text:
Strictly Small Time
J P David
Copyright 2011 by J P David
J P David on Smashwords
Smashwords Edition License Notes
This ebook is licensed for your personal enjoyment only. This ebook may not be re-sold or given away to other people. If you would like to share this book with another person, please purchase an additional copy for each person you share it with. If you're reading this book and did not purchase it, or it was not purchased for your use only, then you should return to Smashwords, com and purchase your own copy. Thank you for respecting the author's work.
Part One Somewhere in the Middle
Chapter 1: Jack
Jack's bad night started at the party when his wife threw her drink at the head of the agency, accused everyone of murder, and announced she was going to divorce him. Things got interesting after that.
The party. All the head honchos from the biggest literary agency in New York made the trip out to Los Angeles for one reason. Jack was making them a lot of money. And so, for recognition of their biggest selling author, and him not being in the mood to go east to celebrate, they were throwing a party in the back room of the trendiest restaurant/nightclub in town. 'Trapz' was in the middle of Hollywood, had an unlisted phone number, and was packed every night with 'A' list celebrities, movie producers, starlets, and high class call girls. Dress code for men was fame, or money, or both. Dress code for women was unspoken; under twenty-five, and a C cup or better was a guarantee to get you into the club. Every aspiring actor tried to get hired there as a waiter so they could slip their headshot into the menus.


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MacLeod Designs Photographer
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subset: commoncrawl


text:
AI-GEOSTATS: answers to gaussian model
Expand Messages
- Hi everybody,
Thanks for your answers. I had seen the similarity between the formulas,
but I thought there could have been more to it than just similarity. Here is
a summary of all responses.
Cheers, Carolina
> I have a question which is not directly related to geostatisticalanalysis...
> What is the relationship between the gaussian modelA partial answer to your question is simply that the functional form of
> used in geostatistics and the "classical" gaussian function or
> distribution,
> or how it came to be known as a gaussian model?
the gaussian variogram is the
same as the functional form for the probability density function for a
gaussian random variable.
Donald E. Myers
The gaussian semi-variogram model is so-called because
the formula is basically identical to that for the
Normal (or gaussian) probability distribution.
There is no other necessary link with the Normal
Isobel (Clark)
yes ..... the Gaussian model ..... a misnoma really: it should be
clear where the term comes from - just look at the functional form: it
is identical to the functional form of a Gaussian. I always call this
model the squared exponential covariance function (since there is
nothing 'Gaussian' about it other than the form) - and by the way if you
think in a processed based way this is a terrible variogram to use,
unless you believe the field you are dealing with is really infinitely
smooth (differentiable).
Dr Dan Cornford
Computer Science Tel: 0121 359 3611 x4667
Aston Univeristy Fax: 0121 333 4586
Birmigham, B4 7ET, UK Email: d.cornford@...
URL: http://www.ncrg.aston.ac.uk/~cornfosd/
Gaussian distribution or normal distribution has a multiple of exp(-x^2)
as its probability density function. Gaussian variogram has similar term
in its definition.
Hope this help.
Hola Carolina:
La ecuación del variograma gaussiano es g(h)=C(1-exp(-(h/a)^2)
el nombre gaussiano es un muy mal nombre y solo corresponde a la
entre esta función y el modelo normal.
Carolina Garcia Imhof
M.Sc. student
Marine Mammal Research Group
Marine Science Department
310 Castle Street, PO Box 56
University of Otago
Dunedin, New Zealand
Fax: 64 3 479 8336
Phone: 64 3 479 5476
e-mail: garca917@...
* To post a message to the list, send it to ai-geostats@...
* As a general service to the users, please remember to post a summary of any useful responses to your questions.
* To unsubscribe, send an email to majordomo@... with no subject and "unsubscribe ai-geostats" followed by "end" on the next line in the message body. DO NOT SEND Subscribe/Unsubscribe requests to the list
* Support to the list is provided at http://www.ai-geostats.org
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text:
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Katy Perry at Perth Arena in Perth, Australia on Jul 24, 2018
More InfoKaty Perry
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Breaking News from Newsmax.com
Ed Klein: Hillary Facing Indictment as FBI Probe Heats Up
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NurtureYield® S 2001
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A natural based additive used to improve flow and plantability in film coatings and seed treatment formulations for field and other crops. It also reduces abrasion and helps to lessen dust-off. The recommended loading level is up to 4 fl. oz./100 lb. for both corn and soybeans.
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text:
I just send you a ticket. In fact you I just reinstalled your program as I desinstalled it once as no printer was found. Once again after reinstalling and scanning there was no printer found, but there is an hp printer on my computer, how's this possible?
This topic was created during version 1.7.
The latest version is 7.5.00101.
2 Replies
Oct 31, 2007 at 7:37 UTC
Printers connected via USB or a printer cable will NOT show up in the Spiceworks list. Only printers with network cards (that is, business line machines) which are directly connected to your network will be included in the list.
To see your printer, you will have to go to Inventory > Workstations > your workstation. Click on the "View complete profile" link from the General Info tab. You will see local and network printers under the Printers section. You may have to click the Detailed view link to see all the printers.
Aug 16, 2010 at 8:55 UTC
Niagara Technology Group (NTG) is an IT service provider.
Jean, why are you amazed considering this is something that SpiceWorks does not even scan?
This discussion has been inactive for over a year.
You may get a better answer to your question by starting a new discussion.


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Pat the chicken dry with paper towels and season it generously with salt, pepper, and the rosemary. Heat 2 tablespoons of olive oil over medium heat in a large Dutch oven and brown the chicken pieces in batches until nicely browned all over, about 5 to 7 minutes per batch. Transfer the browned chicken pieces to a plate and set aside.
Lower the heat to medium-low and add the garlic, saffron, fennel seeds, tomato puree, chicken stock, white wine, Pernod, 2 teaspoons salt, and 1 teaspoon pepper to the pot. Stir and scrape up any browned bits on the bottom, and simmer for 30 to 40 minutes, until the garlic is very tender, stirring occasionally.
Meanwhile, preheat the oven to 300 degrees.
Carefully pour the sauce into the bowl of a food processor fitted with the steel blade. Puree until smooth. Return the sauce to the Dutch oven and add the potatoes and browned chicken pieces with their juices. Stir carefully.
Cover the pot and bake for 45 to 55 minutes, until the potatoes are tender and the chicken is done. Check the seasonings and serve hot in shallow bowls with big dollops of rouille and slices of crusty bread.
Place the garlic and salt on a cutting board and mince together. Transfer the mixture to a food processor fitted with the steel blade. Add the egg yolk, lemon juice, saffron, and red pepper flakes. Process until smooth.
With the machine running, pour the olive oil in a thin, steady stream through the feed tube to make a thick mayonnaise emulsion. Transfer the rouille to a serving bowl and store it in the refrigerator until ready to serve. Yield: makes 1 cup.
Food Network Kitchens suggest caution in consuming raw and lightly-cooked eggs due to the risk of Salmonella or other food-borne illness. To reduce this risk, we recommend you use only fresh, properly-refrigerated, clean, grade A or AA eggs with intact shells, and avoid contact between the yolks or whites and the shell. For recipes that call for eggs that are raw or undercooked when the dish is served use shell eggs that have been treated to destroy Salmonella, by pasteurization or another approved method.
2008, Barefoot Contessa Back to Basics, All Rights Reserved
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text:
The students have to come up with their own dialogue and record their voices while reading what they wrote in French covering the grammar + vocabulary every two chapters from Espaces. Done in Blackboard.
Each group has to make some research on the internet to make comparisons between specific topics in French culture versus other world cultures. Turned in via Turnitin in Blackboard.
The essay or composition is turned in Turnitin via Blackboard.
Assignments about making comparisons between French culture and cultures from other countries: the US, etc.
I create a written report from Blackboard for each assignment after grading so the students know what to work on (grammar, vocabulary mistakes, sentences constructions). They also see the average grade for each assignment for the class to make comparisons with their own assignments.
This is still an onsite class but using technology in class and outside the classroom to enhance what we do with the textbook. We
We, at times, see some fun educational videos on TV5 Monde and the news.
If I don't have too many students, I teach in a French bakery next to the school. Once a semester.
Via Ning, students can participate at any time of the day with interactive discussions between themselves on many various cultural topics and exchanges their viewpoints with French students in a college in France.
Students can read some short French children stories to young American children up to 5 years old.
Self-practice quizzes (with answers) done in class via the University of austin, Texas and at home for review purposes before the tests done in class.
Via "Messages" in Blackboard so I can centralize all the students'messages or leaving a phone message on my voice box and during office hours.


text:
The icon of the cancer superhero creates stress for patients, and while it may help society feel more comfortable with the disease, Joyce Bichler, deputy director of the San Francisco-based organization Breast Cancer Action, points out: "We don't want to be comfortable with cancer. Cancer sucks."
There are no guarantees
When Donna Denison needed Herceptin, at age 62 in the spring of 2005, she had to wait for its approval in Ontario, which came just in time that summer. These past five years have brought her two new grandchildren.
Her friend, Sue Cortlett, also received Herceptin in 2005, but was not as lucky. She died in September, 2008, of a recurrence of the disease.
"I can be philosophical – on a good day, we really have such limited control over our affairs," Ms. Denison says. "But when push comes to shove, what we want is more and not all of us are going to get it."
For Nathalie Le Prohon, the one lesson she can impart from the Herceptin campaign is that patients must be their own best advocates.
"I truly believe I am alive because of all of this," said Ms. Le Prohon, 47. "I was always an extremely busy, career woman who gets results. So I attacked the cancer the same way."
She paid $13,000 (U.S.) to obtain two treatments in Buffalo. And she was one of the first women to get the drug when it was funded in Ontario.
Today, her life is focused on advocacy rather than swinging big business deals: She does charity runs, fundraises for children's schools and is chair of the Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation, and has considered running as a Liberal candidate for parliament.
Though Herceptin helped Ms. Le Prohon make the best of her cancer experience, she says, it was by far the hardest thing she has ever done.
"Every time I go for a new mammogram, the worry creeps in again. You have to live with that all your life. You are never cancer free. You are always thinking: 'When will the beast return?'"Report Typo/Error
Follow us on Twitter: @Globe_Health


text:
Napylon Invasion is an Uncommon card from the Isolation set of .hack//ENEMY.
Tips and StrategiesEdit
Napylon Invasion is both stronger than Napylon Assault and has a higher Destiny. Its Reward is designed for Alien decks, so don't bother placing it in any other type of deck. It can be costly to bring to play, but since it requires 2 non-specific cards as a sacrifice, this means that hidden cards can be used for the play requirement.


text:
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Broncos offensive coordinator Mike McCoy will interview for the Bears' head coach job.
First off, I apologize for the lack of activity on DBN over the last couple of weeks. I left my laptop at home (where I'm back now) in Denver for a week as I visited my family in San Diego for the holidays, and I wanted to pay full attention to them instead of using my laptop constantly.
Anyway, by now you surely know that the Bears fired Lovie Smith on Monday morning after the team failed to make the playoffs for the fifth time in six seasons. I didn't have access to my laptop (I promise this isn't going to be a continuing theme) when the firing went down, otherwise I would've written a lot about it on here (I've tweeted much about the topic over the last two days, though).
But, I assume you understand why the nine-year Bears head coach was fired by general manager Phil Emery- The offense has been ranked in the bottom half of the league every year during Lovie's tenure; the Bears haven't been able to beat the Packers in recent seasons; the Bears started 7-1 this season and had an epic collapse to miss the playoffs; the Bears made the playoffs just three times over the nine seasons; Lovie made offensive coordinator hire after offensive coordinator hire with none of them producing quality results; etc.
And let me be clear- I have a ton of respect for Lovie Smith and think he's a very good NFL head coach. I would've been fine with keeping him around for another season, but I'm just fine with letting him go due to the reasons I stated above. You could make great arguments for each side.
Either way, there's no doubt that the team needs to become more offensive-minded, and after nine seasons of below-average offenses, you'd have to be pessimistic that there would be a major offensive jump anytime soon under the defensively-focused (but tremendously successful in that department) Lovie Smith.
And it should come as no surprise that two of the known candidates Emery is set to interview are currently NFL offensive coordinators. The first name to surface on Monday for an interview was Denver Broncos offensive coordinator Mike McCoy:
The Bears have already asked for permission to interview Broncos offensive coordinator Mike McCoy. He's a very, very hot name right nowMcCoy, 40, has served as the Broncos' offensive coordinator for the last four seasons, after being an assistant (such as quarterbacks coach for a few years) on the Carolina Panthers' staff from 2000-2008. The way he's been able to adapt with the Broncos' offense when having three different starting quarterbacks over the last few years in Kyle Orton, Tim Tebow, and Peyton Manning, has been remarkable. The fact that he was able to keep the Broncos' offense successful with the 2011 mid-season switch from the pocket-passing Orton, to the running, crappy-throwing Tebow, was quite unbelievable (that team was even able to win a playoff game). And even though Peyton Manning is obviously the No. 1 reason the Broncos offense is rolling right now, McCoy also deserves plenty of credit for the job he's doing.
— Jay Glazer (@JayGlazer) December 31, 2012
The Arizona Cardinals are another team known to have an interview lined up with McCoy, but you'd have to think he'd highly prefer the Bears' job for a variety of reasons, with the most obvious reason being that the Bears have Jay Cutler, and the Cardinals' quarterback situation is a dumpster fire (and the 2013 NFL Draft class of quarterbacks also appears to be a dumpster fire). The Bears will interview McCoy this weekend here in the Denver area, according to Mike Klis of The Denver Post.
The other offensive coordinator the Bears are said to have an interview planned with is the Tampa Bay Buccaneers' Mike Sullivan:
Bears asked for and received permission to interview Bucs OC Mike Sullivan for their HC job this week.Sullivan just concluded his first season as the Buccaneers' offensive coordinator, after spending the previous eight years with the New York Giants, where he served as the wide receivers coach for six years, and the quarterbacks coach in 2010 and 2011. So, he was Eli Manning's quarterback coach for their Super Bowl-winning 2011 season.
— Adam Schefter (@AdamSchefter) December 31, 2012
The Buccaneers finished ninth in the NFL for total offense in 2012. The passing game ranked 10th, and the running game ranked 15th. Oh, and Pro Football Talk adds this very cool nugget about Sullivan:
Sullivan graduated from the U.S. Army Airborne, Ranger and Air Assault schools after graduating from West Point and before going into coaching almost 20 years ago.I'm going to go ahead and assume Sullivan's a no-nonsense dude that goes about his business quite seriously. I wouldn't be surprised if he really impressed Emery in the interview.
The third known candidate the Bears will reportedly interview is Atlanta Falcons special teams coordinator Keith Armstrong. The Kansas City Chiefs, owners of the worst record of the 2012 NFL season and the No. 1 pick in the 2013 NFL Draft, will also interview Armstrong:
#Falcons special teams coach Keith Armstrong set for head coaching interviews with Kansas City & Chicago, a source tells @foxsports.comHere's Rotoworld's take on the Bears and Armstrong:
— Alex Marvez (@alexmarvez) December 31, 2012
Largely unknown outside of league circles, Armstrong has been an NFL special teams coach since 1997. He was with the Bears from 1997-2000. He arrived in Atlanta alongside Mike Smith in 2008, and worked for Nick Saban in Miami. Unfortunately, we suspect Armstrong's interviews may be little more than Chicago and Kansas City's attempt to satisfy the "Rooney Rule."If you're unfamiliar with the "Rooney Rule", it's a rule the NFL implemented in 2003 that requires teams to interview minority candidates. Armstrong is an African-American. It's hard to see Emery choosing a special teams coordinator to be the new coach, and if he did, wouldn't the one currently employed by the Bears be the most likely candidate? Dave Toub's long been considered a future NFL head coach, and is the best in the business when it comes to coaching special teams.
We'll have more on the Bears' head coaching search as information becomes available.
Get the latest DBN updates by following us on Facebook & Twitter.


text:
Would you like to save as your currency permanently or for this visit only?
I enjoyed the service the most. The staff were very friendly and accommodating. The beds were a little uncomfortable.
Overall, we felt that the hotel represented value for money. The staff were certainly very helpful and friendly. The food was varied and adequate in terms of the amount on the plate and also value for money. Our stay coinceded with an unseasonal cold snap and the public areas of the hotel, namely the bar and restaurant were very cold and had no heating on.There is no lounge to relax in, so it's either the bar or restaurant area. The food, though adequate, was frequently served luke warm and always on cold plates. Not what was required given the cold weather! We arrived hungry on a Sunday and all (2 or 3!) restaurants in the town, including the one in the hotel, appear to close that day! We were surprised by this and were lucky that the bar area had a couple of bits of pizza left, so prepare to be hungry on a Sunday! Finding a parking place in the street can be a bit of a challenge and Italians do not always allow adequate space for you to exit!
was good valye for money, I liked also the restaurant,
Big TV, excellent espresso, delicious sweets for breakfast, quiet location Only Italian breakfast is included in the price (sweet and coffee). Triple bedroom should be bigger.
Helpfulness of staff. Disruption due to restaurant being renovated.
The room was excellent though it was the penthouse, we may have been lucky. Parking was on the front road and according to you luck where you found a place to park.
We were very disappointed to find that the restaurant was closed. This is the reason I chose the hotel and we had a horrible time finding a place to eat that night.
Room was clean. Building is new. Food was good. Grounds were nice. People were courteous. No hand towels or wash cloths in the bathroom. I don't get why in Italy no hotel have them. Also, there was only one night stand and not enough outlets in the room to charge electronics. Pillows were hard. Door entry is via key and not key card entry.
We were able to find the hotel easily and the staff was very helpful. The building itself is beautiful, and our was room was very clean and comfortable. We also liked the menu at dinner, however, starting after 7.30 pm. is a bit too late for parents with children. The animation starting at 21.30 was very loud, which made the baby wake up several times. However, after skiing all the day long, we fell asleep quickly...
the price for the room was very reasonable, the hotel was easy to get to and clean...and not to far from the slopes breakest was typical european, very marginal ...only one cafe machine for about a 50 or so people waiting in line
The staff helped us find places we wanted to visit, helped us get on the Internet, served us a complimentary lunch snack when we arrived and looked out for all of our needs. Like many of the European hotels, the room was a little small but adequate and better than average.
The staff. When we arrived we found we were the only guests - low season. They couldn't have been more helpful. I would recommend but only in high season No restaurant, it was being refurbished. Re-decoration was going on around the hotel. It's location, especially in 'off season' was not attractive
xhikdren's activities and friendly staff. facilities are very clean. the spa is beautiful. the music was loud in our room 111 at night but stragnely not loud in the front desk area. it was difficult to sleep until after 2300
The hotel was very good. Big clean rooms, you could relax at the wellness center (you pay extra for this) after a tiring day at the Roccaraso ski resort, nice breakfast and gentle personel! Excellent choice that we recomend!!
breakfast was good rooms lacked some furnitures
Friendly and helpful staff
The location ant sarroundings. Some minor maintenance in miscalleneous equipment of rooms, would result in significant improvement of the overall impression.
helpfulness of staff see comments Q1


text:
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Looks like Luxury Home Quail Hills is no longer available on Rent.com which means this information is likely out of date.
Quail Hills
BAD CREDIT OK. Option to buy with 6 month - 2yr. Lease
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text:
Investigators place signposts to carry the reader through a plan for a
- Griffin Dean
- 2 years ago
- Views:
1 07-Creswell (RD)-45593:07-Creswell (RD) qxd 6/20/2008 4:37 PM Page 129 CHAPTER SEVEN Research Questions and Hypotheses Investigators place signposts to carry the reader through a plan for a study. The first signpost is the purpose statement, which establishes the central direction for the study. From the broad, general purpose statement, the researcher narrows the focus to specific questions to be answered or predictions based on hypotheses to be tested. This chapter begins by advancing several principles in designing and scripts for writing qualitative research questions; quantitative research questions, objectives, and hypotheses; and mixed methods research questions. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS In a qualitative study, inquirers state research questions, not objectives (i.e., specific goals for the research) or hypotheses (i.e., predictions that involve variables and statistical tests). These research questions assume two forms: a central question and associated subquestions. The central question is a broad question that asks for an exploration of the central phenomenon or concept in a study. The inquirer poses this question, consistent with the emerging methodology of qualitative research, as a general issue so as to not limit the inquiry. To arrive at this question, ask, What is the broadest question that I can ask in the study? Beginning researchers trained in quantitative research might struggle with this approach because they are accustomed to the reverse approach: identifying specific, narrow questions or hypotheses based on a few variables. In qualitative research, the intent is to explore the complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon and present the varied perspectives or meanings that participants hold. The following are guidelines for writing broad, qualitative research questions: Ask one or two central questions followed by no more than five to seven subquestions. Several subquestions follow each general central question; the 129
2 07-Creswell (RD)-45593:07-Creswell (RD) qxd 6/20/2008 4:37 PM Page Designing Research subquestions narrow the focus of the study but leave open the questioning. This approach is well within the limits set by Miles and Huberman (1994), who recommended that researchers write no more than a dozen qualitative research questions in all (central and subquestions). The subquestions, in turn, can become specific questions used during interviews (or in observing or when looking at documents). In developing an interview protocol or guide, the researcher might ask an ice breaker question at the beginning, for example, followed by five or so subquestions in the study (see Chapter 9). The interview would then end with an additional wrap-up or summary question or ask, as I did in one of my qualitative case studies, Who should I turn to, to learn more about this topic? (Asmussen & Creswell, 1995). Relate the central question to the specific qualitative strategy of inquiry. For example, the specificity of the questions in ethnography at this stage of the design differs from that in other qualitative strategies. In ethnographic research, Spradley (1980) advanced a taxonomy of ethnographic questions that included a mini-tour of the culture-sharing group, their experiences, use of native language, contrasts with other cultural groups, and questions to verify the accuracy of the data. In critical ethnography, the research questions may build on a body of existing literature. These questions become working guidelines rather than truths to be proven (Thomas, 1993, p. 35). Alternatively, in phenomenology, the questions might be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions. Moustakas (1994) talks about asking what the participants experienced and the contexts or situations in which they experienced it. A phenomenological example is, What is it like for a mother to live with a teenage child who is dying of cancer? (Nieswiadomy, 1993, p. 151). In grounded theory, the questions may be directed toward generating a theory of some process, such as the exploration of a process as to how caregivers and patients interact in a hospital setting. In a qualitative case study, the questions may address a description of the case and the themes that emerge from studying it. Begin the research questions with the words what or how to convey an open and emerging design. The word why often implies that the researcher is trying to explain why something occurs, and this suggests to me a causeand-effect type of thinking that I associate with quantitative research instead of the more open and emerging stance of qualitative research. Focus on a single phenomenon or concept. As a study develops over time, factors will emerge that may influence this single phenomenon, but begin a study with a single focus to explore in great detail. Use exploratory verbs that convey the language of emerging design. These verbs tell the reader that the study will Discover (e.g., grounded theory) Seek to understand (e.g., ethnography)
3 07-Creswell (RD)-45593:07-Creswell (RD) qxd 6/20/2008 4:37 PM Page 131 Research Questions and Hypotheses 131 Explore a process (e.g., case study) Describe the experiences (e.g., phenomenology) Report the stories (e.g., narrative research) Use these more exploratory verbs that are nondirectional rather than directional words that suggest quantitative research, such as affect, influence, impact, determine, cause, and relate. Expect the research questions to evolve and change during the study in a manner consistent with the assumptions of an emerging design. Often in qualitative studies, the questions are under continual review and reformulation (as in a grounded theory study). This approach may be problematic for individuals accustomed to quantitative designs, in which the research questions remain fixed throughout the study. Use open-ended questions without reference to the literature or theory unless otherwise indicated by a qualitative strategy of inquiry. Specify the participants and the research site for the study, if the information has not yet been given. Here is a script for a qualitative central question: (How or what) is the ( story for for narrative research; meaning of the phenomenon for phenomenology; theory that explains the process of for grounded theory; culture-sharing pattern for ethnography; issue in the case for case study) of (central phenomenon) for (participants) at (research site). The following are examples of qualitative research questions drawn from several types of strategies. Example 7.1 A Qualitative Central Question From an Ethnography Finders (1996) used ethnographic procedures to document the reading of teen magazines by middle-class European American seventh-grade girls. By examining the reading of teen zines (magazines), the researcher explored how the girls perceive and construct their social roles and relationships as they enter junior high school. She asked one guiding central question in her study: How do early adolescent females read literature that falls outside the realm of fiction? (Finders, 1996, p. 72)
4 07-Creswell (RD)-45593:07-Creswell (RD) qxd 6/20/2008 4:37 PM Page Designing Research Finders s (1996) central question begins with how; it uses an openended verb, read; it focuses on a single concept, the literature or teen magazines; and it mentions the participants, adolescent females, as the culture-sharing group. Notice how the author crafted a concise, single question that needed to be answered in the study. It is a broad question stated to permit participants to share diverse perspectives about reading the literature. Example 7.2 Qualitative Central Questions From a Case Study Padula and Miller (1999) conducted a multiple case study that described the experiences of women who went back to school, after a time away, in a psychology doctoral program at a major Midwestern research university. The intent was to document the women s experiences, providing a gendered and feminist perspective for women in the literature. The authors asked three central questions that guided the inquiry: (a) How do women in a psychology doctoral program describe their decision to return to school? (b) How do women in a psychology doctoral program describe their reentry experiences? And (c) How does returning to graduate school change these women s lives? (Padula & Miller, 1999, p. 328) These three central questions all begin with the word how; they include open-ended verbs, such as describe, and they focus on three aspects of the doctoral experience returning to school, reentering, and changing. They also mention the participants as women in a doctoral program at a Midwestern research university. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES In quantitative studies, investigators use quantitative research questions and hypotheses, and sometimes objectives, to shape and specifically focus the purpose of the study. Quantitative research questions inquire about the relationships among variables that the investigator seeks to know. They are used frequently in social science research and especially in survey studies. Quantitative hypotheses, on the other hand, are predictions the researcher makes about the expected relationships among variables. They are numeric estimates of population values based on data collected from samples. Testing of hypotheses employs statistical procedures in which the investigator draws inferences about the population
5 07-Creswell (RD)-45593:07-Creswell (RD) qxd 6/20/2008 4:37 PM Page 133 Research Questions and Hypotheses 133 from a study sample. Hypotheses are used often in experiments in which investigators compare groups. Advisers often recommend their use in a formal research project, such as a dissertation or thesis, as a means of stating the direction a study will take. Objectives, on the other hand, indicate the goals or objectives for a study. They often appear in proposals for funding, but tend to be used with less frequency in social and health science research today. Because of this, the focus here will be on research questions and hypotheses. Here is an example of a script for a quantitative research question: Does (name the theory) explain the relationship between (independent variable) and (dependent variable), controlling for the effects of (control variable)? Alternatively, a script for a quantitative null hypothesis might be as follows: There is no significant difference between (the control and experimental groups on the independent variable) on (dependent variable). Guidelines for writing good quantitative research questions and hypotheses include the following. The use of variables in research questions or hypotheses is typically limited to three basic approaches. The researcher may compare groups on an independent variable to see its impact on a dependent variable. Alternatively, the investigator may relate one or more independent variables to one or more dependent variables. Third, the researcher may describe responses to the independent, mediating, or dependent variables. Most quantitative research falls into one or more of these three categories. The most rigorous form of quantitative research follows from a test of a theory (see Chapter 3) and the specification of research questions or hypotheses that are included in the theory. The independent and dependent variables must be measured separately. This procedure reinforces the cause-and-effect logic of quantitative research. To eliminate redundancy, write only research questions or hypotheses, not both, unless the hypotheses build on the research questions (discussion follows). Choose the form based on tradition, recommendations from an adviser or faculty committee, or whether past research indicates a prediction about outcomes.
6 07-Creswell (RD)-45593:07-Creswell (RD) qxd 6/20/2008 4:37 PM Page Designing Research If hypotheses are used, there are two forms: null and alternative. A null hypothesis represents the traditional approach: it makes a prediction that in the general population, no relationship or no significant difference exists between groups on a variable. The wording is, There is no difference (or relationship) between the groups. The following example illustrates a null hypothesis. Example 7.3 A Null Hypothesis An investigator might examine three types of reinforcement for children with autism: verbal cues, a reward, and no reinforcement. The investigator collects behavioral measures assessing social interaction of the children with their siblings. A null hypothesis might read, There is no significant difference between the effects of verbal cues, rewards, and no reinforcement in terms of social interaction for children with autism and their siblings. The second form, popular in journal articles, is the alternative or directional hypothesis. The investigator makes a prediction about the expected outcome, basing this prediction on prior literature and studies on the topic that suggest a potential outcome. For example, the researcher may predict that Scores will be higher for Group A than for Group B on the dependent variable or that Group A will change more than Group B on the outcome. These examples illustrate a directional hypothesis because an expected prediction (e.g., higher, more change) is made. The following illustrates a directional hypothesis. Example 7.4 Directional Hypotheses Mascarenhas (1989) studied the differences between types of ownership (state-owned, publicly traded, and private) of firms in the offshore drilling industry. Specifically, the study explored such differences as domestic market dominance, international presence, and customer orientation. The study was a controlled field study using quasi-experimental procedures. Hypothesis 1: Publicly traded firms will have higher growth rates than privately held firms. Hypothesis 2: Publicly traded enterprises will have a larger international scope than state-owned and privately held firms.
7 07-Creswell (RD)-45593:07-Creswell (RD) qxd 6/20/2008 4:37 PM Page 135 Research Questions and Hypotheses 135 Hypothesis 3: State-owned firms will have a greater share of the domestic market than publicly traded or privately held firms. Hypothesis 4: Publicly traded firms will have broader product lines than stateowned and privately held firms. Hypothesis 5: State-owned firms are more likely to have state-owned enterprises as customers overseas. Hypothesis 6: State-owned firms will have a higher customer-base stability than privately held firms. Hypothesis 7: In less visible contexts, publicly traded firms will employ more advanced technology than state-owned and privately held firms. (Mascarenhas, 1989, pp ) Another type of alternative hypothesis is nondirectional a prediction is made, but the exact form of differences (e.g., higher, lower, more, less) is not specified because the researcher does not know what can be predicted from past literature. Thus, the investigator might write, There is a difference between the two groups. An example follows which incorporates both types of hypotheses: Example 7.5 Nondirectional and Directional Hypotheses Sometimes directional hypotheses are created to examine the relationship among variables rather than to compare groups. For example, Moore (2000) studied the meaning of gender identity for religious and secular Jewish and Arab women in Israeli society. In a national probability sample of Jewish and Arab women, the author identified three hypotheses for study. The first is nondirectional and the last two are directional. H 1 : H 2 : H 3 : Gender identity of religious and secular Arab and Jewish women are related to different sociopolitical social orders that reflect the different value systems they embrace. Religious women with salient gender identity are less socio-politically active than secular women with salient gender identities. The relationships among gender identity, religiosity, and social actions are weaker among Arab women than among Jewish women.
8 07-Creswell (RD)-45593:07-Creswell (RD) qxd 6/21/ :30 AM Page Designing Research Unless the study intentionally employs demographic variables as predictors, use nondemographic variables (i.e., attitudes or behaviors) as independent and dependent variables. Because quantitative studies attempt to verify theories, demographic variables (e.g., age, income level, educational level, and so forth) typically enter these models as intervening (or mediating or moderating) variables instead of major independent variables. Use the same pattern of word order in the questions or hypotheses to enable a reader to easily identify the major variables. This calls for repeating key phrases and positioning the variables with the independent first and concluding with the dependent in left-to-right order (as discussed in Chapter 6 on good purpose statements). An example of word order with independent variables stated first in the phrase follows. Example 7.6 Standard Use of Language in Hypotheses 1. There is no relationship between utilization of ancillary support services and academic persistence for non-traditional-aged women college students. 2. There is no relationship between family support systems and academic persistence for non-traditional-aged college women. 3. There is no relationship between ancillary support services and family support systems for non-traditional-aged college women. A Model for Descriptive Questions and Hypotheses Consider a model for writing questions or hypotheses based on writing descriptive questions (describing something) followed by inferential questions or hypotheses (drawing inferences from a sample to a population). These questions or hypotheses include both independent and dependent variables. In this model, the writer specifies descriptive questions for each independent and dependent variable and important intervening or moderating variables. Inferential questions (or hypotheses) that relate variables or compare groups follow these descriptive questions. A final set of questions may add inferential questions or hypotheses in which variables are controlled. Example 7.7 Descriptive and Inferential Questions To illustrate this approach, a researcher wants to examine the relationship of critical thinking skills (an independent variable measured on an instrument)
9 07-Creswell (RD)-45593:07-Creswell (RD) qxd 6/20/2008 4:37 PM Page 137 Research Questions and Hypotheses 137 to student achievement (a dependent variable measured by grades) in science classes for eighth-grade students in a large metropolitan school district. The researcher controls for the intervening effects of prior grades in science classes and parents educational attainment. Following the proposed model, the research questions might be written as follows: Descriptive Questions 1. How do the students rate on critical thinking skills? (A descriptive question focused on the independent variable) 2. What are the student s achievement levels (or grades) in science classes? (A descriptive question focused on the dependent variable) 3. What are the student s prior grades in science classes? (A descriptive question focused on the control variable of prior grades) 4. What is the educational attainment of the parents of the eighthgraders? (A descriptive question focused on another control variable, educational attainment of parents) Inferential Questions 1. Does critical thinking ability relate to student achievement? (An inferential question relating the independent and the dependent variables) 2. Does critical thinking ability relate to student achievement, controlling for the effects of prior grades in science and the educational attainment of the eighth-graders parents? (An inferential question relating the independent and the dependent variables, controlling for the effects of the two controlled variables) This example illustrates how to organize all the research questions into descriptive and inferential questions. In another example, a researcher may want to compare groups, and the language may change to reflect this comparison in the inferential questions. In other studies, many more independent and dependent variables may be present in the model being tested, and a longer list of descriptive and inferential questions would result. I recommend this descriptive inferential model. This example also illustrates the use of variables to describe as well as relate. It specifies the independent variables in the first position in the questions, the dependent in the second, and the control variables in the third. It employs demographics as controls rather than central variables in the questions, and a reader needs to assume that the questions flow from a theoretical model.
10 07-Creswell (RD)-45593:07-Creswell (RD) qxd 6/20/2008 4:37 PM Page Designing Research MIXED METHODS RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES In discussions about methods, researchers typically do not see specific questions or hypotheses especially tailored to mixed methods research. However, discussion has begun concerning the use of mixed methods questions in studies and also how to design them (see Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007; Tashakkori & Creswell, 2007). A strong mixed methods study should start with a mixed methods research question, to shape the methods and the overall design of a study. Because a mixed methods study relies on neither quantitative or qualitative research alone, some combination of the two provides the best information for the research questions and hypotheses. To be considered are what types of questions should be presented and when and what information is most needed to convey the nature of the study: Both qualitative and quantitative research questions (or hypotheses) need to be advanced in a mixed methods study in order to narrow and focus the purpose statement. These questions or hypotheses can be advanced at the beginning or when they emerge during a later phase of the research. For example, if the study begins with a quantitative phase, the investigator might introduce hypotheses. Later in the study, when the qualitative phase is addressed, the qualitative research questions appear. When writing these questions or hypotheses, follow the guidelines in this chapter for scripting good questions or hypotheses. Some attention should be given to the order of the research questions and hypotheses. In a two-phase project, the first-phase questions would come first, followed by the second-phase questions so that readers see them in the order in which they will be addressed in the proposed study. In a single-phase strategy of inquiry, the questions might be ordered according to the method that is given the most weight in the design. Include a mixed methods research question that directly addresses the mixing of the quantitative and qualitative strands of the research. This is the question that will be answered in the study based on the mixing (see Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007). This is a new form of question in research methods, and Tashakkori and Creswell (2007, p. 208) call it a hybrid or integrated question. This question could either be written at the beginning or when it emerges; for instance, in a two-phase study in which one phase builds on the other, the mixed methods questions might be placed in a discussion between the two phases. This can assume one of two forms. The first is to write it in a way that conveys the methods or procedures in a study (e.g., Does the qualitative data help explain the results from the initial quantitative phase of the study? See
11 07-Creswell (RD)-45593:07-Creswell (RD) qxd 6/20/2008 4:37 PM Page 139 Research Questions and Hypotheses 139 Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007). The second form is to write it in a way that conveys the content of the study (e.g., Does the theme of social support help to explain why some students become bullies in schools? (see Tashakkori & Creswell, 2007.) Consider several different ways that all types of research questions (i.e., quantitative, qualitative, and mixed) can be written into a mixed methods study: Write separate quantitative questions or hypotheses and qualitative questions. These could be written at the beginning of a study or when they appear in the project if the study unfolds in stages or phases. With this approach, the emphasis is placed on the two approaches and not on the mixed methods or integrative component of the study. Write separate quantitative questions or hypotheses and qualitative questions and follow them with a mixed methods question. This highlights the importance of both the qualitative and quantitative phases of the study as well as their combined strength, and thus is probably the ideal approach. Write only a mixed methods question that reflects the procedures or the content (or write the mixed methods question in both a procedural and a content approach), and do not include separate quantitative and qualitative questions. This approach would enhance the viewpoint that the study intends to lead to some integration or connection between the quantitative and qualitative phases of the study (i.e., the sum of both parts is greater than each part). Example 7.8 Hypotheses and Research Questions in a Mixed Methods Study Houtz (1995) provides an example of a two-phase study with the separate quantitative and qualitative research hypotheses and questions stated in sections introducing each phase. She did not use a separate, distinct mixed methods research question. Her study investigated the differences between middle-school (nontraditional) and junior high (traditional) instructional strategies for seventh-grade and eighth-grade students and their attitudes toward science and their science achievement. Her study was conducted at a point when many schools were moving away from the two-year junior high concept to the three-year middle school (including sixth grade) approach to education. In this two-phase study, the first phase involved assessing pre-test (Continued)
12 07-Creswell (RD)-45593:07-Creswell (RD) qxd 6/20/2008 4:37 PM Page Designing Research (Continued) and post-test attitudes and achievement using scales and examination scores. Houtz then followed the quantitative results with qualitative interviews with science teachers, the school principal, and consultants. This second phase helped to explain differences and similarities in the two instructional approaches obtained in the first phase. With a first-phase quantitative study, Houtz (1995, p. 630) mentioned the hypotheses guiding her research: It was hypothesized that there would be no significant difference between students in the middle school and those in the junior high in attitude toward science as a school subject. It was also hypothesized that there would be no significant difference between students in the middle school and those in the junior high in achievement in science. These hypotheses appeared at the beginning of the study as an introduction to the quantitative phase. Prior to the qualitative phase, Houtz raised questions to explore the quantitative results in more depth. Focusing in on the achievement test results, she interviewed science teachers, the principal, and the university consultants and asked three questions: What differences currently exist between the middle school instructional strategy and the junior high instructional strategy at this school in transition? How has this transition period impacted science attitude and achievement of your students? How do teachers feel about this change process? (Houtz, 1995, p. 649) Examining this mixed methods study shows that the author included both quantitative and qualitative questions, specified them at the beginning of each phase of her study, and used good elements for writing both quantitative hypotheses and qualitative research questions. Had Houtz (1995) developed a mixed methods question, it might have been stated from a procedural perspective: How do the interviews with teachers, the principal, and university consultants help to explain any quantitative differences in achievement for middleschool and junior high students? Alternatively, the mixed methods question might have been written from a content orientation, such as: How do the themes mentioned by the teachers help to explain why middleschool children score lower than the junior high students?
13 07-Creswell (RD)-45593:07-Creswell (RD) qxd 6/20/2008 4:37 PM Page 141 Research Questions and Hypotheses 141 Example 7.9 A Mixed Methods Question Written in Terms of Mixing Procedures To what extent and in what ways do qualitative interviews with students and faculty members serve to contribute to a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of this predicting relationship between CEEPT scores and student academic performance, via integrative mixed methods analysis? (Lee & Greene, 2007) This is a good example of a mixed methods question focused on the intent of mixing, to integrate the qualitative interviews and the quantitative data, the relationship of scores and student performance. This question emphasized what the integration was attempting to accomplish a comprehensive and nuanced understanding and at the end of the article, the authors presented evidence answering this question. SUMMARY Research questions and hypotheses narrow the purpose statement and become major signposts for readers. Qualitative researchers ask at least one central question and several subquestions. They begin the questions with words such as how or what and use exploratory verbs, such as explore or describe. They pose broad, general questions to allow the participants to explain their ideas. They also focus initially on one central phenomenon of interest. The questions may also mention the participants and the site for the research. Quantitative researchers write either research questions or hypotheses. Both forms include variables that are described, related, categorized into groups for comparison, and the independent and dependent variables are measured separately. In many quantitative proposals, writers use research questions; however, a more formal statement of research employs hypotheses. These hypotheses are predictions about the outcomes of the results, and they may be written as alternative hypotheses specifying the exact results to be expected (more or less, higher or lower of something). They also may be stated in the null form, indicating no expected difference or no relationship between groups on a dependent variable. Typically, the researcher writes the independent variable(s) first, followed by the dependent variable(s). One model for ordering the questions in a quantitative proposal is to begin with descriptive questions followed by the inferential questions that relate variables or compare groups.
14 07-Creswell (RD)-45593:07-Creswell (RD) qxd 6/20/2008 4:37 PM Page Designing Research I encourage mixed methods researchers to construct separate mixed methods questions in their studies. This question might be written to emphasize the procedures or the content of the study, and it might be placed at different points. By writing this question, the researcher conveys the importance of integrating or combining the quantitative and qualitative elements. Several models exist for writing mixed methods questions into studies: writing only quantitative questions or hypotheses and qualitative questions, or writing both quantitative questions or hypotheses and qualitative questions followed by a mixed methods question, or writing only a mixed methods question. WRITING EXERCISES Writing Exercises 1. For a qualitative study, write one or two central questions followed by five to seven subquestions. 2. For a quantitative study, write two sets of questions. The first set should be descriptive questions about the independent and dependent variables in the study. The second set should pose questions that relate (or compare) the independent variable(s) with the dependent variable(s). This follows the model presented in this chapter for combining descriptive and inferential questions. 3. Write a mixed methods research question. Write it first as a question incorporating the procedures of your mixed methods study and then rewrite it to incorporate the content. Comment on which approach works best for you. ADDITIONAL READINGS Creswell, J. W. (1999). Mixed-method research: Introduction and application. In G. J. Cizek (Ed.), Handbook of educational policy (pp ). San Diego: Academic Press. In this chapter, I discuss the nine steps in conducting a mixed methods study. These are as follows: 1. Determine if a mixed methods study is needed to study the problem; 2. Consider whether a mixed methods study is feasible; 3. Write both qualitative and quantitative research questions;
15 07-Creswell (RD)-45593:07-Creswell (RD) qxd 6/20/2008 4:37 PM Page 143 Research Questions and Hypotheses Review and decide on the types of data collection; 5. Assess the relative weight and implementation strategy for each method; 6. Present a visual model; 7. Determine how the data will be analyzed; 8. Assess the criteria for evaluating the study; and 9. Develop a plan for the study. In writing the research questions, I recommend developing both qualitative and quantitative types and stating within them the type of qualitative strategy of inquiry being used. Tashakkori, A., & Creswell, J. W. (2007). Exploring the nature of research questions in mixed methods research. Editorial. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(3), This editorial addresses the use and nature of research questions in mixed methods research. It highlights the importance of research questions in the process of research and discusses the need for a better understanding of the use of mixed methods questions. It asks, How does one frame a research question in a mixed methods study? (p. 207). Three models are presented: writing separate quantitative and qualitative questions, writing an overarching mixed methods question, or writing research questions for each phase of a study as the research evolves. Morse, J. M. (1994). Designing funded qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp ). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Janice Morse, a nursing researcher, identifies and describes the major design issues involved in planning a qualitative project. She compares several strategies of inquiry and maps the type of research questions used in each strategy. For phenomenology and ethnography, the research calls for meaning and descriptive questions. For grounded theory, the questions need to address process, whereas in ethnomethodology and discourse analysis, the questions relate to verbal interaction and dialogue. She indicates that the wording of the research question determines the focus and scope of the study. Tuckman, B. W. (1999). Conducting educational research (5th ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace. Bruce Tuckman provides an entire chapter on constructing hypotheses. He identifies the origin of hypotheses in deductive theoretical positions and in inductive observations. He further defines and illustrates both alternative and null hypotheses and takes the reader through the hypothesis testing procedure.
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The Department of Pediatrics at the University of Kansas School of Medicine-Wichita campus is excited to offer a faculty appointment in Pediatric Emergency Medicine in collaboration with Wesley Medical Center and CarePoint.
Announcing New Emergency Physician positions at Wesley Medical Center
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