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Forest Dendrology. Doc. Ing. Luboš Úradní ek, CSc.
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1 MENDELOVA UNIVERZITA V BRN MENDEL UNIVERZITY IN BRNO LESNICKÁ A D EVA SKÁ FAKULTA FACULTY OF FORESTRY AND WOOD TECHNOLOGY Forest Dendrology Doc. Ing. Luboš Úradní ek, CSc. 2014
2 V tomto u ebním textu jsou uvedeny vybrané druhy zejména lesnicky a krajiná sky významných d evin, perspektivní druhy pro podmínky st ední Evropy. První ást obsahuje popis eledí, rod a druh d evin. Druhá ást pak obrazové tabule významných druh d evin a mapy p irozeného rozší ení významných druh d evin. This textbook presents selected woody species, especially forestry and landscape important trees, prospective species for the conditions of Central Europe. The first section contains a description of the families, genera and species. The second part contains pictorial boards of selected woody plant species and maps of natural distribution of important species. Na p íprav skript se podíleli team of authors: Doc. Ing. Luboš Úradní ek,csc. editor in cheef, text and pictures Ing. So a Tichá, Ph.D. technical cooperation Ing. Boleslav Jelínek, Ph.D technical cooperation Luboš Úradní ek, 2014
3 Content Woody plant species..3 Pictorial boards. 58 Native distribution maps. 111 Index of scientific names Index of common names
4 DENDROLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF FOREST TREES In this university textbook, selected species are given of particularly forest trees important from forestry aspects, species perspective for conditions of Central Europe or site-important and often occurring shrubs. The first part of the textbook includes conifers, the second part broadleaved species. In a supplement, plates and ranges of important species are given. Conifers Conifers represent the group of families of gymnosperms (Gymnospermae) showing shoots with characteristic assimilatory organs in the form of needles. A number of woody species ranked among conifers shows leaves which are, however, of a scale type as usual in the family of Cupressaceaeor foliar leaves, eg in the genus of Aghatis (family Araucariaceae). Thus, conifers do not form an integrated group of plant taxonomy including families of various higher units. Therefore, we can encounter their different classification in the plant system according to particular authors. The basic taxonomic classification of living woody species is usually as follows: Kingdom: Vegetabilia - plants Subkingdom: Cormobionta higher plants Phylum: Angiospermae - angiosperms Phylum: Gymnospermae - gymnosperms Section: 1. Cycadophyta 2. Gnetophyta 3. Welwitschiophyta 4. Ephedrophyta 5. Ginkgoophyta 6. Pinophyta Typical conifers are included into the section of Pinophyta (Coniferophyta). Also members of the sections are sometimes ranked among conifers. All conifers are usually divided into eight families: 1. Pinaceae 2. Cupressaceae 3. Sciadopityaceae 4. Araucariaceae 5. Cephalotaxaceae 6. Podocarpaceae 7. Phyllocladaceae Families mentioned above belong to the class of Pinopsida 8. Taxaceae - (belong to the separate class of Taxopsida) Moreover, the family of Ginkgoaceae including Ginkgo with foliar leaves is ranked among conifers. 3
5 All economically important European coniferous species such as spruce (Picea), fir (Abies), pine (Pinus) and larch (Larix) are included into the family of Pinaceae. As for Taxaceae, only yew (Taxus) is a native species. As for Cupressaceae, only the genus juniper (Juniperus) is naturally distributed in Central Europe. Nearly all conifers are evergreen. Only members of genera Larix, Pseudolarix, Metasequoia, Glyptostrobus and some species of the genus Taxodium are deciduous. In total, there are about 65 genera of coniferous trees in the world amounting to about 600 species. It is a mere fraction as compared with the amount of existing broadleaved species. In the area of the Czech Republic, 9 species of conifers from 6 genera occur naturally. As for growing under conditions of Central Europe, only one third of the whole amount of coniferous species is suitable and, thus, the selection of species for forest management is further substantially narrowed. Nevertheless, there is a number of promising coniferous species waiting for testing. Family : Pinaceae Species with spirally arranged needles, sometimes in fascicles. They are monoecious, unisexual. Their characteristic fruit is a cone consisting of a spindle and spirally arranged scales provided usually with supporting squames. Every scale bears two winged seeds (only some pines with large seeds lack a wing.). Wood and sometimes only bark and needles show usually resin canals. As for European species, following genera rank among the family: spruce (Picea), fir (Abies), pine (Pinus) and larch (Larix). As for foreign species of the family, Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) is I mportant for Europe. In collections, hemlock (Tsuga) and cedar (Cedrus) are grown rather frequently while Pseudolarix, Keteleeria and Cathaya are grown rarely. Spruce - Picea The genus includes 40 species in the European, Asian and N American range. Trees with a straight stem, verticillate branching and conical crown. Annual shoots are grooved showing protruding leaf cushions. Conelets are distributes separately, male strobili individually, female strobili at the end of shoots. Cones are pendent, supporting scales do not protrude maturing in the same year and fall away as a whole. Seeds are winged. Testa and wings are not connate. Wood is not differentiated into heartwood and sapwod and includes resin canals. Norway spruce - Picea abies (L.) Karst., syn. Picea excelsa (Lam.) Link Description: A tree with a straight stem and regular verticillate branching. It reaches an age of years, height about 50 m and stem diameter 1.5 m. The biggest specimens reach a volume over 30 m 3. Up to its high age, Norway spruce maintains a slim cone-shaped top. Needles persist usually 6 to 9 years. The species begins to bear seed in stands from about 60 years of its age and seed years repeat after 4 to 5 years. Exceptionally, it is possible to note premature fertility in quite young trees vegetating on extreme sites. Cones are most frequently of green colour before maturation, however, there are also types with red-violet cones occurring often in mountains. Its root system is distributed near the surface. Thus, spruce is poorly anchored in soil and windbreaks occur, therefore, very easily and frequently. At the upper forest limit, branches hanging down to soil often take roots and, thus, groups occur bordering a parent tree. Root swellings are well developed. Germination and growth on fallen trees result in the origin of 4
6 prop roots. Spruce does never form shoots on pruned stems and takes roots only very heavily from cuttings. It tolerates shading and pruning quite well (Tab. 1). Distribution: Norway spruce shows a European range. An Asian range with the adjacent part of the coldest NE Europe belongs already to Siberian spruce P. obovata Led. (Tab. 1). The dividing limit of European and Siberian spruce runs roughly from the Kola peninsula to southern promontories of the Ural Mts. The actual European range of Norway spruce is divided into two separated parts. 1. Scandinavian region; it contacts there with the range of Siberian spruce occupying nearly the whole Scandinavia reaching southerly to the Baltic and towards east through the centre of the European part of Russia to the Ural Mts. 2. Central-European-Balkan region; the region occupies mountain systems of Central and SE Europe. In the second part, the range is disjunctive breaking into particular mountains particularly in the south. These are: (a) The Hercynian-Carpathian region; it extends from the Black Forest in the west through adjacent German highlands towards east and through mountain regions of the Czech Republic and further through the whole Carpathians to the Transylvanian Alps. (b) The Alpine region; it includes the whole Alpine system with its foothills from the north. (c) The Dinaric (Illyrian) region; it extends in the highest parts of the Dinaric mountain system. It continues to the Alps and through Serbia it goes up to Albania. (d) The Rhodope region; it occupies above all mountains of southern Bulgaria (the Rila, Pirin, Rhodopy Mts) and further the highest locations of the Stara Planina Mts and Vitosa Mts. Other parts of Europe, ie particularly the whole Western Europe and the Mediterranean are out of the range of Norway spruce. The vertical distribution of spruce differs considerably in relation to latitude. In the north of Europe, spruce grows in lowlands and uplands up the altitude of several hundreds of metres. In Central Europe, spruce becomes a submontane and montane species rising up to the upper forest limit. Optimum locations of spruce occur at an altitude of m. In the Austrian Alps, the optimum distribution of spruce occurs at an altitude of m. Even there, spruce reaches a forest limit at an altitude of m. In the warmest parts of the range, ie in the Rhodope region or in the southern part of the Swiss Alps, spruce grows at an altitude of m reaching the upper forest limit at an altitude of m. Due to forest management, spruce was secondarily heavily distributed everywhere in central Europe during last 200 years. Ecology: Spruce is a light-requiring species tolerating shading in its young age. It is also one of reasons why spruce easily infiltrates into stands of other species occupying their position. As a semi-sciophilous species, it occurs sometimes typically in the second storey in commercial forests, for example under Scots pine or European larch. Because it shows a surface root system spruce is considerably demanding for soil moisture and dry summers can affect it easily. Favourable sites are characterized by uniform moisture. Spruce thickets demonstrate large consumption of water and thus originally wet soils under spruce stands can get dry (land reclamation). Thus, in drier and poorer soils of small waterduring dry years. Spruce tolerates well excessive moisture surviving even stagnant water of swamps and peat bogs. However, a moisture deficit becomes a limiting factor of its good growth. Spruce does not show great requirements for soil and a parent rock creating stands on acid igneous rocks, limestones and alluvial soils of various types only when they are not too dry or extremely poor in nutrients. On limestone soils, it is evidently replaced by beech. Under con- 5
7 ditions of sufficient moisture, it colonizes even rather shallow soils covered by humus. However, on poor siliceous soils and acid peat bogs it grows badly. Insufficient aeration of soils affects its growth very unfavourably. Spruce thrives best on moist loamy-sandy soils; however, it grows well also on heavy loamy soils and sands if they are sufficiently moist tolerating chernozems under conditions of admixed moisture. Near the upper forest limit, spruce often grows on stony or even boulder soils. Spruce stands are heavily affected by soil-forming factors above all the formation of raw humus. Spruce is not demanding for climate. Heavy winter frosts affect its growth only rarely. However, it is much more sensitive to high temperatures and low relative air humidity. In its young age, spruce is less endangered by late frosts than eg silver fir and, therefore, it is suitable for regeneration on clear-cut areas. However, it suffers more from snow and winter than silver fir. Late autumn frosts can delay the development of young forest plantations through the permanent freeze of shoots for a long time. In mature trees, late frosts damage main lateral buds which results in the origin of narrow crowns. In climatically exposed mountain ranges and peaks, the species forms unilateral flag trees and bayonet tops due to the effect of wind and snow. Spruce is more likely adapted to the short growing season. Short and cold summers are most suitable for its growth. Growing under conditions of a long growing season results in a too early budbreak and easy fungal attack causing decay. A dangerous red rot occurs just at lower climatically temperate locations. In warmer regions, therefore, it is suitable to grow spruce only in deep valleys where moist and cold air is accumulated and excessive moisture occurs. Thus, moisture deficit together with too mild winter and a long growing season are another limiting factor for growing Norway spruce. Spruce is sensitive to air pollution and does not suit for parks of larger towns and cities. It is very susceptible to industrial pollutants (particularly SO2) which were demonstrated by extensive die-back of stands in Central Europe. Use: Spruce is the main commercial species of Europe and, therefore, it is the basis of timber industry. It is processed for sawn timber, paper and fuelwood; it provides timber for building purposes, timber for joiners and toolmakers. Spruce wood of special quality from selected localities is processed for resonance wood serving for the manufacture of musical instruments. Resin is processed for cooper pitch, colophony and turpentine. Bark peeled from felled stems is an important raw material for the production of tan. Spruce young-growth stands provide the largest amount of necessary Christmas trees. In horticulture, it provides brushwood serving for the winter protection of sensitive plants and for the manufacture of decorative garlands and bunches. Serbian spruce - Picea omorica (Pan i ) Purkyn Description: A tree with a slender stem and a narrow conical crown. Exceptionally, it reaches a height of 50 m, however, on typical sites its height is far lower. Its branches are thin, short and bent. Needles are flat, with two white strips of stomata, dense, covering a twig from above. It begins to bear cones very early. Violet-brown cones with scales converging to a peduncle persist on a tree for about 3 years (Tab. 2). Distribution: The spruce is an endemic species of the Balkan peninsula in the Dinaric Mts in the central reach of the Drina River. It refers to several localities of a total area of about 15 x 35 km on limestone rocks and their vicinity at an altitude of m. In plantations, it was rather rare previously. In recent years, it has been planted in forest stands far outside its range growing in Scandinavia and taiga. 6
8 Ecology: It is a light-demanding species tolerating shading a little more than Norway spruce. It adapts itself to the various conditions of available water although it grows naturally on heavily drying substrates. Original sites occur exclusively on limestones, however, it can grow on acid soils or even peat soils. It tolerates very different climatic conditions, viz both oceanic and continental climate. It is resistant to early and late frosts showing a potential to tolerate careless treatment during transplanting. It is also resistant to air pollution in towns. Use: The species is grown in forest plantations since It is used not only in forestry but particularly in amenity planting in towns and industrial regions. The spruce is very popular in horticultural practice. Colorado spruce, blue spruce - Picea pungens Engelm. Description: A medium large tree reaching rarely a height of 50 m and stem diameter 120 cm. Its stem is generally straight. The tree crown is wide conical with regular whorls of rectangularly protruding branches. Hard prickly needles are variously coloured, sometimes even silver-bluish ( silver spruce ). Cones with soft grooved scales persist after maturation to the next year and then fall off. Blue spruce grows more slowly than Norway spruce forming to a small extent sprouts on its stem (Tab. 3). Distribution: A North American species with a small range in the western part of the continent. It grows in southern promontories of the Rocky Mountains, along watercourses in ravines and in wetlands at an altitude of 2000 to 3000 m usually with Picea engelmannii, exceptionally in inverse locations of larger canyons. Ecology: It is a markedly light-demanding species being not capable to adapt itself to slight shading. Even a lateral shading results in needle fall and drying up branches. In forest plantations, it tolerates shallow drying up sites, of course, its growth is rather limited. The species is not demanding for soils. Use: It was introduced to Europe in The spruce is used as a decorative species tolerating the environment of towns and cities. Sitka spruce - Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr. Description: A tree of large dimensions reaching a height of 80 m and stem diameter of even 400 cm. Needles are thin, flat and very prickly. Cones with soft scales fall early after seed maturation. Sitka spruce shows a potential to form sprouts on a stem which is marked after release (Tab. 4). Distribution: North American species the range of which extends along the Pacific coast of the NW part of the continent from Alaska to NW California (its name is according to the island of Sitka). It grows from the sea level to 1100 m alt. Ecology: It is a medium light-demanding species tolerating only a slight shadow smaller than Norway spruce. The species requires markedly oceanic climate frequent fogs and high relative air humidity. It needs also sufficient soil moisture. Sitka grows particularly on acid parent rocks. It tolerates well permanent wind. Use: In the USA, sitka spruce is a valuable fast-growing commercial species providing high yields. Since 1831, the species is grown in Europe, at present mostly in the United Kingdom and in Ireland. 7
9 Fir - Abies About 50 species are distributed in Europe, N Africa, Asia and North America. Their range extends from forest-tundra in the north to the mountains of the subtropics in Guatemala, N Africa and the Himalayas. In Europe, in addition to silver fir A. alba there is Spanish fir A. pinsapo (Tab. 8), Grecian fir A. cephalonica and Sicilian fir A. nebrodensis. From Japan, it is for example A. veitchi (Tab. 8) and A. homolepis. Firs are trees, bark on stems of young trees is thin, often with resin blisters. In old trees, the bark is thick and fissured. Annual shoots (without leaf cushions ) are usually smooth, rarely grooved. Cones are upright (erect) maturing in the same year. In some species, there are markedly developed supporting scales overlapping fruit scales. Cones crumble away. Bare spindles remain on twigs for a number of years. Seeds are triangular, bright, with connate wings. Wood lacks resin which occurs in bark, needles and cones. European silver fir - Abies alba Mill. Description: A tree of large dimensions reaching a height of m, stem diameter 2 m and volume 45 m 3. Its crown is initially conical, later cylindrical, in old age with an indistinct top as though truncated ( stork s nest ). Needles are flat persisting rather long (about 8-11 years). Buds lack resin. Fertility in stands begins at an age of about years. Seed years occur rather sparsely and irregularly at a range of 2-6 years. Silver fir is fertile up to its high age (500 years). The species shows a marked tap root and also lateral roots create deeply reaching anchoring roots. Under the gust of heavy wind, breakages occur more likely. Old trees show robust root swellings. Silver fir has a potential to form sprouts on stems. After top breakages, it creates easily new leaders from dormant buds (Tab. 5). Distribution: Silver fir is a European species. Its range is concentrated in mountain groups of central and southern Europe. The centre of its distribution is the Hercynian-Carpathian and Alpine regions. The boundary of its distribution is formed by the eastern part of the Pyrenees in the west, French middle mountains. The islet-type isolated occurrence of silver fir in Normandy is of great interest. The northernmost occurrence of the species is reached south of Warsaw. An islet of silver fir in the Bialowieza National Park is also considered to be original. Further, the boundary embraces the whole Carpathian arch. Inside the Alps system, silver fir is more abundant in border regions and foothills. The Swiss Jura Mts with the renowned virgin forest Dürsrütiwald are considered to be the best sites of silver fir. In the Czech Republic in the Mionši virgin forest in the Beskids, silver fir reaches the same dimensions. Southwards, the Alps range protrudes to the south of the Apennines peninsula. In the Balkans, it passes across the Dinaric Mts, north of Greece up to the mountains of Bulgaria. Silver fir also occurs in mountains of Corsica. This range is closely connected with very related taxa in Sicily (A. nebrodensis) and in the Balkans (A. borisii-regis). Vertical distribution of silver fir is related to its latitude. In the northernmost point of its distribution, it occurs at an altitude of only several hundreds metres. In the CR, it is a species of lower mountain regions its optimum being between 500 and 1100 m alt., southwards it occurs even at an altitude of 1800 m. In the Pyrenees, it occurs at the highest altitudes growing from 900 m up to the tree line from 1800 to 2100 m. Ecology: Silver fir is a species tolerating long-term deep shading without losing vitality. It survives for long decades under the shelter of a parent stand (with the stem diameter of 5-8 cm it can reach even 100 years of age) and after cutting down the stand, it begins to grow rapidly. The species shows considerable requirements for moisture and its distribution during the year. It does not grow on dry sites and avoids also waterlogged localities. Silver fir demonstrates higher requirements for the content of nutrients in soils as compared with Norway 8
10 spruce and requires also deeper soils. Sometimes, its optimum is on limestones while it is missing on peat soils. Soil is used by deep-rooting silver fir rather evenly. Natural distribution of silver fir shows that it is a species of oceanic climate. In regions of warmer climate it is related to mountains. The species badly tolerates hot and dry summers and particularly heavy frosts. If its biological requirements are neglected it loses resistance to pests being easily attacked by insect or fungi. During recent decades, regeneration of the species occurs and according to the results of research silver fir belongs to the most air-pollution resistant coniferous species. Use: Silver fir wood is of the same use as spruce wood. It is well cleavable which was advantageous in the manufacture of shingle. In hydraulic structures, the high durability of its wood under water was appreciated. Regularly grown wood of silver fir is also used as resonance wood. Formerly, silver fir trees were very appreciated as Christmas trees. At present, its decorative foliage is more used. Grand fir - Abies grandis (Dougl.) Lindl., syn. Abies excelsior Franco Description: A robust tree reaching a height of about 90 m, stem diameter over 1.5 m and age 250 years. It stem is straight and slender, crown regular, conical. Needles smell good after crushing between fingers. Buds contain resin. It is a fast-growing species reaching a height over 40 m already at an age of 50 years. In this aspect, it can exceed other conifers and become equal as Douglas fir (Tab. 6). Distribution: A North American species distributed in the Pacific part of the continent. The coastal part of its range includes the Cascade Mountains from the borderline of Canada and the USA to N California. The continental part of the range includes the Rocky Mountains from Canada to Idaho and Montana. Ecology: The species tolerates shading and survives for a long time in the second storey. It requires sites with the sufficient amount of precipitation and soil moisture. The species occurs on various soils, from acid ones to limestones. The best sites occur, however, on deep permeable valley alluvia. In Europe, it is sometimes damaged by frosts. Use: In the region of its range, grand fir is one of important commercial species. It was introduced to Europe in During the last century, it began to be introduced into forest stands in many countries, mostly successfully. It provides valuable decorative foliage and Christmas trees. Caucasian fir - Abies nordmanniana (Stev.) Spach. Description: A tree reaching a height of 50 m and stem diameter 1.5 m. Needles dark-green, bright covering a twig from above. Buds are without resin. Cones similar to those of A. alba up to 20 cm long, with protruding supporting scales (Tab. 7). Distribution: The species is distributed in mountains of the W Caucasus and in the Pontic Mts in NE Turkey. It grows at an altitude of m. Ecology: Caucasian fir tolerates deep shading, however, it grows well also in insolated areas. The species requires higher atmospheric humidity, tolerates drying out soils in summer months being not damaged by spells of drought. It grows both on acid rocks and on limestones. The species is often attacked by Adelges nordmannianae. Use: In the area of natural occurrence, it is an important commercial species. Its wood is of the same quality as the wood of A. alba.the fir was introduced to Europe in It belongs to the most frequently planted ornamental conifers being favoured as a Christmas tree. It also provides decorative foliage. 9
11 White fir - Abies concolor (Gord. & Glend.) Lindl. Description: A tree reaching a height of 50 m and stem diameter even 1.5 m. Long soft needles are sickle-shaped. Resin buds are of a yellow-brown colour. Cones are up to 10 cm long. Root system is multilaterally developed (Tab. 6). Distribution: A North American species with its range in the SW and W of the USA, sporadic localities occur also in Mexico. Height distribution is extraordinarily extensive in relation to climate, viz. from 500 m alt. in the NW part of the range to 3200 m alt. in the SE part of the USA. Ecology: The species tolerates only small shading. Natural pruning of its stems is bad. Requirements for soil moisture are not high. It occurs on various soils if at least favourably supplied by moisture. The species also tolerates climatic extremes. Use: It was introduced to Europe in From forestry aspects, it is of marginal importance. It is, however, important as an ornamental species particularly its form with blue-silver needles. Pine - Pinus The genus includes over 140 species distributed in Eurasia and North America, from the region of taiga to the subtropics and tropics. The only species growing in Sumatra oversteps an equator, viz. P. merkusii. In mountains of the SW USA, there is a renowned P. longaeva reaching an age of 5000 years or P. ponderosa with three needles (Tab. 15). P. wallichiana (Tab. 13) is a species of the Himalayas. In Europe, there are endemic pines in the Balkans, viz. P. peuce (Tab. 13) and P. leucodermis, in the Mediterranean it is P. pinea, P. halepensis and P. maritima (pinaster). In the CR, three species of the genus Pinus grow spontaneously, viz P. sylvestris, P. mugo and P. uncinata subsp. uliginosa. Two to five (eight) needles in a fascicle, cones do not disintegrate or are semi-disintegrating, seeds are winged or without wings. Cones mature usually during the second year. Wood including heartwood contains large amounts of resin. Scots pine, Scotch pine - Pinus sylvestris L. Description: A tree of medium dimensions reaching a height of even 40 m, stem diameter 1 m and age 500 years. The tree crown is sometimes regular, conical, another time asymmetric, dome-shaped or even umbrella-shaped. Needles (two each) are compacted in bunches on small brachyblasts and persist for about 3 years. Predominantly male or female trees can exist. Mature cones are of very variable shape. Sometimes they are slightly unsymmetrical and on their convex side blunt thorns grow up from hila; another time they are regular and apophyses are generally flat. According to the morphology of cones a number of forms is distinguished. The root system of the species is characterized by deep-reaching tap roots and also lateral roots penetrate far. Therefore, the pine is well anchored in soil and does not suffer from windfalls. Scots pine never forms sprouts on stems and does not take roots from cuttings. It does not show any dormant buds and, thus, damaged buds cannot be replaced (Tab. 9). Distribution: Scots pine shows a very extensive range occupying nearly the whole Europe and substantial part of forest regions in Asia. In Europe, it is completely missing as an indigenous species above all in lowlands with oceanic climate (Denmark, Ireland etc.). It does not also occur in the whole Hungarian lowland. To the north, it occurs beyond the Arctic Circle, farther than spruce. There, it shows low growth even after transplanting. In the British Islands, it grows in Scotland. In the extensive region of the Alps, it is necessary to differentiate several markedly different ecotypes. From the range of the Alps, Scots pine proceeds westwards through French midmountains and the Pyrenees to the south of Spain. It reaches the northern 10
12 part of the Apennines, through the Balkans to the Rhodope Mts and then eastwards to the mountains of the whole northern part of Asia Minor particularly in the Pontic Mts from lowlands up to 2100 m alt. In the east in the European part of Russia, it occupies vast areas from tundra in the north up to steppe regions in the south. Separated areas of occurrence are in Crimea and in the Caucasus. Eastwards, the range of Scots pine extends in the substantial part of taiga through the whole Siberia to the Sea of Okhotsk. There, it occurs on a area over 100 million ha. Extensive stands of Scots pine in Nordic forests are supported by periodic fires originating without the effect of man. As a very variable and adaptable species Scots pine creates many ecotypes differing in growth, crown type and branching. The whole CR includes the range of Scots pine, viz Hercynian ecotype. The Hercynian pine occurred naturally only in isles in the forest region of uplands and lower mountains on extreme sites of rocky spurs and slope debris. The majority of pine stands in the region of the CR were grown from imported seed. Ecology: Scots pine is a markedly light demanding species unable to regenerate under shading conditions. Therefore, it is very suitable for establishing stands on bare areas. The species is able to cover water consumption from large depth and, therefore, it occurs on extremely dry sites. The pine can germinate even in fissures of bare rocks. Scots pine occurs in areas with large precipitation differences from 400 to more than 1000 mm. The species grows on various soils of different parent rocks. Under natural conditions it is forced out by shade-tolerating species from better sites. Therefore, extreme sites such as dry sands, peat, limestone rocks etc where competition of other species does not come on force are typical of Scots pine. Thus, extreme edaphic conditions support the occurrence of Scots pine. Some ecotypes of steppe pine from the south of the European part of Russia able to tolerate saline soils appear to be an interesting edaphic deviation. Within the ecological variability of the species it is perhaps one of the most marked peculiarities. Experiments indicate that pines growing on different soils are specialized to a great extent and, therefore, they cannot be arbitrarily used elsewhere. The species is demanding for climate. It can tolerate even extreme temperature conditions. It can cope very well with large differences in the growing season from 90 to 200 days. It is a species of pioneer properties able to colonize open areas of various type, however, it is does not suit for the environment of cities and industrial regions. Use: Scots pine is the most important coniferous species after Norway spruce and its wood is virtually of the same use. It provides excellent material for building constructions, cabinet making, manufacture of wooden sleepers, telegraph poles etc. Pine wood shows large differences in the quality according to particular classes from quality logs to fuelwood. For its chemical use, the content of resin (which, however, considerably fluctuates) is decisive. Horticultural use of Scots pine is limited. Black pine - Pinus nigra Arn., syn. Pinus laricio Poir. Description: A robust tree reaching a height of 50 m and stem diameter over 1 m. Two needles in a fascicle. The needles are long, dark-green, rigid and usually densely crowded. They persist for 4 to 5 years. Larger cones with light apophyses mature in the second year and soon fall away. The species root system is characterized by a marked tap root. On rocks, roots embrace often even large boulders and penetrate into fissures and so windfalls do not occur (Tab. 12). Distribution: It is a south-european species distributed in the whole Mediterranean region from the Pyrenees in the west through the Apennines and the Balkans to the east up to Asia 11
13 Minor. It reaches Crete, Corsica and Sicily and an isolated locality occurs in Morocco. In the east, it occurs particularly in the Pontic Mts and in the Taurus Mts; isolated localities are in Crimea, in the Caucasus and in Cyprus. Ecology: It is a light-demanding species, very demanding for moisture. The species tolerates shallow drying soils in warm regions. Typical sites occur on limestone rocks where it grows on very inaccessible places. Within its range in warm regions, it tolerates climatic extremes, however, badly adapts itself to short growing seasons at higher latitudes. The species is very suitable for the city environment. Use: Black pine is here and there an important commercial species grown already since It has proved good particularly for afforestation purposes in warm regions especially on rocky limestone substrates. The pine is an important ornamental species. Lodgepole pine - Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud. Description: A shorter tree m (35 m) tall, often only a shrub, usually with crooked branches. It shows two needles in a fascicle, shoots are glabrous. Cones are small (max. 3 cm in diameter), short prickles on apophyses. Its stem can be straight (P. c. subsp. latifolia) or variously crooked. The pine crown is usually irregular and very thin. The species creates a tap root or a bundle-type root system (Tab. 14). Distribution: It is a North American species. Its extensive range occurs in the western part of the continent. The species is distributed from the central Yukon in W Canada up to S Colorado in the USA and the N part of Mexico. It grows from the Pacific Ocean, virtually from the sea level up to 3900 m altitude. Ecology: It is a light-demanding species tolerating only slight lateral shading. It creates open pure stands similarly as jack pine. Relationships to moisture are very different in various ecotypes. Southern pines subsp. murrayana and bolanderi are rather undemanding for moisture and tolerate drying soils even in summer months. The species grows on any soils, from limestone to peat, more likely on acid gravelly substrates. It is generally resistant to air pollution. Use: An important commercial species in many regions of the USA. It often germinates on a mass scale in burned areas (eg Yellowstone National Park etc.). Since 1858, the species is also used in forest plantations in Europe, particularly in S Scandinavia and N Germany but also in New Zealand. White pine, eastern white pine, Weymouth pine - Pinus strobus L. Description: A tree max. 60 m in height, stem diameter up to 3 m. Soft long needles are grouped five each in a fascicle. Shoots are tomentose. Conspicuous elongated cones with sparsely arranged scales. The cones fall away soon after maturation. Its root system is characterized by several thick main roots growing obliquely to depth. Sprouts on a stem are not formed (Tab. 13). Distribution: A North American species with its range in the east of the continent. It grows in the vicinity of Great Lakes in Canada up to New Foundland, in the USA through the Appalachian Mts to N Georgia. It occurs from the sea level (north) to an altitude of 1200 m. Ecology: It is a light-demanding species tolerating only slight lateral shading. It grows in regions with considerable atmospheric humidity. The species also requires sufficient soil moisture. It tolerates stagnant water rather badly. The pine grows on various substrates preferring, however, acid soils. It is resistant to climate growing rather well in the urban environment. Use: In the USA, the pine represents one of the main commercial species and its wood shows versatile use. The species was tested for forestry purposes in Europe as early as after Gradually, it has become one of the most frequently planted exotic species. White pine suffers 12
14 from a number of pests and mass outbreak caused particularly by aphids and fungi is rather frequent in the species. The species also suffers from snow breakages. It is a favoured park species. Larch -Larix In cold regions of Europe, Asia and North America, there are over ten species of larch. One species occurs in the Himalayas. In the CR, there is the only autochthonous species, viz European larch - L. decidua which is an important commercial species. As for introduced tree species, Japanese larch - L. kaempferi is grown most frequently in collections. Potential forestry use can be expected in a well-growing western larch - L. occidentalis from North America or Siberian larch - L. sibirica from Russia. Other species are very rare in plantations. It is a tree with a straight stem and branches arranged in irregular whorls. Needles are deciduous. They are distributed individually in a spiral on long shoots, otherwise they are crowded in fascicles on striking brachyblasts. Male and female strobili are placed individually on the brachyblast ends. Cones are small mostly erect. They mature in the first year persisting several years on branches. Its wood is differentiated to heartwood and sapwood being usually covered by thick rough bark. European larch - Larix decidua Mill., syn. Larix europaea DC. Description: A tree reaching a height of 50 m and stem diameter over 1 m, with a straight stem, sometimes sabre-shaped bent at base, high-placed conical crown. Maximum age is 500 years. In old age, a trend predominates to form thick branches perpendicular to the tree stem and showing ends of branches sickle-shaped bent up. Branches of the lower order are hanging down.deciduous needles are coloured with pastel yellow tints in autumn. Larch begins to produce seed in stands already between 20 and 30 years of its age, in mountain locations a little later. The size of cones rather differs according to particular ecotypes. After maturation, cones persist on trees for several years and seeds are released gradually. Supporting scales protrude only underneath cones or cannot be seen at all. Growth in young age is very fast. The root system of larch is of a tap root type at first. Later, the main root intensely ramifies and a multilaterally developed heart-shaped root system originates. Larch preserves dormant buds even on large-diameter stems and so, there is a possibility to form sprouts here. After pruning, fine shoots occur on its stem (Tab. 16). Distribution: European larch shows a markedly disjunctive range in Central Europe limited particularly by the Alpine and Carpathian regions, with other smaller ranges in uplands of southern Poland and in the Nízký Jeseník Mts. Elsewhere in Europe, Larix decidua is not an autochthonous species. Alpine larch is distributed throughout the mountain system of the Alps, usually where continental features of climate predominate. Vertical distribution of the species markedly differs, viz from 300 to m altitude. Types with large cones predominate. The centre of the distribution of larch is the Tatra Mts and the Transylvanian Mts regions which are interconnected with a number of islets of smaller localities. The species occurs at altitudes from 300 to 1850 m. Polish larch is connected with the Alpine larch range reaching up to Warsaw northward. It grows usually from 200 to 600 m altitude. Thus, it refers to a lowland ecotype. Silesian larch (Sudeten larch) occurs naturally in a negligible area in the western part of the Nízký Jeseník Mts. Its altitude ranges from 350 to 750 m. The present distribution of larch is related to anthropic activities. Ecology: Larch is markedly a light-demanding species suffering considerably from shading. Stands of larch are always open with large spacing of trees. Due to its sparse crown larch 13
15 conditions good growth of grass cover enabling thus a suitable connection between the forest and pasture in mountains. The species shows medium requirements for water both in soil and atmosphere. Drying up soils do not suit to it. The species avoids regions with the occurrence of low precipitation. Most frequently, it grows on fresh, deep, weathered soils but also on shallow slope debris soils with sufficient moisture. It occurs on various parent rocks preferring soils rich in nutrients. As compared with other ecotypes, Polish larch is better adapted to grow on acid and nutrient-poor soils approaching thus to Siberian larch. Larch is mediumsensitive to air pollution. It is a pioneer species particularly in mountain locations. Use: Larch wood, heartwood is highly appreciated because it is strong, resilient, durable, of nice colour and shine. It is a valuable timber for building constructions and furniture manufacture and its nice curly-grain veneer is broadly used particularly for linings of internal walls. Larch wood is very durable under water. In the Alps, resin was obtained from larch ( Venice turpentine ). In horticulture and in amenity planting, larch finds smaller use, however, formerly it was planted in avenues at higher locations. Japanese larch - Larix kaempferi Sarg., syn. Larix leptolepis (S. et Z.) Gord. A deciduous tree is reaching a height of 30 m and stem diameter 1 m. It is used as an ornamental species since From Scotland, a hybrid with L. decidua is known, viz L. eurolepis in which hybrid vigour manifests itself. The hybrid is resistant to cancer. Douglas fir - Pseudotsuga Evergreen monoecious trees. Needles are flattened, soft, with whitish strips of stomata on the abaxial face of leaves, tapered at base (pedunculated). In old age, deeply cracked thick cork bark. Cones are pendent with markedly protruding supporting scales, not disintegrating, maturing in the first year. Seeds are winged, triangular, dull. There are about 15 species in the Northern Hemisphere, more known from North America (eg P. menziesii, P. glauca, P. macrocarpa) and from Asia (P. japonica, P. wilsoniana, P. sinensis). In plantations, an American species Douglas fir - P. menziesii is broadly used. In Europe, it is successfully introduced into forest stands. Douglas fir - Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco, syn. Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii, Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Lamb.) Britt., Pseudotsuga douglasii (Lindl.) Carr. Description: A robust tree reaching a height of 100 m and stem diameter 5 m. The species can live more than 500 (800) years. It creates a slender straight stem, in young age with smooth bark with resin blisters. Needles are fine, green, after crushing between fingers they smell after citrus. Buds are pointed. Wood is differentiated to heartwood and sapwood being rather resinous. Cones show markedly protruding supporting scales. The species root system is heart-shaped being thus well anchored in soil. Douglas fir does not suffer from windfalls and does not create sprouts on stems (Tab. 17). Distribution: Douglas fir is a North American species distributed in mountains along the Pacific coast. Its range extends from British Columbia southwards through the Cascade Mountains to California. In the north, Douglas fir rises to an altitude of about 1000 m, southward it occupies increasingly higher altitudes reaching max m. Ecology: It is a light-demanding species and only in young age, it tolerates lateral shading. It grows in regions with very high precipitation and high snow cover, however, heavy snow damages the species. It does not tolerate drying soils and requires high atmospheric humidity. Parent rock in the species range is created by acid well permeable rocks. Sediments, volcanic material and alluvial soils predominate. It is a typical species of oceanic climate with mild 14
16 winters. Polluted environment of large cities and industrial agglomerations is not suitable for the growth of Douglas fir. Use: It is one of the most important commercial species in American forests. Since 1842, it has become an important introduced species in Europe. From the viewpoint of the rate of growth it surpasses other commercial conifers not suffering from insect outbreaks. In landscape architecture, it is used where enough area is available. Douglas fir - Pseudotsuga glauca Mayr., syn. Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca. Grey-green needles. Cones with protruding and markedly backward turned tricuspid supporting scales (Tab. XVI). It tolerates more continental climate, more intense frosts and drier localities as compared with P. menziesii. Both species are often mentioned in literature as two variants of the species P. menziesii, viz var. menziesii and var. glauca. Hemlock - Tsuga There are about 16 species distributed in the temperate zone of the E Asian and N American region. Usually trees with irregular branching, often with a pendent top. Needles are flat, markedly pedunculate, with two whitish waxy strips of stomata. Cones are usually small, not disintegrating, falling away during the second year. Seeds are winged, resinous. Wood lacks resin. Eastern hemlock, Canada hemlock - Tsuga canadensis Carr. A tree reaching a height of 40 m and stem diameter 1 m. Needles are usually arranged in two rows often covering a twig from above. Cones are small, about 2 cm long, shortly pedunculate. The species shows an intensely developed shallow surface root system (Tab. 17). A North American species growing in SE Canada and in the NE part of the USA. It is a species well tolerating shading. The species grows on various sites, usually on moist humid acid soils. An important commercial species. Wood is used for building purposes, for the production of cellulose and for boards. In Europe, it was introduced in It is planted as an ornamental species. Western hemlock - Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg. Description: A robust tree reaching a height of 70 m (90 m) and stem diameter over 1.5 m. Its crown is pyramidal with a pendent top. Annual shoots are pilose. Needles are equally wide along their length. A bulky root system anchors the species in soil prop roots being rather frequent. Cones without a peduncle are cm long. The species can be propagated by cuttings. It is a fast-growing species. Distribution: Western part of the North American continent, from Alaska to California, in the coastal mountain zone and then separated part of the range in the Rocky Mountains. It grows from the sea level to an altitude of 2000 m. Ecology: It is a shade-tolerating species often creating a lower storey in stands. It prefers localities with high atmospheric humidity and adequate soil moisture. The species grows on various soils from sandy soils through clay soils up to nutrient-poor acid soils of peat bog character. It does not tolerate basic calcareous soils. It is less resistant to low temperatures than T. canadensis. Use: An important commercial species of the NW USA. Together with Douglas fir, it creates stands with a growing stock amounting to as many as 2500 m 3 /ha. Its wood is of versatile use, however, it is lighter and less durable than wood of Douglas fir. In horticultural practice, the species is little used. 15
17 True cedar - Cedrus In North America, the term cedar mostly refers to junipers or to the genera of Thuja and Chamaecyparis. In collections, C. libani and C. atlantica (Tab. 18) are included. These species are used for the afforestation of limestone localities in the Mediterranean region. The Himalayan species C. deodara is known as a production species in plantations in the subtropics and tropics throughout the world. Cedar of Lebanon - Cedrus libani Loud. is a tree up to 40 m tall. Needles in a fascicle, each. Cones are erect disintegrating after maturation. Seeds are winged being similar to fir seeds. Cedar is characterized by durable wood of high quality with finely dispersed resin. The wood was very requested for the construction of ships and temples. Family: - Taxaceae Trees with evergreen usually distichous needles. Predominantly dioecious. Male reproductive organs are conelet-shaped, female organs are with a carpel bearing the only ovule. A fruit consists of a seed with nut-shaped skin enveloped by a fleshy or leathery testa (aril). As for European species, only genera Taxus and Torreya rank among the family. Yew - Taxus There are about 8 similar species distributed in Europe, Asia and America. Merely the only species T. baccata grows in the region of the CR. In park management, also a Japanese species T. cuspidata is used. The species shows more pointed needles and fine scaly bark. It refers to trees or shrubs of irregular growth with scaly bark. Wood, bark and needles are without resin canals. Fruits consist of small nut-shaped seeds in a fleshy testa. Pulp (aril) is sweet, bland, edible. Common yew - Taxus baccata L. Description: A tree with a straight stem, often with a broadly conical or globular crown. Trees are up to 15 m tall reaching over 1 m in diameter at their base. The species can reach 2000 years of age. Branching in young age is noticeably verticillate, later being, however, irregular. Needles are arranged spirally on erect shoots; otherwise they are, however, markedly distichous. They persist for 4 to 8 years. The root system of yew is multilaterally developed. From a heart-shaped basis, roots grow in all directions anchoring the species even on rocky and stony substrates. Yew demonstrates exceptionally good sprouting capacity. The whole plant except aril contains poisonous taxin (Tab. 19). Distribution: Yew is the species of an Eurasian range. Its distribution extends throughout the European subcontinent except cold northern and continental eastern parts. From southern Norway and Sweden to the west, yew grows both in the British Islands and in France and the Pyrenean peninsula; southwards it occurs as far as northern Africa, eastwards it reaches Iran. Throughout its range, the species occurs very sporadically and irregularly. The largest natural habitat of yew occurs in Central Europe in Slovakia in the valley of Harmanec where at least 100,000 older trees occur. Altitudinal range is considerable being related to latitude. Northwards, yew is also the species of lowlands. Yew reaches the highest locations in the Caucasus or in the Pontic Mts, viz 2300 m alt. 16
18 In the Czech Republic, there is a number of isolated localities, eg in the region of K ivoklát, particularly near Tý ov (about 5000 trees) and in the Moravian Karst (about 3500 trees). Its occurrence has been markedly reduced through human activities. Ecology: Yew is a species able to tolerate exceptionally intense shading throughout its life. It can grow under heavy shading of other species, mostly of beech and fir. However, it grows also well under conditions of full lighting in the open. Yews growing in the shade adapt badly to sudden insolation, decline and often die. Yew shows marked requirements for moisture. It grows frequently in rock fissures, however, it refers to shady exposures in mountain locations where there are at least sufficient amounts of precipitation and high atmospheric humidity. Yew grows on various soils with the exception of poor and shallow soils. Its optimum occurs often on limestone, cretaceous marl or on well weathering detritus and slope debris of various compositions. It is a species of oceanic climate with moderate winters and considerable relative atmospheric humidity in summer. Yew tolerates well air pollution in cities. Use: At present, yew is without any real forestry importance. Formerly, however, it was appreciated for its exceedingly hard, strong, very durable and resilient wood. It was used as indestructible building timber or for the manufacture of furniture. Until the 16th century, many yews were consumed for the manufacture of bows and crossbows. Yew wood represented an excellent material for turning work and carving. Yew can be rather easily propagated by cuttings. In last decades, shrub cultivars of T. media (probably a hybrid with T. cuspidata) are increasingly used in garden architecture. These cultivars differ in sharply pointed needles and scaly bark. Family : Cupressaceae It refers to species with assimilatory organs in the form of needles at least in young age, later mostly scaly foliage either oppositifolious or in whorls of three leaves each. Monoecious or dioecious trees, strobili of separate sex. Behind scales, there is a various number of seeds. Supporting scales are missing. Sometimes, strobili are fleshy even in maturity creating berryshaped formations. It is a very numerous family, in total about 20 genera. In the CR, it is represented by the only genus: juniper Juniperus (in total 60 species). In horticultural practice and in landscape and shade gardening, members of the genus Thuja (5 species), Platycladus and Chamaecyparis (7 species) are used abundantly in the form of many cultivars. In recent years, a shrubby Microbiota is also used. In collections, Thujopsis (Tab. 23) and Calocedrus (Tab. 23) are also more rarely planted. Some genera of the family Cupressaceae are important commercial species of the subtropics. The genus Cupressus (15-20 species) is distributed in warmer part of the temperate zone of a Northern Hemisphere. The most familiar C. sempervirens comes from the Mediterranean. A hybrid Cupressocyparis leylandii (Cupressus macrocarpa Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) is also used in forestry. Juniper - Juniperus Species with needles or scaly leaves, sometimes the species shows both types of leaves. Junipers are monoecious or dioecios. Thecae occur in strobili. Female strobili show 3 to 8 scales bearing 1 to 2 eggs. Fruits are berry-shaped fleshy strobili ripening in the second or third years. Conelets are intensely aromatically resinous. The genus is distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere from the Arctic to mountains of the subtropics and tropic (up to Mt Kilimanjaro). In the region of the CR, two subspecies of J. communis occur, viz J. communis subsp. communis and subsp. alpina. As for introduced species, North American eastern redcedar (pencil cedar) - J. virginiana (Tab. 21) is commonly grown in the form of various cultivars as well as J. chinensis. Less abundant species is J. squamata. Wood is specially used for 17
19 the manufacture of pencils. In horticultural practice, J. sabina is also used, particularly its cultivar Tamariscifolia (Tab. 20). Common juniper - Juniperus communis L. subsp. communis A shrub or tree of considerably variable shape. Mostly shrubby and multistem, exceptionally only one straight stem reaching a height over 10 m. Pointed needles grow in trimerous whorls showing white waxy stripes on the upper side. It is a dioecious species. Blue-black berryshaped strobili mature in the second or third years. Its root is of tap type at first. Soon, however, a nodose swelling rich in resin is created near the soil surface. Far-reaching surface roots project from the swelling (Tab. 20). The species shows a large Eurasian range extending from tundra in the north to steppe regions of the Mediterranean, N Africa and central Asia in the south. Juniper is a very light-demanding species being nearly indifferent to soil composition and parent rock showing also broad ecological range to moisture. Juniper berries are a favourite spice in piquant mixtures particularly adjusting the taste of venison. Juniper wood was formerly used in woodcraft. Juniperus communis L. subsp. alpina, syn. Juniperus sibirica Led, J. nana Willd.; J. communis L. subsp. nana It is a species of only shrubby growth resembling the previous species. A circumpolar species of the Northern Hemisphere. In Europe, it is distributed either in the region of taiga and tundra in the north or above the forest limit in southerly situated mountains. Arbor-vitae, cedar - Thuja Trees with pyramidal crowns. Opposite leaves are scaly, markedly flattened. Monoeciou species, female strobili with 4 6 pairs of scales bearing 2 3 eggs, lignifying. Seeds are winged. Five species are distributed in E Asia and North America. In recent years, T. koraiensis is used in horticultural practice as an ornamental species. Eastern arbor-vitae, white cedar - Thuja occidentalis L. A tree reaching a height of 35 m and stem diameter 1.7 m. Central leaflets are characterized by a markedly protrudent glandule. Its root system is heart-shaped at first, later broadly ramified (Tab. 22). The species is autochthonous in the eastern part of North America particularly in the region of Great Lakes. It is a shade-tolerating species requiring moist soils. Its wood is soft, easily workable and durable. The wood is used for building purposes, for the manufacture of sleepers, hydraulic structures, in joinery etc. In Europe, it is grown since 1536 as an important park species. At present, more than 100 cultivars are known in horticultural practice; it is often used for hedges. Western red cedar, giant arbor-vitae - Thuja plicata D. Don Description: A robust tree reaching a height of 60 (70) m and stem diameter 4 m. Its crown is broadly conical. Maximum age is years. Scaly leaves show whitish spots on the abaxial face. Its root system is well developed although somewhat shallow. The tree resists well to wind gusts. Distribution: A North American species extended particularly along the coast of the Pacific Ocean from Alaska to California. A continental (montane) ecotype extendings southwards up to Nevada. Ecology: It demonstrates a broad ecological valence to light. On the one hand, it behaves as a heliophyte, on the other hand it tolerates shade similarly as fir. It requires soil moisture and atmospheric humidity. The species grows well on clayey, deep and moist soils. It does not 18
20 show any special requirements for the content of nutrients in soil occupying both acid and basic substrates. Its litter improves the quality of soils. Particularly montane ecotypes are resistant to frosts. Use: The species ranks among the most important commercial species of the American northwest. It wood is very appreciated being light, resilient, sufficiently hard and durable. It is used for building purposes being also easily workable. The wood contains essential oils giving its characteristic aroma. The species was introduced to Europe in 1853 as an ornamental fastgrowing park tree. Later, it was also tested in forest stands. False cypress - Chamaecyparis Trees of pyramidal growth with a nutant top. Opposite scaly leaves are slightly flattened. Strobili are globular. Seven species are distributed in North America and Asia. Less frequently, Sawara cypres - Ch. pisifera or Ch. obtusa are grown, ie species coming from Japan. An American species Ch. nootkatensis is also used as a horticultural species. Lawson false cypress - Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (Murr.) Parl. A tree reaching a height of m and stem diameter 2 m. (Tab. 21). It grows in the SW part of the USA on western slopes of mountains. A semisciophyte requiring sufficient soil moisture and atmospheric humidity, however, it can also endure short periods of drought. Its wood is light but hard and strong being markedly aromatic. The wood is resistant to fungi and insect pests. It is used for the construction of buildings, furniture manufacture, for veneers, construction of boats, packing material and in pencil manufacture. It was introduced to Europe in First as an ornamental park species. Later, it was also used for forestry purposes in western Europe. Other more familiar species are as follows: Bald cypress, baldcypress - Taxodium distichum (L.) L. C. Rich. (Tab. 24), Metasequoia glyptostroboides Hu et Cheng. (Tab. 24), cryptomeria - Cryptomeria japonica D. Don (Tab. 25), coastal redwood - Sequoia sempervirens, mamoth tree, big tree, redwood - Sequoiadendron giganteum (Lindl.) Buchh. (Tab. 26). A North American species growing in the Sierra Nevada Mts in California. Robust trees reaching over 1000 m 3 in volume. The most bulky tree known under name General Shermann reaches a volume of 1467 m 3. It is a favourite ornamental tree. Family : Sciadopityaceae The genus Sciadopitys is represented only by one species - Umbrella Pine - Sciadopitys verticillata (Tab. 27). A japanes species is growing from Honshu in north Japan to Kjushu to south. It is interesting with its needles. They are standing in whorls.it is slow growing tree and it is use as an ornamental species. Family : Araucariaceae It is a family of 3 genera and about 30 exotic species occurring throughout the Southern Hemisphere. A well known species is monkey puzzle - A. araucana (Molina) K. Koch (Tab. 27) from Chile and Argentine. Very attractive park trees ranking among the genus Araucaria. The second genus Agathis (Damara) includes about 20 species in the tropics. The most familiar species used also in Australian forestry is A. robusta (height even over 50 m) which is often grown in plantations. 19
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13 Hidden Dangers To Pets During Halloween
Who doesn't love Halloween? Answer: Probably your pets. Many types of costumes are uncomfortable for them, the commotion is either way too exciting or somewhat upsetting, plus smells. A lot of stra ge smells. Odds are though, even if you've thought about the reasons why your pets might not like Halloween, you haven't opened the emotional Pandora's box of the reasons why it could be dangerous for them.
Here are 13 somewhat unexpected Halloween dangers that could be harmful to your pet. Keep them in mind, and keep your pet safe. After all, safety first (especially when it comes to our furry family members).
1. Flame-lit Jack-O-Lanters
We humans know to keep our paws off of the flames, but for a pet a candle inside of a pumpkin could very easily seem like a new toy. Burns could very easily ensue. Even if your pet knows not to go after the flame, they could inadvertently knock it over, which poses a risk for house fires.
2. Costumes On Pets Who HATE Costumes
Credit: Instagram
It's totally adorable to dress your dog as Lady Gaga or your cat as a business man, but make sure their little costumes fit them comfortably. More important than physical comfort, the ASPCA says we shouldn't put our pets in costumes unless we know they totally love it, otherwise they can get supremely stressed out. If they do wear a costume, make sure it doesn't constrict their movement, breathing, barking, or meowing. Also, if they seem distressed in their costume, take it off immediately (you'll probably have time to snap a pic for posterity) — and maybe opt for a simple bandana.
3. Easily Detachable Costume Pieces.
Okay, so you have one of those pets who loves to be in a costume: You should still never let them hang out in their costume unsupervised. Check the costume for pieces that are dangling or could be easily chewed-off, these items can very quickly become choking hazards. If the costume is too loose, pets can also get tangled up in it or stuck.
4. Going out without the proper identification.
If you're taking your pets trick or treating, make sure they're wearing the proper tags. With all the commotion on Halloween night, it's possible that even usually well-behaved pets could run off. Be sure they are wearing the proper tags with current IDs (or that they're microchipped).
5. Candy of all shapes and forms.
Something your pets never ever need to eat: candy. In addition to what you're already thinking of, artificial sweeteners like xylitol can also be really toxic to animals. Keep your stash hidden. Furthermore, if you have pets and kids make sure the kids know not to give the dog a candy bar. They might think they're simply sharing, but it could be a disastrous mistake.
6. Especially chocolate.
Credit: tumblr
You know about this one already but it's really serious. Don't let your pets (especially your dogs) anywhere near chocolate eating distance. All types of chocolate is toxic for dogs. If your pup has accidentally ingested some, immediately call your veterinarian or the ASPCA Poison Control Center (888) 426-4435.
7. Raisins
We all know those healthy families that like to hand out raisins en lieu of candy. While they might think they're sparing us cavities, they probably don't realize they're setting a small pet booby trap. Raisins can be toxic for some dogs, and can make most dogs very sick.
8. Candy Wrappers
You may think that once the candy is all gone it is no longer a threat, au contraire. Wrappers will attract your animals because they will still have traces of food on them. These wrappers are serious choking hazards. Make sure to dispose of them properly.
9. Glow sticks, fake blood, fake cobwebs …
Glow sticks, fake blood, and other decorations may make for fun accoutrements, but they are choking hazards for your pet. When it comes to glow sticks and fake blood, they could also be poisonous. Be careful what you leave out and where.
10. Stray wires.
Wires and strung lights should also be kept out of a pet's reach. Wires are just too seductive to chew on and strung lights are easy to choke on or get tangled in. Your best bet is to keep decorations out of your pets way.
11. Excessive noise.
Image: Getty
There's a reason your pets hide under the bed during thunderstorms and fireworks shows, noise can be very stressful for them! If you're planning on having a big party (or even just lots of trick or treaters) consider keeping your pet in another part of the house so they don't have to endure the din.
12. The frequently opening door.
Another reason to keep your pets tucked away, on Halloween (especially) the front door gets opened and shut a lot giving them ample opportunity to scamper outside. If you're passing out candy, make sure you know where your pet is at all times (and as we said before, make sure they've got their collar on).
13. Pranks!
This is a sad one but Halloween is a favorite time for pet pranks. Avoid all of the nonsense by keeping your pet indoors on Halloween, particularly if you happen to have a black cat. Black cats are particular targets for abuse and pranks this time of year. So even if you have an outdoor pet, just bring them inside for the night.

subset: commoncrawl


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Imran Khan, the former cricketer and popular election candidate, fell off a lift during a rally in Pakistan on Tuesday, sustaining head injuries.
Khan fell while being lifted to the stage and was carried by aides holding on to his arms and legs, according to Agence France Presse.
The fall was caught live on camera from the election rally being held in Lahore.
"Imran Khan fell from a lifter. He has received injuries to his head and he has been taken to hospital," Malik Ishtiaq, a local spokesman for Khan's Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf party, told AFP.
"Imran Khan is alright. He has been taken to the hospital for first aid. He will be back to address the rally very soon after getting initial treatment," Chaudhry Rizwan, another party spokesman, told AFP.
Pakistani site DawnNews reported that he was seen bleeding when he was rushed to the hospital.
Political rival Pakistani Muslim League-Nawaz chief Nawaz Sharif and his daughter issued sympathetic statements to Khan.
Al Jazeera said Khan was "in stable condition."
BREAKING NEWS: #Pakistan politician Imran Khan injured in accident. | More soon at aje.me/home twitter.com/AJELive/status…
— AJELive (@AJELive) May 7, 2013
Khan's former wife, Jemima, tweeted:
He's in hospital & conscious now RT @bbcbreaking: Pak politician Imran Khan injured in fall from stage at election rally
— Jemima Khan (@Jemima_Khan) May 7, 2013
The BBC noted it remained unclear how serious Khan's injuries were. Khan is one of the leading politicians campaigning in the upcoming general elections. If successful, the elections would be the first time Pakistan has transferred power from one civilian government to the next.
The runup to the May 11 elections in Pakistan has been marred by bombings and shootings, especially in the country's northwest. Since the beginning of April, over 100 people have died in attacks on candidates and party workers around Pakistan, according to the Associated Press.
The Pakistani Taliban has claimed responsibility for some, but not all, the attacks.
At least 17 people were killed in a pair of bombings on Tuesday.
Al Jazeera noted that Khan held a rally in the city of Karachi, where other parties under threat such as the Pakistan People's Party, the Muttahida Quami Movement and the Awami National Party, have not.
Here is video of Khan's fall: