The SFIO has been asked to submit its report on the enquiry into GTB within three months and six officers have been designated for the probe," according to a corporate affairs ministry official.
The SFIO probe, the official said, would be carried out under Section 235 of the Companies Act under which the investigating agency can call for information or explanation from a company.
No contacts could be established with Ramesh Gelli, former chairman and managing director of GTB.
The GTB matter dates back to 2004 when the bank collapsed following reckless lending to entities associated with the Ketan Parekh stock market scandal.
GTB became sick due to mounting bad debts of over Rs1,400 crore and was later taken over by Oriental Bank of Commerce in 2004.
When asked, what prompted the MCA to initiate a probe after six years of the bank's fall, a senior official said the finance ministry had been repeatedly asking it to scan the role of the management in the scam.
Popularly known as a new generation private sector bank, GTB had commenced operations in 1994 after RBI granted licence to former ADB executive Jayanta Madhab. Ramesh Gelli was the CMD of the bank, while Sridhar Subasri served as executive director.
Earlier, investigations by various agencies like the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) have revealed that GTB had taken


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GraphicRiver Medical Cross from Pills 4925853
Stock Vector \ Conceptual \ Health \ Medicine
Illustration \ WhiteMedical \ Safety \ Vector \ Symbol \ Services \ Contains
Stock Vector - Medical Cross from Pills 4925853 by _Lonely_ @ GraphicRiver
Stock Vector \ Conceptual \ Health \ Medicine
Medical cross from pills. Illustration contains transparency and blending effects, eps 10
Layered: No; Graphics Files Included: JPG Image, Vector EPS; Minimum Adobe CS Version: CS.
Gold Bitcoin; Coin Dollar and Euro; Chocolate Bar; Cherry Blossom ; World Chocolate Day; Music Notes; Green Slime.
Keywords: aid, assistance, care, clinic, concepts, cross, doctor, emergency, first, health, healthcare, help, icons, illustration, isolated, medical, medicine, objects, on, plus, protection, recovery, repairing, safety, services, shape, sign, symbol, vector, white.


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login with
~Oh...My...Happiness!~ Best present ever!
Ashton just bought me a.. DOUBLE STROLLER! YAYY!! Now both my babies can ride to the park today :)
Comment deleted
Aww, it was so amazing! Thankful for such a great studsband!
Comment deleted
I did, we went to the park, lunch, another walk, shopping and out for some frozen yogurt because I just couldn't leave it alone, love love love it!
LOL.. YEAY!! I have to say that the double stroller was THE best thing EVER some days... I felt more free to roam and do things... Life changing with two kids... Have fun!!!
It really is, even the hard days are a blessing in disguise with these two :) Thanks for listening to my stories!
yay! That's so nice!
Lucky to have a sweet studsband.
Ahhh YAHOO! What brand!? Show us a picture.. how exciting :)
Moms Expertise10/11/14
It is a bumbleride Indie, twin stroller. Ashton got it from diapers.com. It was the best, pictures to come!
Woo.. sounds amazing! I bet you will get loads of use out of it :))
Have already used it 5 times today ;) for sure will!
Comment deleted
They did, Brynlee had a ball (as she has had to walk everywhere since Ben came home) haha, it was the best!
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About Amber Bradley
Current: Redding, California
Birth: July 01
On Moms.com since: Jan 26, 2014
I am 26, have 3 amazing kids. I have been married to my High School sweetheart for 4 years! We live in Redding, CA. My husband is a doctor and I am a certified midwife, but gave it up to stay home with my babies :)
All Recent Amber's Posts


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Congress Protects Medical Marijuana Businesses From Feds, But Not Rec Shops
Coleen Whitfield
Congress voted on two amendments to a Department of Justice spending bill Wednesday that would protect marijuana businesses in states where they're legal, but only one of them passed.
Introduced by Republican Congressman Dana Rohrabacher and Democratic Congressman Sam Farr, both of California, the Rohrabacher-Farr Amendment will prohibit federal funding for the Department of Justice's prevention of state-implemented medical marijuana programs. The bipartisan amendment also passed in 2014 but was set to expire in September and needed re-approval to prevail, which it gained by a 242-186 vote.
"We have limited tax dollars here, we're cutting veteran's benefits, we're cutting down on people who need help," Congressman Rohrabacher said Tuesday during a speech on the House Floor. "But then we're spending it on trying to put in jail someone who is smoking marijuana in their backyard."
Rohrabacher's amendment, attached to H.R. 2578 — the 2016 Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act (which passed later that day) — will "prohibit the use of funds by various states to prevent any of them from implementing their own laws that authorize the use, distribution, possessions, or cultivation of medical marijuana."
That means the Justice Department or Drug Enforcement Administration won't get any money to raid compliant, state-legalized cannabis businesses.
Congressman Rohrabacher first proposed the amendment in 2004, but it failed, 148-268.
Dana Rohrabacher Facebook page
Aaron Smith, director of the National Cannabis Industry Association, was excited for his members across 23 states (and Washington D.C) where some form of medical marijuana is legal. "This is an issue with overwhelming bipartisan support throughout the nation, and it's good to see that the House recognizes that it should respect the will of the American people in this way," he says.
Despite Smith's pleasure with the passing of the Rohrabacher-Farr Amendment and the protection it brings medical marijuana businesses, he and others in the cannabis industry were left with a bittersweet taste after the 206-222 failure of McClintock-Polis Amendment — another amendment to the aforementioned appropriations act. Sponsored by Colorado Congressman Jared Polis, it would've provided similar protection to recreational marijuana businesses.
Although Polis's amendment to protect legal retail marijuana businesses narrowly missed, some are bullish on its chances in the future. Marijuana Policy Project Executive Director Rob Kampia even went so far as to call the vote a morale victory.
"The McClintock-Polis Amendment was the most aggressive spending provision ever introduced with the intention of rolling back the federal government's war on marijuana, and right out of the gate it was supported by 47 percent of House members," he wrote in an e-mail.
However, Polis wasn't as happy with the results.
"The federal government shouldn't be swooping into Colorado to decide how we regulate marijuana any more than it should be swooping in to Louisiana to tell them how they should regulate fried crawfish," Polis said in a statement. "In Colorado, we've seen that regulating the marijuana industry is a far more successful approach than leaving the market in the hands of criminal cartels."
Colorado Congressman Jared Polis has become well-known for his pot legislation on both sides of the debate.
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Polis, who also co-sponsored the Rohrabacher-Farr Amendment, recently sponsored a bill that would establish federal guidelines for stoned-driving enforcement. But another H.R. 2578 amendment he sponsored that will circumvent $9 million from the DEA's Cannabis Eradication Program to child-abuse and domestic violence prevention services passed on Tuesday. As the result of the overall act winning approval, a combined total of $23 million in DEA funding was diverted toward social initiatives such as purchasing body-cams for police officers and helping abuse victims.
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Colour Purple (Blu-Ray)
Release Date: 31 January 2011 | Certificate: Suitable for 15 years and over
Featuring: Danny Glover, Margaret Avery and Oprah Winfrey
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Stephen Spielberg directed this adaptation of Alice Walker's Pulitzer prize-winning novel, which spans 40 years in the life of Celie (Whoopi Goldberg), a poor black woman who endures years of abuse from her father and her husband (Danny Glover). When her husband embarks on an affair with beautiful Shug (Margaret Avery), friendship also springs up between the two women, and Celie finally begins to blossom.
Collector's Edition
Release Date: 31 January 2011
Certificate: 15 - Suitable for Persons Aged 15 or Over
Actors: Danny Glover, Margaret Avery, Oprah Winfrey, Willard E. Pugh, Akosua Busia, Adolph Caesar, Dana Ivey and Whoopi Goldberg
Region 2
Sound: Dolby Digital
Production Year: 1985
Main Language: English
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Catalogue No: 1000180894


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Traditional New Mexico green chile enchiladas filled with dove meat. Easy, really good – and you can sub in any meat if you want.
doves and pigeons
Hank's Dove Poppers
The Venerable Popper. This little appetizer is a Labor Day tradition — it's what you do with the first doves of the year, a way to celebrate the return of hunting season.
Dove Chiles Rellenos
Classic Oaxacan chiles rellenos, made with dove meat in the picadillo filling. This was so worth the effort! And you can do this recipe with pretty much any meat you have on hand.
Dove Jagerschnitzel
I rarely breast out doves, but when I do I typically make this recipe. It's German jagerschnitzel, only done with dove breasts. And since chanterelles are popping in several parts of the country right now, it's a great time to make this classic.
Deep Fried Doves
Dove season opens tomorrow, and while I dearly love grilling doves, I like fried doves almost as much. Deep frying them sets a nice crust on the outside while leaving the meat pink near the bone.
Roast Pigeon
I have a thing for pigeons. They are super fun to hunt, and, when you hunt them on rural ranches where the birds eat grain and other wholesome foods, they are fantastic to eat. The British know this, which is why I take my cue from them in this recipe for roast pigeon.
Pigeon or Dove Tortellini
This is a classic Italian recipe they use with pigeons, but it will work with squab, doves or even teal, too. Roasted birds, chopped fine and stuffed into an egg pasta, served with juniper butter with rosemary.
Grilled Doves a la Mancha
This is my signature dish for dove season. Grilled dove is one of my favorites, and this Spanish-inspired take on them never fails to please.


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What is JotForm?
JotForm is a free online form builder which helps you create online forms without writing a single line of code. No sign-up required.
At JotForm, we want to make sure that you're getting the online form builder help that you need. Our friendly customer support team is available 24/7.
We believe that if one user has a question, there could be more users who may have the same question. This is why many of our support forum threads are public and available to be searched and viewed. If you'd like help immediately, feel free to search for a similar question, or submit your question or concern.
How can I remove spacing around items in form?Asked by krista_cma on November 01, 2016 at 12:36 AM
Remove excess spacing between bottom of roof image and "INITIAL PREFERRED BUILDER..." which is a header. I could use a subheader, but I am unable to add a line breaks.
Remove excess spacing between ..."...REGISTERED BUYER" (bottom of header wording) and the next section which is TEXT.
JotForm Support
I've cloned your form and checked on my side in order to test. You can inject the following CSS codes into your form to reduce spacing between the elements:
.form-header-group {
border-top: none;
margin: 0;
padding: 0px 0;
padding: 0px 0;
If you want to arrange spacing, you can change the padding field of the codes. For example, you can write 10px instead of 0px if you prefer.
Please find the new version of your form with CSS codes below:
If you need further assistance, do not hesitate to contact us.


text:
4 Different Thread Sizes to fit Many Filter Brands. Above Added: Mon June 8, 2015, 9:19 am EST
Compare shipping quotes and save up to 80%
Secure your transactions with Escrow.
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1) Shania Twain
Shania Twain, one of the most popular women in the music industry, was born into an extremely poor family. She lived in a homeless shelter with her mother in Toronto in her early years. After years of hardships, Twain began to perform in bars to make ends meet, and later made her way into the music industry.
Today, she is worth a whopping $350 million.
2) Jennifer Lopez
.@JLo works at @NASA?! JK, it's this @lopezjenniferw #tech #fiercefemale http://t.co/0nSUxEWXXW pic.twitter.com/JSus5C9spX — cambio (@cambio)
July 23, 2015
We all know who Jennifer Lopez is for her soulful voice and striking beauty. What we don't know about her is that Lopez wanted to be a dancer since her college days, and landed in a disagreement with her mother upon the matter. She ended up leaving home and seeking shelter in a dance studio and gradually climbed the ladder of fame from there.
Read: This Street Barber Has His Own Way Of Helping The Homeless
3) Jim Carrey
"Desperation is a necessary ingredient to learning/creating anything." - @JimCarrey #quote pic.twitter.com/OSmUXUGAv3 — Milk (@MilkStudios)
July 22, 2015
With assets of $150 million today, Jim is one of the most loved comedians across the globe today. However, he underwent a lot to acquire this sense of humor and witty approach to life, since he was born into a family that was so poor, that they lived in a camper van. He spent his hours after school working as a janitor on campus and began performing comedy around Toronto, after which he grew in the industry, and became one of the most well known comedians of the time.
4) Kelly Clarkson
Kelly Clarkson covers 'NSYNC's 'Bye Bye Bye' in 'throwback to junior-high days' http://t.co/n0LQydiWrM pic.twitter.com/t8chat1ove — TODAY (@TODAYshow)
July 23, 2015
Ever imagined having your house burn down to ashes? This celebrity had her L.A. apartment reduced to ashes and was forced to live out of her car until she could afford a new place. She is known to have showered regularly at a health club she had membership at and later made her breakthrough into the music industry via the popular show "American Idol".
5) Lil' Kim
Kim spent her early years living out of a car trunk with her mother, until she moved back with her abusive father, after her parents split. He once again made her homeless once she was a teen, and she had to couchsurf with friends. Fate had it so that she ended up meeting Notorious BIG and thus began her career as a rapper.
Read more: The Insanely Genius Things Celebrities Do To Outsmart Paparazzi


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Your Voice, Your Choice
Your Voice, Your Choice: Parks & Streets is a participatory budgeting initiative in which Seattle residents democratically decide how to spend a portion of the City's budget on small-scale park and street improvements. A total of $285,000 is set aside in each City Council District, and residents can cast their ballots for their top three choices in the district where they live, work, go to school, receive services, or volunteer.
Small-scale park and street improvements can include:
- Any physical project up to $90,000
- Street projects might include traffic calming (traffic circles, median islands, speed feedback signs, etc.) or short segments of sidewalk construction (less than 100 feet, or one third of a block)
- Parks projects might include accessibility improvements, trail/path maintenance and upgrades, park benches or tables, natural area renovations, minor playground improvements
Voting for this program closed on June 30, 2017. Ballots are currently being tallied and winning projects will be announced in August. The projects that receive the most votes will be funded by the City and implemented in 2018.
There are four key steps to this participatory budgeting process:
Idea Collection (February 2017)
Community members brainstorm and submit potential projects to be funded throughout the city. Ideas were submitted online and at various public outreach events. Submission deadline was February 26, 2017. Learn more.
Project Development (March - April 2017)
Project Development teams turn submitted ideas into concrete project proposals. Learn more.
Voting (June 2017)
Community members vote on their top projects within their individual Council District. Learn more.
Fund & Implement (2018)
Each City Council District will select the top vote-getting projects that amount up to $285,000. City Departments will include winning projects in their 2018 budget and will be implemented in 2018.


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Alpha Wolf Mug
Alpha Wolf Mug
Alpha Wolf Mug Features
- Double walled stainless steel with custom resin skull design
- Capacity approx 350 ml
- High-temperature resistant features
- Perfect for home or office table decor
- Great as a gift!
This stainless steel custom designed mug will make the perfect addition to your collection. Just add your drink of choice!
Not sold in stores!!! Our glasses are only available online!
Perfect for cup of coffee, tea, beer or a round of Whiskey, Bourbon, Scotch, Gin, Vodka, Tequila...whatever your favorite liquid of choice may be.
**We Ship Internationally! Shipping takes between two and four weeks for US.
All other countries can take up to 3-8 wks.**
Click the "Add to Cart" button now! Limited Quantity - will sell out fast.
NOTE: Due to high demand please allow two to four weeks for delivery.
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