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Volume 14, Issue 22-4 June 2009
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1 Volume 14, Issue 22-4 June 2009 Rapid communications Transmission potential of the new influenza A(H1N1) virus and its age-specificity in Japan 2 by H Nishiura, C Castillo-Chavez, M Safan, G Chowell Epidemiology of new influenza A (H1N1) virus infection, United Kingdom, April June by Health Protection Agency, Health Protection Scotland, National Public Health Service for Wales, HPA Northern Ireland Swine influenza investigation teams Evaluation of four real-time PCR assays for detection of influenza A(H1N1)v viruses 9 by J Ellis, M Iturriza, R Allan, A Bermingham, K Brown, J Gray, D Brown Origins of the new influenza A(H1N1) virus: time to take action 12 by GM Nava, MS Attene-Ramos, JK Ang, M Escorcia Norwegians approve of the health authorities strategy to communicate worst case pandemic scenarios 37 by G Wøien, KI Tonsberg Research articles Autochthonous cystic echinococcosis in patients who grew up in Germany by J Richter, A Orhun, B Grüner, I Müller-Stöver, S Reuter, T Romig, D Häussinger, P Kern EUROPEAN CENTRE FOR DISEASE PREVENTION AND CONTROL 39
2 Rapid communications T r a n s m i s s i o n p o t e n t i a l o f t h e n e w i n f l u e n z a A(H1N1) v i r u s a n d i t s a g e - s p e c i f i c i t y i n J a pa n H Nishiura 1, C Castillo-Chavez 2, M Safan 3, G Chowell 2 1. University of Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands 2. Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States 3. Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt On 16 May 2009, Japan confirmed its first three cases of new influenza A(H1N1) virus infection without a history of overseas travel, and by 1 June, 361 cases, owing to indigenous secondary transmission, have been confirmed. Of these, 287 cases (79.5%) were teenagers (i.e. between 10 and 19 years of age). The reproduction number is estimated at 2.3 (95% confidence interval: 2.0, 2.6). The average number of secondary transmissions involving minors (those under 20 years of age) traced back to infected minors is estimated at 2.8. That is, minors can sustain transmission even in the absence of adults. Estimates of the effective reproduction number R t moved below 1 by 17 May. Active surveillance and public health interventions, including school closures most likely have contributed to keeping R t below one. Introduction The reproduction number R, the average number of secondary cases generated by a single primary case, of the new influenza A(H1N1) virus, is a key quantitative measure for assessing pandemic potential [1]. In the ongoing epidemic of the new influenza A(H1N1) virus, early studies suggested that R ranged from [2] and some estimated it to be as high as [3]. Estimates in range for the new influenza A(H1N1) virus are lower than estimates based on data from, for example, the fall wave of the 1918 influenza pandemic [4,5]. The present study investigates indigenous secondary transmissions of the new influenza A(H1N1) virus in Japan, not only estimating R but also exploring its age-specificity. worker at Tokyo-Narita airport) [6]. Figure 1 shows the geographic distribution of 361 indigenous cases. Cases outside Osaka and Hyogo prefectures had travel histories to Osaka or Hyogo before their illness onset. The index case(s) (who may have remained asymptomatic [7]), with a history of overseas travel, has (have) yet to be identified. Furthermore, there are no known cases prior to the five confirmed cases that developed the disease on 9 May in Hyogo (Figure 2A). The triggering event may be associated with Japan s two-week festive break, the golden week, just before 9 May, when people may have travelled to and returned from Mexico, United States and Canada. Figure 1 Spatial distribution of the epidemic of new influenza A(H1N1) virus infection in Japan. Cumulative number of confirmed indigenous cases, as of 1 June 2009 (n = 361) Methods Epidemiological description of the epidemic On 16 May 2009, three high school students in Kobe city, Hyogo prefecture, without a history of overseas travel, were confirmed as infected with the new influenza A(H1N1) virus. Confirmatory diagnosis in Japan requires influenza-like symptoms and a laboratory diagnosis which is made either by virus isolation, real-time PCR or a significant increase in neutralising antibody titre against the virus. Further confirmed diagnoses followed predominantly in Hyogo and Osaka prefectures. The increased number of infections among particular age groups was most evident in the data from prefectures where most secondary cases were found among high school students attending different schools. By 1 June, the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan had reported 371 confirmed cases, including nine imported cases and one case traced back to a distant international airport (i.e. a Note: Cases in Tokyo, Saitama, Shiga and Kyoto had travel history to either Hyogo or Osaka prefecture before illness onset. Kobe city, where first three cases were diagnosed, is a capital city of Hyogo prefecture. 2 EUROSURVEILLANCE Vol. 14 Issue 22 4 June 2009
3 We analysed the temporal incidence distribution of confirmed cases for this epidemic (Figure 2A). The known dates of illness onset are used except for a fraction of the confirmed cases in Kobe city (45; 12.5%) whose dates of onset have yet to be fully clarified. Since the known median time from onset to diagnosis in Kobe has been estimated at 1.0 day [8], it is assumed that the dates of onset among the 45 cases in Kobe were 1 day before their date of diagnosis. We observed that by the time the first three cases had been confirmed (16 May), the epidemic curve was just about at its peak May fell on a weekend, and all schools in Osaka and Hyogo were officially closed for one week starting on 18 May. Figure 2B displays the age-distribution of the 361 confirmed cases, which is concentrated in the teenage population. We see the age-specific window (10-19 years of age) that includes 287 confirmed cases (79.5%; 95% confidence interval (CI): 75.3, 83.7). Epidemiological analysis Taking into consideration the high levels of uncertainty related to the invasion of a population by a novel influenza virus, three different methods are used to estimate the transmission potential of the new influenza A(H1N1) virus. To concentrate on the transmission potential in Japan, all nine imported cases and one case that is not associated with indigenous transmission in Hyogo and Osaka were removed from the following analyses. Model 1 (M1) Estimation of R using the intrinsic growth rate [3,5]. The intrinsic growth rate r, is estimated via a pure birth process [9]. The likelihood is proportional to: t ( r 1 C( i) ) ( r) i= 0 exp 1 exp where C(t) denotes the cumulative number of cases on day t. C(0) = 5 and t = 0 represents 9 May. The generation time (GT) is assumed to follow a gamma distribution with mean μ= 1.9 days and coefficient of variation ν = 47% [2]. R is subsequently estimated using the estimator [10]: (1 + rµ v ) v Ct ( ) ( ) C ( 0) Given that many serial intervals reported from Spain are longer than 1.9 days [7], the uncertainties surrounding GT estimates are partially addressed through a sensitivity analysis of R to variations in the mean GT in the range from days. The exponential growth phase is assumed to have a mean duration of 8 days but windows in the 8±2 days were also used. Model 2 (M2) The effective reproduction number R t, the average number of secondary cases generated by a primary case at time t, is estimated. The daily growth rate rt is used to estimate R t following the approach described elsewhere [11]; the distribution of GT and the estimator of R used are the same as those used in M1. The mean GT is assumed to be 1.9 days but varying in the 1.3 to 2.5 days range [2]. Figure 2 Time- and age-specificity of the epidemic of new influenza A(H1N1) virus infection in Japan A) Epidemic curve of confirmed indigenous cases according to the date of illness onset, as of 1 June 2009 (n = 361) B) Age distribution of confirmed indigenous cases, as of 1 June 2009 (n=361) A 70 A B C B Age group 20 and older Confirmed cases Confirmed cases May 9-May 11-May 13-May 15-May 17-May 19-May 21-May 23-May 25-May 27-May 29-May and older Age (years) Note: None of the confirmed cases had recent history of overseas travel (except for one case in Wakayama). The nine cases, believed to have become infected abroad, and one case, arising in a worker at Tokyo-Narita airport, are excluded from these figures. The dates of illness onset for each confirmed case are reported by prefectural governments, except for a fraction of cases in Kobe city where cases with unknown dates of onset are assumed to have developed the disease one day before the confirmatory diagnosis (based on published median estimate [8]). It should be noted that the dates of onset are based on preliminary reports and have yet to be refined. Arrow A indicates the date on which the first three cases were diagnosed in Kobe city. All schools in Hyogo and Osaka were closed between the dates signalled by the arrows B and C. EUROSURVEILLANCE Vol. 14 Issue 22 4 June
4 Model 3 (M3) The role of age-specificity in transmission is analysed using estimates of the next-generation matrix, K (Figure 3). First, we aggregate the population in two age groups, minors and adults. Second, since the mean GT is approximately 2 days [2], the daily number of cases during the exponential growth phase (i.e. first 8 days) uses as its unit of time, two-day intervals (i.e. cases, c, in days 1 & 2, 3 & 4, 5& 6 and 7 & 8 are grouped). Third, the expected value of cases in age-group i of grouped-generation τ, E(c i (τ)), is modelled by R ii c i (τ-1)+r ij c j (τ-1) (fort = 2, 3 and 4) where R gh is the element of K that corresponds to the average number of secondary cases in group g caused by an infected individual in group h. We estimate the entries in the matrices, assuming two different mixing patterns modelled via two unknown parameters by means of Poisson regression (Figure 3). Results The intrinsic growth rate r, is estimated at 0.47 (0.40, 0.56) per day. Accordingly, M1 gives an R estimate of 2.3 (95% CI: 2.0, 2.6). Figure 4A illustrates the sensitivity of R to variations in the mean GT in the range days. The corresponding R estimates lie in the 1.8 to 4.8 range. Variations in the initial growth phase (i.e. ±2 days) do not greatly influence R; i.e. the expected values of R lie in the 1.9 to 2.3 range. The exclusion of the less documented cases in Kobe lead to an R estimate of 2.0 (95% CI: 1.7, 2.3). Use of M2 suggests that R t peaked on 14 May (Figure 4B). On 17 May, the day after a press release announced the first three confirmed diagnoses, R t declined below 1. Under active surveillance efforts and school closures, R t was kept below 1 thereafter. Consistent temporal patterns of R t are seen using different values, except for slight increase and decrease in R t estimates, for GT mean values in the day-range. Figure 3 Next-generation matrix Note: Each element of the next-generation matrix, i.e., R cc, R ca, R ac and R aa, denotes the average number of secondary transmissions caused by a single primary case for child-to-child, adult-to-child, child-to-adult and adult-to-adult transmissions, respectively (note that here child represents minor, aged from 0 to 19 years). The reproduction number R, for the whole population, is given by the largest eigenvalue of the next-generation matrix. By making qualitative assumptions A and B, two parameters, a and b, are estimated. Using M3, the next-generation matrix, K 1 estimate, under the separable mixing assumption is Kˆ = while our K 2 estimate based on a qualitative assumption of WAIFW (who acquired infection from whom) matrix is Kˆ = The host-specific reproduction number [12] for minor, i.e. the average number of secondary minor cases generated by a single primary minor case was 2.8 under K 1 and K 2. Hence a population of minors can sustain the chains of secondary transmission even in the absence of adults (i.e. for this epidemic minors are the core group). Our estimate of R based on M3 is the largest eigenvalue of K, and R is estimated at 2.9 for both matrices. These estimates are slightly greater than R estimates based on M1; when the mean and variance of GT is 2.0 days and 0 days 2 (i.e. if GT is constant, following a delta function), our R estimate is 2.6. Discussion Two important conclusions can be drawn from our epidemiological analyses. Firstly, the reproduction number R of the new influenza A(H1N1) virus in Japan is estimated to be as high as 2.3, a value that is significantly higher than that recently reported [2]. The pandemic potential of this virus in Japan may be higher in terms of transmission potential than in other areas of the world. In particular, it should be noted that our estimate of R is greater than published estimates for seasonal influenza epidemics in temperate countries [13]. Given that our R estimate has been tested for robustness to uncertainty to mean GT, it seems plausible that high contact rates among teenagers (when compared to other populations) may be one of the main drivers of this epidemic. From a transient increase in R t around 14 May, our high estimate of R may reflect the existence of few highly connected clusters of cases among cliques of high school students. There may be additional contributing factors to variations in our R estimates, including cross-protective immunity due to previous exposure to other closely related influenza viruses. Secondly, our age-specific estimates support the view that minors can sustain transmission of the new influenza A(H1N1) virus among themselves. Available data are not enough to investigate the precise role of age-specific effects (e.g. different roles of transmission among infants, primary-school, high-school and university students) due to small case counts. Nevertheless, we believe that the population of minors could play a key role as a reservoir for sustained chains of secondary transmission, despite the fact that cases in this group include those infected in some atypical school clusters. Should further data confirm these results then the value of public health interventions targeting minors (closing schools and further contact restrictions between minors) could be effective in controlling further outbreaks in Japan and other countries. Our estimates of R t provide a quantitative measure of the timeevolution of the force of the epidemic. Although the dates of onset have yet to be refined and, thus, the precision of R t estimate may have been influenced by possible delay in diagnosis and reporting, R t declined below 1 one day after the news of the first 4 EUROSURVEILLANCE Vol. 14 Issue 22 4 June 2009
5 three confirmed diagnoses. Thereafter, the implementation of active surveillance programmes, including contact tracing, combined with school closures, most likely have contributed to keeping R t below 1. R is useful for assessing transmission potential, and it is one of the ways of assessing pandemic potential. This study puts emphasis on quantifying the impact of contact patterns on the transmission potential, factors that vary across space and time. Thus, further analyses of R for the new influenza A(H1N1) virus in different settings are needed to better quantify the role of uncertainty and heterogeneous patterns of transmission in these estimates. Validation of our quantitative understanding of the role of agespecific transmission should lead to improved effectiveness of age-specific control measures. Acknowledgements The work of H Nishiura was partly supported by The Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO; grant ID: ). References 1. Coulombier D, Giesecke J. Why are Mexican data important?. Euro Surveill. 2009;14(19):pii= Available from: ViewArticle.aspx?ArticleId= Fraser C, Donnelly CA, Cauchemez S, Hanage WP, van Kerkhove MD, Hollingsworth TD, et al. Pandemic potential of a strain of influenza A (H1N1): early findings. Published 11 May 2009 on Science Express. Doi: /science Available from: 3. Boëlle PY, Bernillon P, Desenclos JC. A preliminary estimation of the reproduction ratio for new influenza A(H1N1) from the outbreak in Mexico, March-April Euro Surveill. 2009; 14(19): p11= Available from: 4. Mills CE, Robins JM, Lipsitch M. Transmissibility of 1918 pandemic influenza. Nature. 2004; 432(7019): Andreasen V, Viboud C, Simonsen L. Epidemiologic characterization of the 1918 influenza pandemic summer wave in Copenhagen: implications for pandemic control strategies. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(2): Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Japan. Influenza A(H1N1). Tokyo: Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare; 1 June Available from: go.jp/english/topics/influenza_a/index.html 7. Surveillance Group for New Influenza A(H1N1) Virus Investigation and Control in Spain. New influenza A(H1N1) virus infections in Spain, April-May Euro Surveill. 2009; 14(19): p11= Available from: org/viewarticle.aspx?articleid= National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Kobe Institute of Health. Interim report on clinical presentation of the novel influenza A(H1N1) cases reported from Kobe City. Tokyo: National Institute of Infectious Diseases; 19 May Available from: clinical_epi_kobe.html 9. Bailey NTJ. The elements of stochastic processes with applications to the natural sciences. New York: Wiley; Roberts MG, Heesterbeek JA. Model-consistent estimation of the basic reproduction number from the incidence of an emerging infection. J Math Biol. 2007;55(5-6): Nishiura H, Chowell G, Heesterbeek H, Wallinga J. The ideal reporting interval for an epidemic to objectively interpret the epidemiological time course. J R Soc Interface [In press] 12. Nishiura H, Hoye B, Klaassen M, Bauer S, Heesterbeek H. How to find natural reservoir hosts from endemic prevalence in a multi-host population. A case study of influenza in waterfowl. Epidemics [In press] (Doi: /j. epidem ). 13. Chowell G, Miller MA, Viboud C. Seasonal influenza in the United States, France, and Australia: transmission and prospects for control. Epidemiol Infect. 2008;136(6): This article was published on 4 June Citation style for this article: Nishiura H, Castillo-Chavez C, Safan M, Chowell G. Transmission potential of the new influenza A(H1N1) virus and its age-specificity in Japan. Euro Surveill. 2009;14(22):pii= Available online: eurosurveillance.org/viewarticle.aspx?articleid=19227 Figure 4 Estimates of the reproduction number for the epidemic of new influenza A(H1N1) virus infection in Japan A) Estimated reproduction number R, based on the initial growth phase of the epidemic (i.e. first eight days) B) Effective reproduction number R t, as a function of time A B Reproduction number Effective reproduction number Mean generation time (days) May 11-May 13-May 15-May 17-May 19-May 21-May 23-May Mean generation time (days) Note: A) Mean and variance of the generation time were 1.9 days and 0.8 days 2 (given a coefficient of variation of 47%), and the sensitivity of R to different mean generation times is examined. Coefficient of variation is kept constant when the mean generation time is varied. B) R t > 1 indicates growth of cases at a given point of time, while R t < 1 indicates that the epidemic is in declining trend and may be under control. The horizontal dashed line represents the threshold value, R t = 1. It should be noted that the dates of onset in Japan have yet to be refined, and the precision of R t estimate may have been influenced by possible delay in diagnosis and reporting EUROSURVEILLANCE Vol. 14 Issue 22 4 June
6 Rapid communications E p i d e m i o l o g y o f n e w i n f l u e n z a A ( H 1 N 1 ) v i r u s i n f e c t i o n, U n i t e d K i n g d o m, A p r i l J u n e Health Protection Agency, Health Protection Scotland, National Public Health Service for Wales, HPA Northern Ireland Swine influenza investigation teams 1,2,3,4 1. Health Protection Agency, London, United Kingdom 2. Health Protection Scotland, Glasgow, United Kingdom 3. National Public Health Service for Wales, Cardiff, United Kingdom 4. HPA Northern Ireland, Belfast, United Kingdom Following the previous report to Eurosurveillance on 14 May 2009, the number of confirmed cases of new influenza A(H1N1) has continued to increase in the United Kingdom. By 31 May, UK surveillance activities had detected a total of 252 confirmed cases. Seventy (28%) were related to travel to the United States and Mexico. There is evidence of spread in households, schools and the community with increases in secondary (n=40), tertiary (n=125) and sporadic (n=13) cases. The new influenza A(H1N1) virus infection continues to cause a mild illness predominately affecting younger age-groups with a low rate of hospitalisation. Since the identification in late April of cases of acute respiratory infection due to a new influenza A (H1N1) virus in the United States and Mexico [1], the same strain has been detected in an increasing number of countries. By 31 May, the World Health Organization (WHO) had reported 15,510 cases in 53 countries. The first two confirmed cases of new influenza A(H1N1) virus infection in the United Kingdom (UK) were reported in travellers returning from Mexico to Scotland. The UK response and preliminary epidemiological findings have previously been described [2]. This article provides an update to that report. During the period from 27 April to 31 May, a total of 252 confirmed cases have been detected (Figure 1). Initially cases were reported amongst travellers returning from Mexico, and then from the United States. The first indigenously acquired infections in the UK were reported on 1 May and since then the proportion and number of indigenously acquired cases has steadily increased. Of the 252 confirmed cases, 118 (47%) are female (Figure 2). Cases range in age from 0 to 73 years, with a mean age of 20 years and median age of 12 years. Of the 252 cases, 28 reported a history of travel in the seven days before disease onset to Mexico and 42 to the United States. Of the remaining 182, 178 cases reported no recent overseas travel and acquired their infection within the United Kingdom. Of these Figure 2 Cases of laboratory confirmed new influenza A(H1N1) by age-group and sex, United Kingdom, 31 May 2009 (n=251*) 60 Figure 1 Cumulative number of laboratory-confirmed new influenza A(H1N1) cases by day of report and travel history, United Kingdom, 31 May 2009 (n=252) Number of confirmed cases /04 29/04 01/05 Imported Indigenous sporadic Indigenous tertiary Not clear Secondary (import related) 03/05 05/05 07/05 09/05 11/05 13/05 15/05 Date 17/05 19/05 21/05 23/05 25/05 27/05 29/05 31/05 Number of Cases Age-group *Age missing for one case. Female Male 6 EUROSURVEILLANCE Vol. 14 Issue 22 4 June 2009
7 178 indigenous cases, 40 were secondary (contact within seven days of onset with a travel-associated case); 125 were tertiary Figure 3 Setting/source of acquisition of new influenza A(H1N1) virus infection, United Kingdom, 31 May 2009 (n=238*) Healthcare 1 Workplace 2 Other Community Household Outside UK School 9 13 * Investigation is still underway for 14 cases Number of cases (contact within seven days of onset with a secondary case) and 13 sporadic (no travel or contact with a confirmed case in the seven days before onset). Follow-up is still underway for four cases. Amongst the indigenous cases, infection has been linked to likely transmission in a school setting for 101 cases, a household setting for 42 cases, workplace for two cases and health care setting for one case (Figure 3). The First Few Hundred (FF100) project aims to collect information about a limited number of the earliest laboratory-confirmed cases of new influenza A(H1N1) and their close contacts [3] to gain an early understanding of some of the key clinical, epidemiological, and virological parameters of this infection and to facilitate real time modelling efforts. By 31 May, 175 confirmed cases had been entered into the FF-100 database. Clinical information gathered on these cases shows they continue to present with symptoms typical for influenza (Figure 4). Up to 31 May, four cases have been hospitalised for clinical reasons. No UK case is known to have died. Figure 4 Clinical presentation of confirmed cases of new influenza A(H1N1) virus infection, United Kingdom, 31 May 2009 (n=175) Seizures Altered consciousness Rash Epistaxis Conjunctivitis Shortness of Breath Diarrhoea Vomiting Productive cough Nausea Arthralgia Sneezing Myalgia Anorexia Chills Coryza Dry cough Headache Malaise Sore Throat Fever 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% EUROSURVEILLANCE Vol. 14 Issue 22 4 June
8 HPA and the Health Protection organisations for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have a number of enhanced influenza surveillance systems that are currently operational [4] and that provide an indication of influenza activity in the general population: A number of general practitioner (GP) sentinel schemes that collect information on patient consultation rates with influenzalike illness; National Health Service (NHS) direct and NHS-24 telephony systems which monitor call rates for colds/flu in the community; GP sentinel virological surveillance schemes to monitor circulating respiratory viruses in the community; Mortality surveillance based on routine death registration data. To date, there have not been significant signals of increased influenza activity through these systems, which have established thresholds for widespread circulation of influenza. Outputs from these systems are published on a daily and weekly basis on the HPA website [5]. Further work is on-going to describe more fully the emerging epidemiological, virological and clinical characteristics of this novel influenza virus including in-depth field investigations of individual cluster events in settings such as schools. References 1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Swine influenza A (H1N1) infection in two children Southern California, March-April MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2009;58(15): Health Protection Agency and Health Protection Scotland new influenza A(H1N1) investigation teams. Epidemiology of new influenza A(H1N1) in the United Kingdom, April May Euro Surveill. 2009;14(19):pii= Available from: 3. McMenamin J, Phin N, Smyth B, Couzens Z, Nguyen-Van-Tam JS. Minimum dataset for confirmed human cases of influenza H5N1. Lancet. 2008;372(9640): Health Protection Agency (HPA). HPA Surveillance Systems: Swine Influenza (H1N1swl). Available from: HPAweb&Page&HPAwebAutoListName/Page/ ?p= Health Protection Agency (HPA). HPA daily and weekly influenza report. Available from: ?p= This article was published on 4 June Citation style for this article: Health Protection Agency, Health Protection Scotland, National Public Health Service for Wales, HPA Northern Ireland Swine influenza investigation teams. Epidemiology of new influenza A (H1N1) virus infection, United Kingdom, April June Euro Surveill. 2009;14(22):pii= Available online: 8 EUROSURVEILLANCE Vol. 14 Issue 22 4 June 2009
9 Rapid communications E va l u at i o n o f f o u r r e a l - t i m e P C R a s s ay s f o r d e t e c t i o n o f i n f l u e n z a A ( H 1 N 1 ) v v i r u s e s J Ellis 1, M Iturriza 1, R Allan 1 *, A Bermingham 1, K Brown 1, J Gray 1, D Brown 1 1. Virus Reference Department, Centre for Infections, Health Protection Agency, Colindale, London, United Kingdom The sensitivity and specificity of four real-time PCR assays (HPA A(H1)v, CDC A (H1)v, HPA A(N1)v and NVRL S-OIV assays) were evaluated for detection of influenza A(H1N1)v viruses. Nose and throat swab samples containing influenza A(H1N1)v viruses, seasonal influenza AH3N2, AH1N1, influenza B viruses, or negative for influenza viruses were tested by the four assays. Specificity was also analysed using influenza A viruses of different subtypes and non-related respiratory viruses. The sensitivities and specificities of the four assays were in a similar range and suitable for diagnostic use. The HPA (H1)v and the S-OIV assays were the most sensitive assays for use as a first line test, but the S-OIV assay was less specific, detecting all avian subtypes of influenza A viruses tested. The results of this study demonstrate that the concurrent use of primary diagnostic and confirmatory assays provides rapid and accurate assessment of confirmed cases, and allows appropriate management of patients. Introduction The recent emergence of new influenza A(H1N1) virus (henceforth: influenza A(H1N1)v virus, where v stands for variant, according to nomenclature agreed by the World Health Organization Global Influenza Surveillance Network WHO GISN) in humans [1-2] has led to the requirement for sensitive and specific assays for the differential diagnosis and confirmation of influenza A(H1N1)v virus infections, necessary to guide public health actions. Real-time PCR is widely considered the gold standard for molecular detection of influenza viruses due to its high assay specificity, sensitivity and broad linear dynamic range. In the present study, the performance (including sensitivity and specificity) of four real-time PCR assays designed to detect influenza A(H1N1)v viruses in respiratory specimens has been evaluated. Two assays are based on detection of haemagglutinin (HA), one on the detection of neuraminidase (NA) and one on the matrix (M) gene. HPA (H1)v assay The influenza A(H1)v specific assay of the Health Protection Agency (HPA) contains primers and a dual-labelled TaqMan MGB probe (Applied Biosystems) targeting conserved sequences in the HA gene of A(H1N1)v viruses, and the positive control swine A(H1N1) virus A/Aragon/3218/2009, in a 1-step TaqMan PCR assay [3]. The advantage of using a genetically distinct positive control virus (A/Aragon/3218/2008) is that false positives can be differentiated by sequence from true positives. CDC (H1)v assay The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) realtime RT-PCR kit designed for the detection and characterisation of influenza A(H1N1)v viruses contains a panel of oligonucleotide primers and dual-labelled hydrolysis probes [4]. The CDC (H1)v primer and probe set evaluated in this study has been designed to specifically detect A(H1)v influenza in a one-step RT-PCR assay. HPA (N1)v assay The influenza A(N1)v real-time assay (HPA) is a two-step TaqMan PCR assay incorporating oligonucleotide primers and a dual-labelled MGB TaqMan probe for the detection of the NA gene of influenza A(H1N1)v viruses and the positive control virus A/Aragon/3218/2008 [5]. The assay has been designed to be performed in conjunction with the influenza A(H1)v specific assay, to provide confirmation of diagnosis of influenza A(H1N1)v virus infection. S-OIV assay The swine-origin influenza virus (S-OIV) assay (National Virus Reference Laboratory, NVRL, Dublin) is a real-time one-step RT- PCR assay containing primers and a dual-labelled hydrolysis probe targeting the M gene of influenza A viruses other than seasonal A(H1N1) and A(H3N2) viruses [6]. Methods Respiratory samples (85 nose or throat swabs) were submitted as part of the influenza A(H1N1)v virus investigation in the United Kingdom. Of these, 43 influenza A-positive, untypable, M gene sequence-confirmed cases of influenza A(H1N1)v, and 42 A(H1N1) v-negative samples containing seasonal influenza A(H1N1), A(H3N2) or influenza B, or negative for influenza viruses, were analysed using the real-time assays. In addition, specificity was evaluated using representative influenza A viruses of HA subtype H5, H6, H7 and H9, and a panel of non-related respiratory viruses: respiratory syncytial viruses (RSV A and RSV B), parainfluenza viruses, rhinoviruses, human metapneumoviruses (hmpv) and corona viruses. Viral RNA was purified from clinical samples and viral cultures using the Biomerieux NucliSens easymag system. Specimens were tested according to the protocol provided for each assay. All assays were run on an ABI Taqman 7500 Fast Thermal Cycler in standard (one-step assays) or Fast (two-step) mode. All samples were tested in duplicate. Discrepant results were confirmed by repeat testing. Ct values of <40.00 were considered to be positive for detection of viral RNA. Results The relative sensitivity of the assays was compared by analysing a 10-fold dilution series of A/England/195/2009(H1N1)v (nose swab sample). EUROSURVEILLANCE Vol. 14 Issue 22 4 June
10 No cross-reaction was observed when the four real-time assays were used to test 22 seasonal influenza viruses, or other respiratory viruses. A panel of representative influenza A viruses of different subtypes was also analysed (Table 2). The HPA (H1)v and CDC (H1)v specific assays showed no crossreactivity with any of the other influenza A subtypes analysed. The HPA (N1)v confirmatory assay detected one influenza A(H5N1) virus, but showed no cross-reactivity with other subtype viruses. The S-OIV assay showed cross-reactivity with all of the influenza A viruses analysed. When 43 true positive samples were analysed, 36 were positive in all four real-time PCR assays (Table 3). Four false negative and two equivocal results were observed with the CDC (H1)v assay. One equivocal result was observed with the S-OIV assay. Two samples were negative with either the HPA (H1)v or (N1)v assays, but when these assays were performed in parallel, as recommended, one false negative result was observed. No false-positives were detected in the 42 influenza A(H1N1)v virus-negative samples with any of the four real-time assays. The Ct values obtained by analyses with the real-time assays of the 43 confirmed influenza A (H1N1)v virus samples are shown in Figures 1a-c. A total of 42 true negative and 43 true positive samples were tested in all assays. Comparison of the HPA (H1)v and CDC (H1)v assays showed that of the 43 true positives tested, 41 were detected in the HPA (H1)v assay (Figure 1a). Thirty seven were positive and 2 equivocal in the CDC (H1)v assay. Three samples positive in HPA (H1)v assay were negative in the CDC assay and 1 sample positive in the HPA (H1)v assay was equivocal in the CDC (H1)v assay. Of the 43 true positives, 41 were positive in the HPA (H1)v assay and 42 in the S-OIV assay (Figure 1b). One sample gave an equivocal result with the S-OIV assay. Comparison of the HPA (H1)v diagnostic assay with the HPA (N1)v confirmatory assay demonstrated that the two assays correlate well, with a correlation coefficient of r = 0.97 (Figure 1c). The precision of the HPA (H1)v and (N1)v real-time assays was assessed by the coefficient of variation (CV) and standard deviation (SD) of the replicate Ct measurements (n=37 and n=9 respectively) for the assay-positive control on diagnostic assay runs. The CV for the mean Ct values obtained with the (H1)v and (N1)v assaypositive controls was 3% and 2% respectively. Table 1 End-point detection of A/England/195/2009 (H1N1)v by four real-time PCR assays Mean Ct values Dilution A/Eng/195/2009(H1N1)v HPA (H1)v CDC (H1)v HPA (N1)v S-OIV 1.00E E E E E E Neg E-09 Neg Neg Neg Neg Table 2 Specificity of four real-time PCR assays with representative influenza A subtype virus isolates Influenza A virus subtype HPA (H1)v CDC (H1)v HPA (N1)v S-OIV A/Cambodia/R /2007 RG a H5N1 Neg Neg Neg A/Indonesia/6/2005 H5N1 Neg Neg A/Chicken/Turkiye/Av05/2006 H5N1 Neg Neg Neg A/Vietnam/1203/2004 H5N1 Neg Neg Neg A/Duck/Singapore-Q/F119-3/97 H5N3 Neg Neg Neg A Turkey/England/198/2009 H6N1 Neg Neg Neg A/AfricanStarling/Q-England/983/79 H7N1 Neg Neg Neg A/Chicken/Wales/306/2007 H7N2 Neg Neg Neg A/Quail/HongKong/G1/97 H9N2 Neg Neg not done a derived by reverse genetics 10 EUROSURVEILLANCE Vol. 14 Issue 22 4 June 2009
11 Table 3 Comparison of HPA (H1)v, CDC (H1)v, HPA (N1)v, and S-OIV real-time PCR assays on sequence confirmed swine-lineage samples Number of samples HPA (H1)v CDC (H1)v HPA (N1)v S-OIV Equiv* Equiv* Equiv* - + Sensitivity (%) * Weak positive in one replicate Figure 1a Comparison of HPA (H1)v and CDC (H1)v assay Ct values CDC (H1)v y = x R 2 = HPA (H1)v vs CDC (H1)v assay HPA (H1)v Figure 1b Comparison HPA (H1)v and S-OIV assay Ct values S-OIV y = x R 2 = HPA (H1)v vs S-OIV HPA (H1)v Figure 1c Correlation of Ct values obtained with HPA (H1)v and (N1) v assays HPA (N1)v Correlation of HPA (H1)v vs (N1)v assays y = x R 2 = Conclusions The sensitivities and specificities of the four assays were in a similar range and suitable for diagnostic use. The HPA (H1)v and the S-OIV assays were the most sensitive assays for use as a first line test, but the S-OIV assay was less specific, detecting all avian subtypes of influenza A viruses tested. For confirmation, an assay in another gene such as the HPA (N1)v could be employed. The results obtained with the HPA (H1)v and (N1)v assays correlated well and, in addition, intra-assay variability of the HPA (H1)v and (N1)v assays was shown to be acceptable with values for the coefficient of variation (CV) <5%. Because the security of a diagnostic result for influenza A(H1N1) v virus is important for public health actions, the use of primary detection and confirmatory assays as described here is appropriate. The use of the HPA (H1)v and (N1)v assays together provides rapid and accurate assessment of confirmed cases, and enables appropriate management of patients. Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of the member laboratories of the Regional Microbiology Network, HPA, and participating Royal College of General Practitioners practices, in submitting the clinical samples evaluated in this study. The S-OIV real-time PCR assay protocol and primer and probe sequences were kindly provided by M Carr and S Coughlan (NVRL, Dublin). The influenza A(H1N1) virus A/Aragon/3218/2008 was kindly provided by the Director of the National Centre for Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain. Technical assistance in performing the evaluation was provided by T Talts and C Amar. References 1. Novel Swine-Origin Influenza A (H1N1) Virus Investigation Team. Emergence of a Novel Swine-Origin Influenza A (H1N1) Virus in Humans. N Engl J Med. 22 May [Epub ahead of print]. 2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Swine influenza A (H1N1) infection in two children Southern California, March-April MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2009;58(15): Health Protection Agency (HPA). Swine-Lineage Influenza A H1 Specific Fast Real Time PCR. National Standard Methods - Virology. VSOP 29, Issue 2, May Available from: 4. World Health Organization (WHO). CDC protocol of realtime RTPCR for influenza A (H1N1). 30 April Available from: publications/swineflu/realtimeptpcr/en/index.html 5. Health Protection Agency (HPA). Swine-lineage Influenza A N1 Fast Real Time Confirmatory PCR assay. National Standard Methods Virology. VSOP 48, Issue 1, May Available from: asp 6. Personal communication from Dr Michael Carr, National Virus Reference Laboratory (NVRL), Dublin, 22 May This article was published on 4 June Citation style for this article: Ellis J, Iturriza M, Allen R, Bermingham A, Brown K, Gray J, Brown D. Evaluation of four real-time PCR assays for detection of influenza A(H1N1)v viruses. Euro Surveill. 2009;14(22):pii= Available online: eurosurveillance.org/viewarticle.aspx?articleid=19230 *Authors correction: The name of the third author was corrected on 13 June 2012 at the request of the authors HPA (H1)v EUROSURVEILLANCE Vol. 14 Issue 22 4 June
12 Rapid communications O r i g i n s o f t h e n e w i n f l u e n z a A ( H 1 N 1 ) v i r u s : t i m e t o ta k e a c t i o n G M Nava 1,2, M S Attene-Ramos 2, J K Ang 2, M Escorcia 1 1. Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia (College of Veterinary Medicine), Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (National Autonomous University of Mexico), Mexico City, Mexico 2. Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States To gain insight into the possible origins of the 2009 outbreak of new influenza A(H1N1), we performed two independent analyses of genetic evolution of the new influenza A(H1N1) virus. Firstly, protein homology analyses of more than 400 sequences revealed that this virus most likely evolved from recent swine viruses. Secondly, phylogenetic analyses of 5,214 protein sequences of influenza A(H1N1) viruses (avian, swine and human) circulating in North America for the last two decades (from 1989 to 2009) indicated that the new influenza A(H1N1) virus possesses a distinctive evolutionary trait (genetic distinctness). This appears to be a particular characteristic in pig-human interspecies transmission of influenza A. Thus these analyses contribute to the evidence of the role of pig populations as mixing vessels for influenza A(H1N1) viruses. Introduction On 24 April, the World Health Organization (WHO) released the first alert indicating the occurrence of confirmed human cases of swine influenza A(H1N1) in North America [1]. A few days later, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the United States confirmed that these human influenza cases were caused by the same new influenza A(H1N1) virus [2]. Soon after, it was proposed that the current flu outbreak is caused by a new influenza A(H1N1) virus generated from a triple reassortment of human, swine and avian viruses [2-8]. Other publications, including our study presented here, demonstrate that this new influenza A(H1N1) virus most likely evolved from recent swine viruses [9-11]. Methods and results Protein homology analysis We used more than 400 protein sequences to analyse the genetic evolution of the new influenza A(H1N1) virus. This set of protein sequences included polymerases PB2, PB1 and PA, hemagglutinin (HA), nucleocapsid (NP), neuraminidase (NA), matrix 1 (MP1), nonstructural 1 (NS1) encoded by the new influenza A(H1N1) virus as well as other homologous proteins from influenza viruses from past flu seasons. Phylogenetic tree topologies revealed that the closest homologies for the new influenza A(H1N1) virus are swine influenza viruses that have been circulating in the United States and Asia for the last decade (Figure 1, Supplementary materials: Figure 1 and Table 1). Figure 1. Possible origins of the influenza 2009 A(H1N1) virus: a) hemagglutinin and b) neuraminidase proteins (See Below) These findings indicate that domestic pigs in North America may have a central role in the generation and maintenance of this virus. This idea is also supported by the observation that protein sequences of the new influenza A(H1N1) virus have close homology to proteins of swine influenza viruses that infected humans in the recent past (Supplementary materials: Figure 1, Figure 2 and Table 2). In fact, a common element of these swine influenza zoonotic transmissions was that humans (mostly swine farm workers) were in direct contact with infected pigs [12-15]. Phylogenetic analysis To further examine the possible genetic origins of the new influenza A(H1N1) virus, we compared all the available sequences of influenza A(H1N1) viruses circulating in North America for the last two decades (from 1989 to 2009). Protein sequences from avian, swine and human influenza viruses were obtained from the Influenza Virus Resource [16], a database that integrates information gathered from the Influenza Genome Sequencing Project of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) and the GenBank of the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). A total of 5,214 protein sequences were found in this database. After removing identical sequences, a set of 1,699 influenza A proteins including PB2, PB1, PA, HA, NP, NA, MP1, and NS1 proteins were used for analyses of the genetic evolution of influenza A(H1N1) viruses. These analyses provide additional evidence of the role of pig populations as mixing vessels for influenza A(H1N1) viruses (Figure 2). Figure 2. Genetic distinctness of the influenza 2009 A(H1N1) virus: a) hemagglutinin (HA) and b) neuraminidase (NA) proteins; c) phylogenetic trees for PB2, PB1, PA, NP, MP1, and NS1 proteins (See Below) Secondly, our analyses also revealed that the new influenza A(H1N1) virus possesses a distinctive evolutionary trait (genetic distinctness), that seems to be characteristic in pig-human interspecies transmission of influenza A (reported cases occurred in Iowa, Maryland and Wisconsin, United States between 1991 and 2006) (Figure 2, Supplementary materials: Figure 2 and Table 3). Discussion and conclusion Although limited in sample size, our analyses substantiate the value of molecular screening and phylogenetic assessment for understanding the evolution of influenza viruses and, most importantly, for the early detection of emerging novel viruses that could lead to influenza pandemics. Notably, our analyses revealed 12 EUROSURVEILLANCE Vol. 14 Issue 22 4 June 2009
13 that the new influenza A(H1N1) virus is genetically distinct from other influenza A(H1N1) viruses that have been circulating for the last twenty flu seasons (Figure 2 and Supplementary materials: Figure 2). Influenza viruses with novel antigens (genetic drift) can escape from immune responses induced by prior infection or vaccination and can lead to a pandemic [17]. These observations also reiterate the potential risk of pig populations as the source of the next influenza virus pandemic. Although the role of swine as mixing vessels for influenza A(H1N1) viruses was established more than a decade ago [18,19], it appears that the policy makers and scientific community have underestimated it. In fact, in 1998 influenza experts proposed the establishment of surveillance in swine populations as a major part of an integrated early warning system to detect pandemic threats for humans [18,19] but, to some extent, this task was overlooked. For example, a search of influenza sequences in the Influenza Virus Resource [16] revealed that the total number of swine influenza A sequences (as of 19 May 2009) is ten-times smaller than the corresponding number of human and avian influenza A sequences (4,648 compared to 46,911 and 41,142 sequences, respectively). More significantly, in some countries, such as the United States, the national strategy for pandemic influenza [20] assigned the entire preparedness budget (3.8 billion US dollars) for the prevention and control of avian A(H5N1) influenza, overlooking the swine threat [20-22]. In our (the authors ) opinion, in this plan, a substantial effort was dedicated to prevent and contain the foreign threat of Asian avian flu, neglecting the influenza threat that the North American swine population presents [23]. Specifically, we believe that the aforementioned strategy ignores the swine farm and industry workers which constitute the population at higher risk of contracting and spreading the hypothetical pandemic influenza virus [24-26]. The current new influenza A(H1N1) outbreak caused by a virus of swine origin represents a new challenge for animal and human health experts. Our institution, the College of Veterinary Medicine at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, UNAM) is placing a strong emphasis on the establishment of influenza surveillance in swine and avian species to identify novel genetic assortment of the new influenza A(H1N1) and other influenza viruses circulating in Mexico. For example, since 2002, we have been monitoring the genetic evolution of influenza A viruses circulating in Mexican poultry farms [27]. Now, a similar surveillance system will be applied to swine farms. This effort prioritises the use of genetic distinctness as a marker for the detection of novel viruses that could lead to influenza pandemics. The recent influenza pandemic threat in North America reveals that it is time to take action towards the development of a systemic surveillance system which integrates phylogenetic information of influenza viruses circulating in humans and livestock. Supplementary materials: Figure 1, Figure 2, Table 1, Table 2, Table 3: (See Below) 2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Update: swine influenza A(H1N1) infections California and Texas, April MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2009;58(16): Cohen J, Enserink M. Infectious diseases. As swine flu circles globe, scientists grapple with basic questions. Science. 2009;324(5927): Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Swine influenza A(H1N1) infection in two children Southern California, March-April MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2009;58(15): Anonymous. Swine influenza: how much of a global threat? Lancet. 2009;373(9674): Cohen J. Swine flu outbreak. Out of Mexico? Scientists ponder swine flu s origins. Science. 2009;324(5928): Butler D. Swine flu goes global. Nature. 2009;458(7242): Cohen J. Swine flu outbreak. Flu researchers train sights on novel tricks of novel H1N1. Science. 2009;324(5929): Garten RJ, Davis CT, Russell CA, Shu B, Lindstrom S, Balish A, et al. Antigenic and Genetic Characteristics of Swine-Origin 2009 A(H1N1) Influenza Viruses Circulating in Humans. Science. 22 May 2009 [Epub ahead of print] DOI: /science Solovyov A, Palacios G, Briese T, Lipkin WI, Rabadan R. Cluster analysis of the origins of the new influenza A(H1N1) virus. Euro Surveill. 2009;14(21):pii= Available from: ViewArticle.aspx?ArticleId= Novel Swine-Origin Influenza A (H1N1) Virus Investigation Team. Emergence of a Novel Swine-Origin Influenza A (H1N1) Virus in Humans. N Engl J Med. 22 May [Epub ahead of print]. 12. Gray GC, McCarthy T, Capuano AW, Setterquist SF, Olsen CW, Alavanja MC. Swine workers and swine influenza virus infections. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13(12): Wentworth DE, Thompson BL, Xu X, Regnery HL, Cooley AJ, McGregor MW, et al. An influenza A (H1N1) virus, closely related to swine influenza virus, responsible for a fatal case of human influenza. J Virol. 1994;68(4): Gregory V, Lim W, Cameron K, Bennett M, Marozin S, Klimov A, et al. Infection of a child in Hong Kong by an influenza A H3N2 virus closely related to viruses circulating in European pigs. J Gen Virol. 2001;82(Pt 6): Olsen CW, Karasin AI, Carman S, Li Y, Bastien N, Ojkic D, et al. Triple reassortant H3N2 influenza A viruses, Canada, Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(7): Bao Y, Bolotov P, Dernovoy D, Kiryutin B, Zaslavsky L, Tatusova T, et al. The influenza virus resource at the National Center for Biotechnology Information. J Virol. 2008;82(2): Hilleman MR. Realities and enigmas of human viral influenza: pathogenesis, epidemiology and control. Vaccine 2002;20(25-26): Webster RG. Influenza: an emerging disease. Emerg Infect Dis. 1998;4(3): Ito T, Couceiro JN, Kelm S, Baum LG, Krauss S, Castrucci MR, et al. Molecular basis for the generation in pigs of influenza A viruses with pandemic potential. J Virol Sep;72(9): Homeland Security Council. National Strategy for Pandemic Influenza. President of the United States: Washington; November Available from: 21. Comments from the Center for Biosecurity of UPMC on the National Strategy for Pandemic Influenza: Implementation Plan. Biosecur Bioterror. 2006;4(3): Mair M. National strategy for pandemic influenza released; $3.8 billion appropriated for pandemic preparedness. Biosecur Bioterror 2006;4(1): Staff of the Center for Biosecurity of UPMC. National strategy for Pandemic Influenza and the HHS Pandemic Influenza Plan: thoughts and comments. Biosecur Bioterror 2005;3(4): Gray GC, Kayali G. Facing pandemic influenza threats: the importance of including poultry and swine workers in preparedness plans. Poult Sci 2009;88(4): Ramirez A, Capuano AW, Wellman DA, Lesher KA, Setterquist SF, Gray GC. Preventing zoonotic influenza virus infection. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(6): Myers KP, Olsen CW, Setterquist SF, Capuano AW, Donham KJ, Thacker EL, et al. Are swine workers in the United States at increased risk of infection with zoonotic influenza virus? Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42(1): Escorcia M, Vázquez L, Méndez ST, Rodríguez-Ropón A, Lucio E, Nava GM. Avian influenza: genetic evolution under vaccination pressure. Virol J. 2008;5:15. References 1. World Health Organization (WHO). Influenza-like illness in the United States and Mexico. Epidemic and Pandemic Alert and Response (EPR). 24 April Available from: This article was published on 4 June Citation style for this article: Nava GM, Attene-Ramos MS, Ang JK, Escorcia M. Origins of the new influenza A(H1N1) virus: time to take action. Euro Surveill. 2009;14(22):pii= Available online: EUROSURVEILLANCE Vol. 14 Issue 22 4 June
14 Figure 1. Possible origins of the influenza 2009 A(H1N1) virus: a) hemagglutinin and b) neuraminidase proteins a HA b NA A/Swine/Illinois/100084/01 (H1N2)) A/Swine/Illinois/100085A/01 (H1N2)) A/swine/Korea/S5/2005(H1N2)) A/SW/MN/16419/01(H1N2)) A/swine/Kansas/00246/2004(H1N2)) A/swine/OH/511445/2007(H1N1)) A/swine/Ohio/24366/07(H1N1)) A/swine/Ohio/C62006/06(H1N1)) A/swine/Minnesota/00194/2003(H1N2)) A/swine/Ohio/75004/04(H1N1)) A/Swine/Ohio/891/01(H1N2)) A/SW/MN/23124-T/01(H1N2)) A/Swine/Indiana/9K035/99 (H1N2)) A/swine/Minnesota/1192/2001(H1N2)) A/swine/Guangxi/17/2005(H1N2)) A/Wisconsin/10/98 (H1N1)) A/swine/Guangxi/13/2006(H1N2)) A/Turkey/MO/24093/99(H1N2)) A/Swine/Indiana/P12439/00 (H1N2)) A/duck/Nanchang/1904/1992(H7N1)) A/duck/Hong Kong/836/1980(H3N1)) A/duck/Hong Kong/938/80(H10N1)) A/chicken/Hebei/718/2001(H5N1)) A/African starling/england/983/79(h7n1)) A/duck/Mongolia/867/2002(H7N1)) A/duck/Mongolia/116/2002(H1N1)) A/goose/Italy/296426/2003(H1N1)) A/Pekin Duck/France/M-2060/01 (H1N1)) A/mallard/France/2526/2001(H7N1)) A/duck/Nanchang/1944/92(H7N1)) A/duck/Mongolia/47/2001(H7N1)) A/chicken/Hong Kong/17/1977(H6N1)) A/duck/Hong Kong/202/77(H6N1)) A/mallard/Stralsund/41-6/81(H2N1)) A/duck/Miyagi/47/1977(H11N1)) A/duck/Hong Kong/175/77(H6N1)) A/duck/Miyagi/66/77(H1N1)) A/duck/Miyagil/9/77(H1N1)) A/parrot/Ulster/73(H7N1)) A/swine/Korea/S14/2006(H1N2)) A/blue winged teal/tx/43/2002(h1n1)) 5 A/swine/Korea/JL04/2005(H1N2)) A/swine/Korea/JL01/2005(H1N2)) A/swine/Korea/Asan04/2006(H1N2)) A/swine/Korea/Hongsong2/2004(H1N2)) A/swine/Korea/PZ4/2006(H1N2)) A/swine/Korea/PZ7/2006(H1N2)) A/swine/Korea/JL02/2005(H1N2)) A/swine/Korea/CY08/2007(H1N2)) 2 A/swine/Wisconsin/1915/1988(H1N1)) A/swine/Hong Kong/273/1994(H1N1)) A/swine/St-Hyacinthe/106/1991(H1)) A/swine/Ontario/11112/04(H1N1)) A/turkey/IA/ /1992(H1N1)) A/swine/Maryland/23239/1991(H1N1)) A/swine/Iowa/24297/1991(H1N1)) 2009 A(H1N1) A/mallard/Alberta/211/98(H1N1)) A/duck/Alberta/35/76(H1N1)) A/hawk/Maryland/1/77(H6N1)) A/duck/Hokkaido/W159/2006(H6N1)) A/swine/Belgium/WVL1/1979(H1N1)) A/swine/France/WVL3/1984(H1N1)) A/swine/Lot/2979/82(H1N1)) A/turkey/France/87075/87(H1N1)) A/swine/France/WVL8/1992(H1N1)) A/swine/Belgium/WVL2/1983(H1N1)) A/swine/Virginia/670/1987(H1N1)) A/swine/Finistere/3616/84(H1N1)) A/swine/Belgium/1/83(H1N1)) A/swine/Virginia/671/1987(H1N1)) A/swine/France/WVL4/1985(H1N1)) A/swine/England/WVL10/1993(H1N1)) A/swine/Spain/WVL6/1991(H1N1)) 2009 A(H1N1) A/swine/Ratchaburi/NIAH550/2003(H1N1)) A/Swine/Spain/50047/2003(H1N1)) A/swine/Minnesota/37866/1999(H1N1)) A/Swine/England/195852/92 (H1N1)) A/swine/England/WVL14/1996(H1N1)) A/Swine/North Carolina/93523/01 (H1N2)) A/swine/Chonburi/NIAH589/2005(H1N1)) A/Swine/Korea/CY02/02(H1N2)) A/swine/Chonburi/NIAH589/2005(H1N1))(2) A/swine/Chachoengsao/NIAH587/2005(H1N1)) Protein sequences from the 2009 A(H1N1) virus were retrieved and used for BLAST searches versus the all-species NCBInr protein database. Top-fifty best hits were retrieved from GenBank and used for phylogenetic tree reconstruction using the maximum parsimony method. Phylogenetic trees were rooted using the earliest influenza virus found with the analysis. Proteins from the 2009 A(H1N1) virus (red circles) showed close homology to proteins from swine influenza viruses circulating in Asia, Europe and US (blue circles) and swine influenza viruses that have infected humans in recent past (red squares). Protein relationships with avian influenza virus (green circles) were more distant. Scale bar indicates the number of changes over the whole sequence. Phylogenetic trees for PB2, PB1, PA, NP, MP1, and NS1 proteins, and details of statistical significance of branch order are provided in Supplementary Materials - Figure 1. Figure 2. Genetic distinctness of the influenza 2009 A(H1N1) virus: a) hemagglutinin (HA) and b) neuraminidase (NA) proteins; c) phylogenetic trees for PB2, PB1, PA, NP, MP1, and NS1 proteins a Mixing vessel HA b NA 2009 A(H1N1) Genetic distinctness EUROSURVEILLANCE Vol. 14 Issue 22 4 June 2009
15 Supplementary materials for O r i g i n s o f t h e n e w i n f l u e n z a A ( H 1 N 1 ) v i r u s : t i m e t o ta k e a c t i o n Supplementary Fig. 1. Possible origins of influenza 2009 A(H1N1) virus. a, PB2; b, PB1 and c, PA polymerases; d, hemagglutinin; e, nucleocapsid protein; f, neuraminidase; g, matrix protein 1; h, nonstructural protein 1. Protein sequences from the 2009 A(H1N1) virus were used for BLAST searches versus the all-species NCBInr protein database. Top fifty best hits were retrieved from GenBank and used for phylogenetic tree reconstruction using the maximum parsimony method. hd Phylogenetic trees were constructed with ih the maximum parsimony method using the MEGA software version 4.0 and rooted using the earliest influenza virus isolates obtained with the analyses. The statistical significance of branch order was estimated by the generation of 100 replications of bootstrap resampling of the originally- aligned amino acid sequences. Scale bar indicates the number of changes over the whole sequence. EUROSURVEILLANCE Vol. 14 Issue 22 4 June
16 1 a PB2 A/swine/Korea/Hongsong A/mink/Nova Scot A/swine/O A/swine/Korea/CA A/swine/IN A/swine/Korea/PZ72 A/Iowa/CEID A/swine/Korea/CN22/ A/swine/Korea/JL0 A/swine/Korea/P A/swine/Korea/PZ4/2 0085A/01 (H1N2)) otia/ /2007(h3n2)) OH/511445/2007(H1N1)) IN/PU542/04 (H3N1)) CAS08/2005(H1N1)) 72-1/2006(H3N1)) D23/2005(H1N1)) 02/2005(H1N2)) /2006(H3N1)) g2/2004(h1n2)) PZ7/2006(H1N2)) A/swine/MI/PU243/04 (H3N1)) A/turkey/NC/353568/2005(H3N2)) A/turkey/MN/366767/2005(H3N2)) A/swine/Quebec/4001/2005(H3N2)) A/turkey/Illinois/2004(H3N2)) A/turkey/Ohio/313053/04(H3 A/Swine/Illinois/ (H1N2)) (H3N2)) A/wild duck/shantou/1411/2000(h11n3)) A/blue-winged teal/ohio/96/1993(h11n9)) A/mallard/Ohio/298/1987(H4N6)) A/mallard/Ohio/173/1990(H11N9)) A/mallard duck/alb/435/1985(h7n3)) A/green-winged teal/ohio/344/1986(h4n... A/pintail duck/alb/623/1985(h4n6)) A/mallardduck/ALB/25/1985(H4N6)) A/mallard/Ohio/209/1998(H11N9)) A/mallard/Ohio/ hio/322/1998(h7n3)) A/swine/Korea/CAS09/ (H3N2)) A/swine/Korea/CY07/ /2007(H3N2)) A/swine/Korea/CY Y05/2007(H3N2)) A/mallard/Ohio/421/1987(H7N8)) A/northern shoveler/california/hkwf97... A/swine/Korea/JNS06/2004 4(H3N2)) A/swine/North Caro rolina/2003(h3n2)) A/swine/Korea/CY10/ /2007(H3N2)) A/mallardduck/ALB/353/1988( 8(H2N3)) A/black duck/ohio/95/1993(h1n1)) A/swine/Shangha ai/1/2007(h1n2)) A/mallard/Ohio/324/1988(H4N6)) A/mallard/Maryland/1983/2005(H6N8) 8)) A/Swine/North Car rolina/98225/01(h1n2)) A/blue winged teal/la/b228/1986(h1n1)) A/Swine/North Car rolina/93523/01 (H1N2)) A/Swine/Ohio/891 1/01(H1N2)) A/swine/Ohio/ /04(H1N1)) A/duck/NC/91347/01 1(H1N2)) A/swine/Korea/CA AS05/2004(H3N2)) 2009 A(H1N1) 16 EUROSURVEILLANCE Vol. 14 Issue 22 4 June 2009
17 b PB1 A/New York/713/19 A/New York/110/ (H3N2)) A/New York/7 749/1994(H3N2)) A/South Australia/81/2000(H3N2)) A/New Yor ork/775/1993(h3n2)) A/New York/710/1994(H3N2)) A/New York/582/1996(H3N2)) A/New York/707/1994(H3N2)) A/New York/720/1994(H3N2)) A/New York/264/1999(H3N2)) A/Auckland/599/2 2000(H3N2)) A/New York/503/19 997(H3N2)) 994(H3N2)) A/New York/634/19 995(H3N2)) A/New York/606/1 1995(H3N2)) A/New York/591/ /1996(H3N2)) A/South Australia/1 11/2000(H3N2)) A/Canterbury/ y/101/2000(h3n2)) A/New York/323/1999(H3N2)) A/New York/558/1997(H3N2)) A/New York/716/1994(H3N2)) A/New South Wales/34/2000(H3N2)) A/New York/521/1998(H3N2)) A/New York/727/1994(H3N2)) 2009 A(H1N1) A/New York/756/1993(H3N2)) A/Wisconsin/10/98 (H1N1)) A/New York/696/1994(H3N2)) A/New York/667/1995(H3N2)) A/New York/685/1995( 5(H3N2)) A/New York/688/1994(H3N2)) A/New York/625 5/1996(H3N2)) 2 A/New York/665/1994(H3N2)) A/New York/68 86/1995(H3N2)) A/New York/675/1995(H3N2)) A/New York/6 663/1994(H3N2)) A/New York/698 8/1995(H3N2)) A/New York/6 A/New York A/swin A/Swine/Iowa/930/01(H1N2)) A/swine/Minnesota/00395/2004(H3N1)) A/Swine/Indiana/P12439/00 (H1N2)) A/swine/Ohio/75004/04(H1 (H1N1)) A/Swine/Minnes esota/55551/00 (H1N2)) A/Swine/In Indiana/9K035/99 (H1N2)) ine/korea/cy10/2007(h3n2)) k/664/1995(h3n2)) 697/1995(H3N2)) A/swine/Korea/CY07/2007(H3N2)) A/swine/Ohio/24366/07(H1N1)) A/swine/Manitoba/12707/2005 5(H3N2)) EUROSURVEILLANCE Vol. 14 Issue 22 4 June
18 c PA A/Duck/Nanchan ng/4-165/2000(h4n6)) A/ruddy turn rnstone/de/2378/1988(h7n7)) A/mallard duck/alb/761/1978(h6n8)) A/redh head duck/alberta/357/1983(h11n9)) A/northern shoveler/tx/56/2000(h10n7)) A/shorebird/DE/1346/2001(H5N7)) A/ruddy turnstone/nj/1956/2001(h1 (H10N7)) A/mallard duck/alb/299/19 9/1977(H4N4)) A/sanderli erling/de/1258/1986(h6n6)) A/pintail/Alberta/269/2001(H4N6)) A/mallard/SanJi iang/151/2006(h6n2)) A/mallard/A Alberta/125/1999(H11N6)) A/American widgeon/i Interior Alaska/1/... A/northern shoveler/i Interior Alaska/1... A/shoreb bird/de/12/2004(h6n8)) A/ruddy turnstone ne/de/323/2004(h10n7)) A/green-winged teal/alb/228 8/1985(H7N3)) A/black-headed gull/sweden n/1/99(h13n6)) A/mallard duck/alb/435/1985(h7n 7N3)) A/black duck/aus/751/1978(h3n8)) A/turkey/Oregon/1971(H7N3)) A/turkey/TX/ /1989(H9N2)) 2 A/duck/Hokkaido/120/2001(H6N2)) A/mallard/Alberta/24/01(H7N3)) A/snowgoose/Maryland/353/2005(H6N1)) A/mallard/MN/351/1999(H3N1)) A/mallard/Ohio/249/1998(H6N1)) A/mallard/Alberta/30/2001(H4N8)) A/mallard/ALB/5/1995(H10N1)) A/mallard duck/alb/635/1983(h3n5)) A/ring-necked duck/california/hkwf A/northern shoveler/ /California/HKWF13... A/red knot/nj/325/1989(h7n7)) A/mallard duc uck/alb/40/1984(h10n6)) A/longtail duck/mary yland/291/2005(h3n... A/mallard duck/a ALB/322/1988(H1N1)) A/swine/K A/Ontar A/swine/Al 2009 A(H1N1) A/S /Swine/Illinois/100084/01 (H1N2)) A/swine/IN/PU542/04 4 (H3N1)) A/swine/Korea/JL01/2005(H1N2)) A/swine/Korea/CAS05/2004(H (H3N2)) A/duck/NC/91347/01(H1 (H1N2)) A/swine/Korea/C /CAN01/2004(H1N1)) A/turkey/ y/ohio/313053/04(h3n2)) Alberta/14722/2005(H3N2)) Korea/CY08/2007(H1N2)) rio/rv1273/2005(h3n2)) 18 EUROSURVEILLANCE Vol. 14 Issue 22 4 June
19 A/swine/Korea/JL01/2005(H1N2)) d HA A/Swine/Illinois/1 A/swin A/swine/OH/ /2007(H1N1)) A/swine/O Ohio/24366/07(H1N1)) A/swin ine/ohio/c62006/06(h1n1)) A/Swine/Illinois/ A/01 (H1N2)) /01 (H1N2)) A/Swine/ /Ohio/891/01(H1N2)) A/SW/M MN/23124-T/01(H1N2)) A/Swine/India ana/9k035/99 (H1N2)) A/swine/Minnesota/1 1192/2001(H1N2)) A/Wisconsin/10/98 (H1N N1)) A/swine/Guangxi/17/2 2005(H1N2)) A/swine/Guangxi/13/ (H1N2)) A/Turkey/MO/24093/99(H1N N2)) A/Swine/Indiana/P12439/00 ( (H1N2)) ine/minnesota/00194/2003(h1n2)) A/swine/Ohio/75004/04(H1N1)) A/swine/Korea/S5/2005(H1N2)) A/SW/MN/16419/01(H1N2)) A/swine/Kansas/00246/2004(H rea/s14/2006(h1n2)) 4(H1N2)) A/swine/Korea/S )) A/swine/Korea/JL04/2005(H1N2)) A/swine/Korea/Asan04/2006(H1N2)) A/swine/Korea/Hongsong2/2004(H1N2)) A/swine/Korea/PZ4/2006(H1N2)) A/swine/Korea/PZ7/2006(H1N2)) A/swine/Korea/JL02/2005(H1N2)) A/swine/Korea/CY08/2007(H1N2)) 2 A/swine/Wisconsin/1915/1988(H1 1N1)) A/swine/ e/hong Kong/273/1994(H1N1)) A/swine/S /St-Hyacinthe/106/1991(H1)) A/turke A/swine/O /Ontario/11112/04(H1N1)) A/swine e/iowa/24297/1991(h1n1)) ey/ia/ /1992(h1n1)) A/swine/M /Maryland/23239/1991(H1N1)) A/swine/Minnesota/37 A/Swine/Korea/ A/Swine/North Ca 2009 A(H1N1) /CY02/02(H1N2)) arolina/93523/01 (H1N2)) 7866/1999(H1N1)) EUROSURVEILLANCE Vol. 14 Issue 22 4 June
20 A/Swine/Wisconsin/136/97(H1N1 )) A e NP A/swine/MI/PU U243/04 (H3N1)) A/turkey/O y/ohio/313053/04(h3n2)) A/mink/No Nova Scotia/ /2007(H3N2)) A/turkey/North Carolina/353568/2005(H3N2 A/Iowa/CEID23/2005(H1N1)) A/swine/Shangh ghai/1/2007(h1n2)) A/Swine/Iowa/ /533/99 (H3N2)) A/Swine/Iowa/569/99 99 (H3N2)) A/swine/Korea/CAN04/2005 5(H3N2)) A/swine/Guangxi/13/2 2006(H1N2)) A/swine/Guangxi/17/2 2005(H1N2)) A/swine/Hainan/1/ /2005(H1N2)) A/Swine/Minnesota/55551/00 (H1N2)) A/Swine/North Carolina/93523/01 (H1N2)) A/swine/Korea/JNS NS06/2004(H3N2)) A/swine/Korea/CY04 4/2007(H3N2)) A/swine/Korea/CY07/2007(H3N2)) A/swine/Korea/CAS05/2004(H3N2)) A/turkey/NC/353568/2005(H3N2)) A/swine/North Carolina/2003(H3N2)) A/Swi )) 2009 A(H1N1) A/Swine/Illinois/100085A/01 (H1N2)) A/Swine/Ohio/891/01(H1N2)) A/swine/Korea/C13/2008(H5N2)) A/swine/IN/PU542/04 (H3N1)) A/turkey/MN/366767/2005(H3N2)) A/swine/Korea/CAN01/2004(H1N1)) A/swine/Korea/CAS08/2005(H1N1)) A/tur urkey/minnesota/12537/1989(h1n1)) 1 A/turke ey/nc/17026/1988(h1n1)) A/swine/Io Iowa/31483/1988(H1N1)) A/turkey/NC/19762/ (H1N1)) A/MD/12/1991(H1N1)) A/swine/Beijing/94/1991(H1N1)) A/swin ine/iowa/17672/1988(h1n1)) A/swine/Nebraska/1/1992(H1N1)) A/Oh hio/3559/1988(h1n1)) A/sw swine/kansas/3228/1987(h1n1)) A/Ohio/3523/1988(H1N1)) A/chicken/NY/ /1998(H1N1)) A/Swine/Wisconsin/238/97(H1N1)) A/Swine/Wisconsin/457/98(H1N1)) A/turkey/IA/10 A/ /1990(H1N1)) A/sw /swine/in/1726/1988(h1n1)) A/Swine/Iowa/ owa/930/01(h1n2)) A/swine/Zhejiang/1/2004(H1N2)) A/swine/Iowa/24297/1991(H1N1)) 20 EUROSURVEILLANCE Vol. 14 Issue 22 4 June
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ZeroG Wireless, Inc., an innovator in low-power embedded Wi-Fi, and Microchip Technology Inc. (NASDAQ: MCHP), a leading provider of microcontroller and analog semiconductors, announced the availability of the next generation of production qualified software for the companies' joint development kit. Introduced only five months ago, the easy-to-implement, low-power, Wi-Fi connectivity kits have already been shipped to 900 customers, and products using the ZeroG "Wi-Fi I/O" have now gone into production, beating the typical 12-18 month development cycle.
The new development kit software, version 5.2, provides customers with more options to increase throughput and usability. The development kit supports Microchip's new PIC32MX5, 6, and 7 32-bit microcontroller families, also announced today, allowing customers to dynamically switch between Ethernet and Wi-Fi connectivity. In addition, the upgrades give designers an easier way to build systems with multiple connectivity protocols, and offer browser-based configuration of Wi-Fi network access.
"There was strong customer interest in a low-power Wi-Fi solution for our PIC® microcontrollers, and orders of the development kit have exceeded our expectations," said Rodger Richey, director of applications at Microchip Technology. "To continue delivering a superior product, and based on customer feedback, ZeroG Wireless and Microchip have increased the throughput, and made a number of usability enhancements to the software."
"Leveraging the newly released PIC32 MCU families allows customers to dynamically switch between Ethernet and Wi-Fi, which really brings a lot of flexibility to systems designers creating products that can easily move between wired and wireless networks," said Tim Colleran, vice president of marketing, ZeroG Wireless.
Availability and Pricing
Version 5.2 of the development kit software is available at www.microchip.com/Wireless. For existing customers, it is a no-cost upgrade. New customers have a choice of development tools and kits that start at $69.
About ZeroG Wireless, Inc.
ZeroG Wireless is a fabless semiconductor company focused on creating a world of connected devices, the "Internet of Things." With ZeroG low-power Wi-Fi chips, there is no limit to the type of device that can now leverage the massive and rapidly growing Wi-Fi infrastructure. The Company's products are designed from the ground up to enable simple, low-cost connectivity for nearly any system, regardless of architecture. The result: faster time to market and significantly lower overall system cost. Privately held, ZeroG Wireless is headquartered in Sunnyvale, Calif. Investors are Battery Ventures, Greylock Partners, Morgenthaler Ventures, and Miven.
About Microchip Technology Inc.
Microchip Technology Inc. (NASDAQ: MCHP) is a leading provider of microcontroller and analog semiconductors, providing low-risk product development, lower total system cost and faster time to market for thousands of diverse customer applications worldwide. Headquartered in Chandler, Ariz., Microchip offers outstanding technical support along with dependable delivery and quality.
The Microchip name and logo, and PIC are registered trademarks of Microchip Technology Inc. in the USA and other countries.

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Intentionally Blank PERF-HI Black
Intentionally Blank PERF-HI Black
The new version of our insanely popular shoe the PERF is here with a a slightly higher vamp. We love this higher version that covers just a few more inches of foot. PERF-HI is perfect for fall. Note at the instep of the shoe we have added an elastic gore for ease in fit and walking.
Intentionally Blank
Ty McBride is the designer behind this line of cutting edge, contemporary footwear. Now based in the heart of Los Angeles, Ty grew up in rural Oregon, before coming of age in New York City. He moved to the west coast to launch his label in 2014. The name "Intentionally Blank" stems from his intention to make modern, interpretive styles that will become a seamless extension of an individual's personal aesthetic. Ty also believes that every creation, a work of art or a functional shoe, should have its own point of view. Signature styles include a chunky slingback mule, a perfect slide and angular ankle boots.
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