text:
Civil War Journal
Hello, my name is Rosemary Smith, I live in North Carolina with my mom, dad, and 2 brothers. My job at home is to help slaves escape from there owners. So far its been hard but successful, I cant do it for much longer its hard work. I decided to fight in the war so they all become free. I have to descise as a boy soldier, and be very careful.
Dear Elizabeth Bales, (soldier)
You sure are a CHIEF COOK AND BOTTLE WASHER it makes me FIT TO BE TIED in jealousy. The war certainly is HARD CASE. I wish there was a way to be a BLUFF maybe the war would end faster then. So many of our soldiers are JAILBIRD or HARD KNOCKS. We sure are PLAYED OUT looking for them and trying to help them. Even though so many are JAILBIRD and HARD KNOCKS. The most amount of people fighting in the war die from QUICK-STEP because of the horrible food, and much more.
Dear mother, The war is a lot harder then I thought it was going to be. Thank you for sending me the necessity's that I had asked for. (food,water,clothing) The location of the camp is in the middle of know wear so there is plenty of room to train for the war. Camp punishments have been very harsh. They will stick a stick through your legs and arms so you can not move. That happens about everyday, so how a soldier will do something to get that kind of punishment. Im very lucky you are not here to suffer it, I will be home to see you soon.
Sincerely, Rosemary Smith
Interview with Jeremiah
When, you chose to join the union what made you choose that choice?
Jeremiah= I don't like slavery and don't want it to increase, but I don't want it to stop. I thought I would rather want slavery to stop then to increase, so i joined the union
Looking back what is something in your life that you are proud or happy about?
I am happy for joining the union.
What is one thing about your life you wish had been different?
My mom being sick.
Your message...
JOUNRAL ENTRY 5Dear Friend,
In camp there is nothing to do, just walk around the camp aimlessly or something. The thing that actually entertained some of us is playing cards, throwing rocks, or doing what ever we can find. In camp there is not much food, and if there is food its usually really nasty. I have to say y favorite food is Mud pie. The ingredients are mud, water, dirt, and a little bit of seisings. Its nasty but better then the other stuff.
The Song
We are born to fight and here to stay.
We are brave and strong and til our last days
So grab your gun and enlist for the war
You know why you're here and when you came
You see pain and loss without mistake
So grab your gun and enlist for the war
Before the muskets fire tonight
Yeah we'll fight until we die
So come on
come on
come on
Won't you fight with me
Into a raging war
so Come on
come on
come on
till we lose our soul
Into a raging war
into a raging war
Come on
come on
come on
Won't you fight with me
into a raging war
Dear Friend,
I have witnessed a bunch of injuries at camp. None of them have been so bad in which they die, some die not all. Most of them die because of dirrea, unhealthy food, the food most of them eat off is stuff they find on the ground, they even drink water that was on the ground that is all dirty and muddy. It is horrible I wish I could leave now, No matter what it is I want to leave. Its torturer. Some times all they would do to heal the injuries is poor water on it and rap it in a rag. Most of the time they help them but get infected anyways
I left to home because I got shot in my leg and it started to get infected, so they sent me there. I kept trying to fight, but I couldn't even stand up. So off I went to home, when i returned from the war alone, without my 2 brother who had fought with me. There was a big get together, and party that I was home and safe and forever going to be in my moms arms again. She will never let me go again.


text:
Were the Galileans religious Jews or ethnic Judeans?
- Charla Shepherd
- 2 years ago
- Views:
1 Were the Galileans religious Jews or ethnic Judeans? Markus Cromhout (Johannesburg) 1 Research Associate: Faculty of Theology University of Pretoria Abstract This article focuses on an investigation into the ethnic identity of first-century Galileans. Its aim is to argue that the Galileans were not descendents of northern Israelites but were mostly descendents of Jews who came to live in the region during the Hasmonean expansion. The article demonstrates that this thesis is supported by Josephus and also by archaeological evidence. From the perspective of this thesis, the article contends that the term Jew does not apply to Galileans. First-century Galileans should rather be understood as ethnic Judeans. 1. INTRODUCTION Who were the Galileans in the first century CE? The nature of their identity, needless to say, is important to various aspects of New Testament scholarship. Galilee was the heartbeat of Jesus ministry, and many, if not most of his initial followers, came from this region. What is important therefore is how the people of Galilee related to Judeans/ Jews and Jerusalem in the south; was their culture similar or different? Was the culture from Judea a foreign import, or was it part of their cultural heritage? Were they descendents of Northern Israelites, a hybrid of various peoples, Jews, or perhaps, more accurately, Judeans (in the ethnic-cultural sense)? It can be mentioned that the situation of Galilee was very different in the early history of Israel. Originally it was the territory of the tribes of Naphtali, Zebulun and probably Issachar as well (Jdg 5:7-21). In time they became subordinated to the monarchy and Temple in Jerusalem, and after Solomon s 1 Markus Cromhout (PhD) participates in the research project Biblical Theology and Hermeneutics, directed by Dr Andries G van Aarde, honorary professor at the Faculty of Theology of the University of Pretoria. The article is based on Dr Cromhout s PhD dissertation, titled The reconstruction of Judean ethnicity in Q (University of Pretoria). The dissertation is published by Wipf & Stock (Cascade Books, Eugene, Oregon, USA in 2007). Wipf & Stock granted HTS permission that pages , , , 241, 254 and pp 2, 3, 4, and 5 from Dr Cromhout s book Jesus and identity: Reconstructing Judean ethnicity in Q be republished in this article. HTS 64(3)
2 Were the Galileans religious Jews or ethnic Judeans? death (931 BCE), became part of the northern kingdom of Israel (1 Ki 12), although there was persistent rebellion against kingly rule (Horsley 1995:23-25). What is of critical importance is what happened to these tribes after the conquest of the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser in 733/2 BCE. Did many of these Israelites remain behind and survive across the generations until the first century CE? Two main streams of scholarship will be investigated here. On the one hand there is the view that Galileans were descendents of northern Israelites. A recent advocate of this view is Richard Horsley and we will interact with his work on this perspective. On the other hand, there is the view that the Galileans were Jews, being descendents of those who came to live in the region during the Hasmonean expansion to the north. Working our way through these two approaches, it will become clear that the second view is better supported, by both Josephus and archaeological evidence, in that the Galileans at least the vast majority of them were descendents of people who relocated to Galilee from Judea. The second view also has a weakness however. It will be argued that the implication of the second view is that Galileans should no longer be refered to or be understood as (religious) Jews, but rather as (ethnic) Judeans. Following recent voices on this issue and on the proper translation of, we should discard the terms Jews (and Judaism ) with regards to the people of Judea, the Diaspora, and Galilee as well, since these terms are anachronistic and misleading for the historical situation in question. Understanding Galileans therefore as ethnic Judeans would be an important analytical adjustment in more ways than one. But let us first turn our attention to the argument in favour of Galileans being descendents of northern Israelites. 2. THE GALILEANS AS DESCENDANTS OF NORTHERN ISRAELITES Horsley (1995, 1996) is one scholar in particular who understands the people of Galilee in our period as descendants of northern Israelites. He is aware of surface surveys (see further below) that seem to demonstrate that after the campaigns of Tiglath-pileser III, Lower Galilee was devastated and that virtually the entire population was deported. Yet continuity of the Israelite population seems far more likely, despite the fragmentary evidence and often inferential interpretation on which the hypothesis is based (Horsley 1995:26). Horsley argues that the Assyrians primarily deported skilled scribes, artisans and military, as well as the ruling families and/or royal officers of a given region. The majority of the peasant population was normally left behind. The same would have occurred in Galilee. Horsley goes further, however, and suggests the people deported from Galilee would have been Syrian officers 1280 HTS 64(3) 2008
3 Markus Cromhout and their dependents, as Galilee and much of Israel was under Syrian control (cf 1 Ki 15:17-21; 2 Ki 10:32-33; 13:3, 7, 22). So Horsley argues that the vast majority of the (northern-) Israelite peasantry would have been left behind. Horsley continues by constructing a picture of a separate historical development of Galilee from Judeans in the south and Israelites in the central hill country until it came to be part of the Hasmonean, and eventually Roman political system (Horsley 1995:27-157). Throughout this period, so Horsley suggests, the Israelites of Galilee would have cultivated their own oral traditions. Josephus also ordinarily distinguishes between the Galileans and the Judeans, and in certain instances he even indicates that the Galileans were a separate ethnos from the Judeans (War 2.510; 4.105). 2 In the time of the Hasmonean expansion, they were subjected to the laws of the Judeans, but even long after this annexation there is evidence that the distinctive Galilean traditions and customs continued. But kinship and shared traditions would have been factors in the incorporation of Galileans under the Hasmonean-Judean Temple state. Horsley (1995:50-51) argues that as descendants of northern Israelite tribes the inhabitants of Galilee would have shared with the Judean temple-state traditions such as the exodus story, the Mosaic covenant (including the sabbath), stories of independent early Israel prior to the Solomonic monarchy and its temple, and certain traditions akin to some of those subsumed in the Judean Torah and early sections of the Deuteronomic history (including circumcision, ancestor legends, victory songs) Nevertheless, even as descendants of Israelites, the Galileans would have found the laws of the Judeans different from their own indigenous customs and traditions [T]hey had undergone more than eight centuries of separate development. So the Judean Temple, its dues, and the role of the high priest was something foreign to the Galileans and was superimposed on their own customs. This means that for the Galileans to have been incorporated into the Judean Temple-state, it would have required an intense program of social engineering. For that to have happened, the officers or retainers of the Hasmonean government would have had to undertake a program of resocialization of the Galileans into the Judean laws as well as a detailed application of the Judean laws to local community life. But Horsley continues. A survey of the subsequent history of the Hasmonean regime and its governing activities suggests that little such effort could have been made in Galilee (Horsley 1995:51, 52). Indeed, even the 2 In his other major work on Galilee, Horsley (1996:27) actually states that ordinarily Josephus makes clear distinctions between the Galileans and Idumeans and Judeans as separate ethnoi or peoples. HTS 64(3)
4 Were the Galileans religious Jews or ethnic Judeans? period after Hasmonean rule would not have been conducive for the law of the Judeans to take a firm hold over Galileans. The Galileans continued to assert their independence from the principal institutions of Jerusalem rule such as the revolt that occurred after Herod s death. Even during the Great Revolt, high priestly-pharisaic council in Jerusalem through Josephus commanded little authority in Galilee. Horsley (1995:156) basically concluded that there is little evidence to indicate that either the Judean Temple-state, or the Temple and Torah established a defining importance for life in Galilee during the time of Jerusalem rule. 3. GALILEE AFTER THE ASSYRIAN CONQUEST The critical issue is what happened in Galilee after the campaigns of the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III in BCE. Were there indeed some northern Israelites that continued living in the area, as Horsley suggests? 2 Kings 15 claims that Tiglath-pileser III conquered Hazor, as well as Gilead, Galilee and the land of Naphtali, and led the population into exile in Assyria (2 Ki 15:29). Fragmentary Assyrian texts offer the complete names of Hannathon and Merom, and give four numbers of people being exiled from Galilee (625, 650, 656, and ) (Reed 2000:28). This evidence in itself is ambiguous, but a recent surface survey of Lower Galilee, when coupled with the results of stratigraphic excavations in Upper and Lower Galilee, paint a picture of a totally devastated and depopulated Galilee in the wake of the Assyrian campaigns of 733/732 BCE (Reed 2000:29; cf 1999:90-95). The survey of Lower Galilee found no evidence of occupation from the seventh to sixth centuries (Iron Age III) at any of the eighty or so sites inspected. 3 Surveys also illustrate that even Upper Galilee was not spared by the Assyrians. This leads to the conclusion that Galilee was depopulated in the wake of the Assyrian conquest. This appears to be the assumption of Josephus as well (Ant 9.235), yet the Tanak does suggest that some people 3 The chronological periods employed by archaeologists and historians are as follows (cf Reed 2000:21): Iron II Iron III Persian Early Hellenistic Late Hellenistic Early Roman Middle Roman Late Roman /32 BCE 733/ BCE BCE BCE BCE 63 BCE 135 CE CE CE 1282 HTS 64(3) 2008
5 Markus Cromhout did remain behind. It is said in 2 Chr 30:10-11 that in the time of Hezekiah (ca BCE), members of Asher, Manasseh and Zebulun humbled themselves and came to Jerusalem. Horsley s (1996:23) objection that the sites where the surface surveys have been conducted were not subjected to systematic excavations is legitimate, although other stratigraphic excavations conducted appear to confirm that Galilee was abandoned in the seventh and sixth centuries. Conflagration layers dated to the end of the eighth century are found at many sites in and around Galilee. A few sherds have been found at Gush Halav, otherwise the evidence is limited to a few structures in Hazor (the Huleh Valley) and Tel Chinnereth (north-western shore of the Sea of Galilee) which were probably Assyrian military or administrative buildings. But there is no evidence for a surrounding population (Reed 2000:30-31). An Assyrian-style decorated bronze cup further points to an Assyrian presence in Kefar Kanna (Chancey 2002:33). Generally, however, Reed (2000:32) explains there was simply an insufficient amount of material culture in Galilee following the campaigns of Tiglath-pileser III for serious consideration of any cultural continuity between the Iron Age and subsequent periods There are no villages, no hamlets, no farmsteads, nothing at all indicative of a population that could harvest the Galilean valleys for the Assyrian stores, much less sustained cultural and religious traditions through the centuries. In contrast with the view of Horsley, Reed argues that the above picture is in keeping with Assyrian policy which often deported all classes of people to Assyria or other regions for agricultural labour. Reed (2000:34) concludes that the position of Horsley that an Israelite village culture spanned the Iron Age to Roman periods must be abandoned. Chancey (2002:34) refers to various texts that assume the presence of Israelites in Galilee (2 Chr 30:10-11; 34:6; 2 Ki 21:19; 23:36) in addition to the archaeological evidence for Assyrians, but he too concludes that for the most part Galilee was unpopulated. Claims of a continuity between the pre-assyrian conquest and the Second Temple population are difficult to maintain (Chancey 2002:34). Archaeological evidence further illustrates that Galilee was resettled during the Persian and Early Hellenistic periods, but even here the evidence is limited and the ethnic identity of the people is difficult to determine (Reed 2000:35-39). Josephus description of John Hyrcanus ( BCE) defeat of Scythopolis may suggest that Galilee was open for resettlement, which implies that no other major defensible Gentile sites were present in Galilee, or alternatively, that it had a small population (Ant ; War ). Chancey (2002:36) similarly argues that the interior of Galilee was still relatively sparsely populated on the eve of the Maccabean campaigns. HTS 64(3)
6 Were the Galileans religious Jews or ethnic Judeans? 4. THE SETTLEMENT OF GALILEE IN THE LATE HELLENISTIC PERIOD We now move ahead to the history of Galilee during the Late Hellenistic period, particularly to that of the Maccabean military campaigns. According to 1 Maccabees, news came from Galilee that Galilean Israelites were persecuted by people from Ptolemais, Tyre, Sidon and, all Galilee of the foreigners (1 Mac 5:14-22). 4 It is said that the Judeans deliberated on how they should help their brothers ( ; 1 Mac 5:16). 1 Maccabees explains that Judas sent Simon to help these Galileans and defeated the Gentiles with three thousand men. The people of Galilee, but evidently not all of them (cf Chancey 2002:41), were brought back to Judea (1 Mac 5:23), although Horsley (1995:40; but see 243) expresses doubt as to the historical veracity of this incident. Josephus in describing this incident actually writes that Judas sent Simon to go and help the in Galilee (Ant , 334). Around the same time it is said that the on the borders of Gilead fled into cities of Galilee (Ant ), suggesting Galilee could function as a safe refuge. It could well be that these Galileans helped by Simon settled in the area sometime after the Babylonian exile. Gamla, located in the Golan Heights, was resettled in 150 BCE after being uninhabited for centuries. Syon (1992) conjectures that the settlers of Gamla were Jews from Babylon and we may infer a similar situation for the people of Galilee (Josephus, however, speaks of Gamla s conquest by Alexander Jannaeus ( BCE); (War ; Ant ). 1 Maccabees 11:63-74 and Josephus (Ant ) relate that later on Demetrius III encamped at Kedesh in the western part of Upper Galilee (ca 144 BCE). Josephus (Ant ) specifically says that it was Demetrius intention to draw Jonathan to Galilee, as the latter would not allow the Galileans, who were his own people, to be attacked. Jonathan in response attacked the forces of Demetrius twice; once in the plain of Hazor in Upper Galilee pursuing them back to Kedesh, and at Hammath in Lebanon (1 Mac 11:24ff). If these sources are trustworthy, not all the people of Galilee were 4 also appears in LXX Joel 4:4. Along with 1 Maccabees 5:15, this phrase refers to the coastal regions that surrounded Galilee which were dominated by Gentiles. In the LXX, is frequently used to translate Philistine, although literally it means foreigner, and was later used for Gentile (e g Ant 1.338; 4.183; War 5.194; Ac 10:28) (Chancey 2002:37-39). This phrase is probably an allusion to (galil hagoyim), circle of the peoples, in Isaiah 9:1 ( in LXX Is 8:23). According to Horsley (1995:20), circle of the peoples was likely a reference to the peoples, citystates, and other rulers who surrounded and competed for political-economic domination in the area. When it comes to the region of Galilee itself, the Hebrew term ha-galil was probably a shortening of galil ha-goyim. Galilee of the Gentiles occurs very rarely in ancient literature and the single word Galilee was the region s common name (Chancey 2002: ) HTS 64(3) 2008
7 Markus Cromhout evacuated by Simon. And Josephus, when you look at his overall descriptions of the Maccabeans and their activities in this region, appears to have understood the Galileans to be of similar ethnic stock to those living in Judea. It was much later when the Hasmoneans took actual control of northern Palestine, especially referring here to their campaign against the Itureans. Horsley (1995:36) explains that the Itureans, who were also in the process of expanding their territory, extended their control over much of Galilee, Gaulanitis, Auranitis, and Batanea towards the latter part of the second century BCE. It is said that Aristobulus I ( BCE) made war on the Itureans and acquired a good deal of their territory for Judea and compelled the inhabitants, if they wished to remain in the country, to be circumcised and to live in accordance with the law of the Judeans. Josephus here is also informed by Strabo (who follows Timagenes), who says that Aristobulus brought over to [the Judeans] a portion of the Iturean nation (Ant ). According to Horsley (1995:41), the territory acquired for Judea must have been (part of) Galilee. But were there Itureans based in northern Galilee? Josephus does not specify Galilee as the locale and the archaeological evidence does not support the presence of Itureans in Upper Galilee, their settlements being limited to the Hermon Range and the Lebanon Range and the northern Golan. According to Reed (2000:38-39, 54) this means that the conversion of the Itureans is not an important factor for assessing the ethnicity of the Galileans. In this scenario Horsley suggests an alternative interpretation, however, in that Josephus might be correcting his source(s) Strabo- Timagenes who assumed that Galilee was Iturean because it was ruled by Itureans. Josephus correction distinguishes between the inhabitants in the land (chora) and their previous rulers, the Itureans, on whom Aristobulus made war and from whom he wrested territory for Judea (Horsley 1995:41). Building on the supposition that the Galileans were basically descendents of northern Israelites, Horsley subsequently understands the passage of Josephus (Ant ) in that the Galileans were subjected in a politicaleconomic-religious sense to the Hasmonean high priesthood in Jerusalem. The requirement of (re-)circumcision what this means is not clear for Galileans is comprehensible as a sign of being joined to the [Judean] bodypolitic and so the Hasmoneans were now requiring peoples of subjected areas to accept new laws, the laws of the Judeans (Horsley 1995:48, 49). It is hard to detect any correction on the part of Josephus to his source(s). If this passage is relevant to a Hasmonean takeover of Galilee it might well be that it was relevant to some Gentiles that lived in Galilee (cf Horsley 1995:243-44). Chancey (2002:43-44, 47), who states that no archaeological finds indicate a massive influx of Itureans into Galilee, suggests that the Galilean population was a matrix of some Itureans, HTS 64(3)
8 Were the Galileans religious Jews or ethnic Judeans? Phoenicians, and Jews (be they northern Israelites or more recent immigrants). Based on his analysis, it is possible that the already circumcised Itureans who chose to remain behind subjected themselves to Hasmonean rule. Phoenicians and peoples of other Gentile stock were compelled to undergo circumcision, though many, based on the archaeological evidence chose to leave. The Jews presumably welcomed Hasmonean rule. Yet, the question must remain: Did the campaign against the Itureans have anything to do with Galilean territory? Josephus speaks of Hyrcanus ( BCE) allowing Alexander (Jannaeus) to be brought up in Galilee (Ant ) to supposedly prevent him from becoming the future heir. Does this suggest that Galilee was already under the control of the Hasmoneans? According to Freyne (1999:52-53) Josephus does not give information on the Hasmonean expansion into Galilee, and the Judaization of Itureans used to account for the event has no adequate basis in either the literary or archaeological evidence. The above text of Josephus and the various interpretations that are offered are inconclusive in of themselves. Simplifying matters is that who the original population was in Galilee is probably not that important as what occurred when the Hasmoneans took over the region. As already mentioned, investigations of Galilee suggest that the area was thinly resettled during the Persian and Early Hellenistic periods, after the bulk or all of the inhabitants had been deported by the Assyrians. The archaeological evidence for the Late Hellenistic and Early Roman periods, however, paint a different picture. It would appear that during the period of Hasmonean expansion the region began to experience an increase in sites and overall population. According to Reed (2000:40-41): The vast majority of stratigraphically excavated sites from the Roman-Byzantine Period contain their earliest recoverable strata, that is to say the earliest architecture and first significant pottery assemblage, from the Late Hellenistic Period or first century BCE. This is the case at Capernaum, Hammath Tiberias, Horvat Arbel, Yodefat, Khirbet Shema, Meiron, Nazareth, and Sepphoris The population of Galilee continued to increase through the Early Roman period, and several stratigraphically excavated sites reveal initial settlement around the turn of the millennium or in the first century C.E. This is the case at Beth Shearim, Nabratein, Chorazin, and of course, Herod Antipas s Tiberias. The numismatic evidence is also quite instructive in that beginning in the early first century BCE, a significant amount of Hasmonean, particularly Jannaean, coins were used by the people of Galilee, in addition to Tyrian coinage. This means that Galilee was economically and politically orientated towards Judea 1286 HTS 64(3) 2008
9 Markus Cromhout and that Galilee s population growth was connected to Hasmonean policies (Reed 2000:41-43; Chancey 2002:46). Overall, the Hasmonean expansion northwards to Galilee must have been part of restoration hopes and the greater Israel ideology as encountered in Ezekiel The Tanak relates that the northern tribes failed to occupy the territories allotted to them (Jos 13:4-5; 11:8; cf Jdg 3:3). When Jonathan campaigned in the north against Demetrius, he went as far as Hammath, situated on the ideal border of the greater Israel. Freyne (2004:79) explains: What the northern tribes had failed to accomplish, Jonathan, like a new Joshua, was achieving by military prowess in the name of reclaiming the allotted land. Eupolemus, akin to Ezekiel, held hopes for an enlarged land. Combined with the military exploits of the Maccabeans as set out in 1 Maccabees, Freyne (2004:79) argues that these samples of writers indicate that the notion of the land remaining was highly pertinent to the thinking and ideological legitimation of the Hasmonean expansion. The Phoenicians to the north, and Rome s advance in the east, however, made it impossible to realise the ideal boundaries as articulated by Ezekiel (Freyne 2001:301; 2004:80). But this land ideology, combined with the archaeological evidence for a depopulated Galilee, has led Freyne (2004:62; 1990:73-74) himself to abandon his earlier position (Freyne 1988:170) of a continued northern Israelite presence in Galilee, and says that by the first century CE the successors of these Hasmonean settlers constituted the bulk of Galilean Jews, even if other elements, Jewish and non-jewish, had entered the mix as a result of the conquests and rule of Herod the Great and his son, Antipas. It is important to acknowledge, therefore, contrary to several modern claims about Galilean opposition to Jerusalem, that there was a strong attachment to the mother-city, its temple and customs, among Galilean Jews of Jesus day. (Freyne 2004:82) 5. THE CULTURAL CONTINUITY BETWEEN JUDEA AND GALILEE What do the archaeological excavations in Galilee tell us about its people s ethnic identity in the Early Roman period? Importantly, the Galilean s ethnic identity in the first century can be best determined by examining the material culture inside domestic or private space, since it indicates the populace s behavior and selection of artefacts. Reed (2000:44) continues by saying that the archaeological artifacts found in Galilean domestic space are remarkably similar to those of Judea. Indeed there are four indicators pointing to a Jewish religious identity: 1) the chalk or soft limestone vessels, 2) stepped HTS 64(3)
10 Were the Galileans religious Jews or ethnic Judeans? pools or miqva ot, 3) secondary burial with ossuaries in loculi tombs, and 4) bone profiles that lack pork (Reed 2000:44-51; 1999:95-102). The stone vessels indicate a concern for purity as the Mishnah prescribes that vessels made of stone can not contract impurity (m.kel 10:1). Stone vessels are ubiquitous in Jerusalem and Judea, in Galilee and the Golan. Reina, a village north of Galilee, has also been identified as a centre of production for limestone measuring cups and other vessels (Chancey 2002:68). The stepped pools similarly indicate a concern for ritual purity. 5 Of the 300 plus miqva ot discovered so far in Palestine (Sanders 1992: ), they are most frequent in Judea, Galilee and Golan, but only a few have been found along the coast and are basically absent in Samaria. These two indicators, along with secondary burial in kokhim or loculi tombs were distinctively Jewish. The absence of pork in the bone profile is not evidence for Jewish/Judean (as opposed to northern Israelite) ethnicity in itself, but when combined with the other indicators they form strong evidence for cultural continuity between Judea and Galilee. The archaeological profile of private space of sites outside Galilee and Golan also lack the four religious-ethnic indicators discussed above. The conclusions for the ethnic identity of Galileans seem to be self-explanatory. So the settlement of Galilee during the Hasmonean period in the first century BCE and the Galilean material culture which match that of Judea, Reed (2000:53) explains essentially rules out the possibility that Galileans were descendants of either [northern] Israelites or Itureans. Because of the evidence within domestic space, Hasmonean rule in Galilee should not be construed as a political-economic or administrative veneer over an indigenous Galilean population; wherever archaeologists have excavated, Jewish religious indicators permeate Galilean domestic space in the Early Roman period. This archaeological profile corroborates the understanding that it is more likely that Judeans colonised the Galilee during the Hasmonean expansion (cf 5 According to Kloppenborg (2000:231-34, 257), miqva ot in Galilee and its environs were restricted to places of priestly settlement, a few private homes, synagogues (e g Gamla and Chorazin) and sites identified with olive oil production (e g Mansur el-aqeb, Gamla and Yodefat). Galileans resisted or ignored an extension of purity practices. Chancey (2002:118) lists Sepphoris and Jotapata as places where miqva ot have been found. Reed (2000:49-51) speaks of miqva ot at Sepphoris, Tiberias, Yodefat, Nazareth, Gamla, Chorazin, Beit Yinam, Beth-Shearim, Har Arbel, Khirbet Shema and Sasa. No miqva ot have been found at Capernaum, but according to Reed (2000:50, ) this can be attributed to the fact that the lake could be used for suitable immersion (m.mik 1:1; 1:6) indeed, with the exception of Tiberias, there is virtually a complete absence of immersion pools around the shore of the lake (Reich 1990). Objections have been raised that the pools in Sepphoris be identified as miqva ot (Eshel 2000), but it seems to be generally accepted that the pools are such (Meyers 2000; Reich 2002). According to Chancey (2002:105), the claimed first century miqveh (and synagogue) at Chorazin (cf Strange & Shanks 1990) post-date the time of Jesus HTS 64(3) 2008
11 Markus Cromhout Freyne 2001:299) and/or overwhelmed the few prior inhabitants, regardless of who they were, but the point is that Galilee s population adhered to or adopted patterns of behavior in private space that is also found in Jerusalem and Judea, so that in terms of ethnicity, the Galileans should be considered Jewish (Reed 2000:53). Also the view that Galilee had many Gentiles (e. g. Fitzmyer 1992) must be abandoned. Any significant Gentile presence in the first century is not attested by the archaeological record. This stands in glaring contrast to the surrounding regions which were predominantly Gentile, although which also had Jewish minorities (Chancey 2002:117-19, 165). Overall, the archaeological evidence combines to suggest that from the Hasmonean annexation of the territory, Jews dominated the region (Chancey 2002:62). Galilean Jews had a different social, economic and political matrix than Jews living in Judea or the Diaspora but they all were Jewish (Reed 2000:55). This also means that they lived according to the broader pattern of common Judaism, and along with other Jews lived out their identity as a form of protest against foreign cultural influences (Richardson 2004:20-21, 71, 73). 6 Horsley (1995:87-88) places great stock in the fact that the Galileans were continuously suspicious of Josephus and that the high priestly-pharisaic council in Jerusalem could not assert their authority in Galilee during the Great Revolt. This can not be used as evidence, however, that the Galileans 6 Other evidence, mainly from Josephus, supports this. (1) Josephus speaks of the Sabbath being observed in Galilee (Ant ; Life 159). (2) Judas the Galilean, in collaboration with Zaddok the Pharisee, spearheaded a rebellion in response to the requirement of Roman taxes (War 2.117f; Ant ), using the slogan no Master but God. Josephus actually says that Judas and his group followed Pharisaic rulings (Ant 18.23). (3) Gischala appears to have been the location of the production of olive oil that satisfied the demands of ritual purity. Judeans/ Jews of Ceasarea-Philippi were supplied since they wanted to avoid Gentile food production (Life 74; War ). (4) Galileans evidently had a measure of attachment to the Temple in Jerusalem. When Gaius wanted to erect a statue of himself in the Temple in Jerusalem, Judeans and supposedly Galileans as well (Chancey 2002:54) protested by leaving their lands unsown, and so no harvest and payment of tribute would be possible (Ant ; War ). The Galileans showed concern for the sanctity of the Temple, and certainly far more is involved here than merely making common cause with the Judeans when faced with a threat to the basic covenantal principles they shared from ancient Israelite tradition (Horsley 1995:71). According to Kloppenborg (2000:227), whose understanding of the Galileans is similar to that of Horsley, Tobit 1:6-8 suggests that most Galileans did not participate in pilgrimages. But Josephus takes for granted that a priest representing the Temple, being born in Jerusalem, and being well versed in the Law would have status among Galileans at the outbreak of the revolt. Josephus also states that he refused priestly tithes offered to him by the Galileans (Life 63, 80, ) (cf Freyne 2001:300; Chancey 2002:55-56). (5) A Jesus son of Sapphias, the magistrate of Tiberias, took the laws of Moses (a Torah Scroll) into his hand whom he accused Josephus of betraying. Josephus himself states that he was suspected that his ultimate intention was to betray the country to the Romans, and that some Galileans attempted to kill him (Life ; War ). Here Galileans were accusing Josephus of betraying their common Judaism. (6) Tiberias boasted a prayer-house, which was a regular feature of Judean communities in the Diaspora (Life 277, 280, ), and to this can be added the existence of a synagogue at Capernaum (Strange & Shanks 1990; Chancey 2002:104). (7) When Antipas built his new capital, Tiberias, on the site of a graveyard on the western shore of the lake in 18 CE (Ant ), Josephus explains that Antipas forced peasants from the surrounding villages and countryside to live in the new capital or otherwise offered people land. This also illustrates that the local population was Judean/ Jewish as they did not desire to be in a constant state of ritual impurity. (8) Josephus explains that Gischala was under the leadership of John ben Levi, who later became his most important rival for the control of Galilee. Josephus describes John as a not so observant Levite (War 7.264), which nevertheless, still makes him a Judean/ Jew. More evidence is discussed below. HTS 64(3)
12 Were the Galileans religious Jews or ethnic Judeans? were not Judeans/ Jews and were striving for independence. Even those of Judea were suspicious of some of their priests in Jerusalem and even killed them. It is also noticeable that nowhere are there reports in Josephus accounts that the Galileans attacked any local Judeans. They attacked the Greeks in Tiberias and also participated in conflicts with Gentiles in the regions surrounding Galilee (Chancey 2002:56, 132). After Galilee was taken by the Romans, some Galileans even went to Jerusalem to join the resistance there. Before the Great Revolt, the Galileans were also involved in conflict with the Samaritans 7 at times (Ant ; War 2.232), as one of more of them were killed while going to Jerusalem. Nowhere do our sources suggest that Galileans and Samaritans ever made common cause against a common ideological enemy, namely, the Judeans. The hostility between Galileans and Samaritans is better explained if cultural and ethnic continuity existed between Judea and Galilee. Josephus description of the Galileans also contrast with that of the Idumeans who were forcefully converted during the Maccabean campaigns (Ant ; cf War 1.63). Their conversion, however, is doubtful, as the appointed governor of Idumea, Costobar, in the time of Herod refused for the Idumeans to adopt the customs of the Judeans (Ant ). Nothing like this is said of Galileans. When seen in conjunction with the archaeological evidence, it is difficult to accept that there was any attempt by Galileans to assert independence from Jerusalem or the laws of the Judeans. 6. WERE THE GALILEANS RELIGIOUS JEWS OR ETHNIC JUDEANS? If the Galileans were of the same ethnic stock as those of Judea, that is, they were (singular ), we also need to take into consideration recent arguments on the proper translation and content of the term. As we saw above, Freyne, Reed and Chancey support the view that the inhabitants of Galilee were not descendents of northern Israelites and they refer to the people in question as Jews or Jewish. Freyne (1999:50-51) also critisizes Horsley s narrowing of the term the Judeans () as a geographico-political reference to the Judean temple-state and does not acknowledge its more extended, religious significance in terms of a worshipper at the Jerusalem Temple, irrespective of place of origin. Associated with this is the acceptance of the customs, rituals and practices with this worship. So Freyne understands as having religious significance; the Galileans as are sharing in the religious customs relating to the worship in the Temple in Jerusalem (cf 1999:54); that is why 7 It can be noted that Josephus never refers to Samaritans as (Freyne 1999:52) HTS 64(3) 2008
13 Markus Cromhout Freyne (1999:55) can also speak of a Jewish Galilee, Galilean Jews, and Jewish practices found in the Gospels (as sources for reconstructing Galilean life in the first century). As we saw above, Reed speaks of religious indicators or of Jewish religious identity being found in Galilee; the Galileans were Jewish. These approaches have affinity with the arguments of Cohen (1999:70-136; cf 1990:204-23) who stated that prior to the Hasmonean period should always be translated Judean, never as Jew. But there was a shift from purely an ethno-geographical term to one of a more religious significance, first evident in 2 Maccabees 6:6 and 9:17. Here for the first time can be properly translated as Jew. In Greco- Roman writers was first used as a religious term at the end of the first century. Dunn (2003: ), who follows Cohen, also sees ambivalence between the ethno-geographical identity and religious identity by the use of the term. He argues this ambivalence and shift to a more religious significance allowed for non-judeans to become (religious) Jews, such as in the case of Izates, king of Adiabene, without the need for circumcision (Ant ). There are two problems with the views outlined here. First, Freyne is right to say has extended significance, but it is not so much religious as it is ethnic. Similarly, Reed s religious indicators is better described as ethnic indicators. As Esler (2006:27) has argued, to focus on Jews as representatives of a religion Judaism is both anachronistic and grossly reductionist and does little justice to the identity of first century Judeans. The point is, it is more appropriate to understand (and the singular ) as an ethnic term with ethnic content rather than a religious term with religious content. The first problem is naturally related to the second, where Jew(s)/Jewish is used as the preferred translation. The term Judean ( ) of course begins as a way to identify someone from Judea () (Ant ). But Cohen s argument for a switch from Judean to Jew based on a so-called shift to a more religious significance is highly questionable. His argument cannot be accepted since for first century Judean ethnicity here particularly ethno-geographical identity was inseparable from religious identity. These various elements of Judean identity were always part and parcel of the same system. This is something which Dunn himself also suggests since he refers to Judea as a Temple state. Esler also points out, however, that in antiquity it was common practice to name ethnic groups in relation to the territory from which they came. Speaking of the Greeks and Romans he writes that one would expect them to connect [] with the territory called that this people inhabited, and that is what we usually find (Esler 2003:63). HTS 64(3)
14 Were the Galileans religious Jews or ethnic Judeans? The attachment between the people and the land is even closer in Judean sources (cf Esler 2003:64-65). Dunn (2003: ) himself admits that even in later usage, referring, for example, to Jews long settled in the diaspora, the basic sense of the Jews as the nation or people identified with the territory of Judea is still present. Esler (2003:70) also states that Cohen seems to assume that from the first century BCE onward it is possible to speak of religion existing as a realm of human experience distinct from other realms such as kinship, politics, and economics in a manner similar to modern understandings of religion, but in the Mediterranean world of the first century CE the features that we refer to as religious ideas and institutions were primarily embodied in structures of the political and domestic realms. It must be said, however, that Cohen does appreciate the Jews as constituting an ethnos, and that religion is but one of several aspects that make a cultural group distinctive (Cohen 1999:7-9, 137). It is therefore unfortunate that he emphasizes the religious import of, and that it somehow justifies translating it as Jew. 8 What particularly convinced Esler to translate as Judeans is a passage from Josephus (War 2.43ff; cf Ant ), which describes that the people, that is Galileans, Idumeans and Pereans, and people from Judea itself ( ) came to Jerusalem in response to the actions of Sabinus, the Roman procurator of Syria, an event dated to 4 BCE. Esler (2003:67) argues that the critical point in this passage is that the existence of a segment of this people who lived in Judea itself was irrelevant to the fact that all those of its members who came to Jerusalem were. Josephus, Esler (2003:72) suggests, distinguishes this group of Judeans from others with the use of a periphrastic explanation, literally the people by physical descent from Judea itself although Esler prefers to translate it as the membership of the people from Judea itself. Pilch also argued that it is anachronistic to speak of Jews in the Biblical period, and the Greek word should be translated as Judean, a designation which the Israelites accepted during the Second Temple Period (520 BCE 70 CE). The religion of that period (in all its diversity) is also properly called Judean or Judaic, and Judaism is not a proper term for it did not yet exist. Only from the sixth century, can we speak of Rabbinic Judaism and from when it is proper to use the term Jews (Pilch 1997). In similar vein, 8 Apart from the preference for Jew, Cohen also argues that analogous to Hellenism developed to become a function of religion and culture; the religious definition supplemented the traditional ethnic definition. Jewishness (which he proposes as a translation for ) became an ethno-religious identity. But it is better to regard as a summary term for an entire cultural system, where religion must not be preferred above other cultural aspects. As such, was a term for a cultural system that already existed, being territorially rooted in Judea. And in agreement with the BDAG (2000), the proper translation for is Judeanism, or perhaps more accurately as Elliott claims, Judaean way of life/behaviour (cf Elliott 2007:136, 142, 150, 153) HTS 64(3) 2008
15 Markus Cromhout BDAG (2000) argued consistently that Judean is the best translation. For our purposes therefore a Judean refers to an Israelite inhabitant of Judea (and Palestine generally), or any Israelite who followed the Judean way of life and therefore had ethnic connections to Judea (cf Duling 2005). These arguments should naturally be seen as relevant to the Galileans. The passage of Josephus which Esler refers to includes people from Galilee. The implications are that he understood the Galileans to be (ethnic) Judeans. According to Horsley (1995:60), however, the Galilean presence in Jerusalem that Josephus refers to was an attempt to assert their independence. Their joining the protests in Jerusalem indicates that Jerusalem (and the temple courtyard as the public gathering place) was important to Galileans at least as the locus of political power, as the capital from which they were ruled. But this ignores Josephus description of subsequent events, where he refers to the people involved in the conflict as (Ant ). Evidently, this includes the people that gathered in Jerusalem from outside of Judea, including Galileans, and this is something that Horsley overlooks (Freyne 1999:54). Josephus also refers to Galileans as Judeans in other places. A Judean ( ) of Galilee by the name of Eleazar, who had a reputation of being very strict when it came to the ancestral laws, required the circumcision of the king of Adiabene after his conversion (Ant ). Josephus also writes that the Galileans visited the Temple and travelled through Samaria, as was their custom (Ant ), suggesting the visits were regular enough from this region. Here Josephus is speaking of some Galileans, or alternatively, only one, that was killed by Samaritans while en route to Jerusalem. In the parallel account Josephus actually speaks of a great number of that went up to Jerusalem for the feast (War 2.232). In both accounts it is also explained that the people in Jerusalem marched out against the Samaritans in retaliation, while in Antiquities specifically this occurred on the request of the Galileans. At the time of the Great Revolt, Josephus relates that when two renegade royal officials from Agrippa II sought to remain in Sepphoris in 66-67, the Judeans () demanded that they be circumcised and so conform to the customs of their hosts (Life , ). Josephus also says that the inhabitants of Sepphoris were prohibited from joining with the in the war (Life 346), which here must be a reference to Galileans. When the Romans under Vespasian began their campaign in Galilee during the Great Revolt, Josephus interchangeably refers to the inhabitants as Galileans or, especially in connection with the Roman siege of Jotapata and the events that transpired at Japha (War 3.127ff). Josephus HTS 64(3)
16 Were the Galileans religious Jews or ethnic Judeans? specifically refers to a certain called Eleazar who was a native of Galilee (War 3.229). After the defeat of Jotapata Josephus relates he was encouraged to commit suicide as a commander of the (War 3.359). Josephus also speaks of John of Gischala as referring to Jerusalem as their mother-city ( ) (War 4.123). Horsley s argument that in certain instances Josephus designates Galileans as a separate ethnos from the Judeans (War 2.510; 4.105) cannot therefore be allowed to stand. The Greek term had a wide semantic range and could be used to refer to any kind of grouping (human, animal, regional) of almost any size (Duling 2005:129; Saldarini 1994:59-60). Josephus use of ethnos in these cases is a regional ethnic designation. According to Feldman (1996:117-18) Josephus uses ethnos mostly in references to the Jewish nation as a whole, or the surrounding peoples who ethnically were not Jews. For example, Josephus relates that in the time of Gabinius, the Roman proconsul of Syria, he ordained five councils and distributed the nation/people ( ) into five districts, who were governed from Jerusalem, Gadara, Amathus, Jericho, and lastly, Sepphoris (Ant 14.91; War 1.170). Modern anthropological studies also demonstrate that people can have more than one ethnic identity at once. Depending on their social situation, people can move from one ethnic reference group to another, such as being a member of a local village or city, a local region or province, or a nation state, which in itself can also be the more encompassing identity, but the latter can also extend beyond your country of residence, where people living in different areas belong to the same ethnic group. This has been referred to as a hierarchy of nested segments, where a person s ethnic identity is divided into distinct parts, yet also fits can be nested inside a more encompassing identity (Esler 2003:49-50; Johnson Hodge 2005:274-75). For our purposes here, a person living in Galilee can be identified as a Sepphorean, Galilean, Judean, with the more encompassing identity alternatively being Judean and/or Israelite. 9 This more encompassing identity is something which Josephus refers to when he writes he acted as a commander for those among us that are named Galileans (Apion 1.48). This is similar to what ethnicity theorists call a we aggregative self-definition, in reference to likeminded, like-practiced peers (Duling 2005:127). 9 According to Dunn, Israel was used as the preferred self-designation (cf Elliott 2007), as opposed to Jew(s), which was used by others to distinguish them from other ethnic and religious groups. So Israel(ite), denotes self-understanding and is used by the insider or participant (with reference to its internal history, election, and as heirs of the promise made to the patriarchs), whereas Jew denotes an outsider or spectator view, which was nevertheless used by Jews themselves (Dunn 2003:263-64; 1991:145) HTS 64(3) 2008
17 Markus Cromhout If we bring the above together, descriptions of Galilee and its inhabitants such as a Jewish Galilee, Galilean Jews, and Jewish practices, religious indicators, of Jewish religious identity being found in Galilee, or the Galileans were Jewish, should be abandoned. Galileans were ethnic Judeans. Of course they, along with other Judeans would mainly have seen themselves as Israelites. But scholarship on the historical Jesus, on Galilee, on Q and the Gospels, or on any other relevant field of study should refer to the area and people in question as a Judean Galilee, or Galilean Judeans, or of Judean ethnic identity being evident in Galilee and so forth. Being of the same ethnic stock as those living in Judea, Galileans were people who lived out their Judean ethnic identity, of which religion was a part, alongside others, 10 but not in itself adequate to describe the whole. To reiterate: Galileans were not Jews who practiced a religion called Judaism. When Jesus, the Galilean, was crucified as the king of the Judeans ( ; Mt 27:37; Mk 15:26; Lk 23:38; Jn 19:19), it was a profound and highly offensive statement against Judean ethnic identity. It devalued and belittled what most of the people held dear. 7. SUMMARY At first, we traced two lines of thought on the identity of Galileans in the first century CE. It was argued here that understanding Galileans as descendents of Judeans who relocated there during the Maccabean campaigns is better supported by both Josephus and the archaeological evidence. They were Jews in this sense, as opposed to being descendents of northern Israelites. It was also argued, however, that if they were of the same ethnic stock as those living in Judea, it is historically more accurate to understand them as ethnic Judeans, being the proper translation of (singular ), which in itself must be seen as an ethnic term which holds ethnic content. Galileans were also Israelites, which along with Judean can be seen as their more encompassing identity. In a hierarchy of nested segments, their Galilean ethnic identity was nested inside this more encompassing identity. 10 Ethnicity theory (part of social or cultural anthropology) has broadly recognised several cultural features that are important for ethnic identity. The cultural features include the following: 1) name, a corporate name that identifies the group; 2) myths of common ancestry, the group claims to be descendents of a particular person or group/family; 3) shared historical memories, the group points to common heroes and events of the past; 4) land, the group has actual or symbolic attachment to an ancestral land; 5) language, or local dialect; 6) kinship, members of the group belong to family units which in turn, demonstrate communal solidarity with the local community or tribe, and with the group as a national entity; 7) customs identifiable with that group; and 8) also its religion. To this may be added 9) phenotypical features, which refer to genetic features (Duling 2005:127-28; Esler 2003:43-44). HTS 64(3)
18 Were the Galileans religious Jews or ethnic Judeans? Works consulted BDAG A Greek-English lexicon of the New Testament and other early Christian literature. 3rd ed of BAGD, rev by F W Danke. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Chancey, M A The myth of a gentile Galilee. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cohen, S J D Religion, ethnicity, and Hellenism in the emergence of Jewish identity in Maccabean Palestine, in Bilde, P (ed), Religion and religious practice in the Seleucid kingdom, Aarhuis: Aarhuis University Press. Cohen, S J D The beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, varieties, uncertainties. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Duling, D C Ethnicity, ethnocentrism, and the Matthean ethnos. BTB 35(4), Dunn, J D G The partings of the ways between Christianity and Judaism and their significance for the character of Christianity. London: SCM. Dunn, J D G Christianity in the making: Jesus remembered. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Elliott, J H Jesus the Israelite was neither a Jew nor a Christian : On correcting misleading nomenclature. JSHJ 5(2), Eshel, H They re not ritual baths. BAR 26(4), Esler, P F Conflict and identity in Romans: The social setting of Paul s letter. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress. Esler, P F Paul s contestation of Israel s (ethnic) memory of Abraham in Galatians 3. BTB 36(1), Feldman, L H Josephus attitude towards the Samaritans: A study in ambivalence. Studies in Hellenistic Judaism, Leiden: Brill. Fitzmyer, J A Did Jesus speak Greek? BAR 18(5) (BAR CD Archive ) Freyne, S Galilee, Jesus and the gospels: Literary approaches and historical investigations. Philadelphia, PA: Fortress. Freyne, S Galilee from Alexander the Great to Hadrian. Edinburgh: T & T Clark. Freyne, S Behind the names: Galileans, Samaritans, Ioudaioi, in Meyers, E M (ed), Galilee through the centuries: Confluence of cultures, Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. Freyne, S The geography of restoration: Galilee-Jerusalem relations in early Jewish and Christian experience. NTS 47(3), Freyne, S Jesus, a Jewish Galilean: A new reading of the Jesus-story. London: T & T Clark. Horsley, R A Galilee: History, politics, people. Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press International. Horsley, R A Archaeology, history and society in Galilee: The social context of Jesus and the Rabbis. Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press International. Johnson Hodge, C Apostle to the Gentiles: Constructions of Paul s identity. Biblical Interpretation 13(3), Kloppenborg, J S Excavating Q: The history and setting of the Sayings Gospel. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress HTS 64(3) 2008
19 Markus Cromhout Meyers, E M Yes, they are. BAR 26(4), 46-49, Pilch, J J Are there Jews and Christians in the Bible? HTS 53, Reed, J L Galileans, Israelite village communities, and the Sayings Gospel Q, in Meyers, E M (ed), Galilee through the centuries: Confluence of cultures, Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. Reed, J L Archaeology and the Galilean Jesus: A re-examination of the evidence. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International. Reich, R Miqvaot (Jewish ritual immersion baths) in Eretz-Israel in the second temple period and the Mishnah and Talmud Periods. PhD dissertation, Hebrew University Jerusalem. [Hebrew with summary in English]. Reich, R They are ritual baths. BAR 28(2), Richardson, P Building Jewish in the Roman East. Waco, TX: Baylor University Press. Saldarini, A J Matthew s Christian-Jewish community. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. Sanders, E P Judaism: Practice and belief 63 BCE-66 CE. London: SCM. Strange, J F & Shanks, H Synagogue where Jesus preached found at Capernaum, in Shanks, H & Cole, D P (eds), Archaeology and the Bible: The best of BAR. Vol 2, Archaeology in the world of Herod, Jesus and Paul, Washington, DC: Biblical Archaeology Society. Syon, D Gamla: Portrait of a rebellion. BAR 18(1) (BAR CD Archive: ). HTS 64(3)
Unit 5 Lesson 3 The Early Hebrews
Unit 5 Lesson 3 The Early Hebrews Lesson 3 The Early Hebrews Directions Fill in the Blank Read each sentence. Fill in the blank with the word from the word pair that best completes each sentence. 1. AfterMore information
2. Historical Background of the New Testament
2. Historical Background of the New Testament Overview of Jewish History from Old to New Testament; the Maccabees and false expectations; Jewish Groups at the Time of Jesus; Herodians and Romans JewishMore information
Leading up to the New Testament
Leading up to the New Testament In this lesson, we will look at the history of Israel. We will also pay attention to the growing Jewish expectation for coming of a Messiah and developments in the JewishMore information
ANCIENT ISRAEL, RABBINIC JUDAISM, AND EARLY CHRISTIANITY SOME SIGNIFICANT DATES. Ca. 1025-1005 Saul First King of Israel
ANCIENT ISRAEL, RABBINIC JUDAISM, AND EARLY CHRISTIANITY SOME SIGNIFICANT DATES BCE Ca. 1280 Ca. 1250-1200 Exodus from Egypt Conquest of Canaan under Joshua Ca. 1050 Samuel UNITED MONARCHY IN ISRAEL ca.More information
The Olive Tree Symbolism in Romans 11
The Olive Tree Symbolism in Romans 11 Introduction Chapters 9, 10 and 11 in the book of Romans go into detail about God s covenants with the Israelites beginning with Abraham, continuing through MosesMore information
THE GOSPELS Unit 5 (2014 Revised)
THE GOSPELS (2014 Revised) CONCEPT: Each of the New Testament gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, were written by different people. Each writes about Jesus in his own unique way, but all agree thatMore information
Romans 11: Ekklesia Grafted Into Israel. (This is taken from a correspondence with a dispensational believer)
(This is taken from a correspondence with a dispensational believer) I'll begin at the beginning, the first two scriptures you present in Matthew 10:5 and 28:19 and compare with Romans 11:25 In MatthewMore information
A sermon preached by the Dean on Sunday 5 th January 2014 The Fest of the Epiphany at the Cathedral Eucharist.
A sermon preached by the Dean on Sunday 5 th January 2014 The Fest of the Epiphany at the Cathedral Eucharist. The Christmas story mentions two groups of visitors to the holy family in Bethlehem. EachMore information
The JEPD Theory. The Yahwist (J) The Elohist (E) 2010 by Saint Mary s Press
The JEPD Theory A long tradition holds that the five books of the Pentateuch or Torah (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy) were written by Moses. The tradition honors Moses because ofMore information
The Problem of the "Rod" and the "Root of Jesse" in Isaiah 11
CHAPTER XXV The Problem of the "Rod" and the "Root of Jesse" in Isaiah 11 When the Angel Moroni appeared to the Prophet Joseph Smith on the evening of September 21, 1823, he quoted the eleventh chapterMore information
ABC Continuing Education Portland, OR
ABC Continuing Education Portland, OR Survey of the Gospels United Church of God, an International Association Lesson 1; Pre-existence; Genealogy; Birth of Christ 2009 United Church of God, an InternationalMore information
In the Days of the Prophets
In the Days of the Prophets INTRODUCTION Overview: The Jewish prophets were individuals considered to have been chosen to deliver God s divine message to the people and leadership of Israel. In the wordsMore information
Nyasha Junior Howard University School of Divinity email@example.com
Nyasha Junior Howard University School of Divinity email@example.com Joint Session: Feminist Hermeneutics of the Bible Section and African American Biblical Hermeneutics Section Monday, Nov 23 rdMore information
Profile. Jerusalem University College
Profile Jerusalem University College 6 Profile History Located on Mount Zion, adjacent to the southwest corner of the Old City wall, Jerusalem University College had its beginnings as the Institute ofMore information
Worldview, Theology, & Culture
Worldview, Theology, & Culture First Baptist Church, McLoud Recap: 1. Every worldview answers the questions of Creation, Fall, and Redemption. In other words, every worldview asks the questions: WhereMore information
Course Descriptions MA in Archaeology and Biblical Studies Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary
Course Descriptions MA in Archaeology and Biblical Studies Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary Archaeology and Archaeological Method 3000s Archaeology ARCHE 3003 Archaeology of the Ancient Near EastMore information
MEDITATIONS FOR PENTECOST 7. Jerusalem has been around for a long time. The name of the city first appears in
MEDITATIONS FOR PENTECOST 7 Isaiah 66:10-14 Jerusalem has been around for a long time. The name of the city first appears in Egyptian texts some 1900 years before the birth of Jesus. The name JerusalemMore information
David M. Howard, Jr. Bethel Seminary THE OLD TESTAMENT: STRUCTURE AND PURPOSE I. MACRO-STRUCTURE A. THE OLD TESTAMENT: PROTESTANT: Our Protestant Bibles have 39 books in the OT, generally divided intoMore information
The Yale Divinity School Bible Study New Canaan, Connecticut Fall, 2009. Second Isaiah. VI: Isaiah 44:24-48:22 The Agents of God s Redemption
The Yale Divinity School Bible Study New Canaan, Connecticut Fall, 2009 Second Isaiah VI: Isaiah 44:24-48:22 The Agents of God s Redemption This section of Second Isaiah opens with an oracle identifyingMore information
Zaine Ridling, Ph.D. Access Foundation
Introduction Almost every reader of the Bible will realize that the Scriptures, from Genesis to Revelation, contain extensive historical materials and innumerable allusions to the geographical backgroundMore information
Ancient Kingdoms of the Nile
Ancient Kingdoms of the Nile How did geography influence ancient Egypt? What were the main features and achievements of Egypt s three kingdoms? How did trade and warfare affect Egypt and Nubia? The EgyptianMore information
Lesson 1 The Good Samaritan
Lesson Outcome You will know who Jesus is describing as a neighbour and you will have individually identified some of your neighbours with whom you can engage with the Gospel. Practical application/keywords:More information
The Wilderness Wanderings
The Wilderness Wanderings The LORD, the LORD, a God merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness. (Exodus 34:6) Are we there yet? Not quite... but the IsraelitesMore information
creation ; old things have passed away; behold, all things have become new.
[WELCOME TO THE FAMILY] Bible Study #1 INTRODUCTION TO THE WORD OF GOD (Part 1) It is amazing that, when we come to faith in Christ, we truly become a new creation. As it says in 2 Corinthians 5:17: ifMore information
JUDAISM PRE-TEST. 1. After World War II, Jews from all over the world moved to the state of.
1 PRE-TEST Directions: Fill in the blank with the correct answer: 1. After World War II, Jews from all over the world moved to the state of. 2. The is made up of the first five books of the Old Testament.More information
NUMBERING OF COURSES. Master of Divinity Required Courses
NUMBERING OF COURSES The first digit in the course number indicates the departments in which the course is offered. Old Testament courses are designated by numbers in the 100s, New Testament courses areMore information
Bible Studies REFUGEES
Bible Studies REFUGEES Written by Marike Blok Presented to the organizations working together in the Relief Fund Refugees: 1 Introduction Worldwide there are more than 60 million refugees today. Many ofMore information
GENERAL Sources and Nature of Scripture Grade K know that the word Bible means book and that it is a holy book about God and God s people. 1 identify the Bible as a holy book about God and God s people.More information
Hebrews - Lesson 9 (Chapter 7:11-28) Opening. Introduction to Lesson 9 study
Hebrews - Lesson 9 (Chapter 7:11-28) Opening Ice breaker question: Do you have any follow-up questions from the Hebrews review? Introduction to Lesson 9 study This is the perfect place to pick up our studyMore information
Jerusalem University College Mt. Zion, Jerusalem, Israel
Jerusalem University College Mt. Zion, Jerusalem, Israel Course Descriptions The following is a description of courses offered by Jerusalem University College. Each description indicates the semester thatMore information
Hope (anticipation) Bible Hope
2009 Joyner Weems; 344 Camp Road, Hayden, AL 35079; HOPE - 8-28-09 - Notes - Pg. 1 / 6 Hope (anticipation) Bible Hope - page 1 Disciple Hope - page 4 Israel Hope - page 2 Apostolic Hope - page 5 JewishMore information
4.4 The Major Prophets
4.4 The Major Prophets Key Concept Major Prophets refers to messenger whose prophetic pronouncements are memorialized in long books that bears their name. Key Terms Major Prophet Decadence Immanuel ProphecyMore information
The Walls Came Tumbling Down The Story, Chapter 7: Joshua Sunday, October 19, 2014 Lakeside Lutheran Church Almost every Sunday morning, I post an
The Walls Came Tumbling Down The Story, Chapter 7: Joshua Sunday, October 19, 2014 Lakeside Lutheran Church Almost every Sunday morning, I post an invitation on Lakeside s Facebook page about what willMore information
Christianity. The Growth of Christianity. Early Christian Book Held in Israel, the country Jordan wants it
Christianity The Growth of Christianity Early Christian Book Held in Israel, the country Jordan wants it http://www.pravmir.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/51881831_book_464.jpg Beginnings ChristianityMore information
Now Peter sat outside in the courtyard. And a servant girl came to him, saying, You also were with Jesus of Galilee.
TALKS FOR GROWING CHRISTIANS TRANSCRIPT Our Lord s Trial Before Caiaphas, and Peter s Denial of the Lord Matthew 26:57-75 And those who had laid hold of Jesus led Him away to Caiaphas the high priest,More information
Note: Where a Scripture text is underlined in the body of this discussion, it is recommended that the reader look up and read that passage.
14 th Sunday in Ordinary Time Cycle B Note: Where a Scripture text is underlined in the body of this discussion, it is recommended that the reader look up and read that passage. 1 st Reading - EzekielMore information
Nationalistic Movements in SW Asia/Middle East
Nationalistic Movements in SW Asia/Middle East Dates of Independence for Nations of SW Asia/Middle East Nationalistic issues of Palestinian Arabs remain unresolved Ottoman Empire Falls Ottoman empire beginsMore information
Opening the Windows of Blessings
Opening the Windows of Blessings by Kay Arthur, Pete De Lacy, Bob Vereen HARVEST HOUSE PUBLISHERS Copyright 2003 by Kay Arthur, Pete De Lacy, Bob Vereen Published by Harvest House Publishers, Eugene, OregonMore information
M.A. in Middle Eastern Cultures and Religions
M.A. in Middle Eastern Cultures and Religions Purpose and Objectives The Department of Middle Eastern Cultures and Religions offers students the opportunity to learn about the peoples, societies and culturesMore information
ZIMBABWE SCHOOL EXAMINATIONS COUNCIL (ZIMSEC) DIVINITY 9154 ADVANCED LEVEL SYLLABUS EXAMINATIONS SYLLABUS FOR 2013-2018 DIVINITY GCE Advanced Level SUBJECT 9154 (Available in the November examination only)More information
Jesus, the Promised Messiah
28 Who Jesus Is LESSON 2 Jesus, the Promised Messiah Promises are part of our lives. Parents promise to do things for children. Politicians, business people, and friends make promises. We have all hadMore information
Acts of the Apostles Part 1: Foundations for Evangelization Chapter 2 Evangelization and the Holy Spirit (Acts 2)
BIBLE STUDY Acts of the Apostles Part 1: Foundations for Evangelization Chapter 2 Evangelization and the Holy Spirit (Acts 2) What s This Passage All About? The Feast of Pentecost When most ChristiansMore information
Name: Date: A BRIEF HISTORY OF IRELAND Today, Ireland is a country with a bright future. In 2005, Economist magazine selected it as the best place in the world to live. Hundreds of thousands of peopleMore information
Hope Christian Fellowship Church Tuesday Night Bible Study Tuesday, July 21, 2015
Hope Christian Fellowship Church Tuesday Night Bible Study Tuesday, July 21, 2015 Tonight s Class Continued Study of Major Prophet Isaiah Agenda More Introductory Nuggets Background Prophecy Read/StudyMore information
Odenton Baptist Bible Institute Life of Christ (Harmony) November 11, 2014 Fall 2014 Semester Lesson 6 - Ministry in Galilee, Part II Page 1
Fall 2014 Semester Lesson 6 - Ministry in Galilee, Part II Page 1 I. RETURN TO CAPERNAUM (Village of Nahum) (pages 61 to 108 in text) A. A Centurion s Servant is healed (Matt 8:5-13; Luke 7:1-10) 1. TheMore information
THEME: God has a calling on the lives of every one of His children!
Devotion NT298 CHILDREN S DEVOTIONS FOR THE WEEK OF: LESSON TITLE: Paul s First Missionary Journey THEME: God has a calling on the lives of every one of His children! SCRIPTURE: Acts 12:25 13:52 Dear ParentsMore information
SEED & BREAD FOR THE SOWER ISA.55:10 FOR THE EATER BRIEF BIBLICAL MESSAGES FROM THE WORD OF TRUTH MINISTRY Otis Q. Sellers, Bible Teacher ABRAHAM'S SEED TODAY The word entail is a legal term which hasMore information
Handout 1: 2 Kings Lesson 1 SUMMARY OUTLINE OF 2 KINGS
Biblical Period Covenant Focus Handout 1: 2 Kings Lesson 1 SUMMARY OUTLINE OF 2 KINGS #7 THE DIVIDED KINGDOMS The Sinai Covenant [ & the Davidic Covenant] Divided Kingdoms of Israel and The Kingdom ofMore information
Introducing the Bible
Session 1 In this first session of the course, we will look at some background information about this fascinating book. It is a book of amazing diversity: read the Bible and you will find a mixture ofMore information
GCSE REliGiouS StudiES a study of the gospel of matthew. Juliana Gilbride. Colourpoint Educational. Rewarding Learning
GCSE REliGiouS StudiES a study of the gospel of matthew Colourpoint Educational Rewarding Learning Juliana Gilbride ??????? Contents ChapteR 1 background to matthew s gospel 5 Facts about the Gospels...6More information
WHO WAS JONATHAN SON OF GERSHOM IN JUDGES 18:30? JOSIAH DERBY According to Judges 18, the tribe of Dan, or perhaps only a part of it, decided to leave its place of settlement in the foothills of the JudeanMore information
The several sets of questions for these assignments follow at the end of this document.
The New Testament survey question-assignments Students will answer the questions provided for all the readings in the New Testament and turn them in for evaluation. Student work will be graded accordingMore information
Session 5 Captivity in Babylon and return to Jerusalem
Session 5 Captivity in Babylon and return to Jerusalem The books of 2 Kings, 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, Habakkuk, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi all concernMore information
THE ORIGINS OF ROME. Name
THE ORIGINS OF ROME Name According to legend, the city of Rome was founded in 753 B.C. by Romulus and Remus, twin sons of the god Mars and a Latin princess. The twins were abandoned on the Tiber RiverMore information
Knowing the Original Text of the NT or of Isaiah. Weekly Readers Mailbag July 17, 2016
Knowing the Original Text of the NT or of Isaiah. Weekly Readers Mailbag July 17, 2016 How can we absolutely know whether we have the original words of the New Testament? And weren t books of the Old TestamentMore information
The Ark of the Covenant. 10 Minute Bible History
The Ark of the Covenant 10 Minute Bible History The Presence of God The Ark of the Covenant is one of the greatest mysteries the world has ever known. But what was it? Did it wield unstoppable power toMore information
(A The Matrix theory by KGBkid) The first hint is the fact that the human city is named Zion.
Morpheus might be a bad guy. Why do I believe this? There are a few hints. (A The Matrix theory by KGBkid) The first hint is the fact that the human city is named Zion. In Judeo-Christian / Rasta literature,More information
Jacob s descendants would regain control of Israel
10 Prophecies Fulfilled in 1948 These 10 Bible prophecies were fulfilled in 1948 when Israel became an independent, united nation for the second time in history, and for the first time in 2,900 years.More information
Father. Communications. Creative. Master. Sample. Bridegroom. King. A Bible Study in 6 Sessions on the Kingdom Parables
Father Master Bridegroom King A Bible Study in 6 Sessions on the Kingdom Parables FatherMaster BridegroomKing A Bible Study in 6 Sessions on the Kingdom Parables When the Son of Man comes, will he findMore information
Bible Study Questions on Joshua by David E. Pratte
Bible Study Questions on Joshua by David E. Pratte A workbook suitable for Bible classes, family studies, or personal Bible study For study questions on other books of the Bible, see our web site at www.gospelway.com/classbooksMore information
Israel in the Hellenistic Age (Daniel)
The Hellenistic Age Printed on October 19, 2002 Page 1 Israel in the Hellenistic Age (Daniel) I. Alexander the Great Alexander was, with little doubt, the most influential western person to travel theMore information
JOHN, THE DISCIPLE WHOM JESUS LOVED Text: John 21:20, 24
JOHN, THE DISCIPLE WHOM JESUS LOVED Text: John 21:20, 24 INTRO: John, in his account of the gospel, never mentions himself by name. He refers to himself & to his brother James in 21:2 as the sons of Zebedee.More information
Soul-Winning Commitment Day. Sunday School/ Small Group Lessons. Soul-Winning. Commitment Day
Sunday School/ Small Group Lessons Soul-Winning Commitment Day Purpose of Lesson: This guide is for the purpose of preparing older children through adult Sunday school members to understand the importanceMore information
Joseph in Egypt Fifth of Six Parts
Bible and Spade 16.2 (2003). Copyright 2003 by Bible and Spade, cited with permission. Joseph in Egypt Fifth of Six Parts By Charles Aling The specific Egyptian titles granted to Joseph by Pharaoh haveMore information
The Gospel of John. Believe and Live! Lesson 11. John 10:1 42. Jesus: The Good Shepherd
The Gospel of John Believe and Live! Lesson 11 John 10:1 42 Jesus: The Good Shepherd Jesus contentious debate with the Pharisees in the Temple over the healing of the blind man brings to light what HeMore information
MASTER LIST OF ESSAY QUESTIONS OLD TESTAMENT Short Essays Introductory Matters What is the importance of geography for understanding the text? In what languages was the OT written? What are they like inMore information
Jesus Christ Was Not A Jew Rev. Oren F. Potito
Jesus Christ Was Not A Jew Rev. Oren F. Potito ( Page 1 ) Contact us for details of audio tapes and articles by:- Dr. Wesley A. Swift Rev. Dr. Bertrand Comparet, A. B., J. D. Rev. William Gale CaptainMore information
Survey of the New Testament II
Survey of the New Testament II Multiple choice test for the Diploma {You may refer to the audio lectures at any time during the test} You have two options. (1) Print the multiple choice test. (2) ViewMore information
Bible Books OT Major Prophets Quiz
Bible Books OT Major Prophets Quiz A BibleMesh Learning Assessment Tool Use this quiz to test your knowledge of the Old Testament books of the Major Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, andMore information
BIBLICAL THEOLOGY: Jewish and Christian GTHEO 7140 001
Arthur Walker-Jones Phone: (204) 786 9450 Email: firstname.lastname@example.com University of Winnipeg Office: 2MS09 Office hours: W 1-2 and by appointment BIBLICAL THEOLOGY: Jewish and Christian GTHEO 7140More information
Mark 1:1-13 ~ Scripture Verses
John the Baptist Prepares the Way Mark 1:1-13 ~ Scripture Verses 1 2 The beginning of the gospel about Jesus Christ, the Son of God. It is written in Isaiah the prophet: I will send my messenger aheadMore information
The book of the genealogy of Jesus Christ, the son of David, the son of. Abraham. David
Lesson 1 Chapter 1: A Family Tree and the Birth of Jesus Introduction The Lord God inspired the four Gospel writers to record the events of Jesus life on earth and his teaching. Each of the four GospelMore information
I. Micah 7:14-20 A. This is a prophecy of the Messianic Kingdom (the church).
When Did Miracles Cease? - 1 Introduction: 1. Have you ever heard someone say it s a miracle!? a. This has become a cliché, a phrase which someone uses in order to convey that they didn t think a certainMore information
Finding Out About Jesus
18 Who Jesus Is LESSON 1 Finding Out About Jesus Who do you think Jesus is? Some people say He was a great teacher. Others say He was a prophet, a philosopher, a Western god, or a good man whose exampleMore information
INTERMARRIAGE, PROSELYTES & THE NEXT GENERATION In Messianic Jewish Congregations
INTERMARRIAGE, PROSELYTES & THE NEXT GENERATION In Messianic Jewish Congregations by Michael Rudolph The title of this paper addresses the concerns even fears of some Messianic Jews, that if the non-jewsMore information
THE MERCHANT, THE TOWN, AND THE CROWN The Burgher Community of Turku and Economic Organization from the Early Middle Ages to the 1570 s
English Summary THE MERCHANT, THE TOWN, AND THE CROWN The Burgher Community of Turku and Economic Organization from the Early Middle Ages to the 1570 s Introduction The aim of this dissertation in economicMore information
The Riddle of the Dome of the Rock:
1 The Riddle of the Dome of the Rock: Was it Built as a Jewish Place of Prayer? One of the most fascinating questions about the Temple Mount after the Islamic occupation in 638 CE is connected with theMore information
A DAILY BIBLE STUDY PLAN DECEMBER God s Story Our Story A DAILY BIBLE STUDY PLAN WEEK NINETEEN: Minor Prophets December 7-13 Previewing the Story A distinction is sometimes made between Major ProphetsMore information
The Power of the Bible
The Power of the Bible By Rev. Mona West, Ph.D. The Bible is a powerful book. What is more important to realize is that interpretations of the Bible are just as powerful. New Testament scholar, Mary AnnMore information
Sacred Scripture Directed Reading Guide Part 1E The Prophets
Name Date Sacred Scripture Directed Reading Guide Part 1E The Prophets Directions: Read through the chapter and fill in the missing information. All the questions run sequential to the chapter. If a true/falseMore information
BENEDICTION AND FINAL GREETINGS Hebrews 13:20-25
1 BENEDICTION AND FINAL GREETINGS Hebrews 13:20-25 As the writer comes to the end of the letter, he prays for his readers. He prays to the God who knows everything and who knows our hearts. Although weMore information
The Pauline Strategy: An Ideological Texture Analysis of the Apostle Paul s Ministry. David Burkus Instructor of Management Oral Roberts University
The Pauline Strategy: An Ideological Texture Analysis of the Apostle Paul s Ministry David Burkus Instructor of Management Oral Roberts University Abstract An ideological texture analysis of the PaulineMore information
Book of Psalms Psalms 122-124
Psalm 122 Joyful Worship in Jerusalem Book of Psalms Psalms 122-124 Steven Lawson wrote: What a treasured privilege it is to be with God s people as they gather in God s house to hear God s Word. Word-inspiredMore information
Views of God Created 8/11/2005 Revised on 12/29/10 Page 1 of 6. The God of Israel. An Ancient People s Growing Understanding
Views of God Created 8/11/2005 Revised on 12/29/10 Page 1 of 6 The God of Israel An Ancient People s Growing Understanding That Israel s understanding of God changed over time is not a controversial claim.More information
Bible Correspondence Course Lesson Three
Bible Correspondence Course Lesson Three HOW TO STUDY THE BIBLE To study any book one must approach it in an orderly manner. A student does not take his G.C.E/ C.X C exams before he begins primary studies.More information
Religions of Southwest Asia
Religions of Southwest Asia The Three Religions 1. Judaism, Jew Star of David 2. Christianity, Christian The Cross 3. Islam, Muslim Crescent Moon and Star Similarities 1. Monotheistic 2. Abrahamic RecognizeMore information
Day 1: Read John 7:1-24 LEGACY IMPACT BIBLE STUDY DISCUSSION QUESTIONS JOHN CHAPTERS 7 & 8 1. Why did Jesus stay away from Judea? 2. What did the brothers of Jesus want Him to do and how could you assessMore information
Mw:Old Testament Theology Online/Syllabi/OT Theology Online Course Winter 2016 Draft 1 June 16, 2015
Mw:Old Testament Theology Online/Syllabi/OT Theology Online Course Winter 2016 Draft 1 June 16, 2015 Canadian Mennonite University Biblical Theology Online Defusing the Theological Minefield of the OldMore information
OUTLINE 5. Nehemiah 8-10
OUTLINE 5 50 Nehemiah 8-10 In the final stages the previous outline dealt with the repopulation of the city of Jerusalem. We will read more about this in chapter 11. First we will learn about a revival,More information
Egyptian History 101 By Vickie Chao
Egyptian History 101 By Vickie Chao 1 A long time ago, before Egypt was a united country, there were two kingdoms -- Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. Upper Egypt was in the south. It controlled the areas alongMore information
The Gospel of God Romans Series 2013-14. Discussion & Study Questions Romans 1:1-5:21
The Gospel of God Romans Series 2013-14 Discussion & Study Questions Romans 1:1-5:21 Week 1 Date: September 15, 2013 Title: Called Text: Romans 1:1-7 1. Write a brief summary of the Gospel using what youMore information
The story of David and Goliath has captured the imagination of God s. David. Overcoming Giants דוד. Lesson One: Lesson Objectives.
דוד David Lesson One: Overcoming Giants Lesson Objectives In studying David s victory over Goliath, we will learn important lessons about trusting God, what is important to God, and overcoming challengesMore information
A second group of questions about Rabbi Jesus
A second group of questions about Rabbi Jesus Many of the questions directed my way after the publication of Rabbi Jesus have involved chronology. As I continue to work through the letter I mentioned lastMore information
Rome Lesson Plan 3: Religion in Politics and Daily Life
Rome Lesson Plan 3: Religion in Politics and Daily Life Introduction: In this lesson, students will examine various aspects of religion in ancient Rome including the role of mythology, polytheism versus.More information
The Significance of Twelve
The Significance of Twelve The number TWELVE in the Bible is symbolic of the nation of Israel. The number TWELVE can also sometimes be seen as God s authority serving as a perfect governmental foundation.More information
Jesus Interprets the Scriptures Mark 10:2-16 Sunday, October 4, 2015 The Rev. Sharon Snapp-Kolas, preaching
Jesus Interprets the Scriptures Mark 10:2-16 Sunday, October 4, 2015 The Rev. Sharon Snapp-Kolas, preaching Scripture. Prayer. Opening. Some people seem to know the Bible really well. You know who I mMore information
What about the Noahide Laws?
Est. 1996 What about the Noahide Laws? By Steve Cohen Copyright 2015 The Apple of His Eye Mission Society, Inc. All rights reserved. PO Box 1649 Brentwood, TN 37024-1649 phone (888) 512-7753 www.appleofhiseye.orgMore information
The Books of the Old Testament
Yo u r B i b l e Lesson 4 The Books of the Old Testament Reading the Old Testament is like reading any other ancient history book, commented a young man who had just joined our Bible study group. AfterMore information
WALK BY FAITH John 5: NORTHERN IL ANNUAL CONFERENCE Margaret Ann Crain & Jack Seymour June 7, 2016
WALK BY FAITH John 5: 1-18 NORTHERN IL ANNUAL CONFERENCE Margaret Ann Crain & Jack Seymour June 7, 2016 Mission Approach See-Judge-Act Participatory Gather with a friend or two (groups of 2-3) GOAL: AsMore information
Bible Time Line - Smallenburg 1 BIBLE TIME LINE
Bible Time Line - Smallenburg 1 BIBLE TIME LINE (Sources: the Dartmouth Bible; Oxford Standard Revised Bible; The Book of J, Harold Bloom; The Pentateuch, Joseph Blenkinsopp) Summary of political historyMore information

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Back To Results
Monaco Pictures is a revolutionary, upscale movie entertainment experience located at Bridge Street Town Centre in Huntsville's Research Park. But did you know Monaco Pictures is a unique wedding venue as well? If you're looking for a dramatic setting where every seat has a good view, this is the place for you.
- Amenities: 1
- Business Center:
- Exercise Room:
- Kitchenettes:
- Microwave/Refrigerator:
- Laundry Service:
- Spa:
- Room Service:
- Pets Allowed:
- Gift Shop:
- Internet/WiFi:
- Guest Rooms Wireless:
- Meeting Rooms Wireless:
Food & Beverage Services
- Restaurant on-site:
- Complimentary Breakfast:
Transportation & Parking
- Complimentary Airport Shuttle:
- Complimentary Parking:


text:
« All Events
Sue Keller is a dynamic ragtime, blues, and jazz pianist and singer. The former director of the Scott Joplin festival who has produced several albums, she lives in Orleans. Freewill donation of $10 suggested
PO Box 975494 Commercial StreetProvincetown, MA 02657
Tel: 508-487-2619 Fax: 508-487-5524 email@example.com
Copyright WOMR, All Rights Reserved


text:
|<< Previous book
|Next book >>
Rivals and Retribution(2012)
(The fifth book in the 13 to Life series)
A novel by Shannon Delany
Marlaena's pack puts more pressure on the Rusakova family with the kidnapping of Jessie and the surprise that comes from triggering the wolf side of Pietr once again. Alexi realizes the impact of Pietr's change sooner than either Jessie or Pietr and rushes to find a permanent cure for the life sentence lycanthropy brings in hopes it will squelch an unexpected side-effect. But Gabriel is still not satisfied with his role in the pack and is determined that getting rid of Pietr permanently in his new and weakened state is the best way he can grab power in the pack. Meanwhile at Junction High, the company's meddling with the school food may have stopped but it doesn't mean all of the kids the food triggered are suddenly without powers. With the enrollment of the rest of the pack's pups, Counselor Harnek, Sophie and Jessie decide to try training the pups alongside the other powerful misfits. But Dmitri's influence is far-reaching and even pacifist Gareth must make a dark decision or risk the destruction of everything he holds dear.
Genre: Young Adult Fantasy
Genre: Young Adult Fantasy
Similar Books by other authors...
Almost Midnight
(Shadow Falls: After Dark)
C C Hunter
(House of Night, book 11)
Kristin Cast and P C Cast
(Shadow Falls: After Dark, book 3)
C C Hunter
(Hush, Hush, book 3)
Becca Fitzpatrick
Used availability for Shannon Delany's Rivals and Retribution
See all available used copies of this book at Abebooks UK or Abebooks US
Paperback Editions
August 2012 : USA Paperback
|Title: Rivals and Retribution: A 13 to Life Novel
Author(s): Shannon Delany
ISBN: 0-312-62518-9 / 978-0-312-62518-4 (USA edition)
Publisher: St. Martin's Griffin
Availability: Amazon Amazon UK Amazon CA
Kindle Editions
August 2012 : USA, Canada, UK Kindle edition
|Title: Rivals and Retribution: A 13 to Life Novel
Author(s): Shannon Delany
Publisher: St. Martin's Griffin
Availability: Amazon Amazon UK Amazon CA
Genre Pages


text:
Illinois, the No. 9 seed, sent No. 1 seed Ohio State home on Friday night with a 64-58 decision in the rubber match of what was a competitive three-game series this season.
Fighting Illini guard Rebecca Harris led all scorers with 22 points and got support from backcourt mate Lori Bjork (14 points) and forward Jenna Smith (13).
The Buckeyes countered with 19 points from guard Marscilla Packer, but she was the only perimeter threat Ohio State could mount.
Down low, Jantel Lavender (14) and Tamarah Riley (13) each made 6 of 8 shots, but Ohio State (22-8) struggled to get them the ball consistently in front of a sparse crowd.
With the offense bogging down, Packer and fellow guard Ashlee Trebilcock combined to take 29 shots, some of them earlier in the shot clock than OSU head coach Jim Foster would have preferred. Packer made 6 of 16 while Trebilcock was 3 for 13 and finished with seven points while gutting out 28 minutes despite a back injury.
Despite the seeds of the respective teams, the outcome could not have come as a terrible shock given how the regular season series played out.
In Columbus Jan. 17, Illinois controlled much of the action until Ohio State escaped with a 43-42 win thanks to a late three-pointer by Maria Moeller.
Two weeks later, the Fighting Illini gained a measure of revenge with a 68-64 win back in Champaign.
With their latest win over Ohio State, they became the first No. 9 seed to knock out a No. 1 in the Big Ten tournament. Ohio State failed to win at least one game in the tournament for the first time since Foster took over the program in 2002.
Ohio State wanted to end the season with the last laugh over the Illini - and perhaps later Michigan State - but will not get the chance.
"We definitely expected them to play hard and play like they did," Packer said. "Obviously we expected to win the game, but they played great. Harris did well for them and so did Bjork."
Bjork made 4 of six three-point attempts, while Harris did her damage both inside and out. She was 2 for 5 from three-point range also got into the lane a few times as Ohio State point guard and Big Ten defensive player of the year Shavelle Little struggled with an injured left knee.
Little did not score in 15 minutes of action.
"I thought their quickness at the guard spot hurt us a little bit, but our guards playing fast hurt us more," Foster said.
"I think we got into a period where I thought we were taking very quick shots, ones that were not to the level of quality that you would like to take. I think a floater is a nice shot to have in your game, but I don't think it's a nice shot to take with 22 seconds to go on the shot clock.
"I think we rushed at the guard position and weren't patient enough to take advantage of our inside presence. Tam and Jantel's lines are terrific and more shots would have helped."
The rubber match got away from Ohio State at the start of the second half.
The Buckeyes led by a point at the intermission – thanks to a last-second three-pointer by Alison Jackson at the first-half buzzer – but stumbled out of the gate in the final 20 minutes.
They committed four turnovers before scoring a point while Illinois scored six in a row to go ahead 33-28.
Trebilcock momentarily put a finger in the dam with a three-pointer from the left wing with 16:58 to play, but Ohio State remained in trouble. The offense never quite got in sync, and by the 13:41 mark, the deficit was eight.
With eight minutes to play, the Buckeyes were down 10, but they did manage one final push.
After cutting the deficit to three, the Buckeyes had two chances to tie the game in the final 35 seconds but could not do so.
Packer gave them their first opportunity with a steal, but her three-point attempt with 32 seconds to go was off the mark.
Lavender rebounded that miss but could not make a contested shot. Riley gathered in Lavender's miss, and the Buckeyes called timeout to talk things over with 21 seconds on the clock.
Coming out of the timeout, Ohio State never got a good look at the basket but clung to slim hopes nonetheless. Trebilcock missed an off-balance jumper, but Riley went to the foul line after a loose-ball foul on Lacey Simpson.
The OSU senior made the first freebie but missed the second, and Bjork made two free throws to essentially sew up the decision.
Harris hit a pair of free throws of her own to set the final margin.
Bjork, Harris and Chelsea Gordon all played the full 40 minutes for Illinois (18-13), while Smith logged 39.
Packer went the full 40 for Ohio State.


text:
Why do my muscles?
Nerve problems. Please dont listen to others talking ****. They just trying to scare you. Go see neurologist. It will make you feel better and you will definitely know what is wrong and how to fix ...
Read More »
How to Relax Muscles?
Many people after a long, hard day at work need to relax and distress their tense muscles so read on to discover how to relax and enjoy.
Pulled Muscles?
Yes, sometimes it's quite easy to pull a muscle. A pulled rib muscle is one of the most painful, because the muscles wrap around the front and back of your body . place a heating pad or hot towel...
Read More »
How to Get Major Muscles?
If your having trouble gaining major muscles, you need to read this.
How to Get Rid of Sore Muscles?
Muscle soreness occurs in microscopic tearing of your muscle fibers when working out (usually at a high intensity). This causes inflammation, swelling and pain in your muscles, which adds more pres...
Read More »


text:
Scroll to bottom of this page for City of Los Altos Housing Sales, Statistics & Graphs!
Tree lined streets and a small village atmosphere characterize Los Altos which is located in the heart of world famous Silicon Valley. Just 40 miles south of San Francisco, Los Altos is a residential community served by seven small retail areas. The seven square mile city is developed with small businesses, schools, libraries and churches.
Incorporated in 1952, Los Altos is a general law city with five elected council members who serve four-year terms. City Council meetings are held the second and fourth Tuesday of every month. Appointed commissions and committees assist the Council in an advisory capacity. The Council appointed city manager is responsible for financial and operational management of the city's 130 employees.
Los Altos has international sister cities ties with Bendigo, Australia; Syktyvkar, Russia; Shih Lin Taiwan and Rustington, England.
Over 200 volunteers a year assist in providing city government services to the community. In 1982, Los Altos became a leader in recycling programs when it began curbside residential collection of bottles, cans and newspaper. Since then motor oil and yard waste and mixed paper have been added.
City Council and Planning Commission meetings are televised live on the city's cable television government access channel 26. In addition, this channel carries a 24-hour video bulletin board on city services, activities and events. In January '09 Council meetings will be streamed live to the Internet
Average versus Median Sale Prices of Single-Family Homes in Los Alto CA compiled by Silicon Valley Realtor® Pat Kapowich.
Time frame is from Sep 2005 to Sep 2016
Time frame is from Jan 2005 to Dec 2014
Results calculated from approximately 500 listings
Pat's "Market Wise" real estate Q&A advice column runs in the Pulitzer Prize-winning San Jose Mercury News on the first and third Sunday. Look for it in a Bay Area News Group newspaper near you.
Contact him at (408) 245-7700 or email@example.com