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Reconsidering prepositional polysemy networks: the case of over *
- Chad Mitchell
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1 The case of over 95 Reconsidering prepositional polysemy networks: the case of over * Andrea Tyler and Vyvyan Evans 1. Introduction We focus here on the issue of semantic polysemy, the phenomenon whereby a single linguistic form is associated with a number of related but distinct meanings or senses. In particular, we consider how the notorious polysemy of the English preposition over might be accounted for in a principled, systematic manner within a cognitive linguistic framework. At base, we argue that the many senses of over constitute a motivated semantic network organized around an abstract, primary meaning component, termed a protoscene. The many distinct senses associated with over are accounted for by interaction of the protoscene with a constrained set of cognitive principles. Accordingly, our more general claim is that the lexicon is not an arbitrary repository of unrelated lexemes. Rather, the lexicon constitutes an elaborate network of form meaning associations (Langacker 1987, 1991a, 1991b), in which each form is paired with a semantic network or continuum (Brisard 1997). This follows from two basic assumptions, widely demonstrated within the framework of cognitive linguistics. First, semantic structure derives from and mirrors conceptual structure (see, for example, Fauconnier 1994, 1997; Heine 1997; Jackendoff 1983; Lakoff 1987). Second, the kinds of bodies and neural architecture human beings have how we experience and the nature of the spatio-physical world we happen to live in what we experience determine the conceptual structure we have (Clark 1973; Evans 2000; Grady 1997; Heine 1993, 1997; Johnson 1987; Lakoff and Johnson 1980, 1999; Svorou 1993; Sweetser 1990; Talmy 1983, 1988, 1996, 2000; Turner 1991; Varela, Thompson and Rosch 1991). This model of the lexicon generally, and the model of polysemy proposed here in particular, contrasts with traditional models in a number of ways. The traditional view holds that all regularity and productivity are in the syntax, with the lexicon serving as a repository of the arbitrary. Aronoff (1994) points out that Bloomfield articulated this perspective as early as More
2 96 Andrea Tyler and Vyvyan Evans recently, Chomsky has reasserted this stance: I understand the lexicon in a rather traditional sense: as a list of exceptions, whatever does not follow from general principles (1995: 235). Models within this framework have tended to represent different word senses as distinct lexical items (Croft 1998). Polysemous forms are simply represented as an arbitrary list of discrete words that happen to share the same phonological form. Over the years, this stand has been criticized for failing to account for systematic ways in which numerous forms are clearly related (Jackendoff 1997; Langacker 1991a; Levin 1993; Pustejovsky 1998). Croft (1998) notes that a number of linguists have argued for some type of derivation within the lexicon that would represent distinct senses as arising from a primary sense via a set of lexical operations. By and large, these analyses have focused on polysemy involving changes in the argument structure of verbs or alternatively in category changes, and have had little to say about the type of polysemy demonstrated by English prepositions in which syntactic category changes are often not involved. In fact, most linguists (cognitive linguists excepted) have not paid much attention to the phenomena of polysemy. Pustejovsky notes that The major part of semantic research... has been on logical form and the mapping from a sentence-level syntactic representation to a logical representation (1998: 33). The lexicon has been represented as a static set of word senses, tagged with features for syntactic, morphological and semantic information, ready to be inserted into syntactic frames with appropriately matching features. Within this tradition the lexicon has been viewed as a finite set of [discrete] memorized units of meaning (Jackendoff 1997: 4). Cognitive linguistics takes a significantly different perspective on the nature of the mental lexicon. Of primary importance is the notion of embodied meaning: the meanings associated with many individual lexemes are instantiated in memory not in terms of features, nor as abstract propositions, but rather as imagistic, schematic representations. Such image-schemas are held to be embodied, in the sense that they arise from perceptual reanalysis of recurring patterns in everyday physical experience (see Johnson 1987; Mandler 1992, 1996 for a developmental perspective). 1 Perceptual analysis creates a new, abstract level of information information tied to the spatiophysical world we inhabit but mediated by human perception and conceptualization. The central assumption of embodied meaning stands in stark contrast to approaches to the mental lexicon that represent lexical items as bundles of semantic, syntactic and morphological features.
3 The case of over 97 A second distinguishing tenet of cognitive linguistics involves the representation of lexical items as natural categories involved in networks or continuums of meaning. Research into human categorization (Rosch 1975) strongly suggests that speakers distinguish between prototypical and peripheral members of a set, based not on criterial properties or features, but rather on how predictable a member is, based on a prototype (Lakoff 1987). Consequently, cognitive semantic accounts of polysemy (Brugman 1981; Brugman and Lakoff 1988; Lakoff 1987) have argued that lexical items constitute natural categories of related senses organized with respect to a primary sense and thus form semantic or polysemy networks. Hence, such accounts are strongly suggestive that the lexicon is much more motivated and organized than has traditionally been assumed (Dirven 1993; Lakoff 1987; see also Langacker 1991a; the work in construction grammar argues in a related vein, e.g. Fillmore, Kay and O Connor 1988; Kay and Fillmore 1999; Goldberg 1995). In the 1980s, Brugman conducted pioneering work in the polysemy of the English preposition over (1981 [1988]). This research was followed by Lakoff (1987), Brugman and Lakoff (1988), Dewell (1994) and Kreitzer (1997). Brugman and Lakoff treated prepositions as denoting a spatial relation between an element in focus (the figure), and an element not in focus (the ground). 2 The Brugman/Lakoff framework took a highly fine-grained approach to the semantics of prepositions. Accordingly, Lakoff (1987) provides a network that contains at least 24 distinct senses. More recently, work such as Evans (2000), Kreitzer (1997), Rice (1993), Ruhl (1989), 3 Sandra (1998), Sandra and Rice (1995), Tyler and Evans (2003), and Vandeloise (1990), has questioned whether such a fine-grained analysis is warranted, arguing that the Brugman/Lakoff analysis is methodologically unconstrained. We will argue that a significant problem with previous approaches is that they fail to distinguish between what is coded by a lexical expression and the information that must be derived from context, background knowledge of the world, and spatial relations in general. That is, previous analyses fail to take account of meaning construction as a process which relies upon conceptual integration of linguistic and nonlinguistic prompts, guided by various global cognitive principles. Hence, we follow recent work in cognitive linguistics (Fauconnier 1994, 1997; Fauconnier and Turner 1998; Turner 1991, 1996), which posits that formal linguistic expression underspecifies for meaning. We will further argue that this failure stems in large part from
4 98 Andrea Tyler and Vyvyan Evans the fact that previous approaches have not developed well-motivated criteria for (i) distinguishing between distinct senses within a network versus interpretations produced on-line and (ii) determining the primary sense associated with a preposition. Our first objective in the present article is to outline what we term a principled polysemy framework. This will anchor the semantic network of over to a foundational conceptual representation (our protoscene), deriving directly from uniquely human perceptions of and experience with the spatiophysical world. The protoscene we posit is a highly abstract representation of a recurring spatial configuration between two (or more) objects. Hence, details of the physical attributes of the objects involved in a particular spatial scene will be shown not to involve distinct senses (contra Brugman/Lakoff). We will argue that many of the distinct senses posited in previous approaches are produced on-line, as a result of a highly constrained process of integrating linguistic prompts at the conceptual level. Key to distinguishing our framework from previous ones will be outlining clear, motivated methodology for determining the protoscene associated with a preposition and distinguishing between senses that are instantiated in memory versus interpretations produced on-line. Our second objective is to demonstrate the usefulness of the framework by providing a complete account of the polysemy exhibited by over. 2. Previous approaches 2.1. The full-specification approach The full-specification approach (e.g. Lakoff 1987) characterizes the polysemy network for over as subsuming distinct but related topographical structures at a fine-grained level. Each sense is represented by a distinct image-schema; each image-schema is related through various formal links and transformations. To see the level of granularity in this model, consider (1) and (2). (1) The helicopter hovered over the ocean. (2) The hummingbird hovered over the flower. Following Langacker s cognitive grammar (Langacker 1987, 1991a, 1991b), figure ground relations denoted by prepositions were described in terms of
5 The case of over 99 a trajector (TR) and a landmark (LM). Lakoff observed that in a sentence such as (1) over describes a relation between a TR, the helicopter, and a LM that is extended, the ocean, while in (2) the relationship is between a TR, the hummingbird, and a LM that is not extended, the flower. Lakoff argued that such differences in dimensionality of the LM should be represented as distinct senses in the semantic network associated with over. He termed this approach full specification (see Lakoff 1987 for full details and copious examples). From this view it follows that for a word such as over, there would be a vast number of distinct senses explicitly specified in the semantic network, including many of the metric characteristics of the variety of TRs and LMs, that can be mediated by the spatial relation designated by over. While not in principle inconceivable, 4 in practice, as Kreitzer observed, the fine-grained distinctions between instances of over as in (1) and (2), along with the proposed links and transformations, provide a semantic network so unconstrained that the model... [allows]... across, through and above all to be related to the polysemy network of over (1997: 292). Sandra and Rice (1995), on the basis of their experimental findings, question whether the actual polysemy networks of language users are as fine-grained as suggested by models of the sort proposed by Lakoff. This view is echoed forthrightly in Vandeloise (1990). Moreover, a Lakoff-type analysis fails to consider that detailed metric properties of LMs and TRs are often not specified by the lexical forms used by speakers in their utterances. For instance, the lexical form flower does not specify whether the entity should be construed as [+ vertical], as a tulip or calla lily might be, or [ vertical], as a lobelia or a water lily might be. Thus, in a sentence such as (2), The hummingbird hovered over the flower, it appears that verticality is not explicitly specified by the semantics of the LM. This indicates that there must be a sense of over in which the TR is higher than the nonextended LM and the verticality of the LM is not specified. Thus, Lakoff s account results in the highly questionable consequence of positing three senses of over in which the TR is located higher than a nonextended LM one which specifies for a vertical LM, one which specifies for a nonvertical LM, and one which does not specify for verticality and hence subsumes the first two senses. Similarly, Lakoff s model would posit three additional senses involving a LM which is extended, one which specifies for verticality (e.g. a mountain range), one which specifies for nonverticality (e.g. an ocean), and one which does not specify for verticality (e.g. the area) and hence subsumes the first two. 5
6 100 Andrea Tyler and Vyvyan Evans In essence, by building too much redundancy into the lexical representation, Lakoff s model vastly inflates the number of proposed distinct meanings associated with a preposition such as over. An implicit consequence of this representation is that real-world knowledge as well as discourse and sentential context, which are used in the conceptual processes of inferencing and meaning construction, are reduced in importance, as much of the information arising from inferencing and meaning construction is actually built into the lexical representation The partial-specification approach Kreitzer s approach (1997), which we term partial specification, offers a notable refinement of the Brugman/Lakoff approach because Kreitzer is able to constrain the number of senses within a polysemy network, in a consistent, motivated way. Building on work by Talmy (1983), Kreitzer posits that there are three distinct levels of schematization inherent in the conceptualization of a spatial scene: the component level, the relational level, and the integrative level. The component level constitutes conceptual primitives, notions such as LM, TR, PATH, contact between TR and LM, lack of contact, whether the LM is extended, vertical, and so on. These combine giving the relational level. Crucially, for Kreitzer the relational level schema is taken as the basic level of granularity representing a sense of a preposition (1997: 295). Whereas for Lakoff each additional topographical component constituted a distinct sense, Kreitzer claims that these individual components apply compositionally at the relational level. As such, image-schema transformations (which allow new components to be added to the image-schemas) are no longer taken as providing a new sense. Rather, image-schema transformations simply serve to widen the applicability of a particular sense. Examples (3) and (4) illustrate this point. (3) The boy climbed over the wall. (4) The tennis ball flew over the wall. In (3) there is contact between the TR, the boy, and the LM, the wall, whereas in (4) there is not. For Lakoff, this distinction warranted two distinct senses. Kreitzer, by claiming that the sense provided by an image-schema is defined at the relational level (rather than at the component level), is able to
7 The case of over 101 argue that both usages represent only one sense of over. His insight is that the basic spatial relation between the TR and LM remains unchanged in (3) and (4), even though the components of the spatial scene may vary contextually. For Kreitzer, topographical features, such as contact and extendedness of the LM, are situated at the component level, and consequently do not delineate distinct senses or image-schemas. Consequently, Kreitzer argues that the plethora of separate image-schemas posited by Lakoff can be represented by three image-schemas at the relational level. The primary sense, which he terms over1, is static, over2 is dynamic, and over3 is what Kreitzer terms the occluding sense. Examples of these are: (5) The picture is over the sofa [over1, static sense]. (6) Sam walked over the hill [over2, dynamic sense]. 6 (7) The clouds are over the sun [over3, occluding sense]. Although Kreitzer is successful in constraining Lakoff s analysis, his account faces a significant problem because his three basic senses of over are arbitrarily connected; they do not share a common TR LM configuration. As Lakoff s model with a system of links and transformations has been abandoned, over now denotes three distinct relations, and it is difficult to see how Kreitzer s occluding sense of over3 could be related to over1 or over2. In order to appreciate the difficulty, consider (7) in relation to (5) and (6). In (7), over denotes a relationship in which the TR, the clouds, is beneath the LM, the sun. In (6), over denotes a dynamic relationship in which the TR is above the LM only at the midpoint of the TR, but in (5) the TR is stationed above the LM. It would seem that his claim to polysemy is undermined by three schemas so distinct as to have little in common. Moreover, he makes no attempt to account for how over1 could give rise to over2 and over3 respectively. Secondly, as with Lakoff s full-specification approach, Kreitzer s model fails to fully address the issue of the contributions of sentential context and background knowledge. Consider (8) for instance. (8) The clouds moved over the city. Kreitzer posits that (8) has two construals as a result of his assumption that over has both a static and a dynamic relational schema. Construal 1 stipulates that the clouds moved above and across the city, such that they
8 102 Andrea Tyler and Vyvyan Evans originated in a position not above the city, moved over the city, and came to be in a position beyond the city. Construal 2 stipulates that the clouds moved from a position in which they were not over the city, to a position such that they came to be directly over the city. These construals are diagrammed in Figures 1 and 2. Figure 1. The clouds moved over the city: construal 1 (after Kreitzer 1997: 305). Figure 2. The clouds moved over the city: construal 2 (after Kreitzer 1997: 305). Kreitzer argues that construal 1 is the result of over2, while construal 2 represents an integration of move, which contains a path schema as one of its components, and over1. On this view, the whole meaning of the sentence depends on which image-schema for over is taken. In addition to these two construals posited by Kreitzer, however, there is a third construal in which the clouds move around but remain above the city. This is represented in Figure 3. Based on Kreitzer s account, we would expect construal 3 to result from integration of move with over1, as the TR is always above the city. However, the problem for Kreitzer s account is that we have two construals, 2 and 3, which would thus not be distinguished image-schematically. How do we obtain distinct construals without such being coded? Kreitzer s account is problematic because he is assuming that distinct construals either result from such being coded by a preposition at the relational level or arise at the integrative level. But the integrative level simply conflates the two linguistic codes. That is, the path schema of move is
9 The case of over 103 Figure 3. The clouds moved over the city: construal 3. added to the static schema of over1, resulting in a dynamic construal. Since we are able to distinguish construal 3 from construal 2, there must be a further level of integration at which linguistic codes are elaborated, such that linguistic underspecification is filled in, providing a variety of construals, limited only by our perceptual abilities and what is possible in the world. This is the level of integration we refer to as the conceptual level. Hence, a fundamental problem with Kreitzer s account (as well as with Lakoff s) is that it assumes that the rich understanding we obtain about spatial scenes is derived entirely from what is coded by formal linguistic expression. This represents a commitment to the view that conceptualization must always derive from linguistic antecedents. We argue that the ambiguity (given that there are three construals) arises precisely because move codes a path schema whereas over does not, and because of what we know about cities and clouds (cities, unlike walls, for instance, occupy an extended area). Accordingly, the elements can be integrated in at least three different ways, as indicated by the three construals. This is testimony to the highly elaborate and rich process of conceptual integration. The linguistic prompts themselves do not provide distinct interpretations; these come from our knowledge of what is possible in the world and our ability to integrate minimal cues to construct a complex and dynamic conceptualization of a spatial scene. Sentence (9) illustrates this point. (9) The clouds moved over the wall. In (9) construals 1 (Fig. 1) and 3 (Fig. 3) are ruled out, not because over has both a dynamic and a static sense, but because walls are not extended landmarks (as noted in Lakoff s analysis), whereas cities are, and moved codes a path schema. Thus, when the sentential elements are integrated, the TR follows a path, as designated by moved, such that the TR occupies a position relative to the LM, as specified by the mental representation for
10 104 Andrea Tyler and Vyvyan Evans over. The clouds move, neither away from the wall, nor in a vertical manner without crossing the wall, but from a position prior to the wall to a position beyond the wall. That this should be so follows from conceptual integration of the cues prompted by the linguistic elements in the sentence. Accordingly, we argue that a polysemy network needs to allow for the distributed contribution of meaning played by all sentential elements, as well as the constraints imposed by our experience of the world and our ability to construct a rich and highly dynamic conceptualization based on minimal linguistic cues. Another problem with Kreitzer s account is that in attempting to constrain Lakoff s analysis he has significantly understated the amount of polysemy appropriately associated with over. For instance, many senses touched on by Lakoff are simply ignored by Kreitzer. We will provide a detailed examination of the semantic network for over in Section 4. Finally, neither Kreitzer nor Lakoff attempts a serious account of how he determined which sense of over should be considered the primary sense. We address this issue in detail in Section 3.2. The spirit of our model is coherent with a number of previous analyses that have addressed the multiple meanings associated both with prepositions (Herskovits 1986; Vandeloise 1991, 1994) and with other linguistic forms (Cushing 1990, 1991). While these scholars differ from each other and from us in several key assumptions (e.g. the nature of lexical representation), they do entertain the possibility that the polysemy exhibited might be best modelled in terms of a central (or ideal) sense Principled polysemy: the basic framework 3.1. Methodology for determining distinct senses One of the problems with previous polysemy networks, as noted by Sandra and Rice (1995), is that there appear to be as many different approaches to how best to model a semantic network as there are semantic network theorists. While we accept that all linguistic analysis is to some extent subjective, we propose here to introduce methodology to minimize the subjective nature of our analysis. We do so in the hope that other scholars can employ our methodology and test the predictions made by our model. We aim to provide the basis for replicability of findings, a prerequisite for any theoretically rigorous study.
11 The case of over 105 We suggest two criteria for determining whether a particular instance of a preposition counts as a distinct sense. Firstly, accepting the standard assumption that the primary sense coded for by prepositions is a particular spatial relation between a TR and a LM (although we will nuance what spatial means), for a sense to count as distinct, it must involve a meaning that is not purely spatial in nature and/or in which the spatial configuration between the TR and LM is changed vis-à-vis the other senses associated with a particular preposition. 8 Secondly, there must be instances of the sense that are contextindependent, instances in which the distinct sense could not be inferred from another sense and the context in which it occurs. To see how this would work let us reconsider the sentences in (1) and (2). In (1), over designates a spatial relation in which the TR, coded by the helicopter, is located higher than the LM. In (2), over also designates a spatial relationship in which the TR, the hummingbird, is located higher than the LM, coded by the flower. Neither instance of over constitutes a nonspatial interpretation, hence neither use adds additional meaning with respect to the other. By virtue of our proposed methodology, these instances of over cannot be treated as two distinct senses. In contrast, examples (10) and (11) do appear to constitute a distinct sense. (10) Joan nailed a board over the hole in the ceiling. (11) Joan nailed a board over the hole in the wall. In these sentences the spatial configuration between the TR and LM designated by over is not consistent with the above meaning designated in examples (1) and (2). In addition, a nonspatial meaning appears to be part of the interpretation. That is, the meaning associated with over appears to be that of covering, such that the hole, the LM, is obscured from view by the TR. Clearly, this notion of covering and obscuring represents an additional meaning not apparent in examples such as (1) and (2). The fact that the usage in (10) and (11) brings additional meaning meets the first assessment criterion for whether this instance counts as a distinct sense. In terms of the second criterion, we must establish whether the covering or obscuring meaning can be derived from context. If it can be, then this instance would fail the second assessment criterion and so could not, on the basis of the present methodology, be deemed a distinct sense. Assuming that the primary sense of over involves a spatial configuration between a TR and LM and that this configuration involves some sense of the TR being higher than the LM, 9 we see no way in which the covering meaning component
12 106 Andrea Tyler and Vyvyan Evans associated with over in (10) and (11) can be derived from context. To see why this is so, contrast this instance with (12), in which the covering meaning is derivable from context. (12) The tablecloth is over the table. The TR, the tablecloth, is higher than (and in contact with) the LM, the table. As tablecloths are typically larger than tables, and the usual vantage point from which such a spatial scene would be viewed is a point higher than the table, the result would be that a substantial part of the table would be covered and so obscured from view. The interpretation that the table is covered/obscured could be inferred from the fact that the tablecloth is over and hence higher than the table, in conjunction with our knowledge that tablecloths are larger than tables and that we typically view tables from above the top of the table. Such an inference is not possible in (10) as the spatial relation holding between the TR and the LM is one that would normally be coded by below (i.e. the board is below the hole in the ceiling), rather than by over, given the typical vantage point. Similarly, in (11) the spatial configuration between the TR and LM would normally be coded by something like next to. In short, unless we already know that over has a covering/ obscuring meaning associated with it, there is no ready contextual means of deriving this meaning in sentences such as (10) and (11). From this, we conclude that the covering/obscuring meaning associated with over in (10) and (11) constitutes a distinct sense. The two assessment criteria being proposed are rigorous and, in the light of future empirical research, may be shown to exclude senses that are legitimately instantiated in the language user s mental lexicon and hence would have to be adjusted. Nonetheless, without prejudging future findings, we suggest that this methodology predicts many findings that have already come to light, and so represents a reasonable approximation for assessing where we should draw the line between what counts as a distinct sense conventionalized in semantic memory, and a contextual inference produced on-line for the purpose of local understanding. The appeal of such methodology is that it provides a rigorous and relatively consistent way of making judgements about whether a sense is distinct, and provides methodology that can be used in an intersubjective way.
13 The case of over Methodology for determining the primary sense An equally thorny problem is the question of what counts as the primary sense associated with a polysemy network. In previous studies of semantic networks, researchers have assumed that there is a single primary sense associated with a preposition and that the other senses are derived from this primary sense in a principled way. We share this assumption. Scholars, however, have often disagreed about which sense should be taken as primary (or central). Lakoff (1987) following Brugman (1981), argued that the primary sense for over is above and across, and included a path along which the TR moves, as represented by sentences such as The plane flew over the city. Kreitzer (1997) disagreed, suggesting that the primary sense (over1) is something akin to an above sense, as in The hummingbird hovered over the flower. These decisions were primarily asserted rather than being argued for. Because linguists have simply asserted what constitutes the primary sense for a particular lexical category, appealing to intuitions and assumptions they often fail to explicitly articulate, we are in the unfortunate position that Lakoff (1987) and Kreitzer (1997) can offer equally plausible yet conflicting views of what the primary sense of over should be. Sandra and Rice (1995) observed that given the current state of theoretical development, any analysis of a polysemy network, including what constitutes its primary sense, is relatively arbitrary, reflecting each analyst s own preferences (or indeed imagination). Langacker, however, has argued persuasively that there are various kinds of evidence to help us discover and verify the structure of a complex category (1987: 376). Building on his suggestions we advance a set of criteria that we believe provides a more principled, intersubjective method of determining the appropriate primary sense for individual prepositions. As with our criteria for determining distinct senses, we see these criteria as the beginning of a plausible methodology leading to replicability of findings. We hypothesize that some of these criteria may also be useful for other classes of words. But because of the particular nature of prepositions that they code for spatial relations that may not have changed over many thousands of years (that is, the way humans perceive space seems not to have changed), and that they are a closed class the nature of the primary senses associated with lexical forms is likely to be at least somewhat distinct from the primary senses associated with word classes such as nouns, adjectives, and verbs. We suggest that there are at least four types of linguistic evidence that can
14 108 Andrea Tyler and Vyvyan Evans be used to narrow the arbitrariness of the selection of a primary sense. We posit that no one piece of evidence is criterial but, taken together, they form a substantial body of evidence pointing to one sense among the many distinct senses being what Langacker (1987: 157) terms the sanctioning sense, from which other senses may have been extended. The evidence includes (i) earliest attested meaning; (ii) predominance in the semantic network; (iii) relations to other prepositions; and (iv) grammatical predictions (Langacker 1987). Given the very stable nature of the conceptualization of spatial relations within a language, one likely candidate for the primary sense is the historically earliest sense. Having examined more than 15 English prepositions (see Tyler and Evans 2003), we found that the historical evidence indicates the earliest attested uses coded a spatial configuration holding between the TR and the LM (as opposed to a nonspatial configuration as in The movie is over [= complete]). Since English has historically drawn from several languages, not all prepositions entered the language at the same time and there are instances of competing, near synonyms, for instance, beneath, below, and under. In such cases, over a period of time the semantic territory has been divided among such competing prepositions, but even so, they retain a core meaning that directly involves the original TR LM configuration. Unlike words from many other word classes, the earliest attested sense for many prepositions is still a major, active component of the synchronic semantic network of each particle. Over is related to the Sanskrit upan higher as well as the Old Teutonic comparative form ufa above, that is, a spatial configuration in which the TR is higher than the LM (OED). Turning to the notion of predominance within a semantic network, by this we mean that the sense most likely to be primary will be the one whose meaning components are most frequent in other distinct senses. We have identified 14 distinct senses associated with over. Of these, eight directly involve the TR being located higher than the LM; four involve a TR located on the other side of the LM vis-à-vis the vantage point; and three covering, reflexive, and repetition involve multiple TR LM configurations. Thus, the criterion of predominance suggests that the primary sense for over involves a TR being located higher than the LM. Within the entire group of English prepositions, certain clusters of prepositions appear to form compositional sets that divide up various spatial dimensions. Above, over, under, and below appear to form a compositional set that divides the vertical dimension into four related subspaces (see Tyler and Evans 2003). Other compositional sets include in and out, on and off, up
15 The case of over 109 and down. The linguistically coded division of space and spatial relations is relativistic in nature, depending largely on construal of the particular scene being prompted for (Langacker 1987; Talmy 1988, 2000). To a large extent, the label assigned to denote a particular TR LM configuration is determined in relation to other labels in the composite set. So, for instance, what we label as up is partially determined by what we label as down. In this sense, the meaning of a preposition that participates in a compositional set is partially determined by how it contrasts with other members of the set. The particular sense used in the formation of such a compositional set would thus seem to be a likely candidate as a primary sense. For over, the sense that distinguishes this preposition from above, under, and below involves the notion of a TR being located higher than but potentially within reach of the LM. We expand on this argument in the next section. The choice of a primary sense gives rise to testable grammatical predictions. So, for instance, if we recognize that what are now distinct senses were at one time derived from and related to a pre-existing sense and became part of the semantic network through routinization and entrenchment of meaning, we would predict that a number of the senses should be directly derivable from the primary sense. This is consistent with Langacker s (1987) discussion of a sanctioning sense giving rise to additional senses through extension. Any senses not directly derivable from the primary sense itself should be traceable to a sense that was derived from the primary sense. This view of polysemy explicitly acknowledges that language is an evolving, usage-based system. Grammatically, for any distinct sense that is represented as directly related to the primary sense, we should be able to find sentences whose context provides the implicature that gives rise to the additional meaning associated with the distinct sense. We have already discussed this notion briefly (Section 3.1) when we considered the additional meaning of covering/obscuring associated with over in (10) (12). We argued that the use of over in (10) and (11) revealed additional meaning that could not be derived from sentential context, while the additional meaning of covering/ obscuring could be derived from context in (12). By the criterion of grammatical prediction, (12) constitutes evidence that a likely candidate for the primary sense associated with over involves the TR being located higher than the LM, as the distinct covering/obscuring sense can be derived from this primary sense and certain sentential contexts. Of course, the covering/ obscuring sense is only one of 14; all other senses would have to be tested against this same criterion.
16 110 Andrea Tyler and Vyvyan Evans 3.3. The protoscene As we said earlier, we assume that English prepositions form polysemy networks organized around a primary sense. At the conceptual level, the primary sense is represented in terms of abstracting away from specific spatial scenes, that is, real-world scenarios such as described by (13a) and (13b), resulting in an idealized spatio-functional configuration. (13) a. The picture is over the mantel. b. The bee is hovering over the flower. We call this abstracted mental representation of the primary sense the protoscene. It consists of a schematic trajector (TR), which is the locand (the element located, and in focus), and is typically smaller and movable; a schematic landmark (LM), which is the locator (the element with respect to which the TR is located, and in background), and is typically larger and immovable, and a conceptual configurational functional relation which mediates the TR and the LM. In the case of over, the TR is conceptualized as being proximate to the LM, so that under certain circumstances, the TR could come into contact with the LM. The functional aspect resulting from this particular spatial configuration is that the LM (or the TR) is conceptualized as being within the sphere of influence of the TR (or the LM) (see Dewell 1994, and Vandeloise 1991, 1994 for a discussion of other prepositions). In our label protoscene, the term proto captures the idealized aspect of the conceptual relation, which lacks the rich detail apparent in individual spatial scenes, while the use of scene emphasizes visual awareness of a spatial scene, although the information included in the image can contain information from other sense-perceptions. Because protoscenes are abstractions ultimately arising from recurring real-world spatial scenarios, we will diagram them. 10 In our diagrammatic representation of the protoscene posited for over (Fig. 4), the TR is portrayed as a dark sphere, the LM as a bold line. The dashed line signals a distinction between the part of the spatial scene conceptualized as being proximal to the LM (i.e. within potential contact with the LM) and that which is conceptualized as being distal. The vantage point for construing the spatial scene is offstage, and external to the spatial scene. Crucially, the linguistic form over prompts for the conceptual spatial relation captured by the protoscene. Two claims warrant more thorough investigation. The first is that the
17 The case of over 111 Figure 4. The protoscene for over. spatial configuration holding between the TR LM is correctly expressed by the description that over lexicalizes the protoscene depicted in Figure 4, namely that the TR is above but within a region of potential contact with the LM. This contrasts with the English preposition above, which we argue prompts for a conceptual spatial relation in which the TR is higher than but not within reach of the LM. The second claim warranting further scrutiny is that the TR and LM are within each other s sphere of influence. Dealing with the first claim, using the criterion of relationship to other prepositions which form a compositional set, consider the instances of over and above in sentences such as (14). (14) a. She walked over the bridge. b. She walked above the bridge. The sentences in (14) are characteristic of the distinction in English between over and above. While in (14a) the conventional reading is one in which the TR, she, is above but within reach (in this particular case, the TR is in contact with the bridge), most native speakers of English would exclude possible contact from their reading of (14b). The TR, she, might constitute a ghostly presence capable of levitation, or the TR might be on a second bridge higher than the first, but generally English speakers would not interpret the bridge as the surface being walked upon. These examples strongly suggest that we are right in positing that over does designate a spatial configuration in which the TR is in potential contact with the LM. We turn now to the functional aspect of the protoscene in Figure 4, namely the claim that the TR and LM are within each other s sphere of influence. A consequence of being within potential reach of the LM is that the TR can
18 112 Andrea Tyler and Vyvyan Evans affect the LM in some way and vice versa. For instance, because of an independently motivated experiential correlation (Grady 1997), we conventionally understand power and control being associated with an entity who is higher than the entity being controlled (we will discuss this in more detail when we deal with the control sense for over). In physical terms we can only control someone or something, and hence ensure compliance, if we are physically proximal to the entity we seek to control. If, then, in recurring human experience, control, and hence the ability to physically influence someone or something, is dependent upon being higher than and physically close to the entity we seek to control, we would expect that these notions can be designated by over but not above. While both over and above designate spatial relations which are higher than, only over also designates the functional relation of influence, precisely because part of its spatial configuration involves the notion of potential contact between the TR and LM. Consider (15). (15) a. She has a strange power over me. (Lakoff 1987) b.?she has a strange power above me. In terms of a control reading, while over in (15a) is perfectly acceptable, above in (15b) is decidedly odd. This suggests that the protoscene for over does indeed have a functional element of influence between the TR and LM, as a consequence of its spatial configuration designating potential contact between the TR and LM (see Vandeloise 1994 for a discussion of the functional nature of prepositions). This relation places certain maximal constraints on what can count as over: a spatial relation should be prompted for using the preposition over only if the spatial relation ranges from a configuration in which there is TR LM contact to one in which there is no contact but the TR can be construed as within potential reach of the LM. While there is strong evidence for defining over in this way, a review of the many interpretations regularly assigned to over by speakers of English shows that this representation alone is inadequate. Hence, there is a need to posit a set of cognitive principles of meaning construction and meaning extension that will account for the many additional senses associated with over.
19 The case of over Cognitive Principles Perceptual analysis and reconceptualization Mandler (1988, 1992, 1996) argues that a basic aspect of human cognition is the ability to submit salient (i.e. recurring) real-world scenarios and spatial scenes to perceptual analysis that gives rise to a new level of conceptualized information which is stored imagistically in the form of an abstract schematization, termed an image-schema. 11 Once stored, the image-schema is available for integration with other conceptualizations, further analysis, and reconceptualization. Earlier, we used the term conceptualization in a nontechnical way. In order to distinguish our nontechnical usage from a more sharpened operationalization, we here introduce the term complex conceptualization. A complex conceptualization is a constructed representation, 12 typically (but not inevitably) produced on-line. A complex conceptualization represents our projection of reality (in the sense of Jackendoff 1983), and can represent static and relatively simple phenomena, e.g. The cloud is over the sun, or dynamic and relatively complex phenomena, e.g. The cat ran over the hill and ended up several miles away. Our claim is that the integration of linguistic forms with other cognitive knowledge prompts for the construction of a complex conceptualization. In our model, the image-schemas representing the spatial configurations associated with prepositions are termed protoscenes. 13 The primary scene (i.e. the protoscene) associated with a preposition can be used, in conjunction with other linguistic prompts (i.e. within an utterance), to prompt for recurring spatial scenes and real-world scenarios. Figure 5 represents the complex conceptualization which would be constructed in the interpretation of the recurring scenario prompted by sentences such as (16) and (17). (16) The rabbit hopped over the fence. (17) The boy stepped over the pile of leaves. At some point, such recurring complex conceptualizations become subject to reanalysis and hence reconceptualization. 14 We posit that distinct senses arise as a result of the reanalysis of a particular aspect of such a recurring complex conceptualization. In other words, the recurring complex conceptualization from which a distinct sense originally arises is derivable from the
20 114 Andrea Tyler and Vyvyan Evans B A C Figure 5. Schematization of sentences of the type The cat jumped over the wall. protoscene and thus the distinct sense is related to the protoscene in a principled manner. On our analysis, while prepositions themselves do not prompt for dynamism, prepositions do participate in prompting for complex conceptualizations, which often are dynamic (in the sense that they include motion phenomena). Minimally varying static spatial scenes can be integrated at the conceptual level to provide a dynamic sequence. This is analogous to the way in which movie stills (static images) are flashed onto a screen in sequence to create the illusion of a moving image, a movie. Hence, we are arguing that prepositions prompt for nondynamic conceptual spatial relations, while maintaining that such relations can be integrated with other prompts, to create (dynamic) complex conceptualizations. In sum, we hold that while human conceptualization of spatial scenes is rich and dynamic, the available linguistic prompts underspecify such richness. Meaning is the result of integration of linguistic prompts at the conceptual level. Thus, the protoscene for over is integrated in the most felicitous way, given the sentential context, and given what we know about what is possible in the world Ways of viewing spatial scenes The notion of a vantage point mentioned in the discussion of the protoscene suggests that how a particular spatial scene is viewed will in large part determine the functional nature of a particular spatial scene, and thus in what way it is meaningful. Four distinct issues affect the functional nature of a particular spatial scene, based on the different ways in which such scenes can be construed (i.e. viewed ). (i) Every spatial scene is conceptualized from a particular vantage point.
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I was thinking about Black Ops 2, and i couldnt help but think about the "perfect shooter". Now, I realize that no shooter can ever be considered "perfect", however, these are my ideas for a battle-worthy first person shooter:
It would have exquisite character detail like in the Halo series. That is, your character would react to the environment (eg. walking next to a bush = the bush moves). You would also have the ability to customize your character. finally, and this is my biggest problem with most FPS games today, when you look down, YOU WOULD SEE YOUR CHARACTER'S FEET! And your character's feet would interact with the ground when necessary (eg. walking down an incline = your character's feet slant down, your character walks up an incline = your character's feet slant up).
My shooter would have the weapons, uniforms/factions, time period, and relatively clean graphics from the Call of Duty Modern Warfare series.
It would incorporate realistic and vehicular gameplay from Battlefield 3 (eg. no quickscope, compensating with sniper rifles and ACOGs, using vehicles).
Finally, my version of the perfect FPS would incorporate the team control skills from the Rainbow 6 series. Thus, the player would often create and lead a standard fireteam.
And on a sidenote, a lot of the American campaign would be played as Marines, because I love the Marines.
I am interested in hearing feedback from people regarding my ideas. I am looking into a job in the videogame designing field, and I hope to design and create an FPS like this. I would like to know if my ideas are good, and any suggestions or changes anyone has.

subset: commoncrawl


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Ultimate Frisbee player Brodie Smith hits some long distance trick shots
Also on Extra Mustard: Usain Bolt tries out foot volleyball
Professional ultimate Frisbee player Brodie Smith headed out to the desert with Subaru to show off his trick shot skills, hitting long distance targets and threading the disc through car windows.
This video is far more fun than watching someone putting a Frisbee into the trunk of a car has any right being.
-Brendan Maloy


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Anyone who operates a Pontiac knows that when it comes to maintaining their vehicle only the highest quality replacement parts will do. Pontiac car, truck, or SUV drivers have grown accustomed to a certain level of dependability when driving their Sunrunner around town. The vehicle in your driveway is head and shoulders above the rest compared to all the other vehicles these days. When your Pontiac Sunrunner rolled off the assembly line, it was destined for a driver who prioritizes an American name in their automobile.
You can't get great gas mileage and horsepower at the same time without great fuel delivery parts. The fuel injectors in your engine are responsible for spraying a precise amount of gas (or diesel) into your intake manifold so your engine has the perfect amount of air/fuel to combust. A clogged Pontiac Sunrunner fuel injector will hurt your engine's performance, and could result in other failures. When you need a replacement fuel injector for your Pontiac Sunrunner engine, don't put off getting it.
Bring your Sunrunner back to life with the highest quality repair parts from the experts at Car Parts Discount. Buying new Pontiac parts from www.carpartsdiscount.com means you are getting the best deal on the most superior original and aftermarket replacement Sunrunner parts on the internet. Given all the hassles associated with installing a part to fix your car or truck, let www.carpartsdiscount.com be the first place you go to make buying it easy. Need 1997, 1996, 1995 Pontiac Sunrunner Fuel Injector parts? We've got them right here.


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login with
Extremely Angry Toddler
Toddlers are still learning to express their emotions, so it's not uncommon for them to throw a tantrum or get irrationally upset about something small. They are also very ego-centric - toddlers think that the world revolves around them and that's a completely natural and normal ideology for them to have. That said, having an ego-centric attitude means that when things don't go their way they will get upset. They don't understand why they can't have whatever they want whenever they want it. Paired with an inability to fully express their needs or desires and you'd be frustrated too!!
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About Beth
Current: Summerville, South Carolina
Birth: September 18
On Moms.com since: Aug 18, 2013
obsessed with babywearing, cloth diapering, and breastfeeding (but not judgmental about those that aren't). I'm a SAHM that works. Loves cupcakes, kittens, and glitter; hates spiders, housework and pessimism.


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- reprise
- I. noun Etymology: Middle English, from Anglo-French, seizure, repossession, expense, from feminine past participle of reprendre to take back, from re- + prendre to take, from Latin prehendere Date: 15th century 1. a deduction or charge made yearly out of a manor or estate — usually used in plural 2. a recurrence, renewal, or resumption of an action 3. [French, from Middle French] a. a musical repetition: (1) the repetition of the exposition preceding the development (2) recapitulation 3 b. a repeated performance ; repetition II. transitive verb (reprised; reprising) Etymology: Middle English, from Middle French repris, past participle of reprendre Date: 15th century 1. archaic take back; especially to recover by force 2. archaic compensate 3. a. to repeat the performance of b. to repeat the principal points or stages of ; recapitulate
New Collegiate Dictionary. 2001.


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Although the fires that have raged in Jerusalem, Israel, are not completely out, they are under control.
Fox news reports that Benjamin Netanyahu stated "the rash of fires that has raged for five days is "not yet over" but that the focus has moved on to recovery efforts."
The Prime Minister spoke on Sunday from Haifa, the city hit hardest by the fires forcing tens of thousands of people from their homes. He promised fast track bureaucracy and start rebuilding and reimbursing victims immediately.
According to Fox news, Initial investigations point to the majority of the fires being caused by arson. Netanyahu has accused Arab attackers of being behind them."
Though no deaths were reported, dozens were hospitalized for smoke inhalation and hundreds of homes were damaged.
US Supertanker lands in Israel to assist with raging fires https://t.co/eUA0dwzRYt #IsraelNews pic.twitter.com/n0156QcrEJ
— The Jerusalem Post (@Jerusalem_Post) November 25, 2016
Netanyahu thanks Palestinian Authority for help in fighting fires https://t.co/i4ffePaXEC #BreakingNews
— The Jerusalem Post (@Jerusalem_Post) November 26, 2016
To see more stories like this, sign up below for Dennis Michael Lynch's email newsletter.
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A Color Challenge for Summer
painting by artist Karen Margulis
7 in X 5 in (17.8 cm X 12.7 cm)
This painting is available through an online store or blog page.
More Paintings by Karen Margulis
More art in Today's New Paintings
Keyword Tags
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link to us - subscribe - about - contact us - press room - login
The Daily Painters Art Gallery - www.dailypainters.com
© 2017 Daily Painters Gallery. All artwork is copyrighted by the individual artists.
Images may not be reproduced without the permission of the artist.


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Case Conclusion Date: 09.27.2013
Practice Area: Immigration
Outcome: The Court granted political asylum to Respondent.
Description: A citizen of Kyrgyzstan sought asylum based on political opinion and membership in a certain opposition party and was referred to the Immigration Court. At an individual hearing The office prepared and submitted an amended application with Real ID Act bona fide proofs for Respondent prior to an individual hearing.


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Contact UsWe welcome your questions, comments and feedback! We strive to respond to requests within 1 business day. During peak times, it may take up to 3 business days.
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Mastering SCCM 2012 SP1 training
System Center 2012 SP1 just released, and it's not a minor release. I have been working with SMS since 1996 and I haven't seen anything like this in the past. If you need training on Configuration Manager 2012 I highly recommend that you attend the correct class and it must be a class where the […]Category: Config Mgr. Training, Configuration Manager, Configuration Manager 2012, Training | 2 Comments
3 day Workshop: Mastering System Center Orchestrator 2012
My 3 days workshop for SCO have been upgraded to System Center 2012 in all products! Send an email to me if you want more info about dates in the different countries.Category: Orchestrator / Opalis, System Center Orchestrator 2012, Training | 6 Comments
Looking for Configuration Manager 2012 training
Looking for Configuration Manager 2012 training? Look no further. Our Mastering Configuration Manager 2012 class has been running with great success since May 2011. We have teamed up with some of the best training providers worldwide, which is your guarantee for a high quality learning experience in modern equipped training facilities. At the moment we […]Category: Config Mgr. Training, Configuration Manager, Tips and tricks, Training | 4 Comments


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BOCONNOC STEAM FAIR – Friday 28, Saturday 29 and Sunday 30 July 2017
The Boconnoc Steam Fair is one of the leading events of its kind in the South West. With its picturesque setting and many exhibits, it is hard to beat the relaxed atmosphere and people travel from far and wide to attend this special event.
Over the weekend there will be something for all the family, whether visitors are interested in the magnificent steam engines, the fair ground rides, the vintage cars and other steam driven machinery or the history of Boconnoc House. The main house will be open to the public. There will be plenty of delicious refreshments and the beer tent will be open until late.
In 2016 the Steam Fair presented 50 full size steam engines along with miniature steam engines, 170 tractors, motorbikes, bicycles, cars, commercial military and buses, model and craft marquees and numerous trade stands. Free trailer rides behind a puffing steam engine regularly run around the estate with trips down to the lake.
For further details on the event please visit the Liskeard Steam and Vintage Club website.
Donations received from trailer rides will go to the Cornwall Air Ambulance and donations are also made to the Liskeard Police Cadets who help throughout the event.


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Results Edit
Ulti's Analysis Edit
|Snake Division Semi Final
|Match #
|Match Date
|Thursday, July 20th, 2006
|Vote difference
|Metal Gear - 73.81%
132 for - 0 against
|Metal Gear - 82.08%
(37,919 brackets)
Solid Shit, meet Effeminate Marth. Effeminate Marth, Solid Shit. Seriously, the only character in that picture that I recognize is the generic Brigand.
This was an odd blowout in that the board vote actually gave Fire Emblem the lead for a few seconds. Metal Gear recovered quickly, but never really wowed in the match. It actually lost three percentage points throughout the day. This wasn't too big a deal given that of the four favored Final Four candidates, Metal Gear's path was the easiest, but one would assume that Metal Gear would be able to blow away something allegedly as cult as Fire Emblem.
And it's not that people doubted Fire Emblem's strength after this match so much as Silent Hill's. Looking ahead to the stats we have now, Silent Hill is 22nd. How many of the series below SH would you honestly pick SH to beat?
Sadly, that's about the only thing that can be taken from this match. Metal Gear was expected to blow Fire Emblem away, it didn't quite do that, but it didn't really matter in the slightest. It was a lock to win its next match before losing to Zelda in the Final Four either way.


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FALSE RICHES. The sunflower has been made the emblem of false wealth, because gold, however abundant, cannot of itself render a person truly rich. It is related that Pythes, a rich Lydian, the owner of several gold-mines, neglected the cultivation of his lands, which naturally became so unproductive as not to afford the necessaries of life.
- The Language of Flowers


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The area described below are examples of places in southern Western Australia where the bushfire risks to life and property are very high. Several factors contribute to the high level of risk, but the most common factor is high fuel loads. In addition to the potential impacts on landholders in these areas, failure to control undergrowth under powerlines and the buildup of litter around powerline poles, means that a wildfire would have disastrous effects on essential electrical services and infrastructure.
Currently, there are three examples shown here: The Darling Range Regional Park, overgrown roads in the Perth Hills and a perilous situation at Dunsborough.
1. Darling Range Regional Park: A Health Risk!
DEC's Naturebase website makes much of its Healthy Parks: Healthy People program. It all sounds very fine, but in reality it's just another spin job. We all know what a spin job is: the concealment of the real situation by a cloud of plausible verbiage. The regional park system is a typical example of spin. It all sounds such a good thing, but how does it square with reality?
The Darling Range Regional Park (DRRP) is supposed to provide a natural area for recreation. The DEC web site provides a lengthy list of the benefits to the community. It is also supposed to "protect biodiversity", something that is taken by the community in general as an unquestioned good thing.
People living "among the gum trees"in the Perth Hills region no doubt generally support the DRRP because it means they can depend on the bush around them staying that way, and not be developed into housing subdivisions. That's fair enough, and it's a very attractive place to live, but those same people do not have sufficient appreciation of the threat that the DRRP poses to their lives and property.
The basic problem is that DEC's focus (and to some degree that of CALM before it) has always been on acquiring the real estate to incorporate into the regional park system. Their approach has been to get the land, lock it up and leave it, in line with their fundamentalist protectionist philosophy.
The DRRP is a good example of this.Virtually nothing has been done to manage it actively. The greatest failing has been to neglect fire management requirements.
Large areas of the DRRP adjoining private land carry very heavy fuels, in the range 16-19 tonnes/ha of ground litter with frequent large patches of moribund shrub species that will flare in a wildfire. Ground litter of 8 tonnes/ha is sufficient to develop a crown fire.This ensures that if a wildfire starts under even moderately severe weather conditions, heavy property losses are inevitable. There are almost no firebreaks adjoining private land. Good examples are the bush along Ryecroft Road and at the southern end of Hardey Road in Glen Forrest.
This is along Ryecroft Road February 2009, about 80 metres from houses
While the volunteer Bush Fire Brigade has done some useful burning recently, e.g., along the Railway Heritage Trail, these areas in the DRRP are too large for them to handle. DEC is the only agency with the necessary resources, but has done virtually nothing about the problem.
Hills residents should not tolerate this situation. DEC's inaction is putting your homes and lives at risk.
* Pester the DEC office at Mundaring about the issue.
* Contact your local member of Parliament and ask him/her to pressure DEC to commence a program of annual fuel reduction burning in the DRRP that will significantly reduce the risks to householders.
* Don't accept the status quo!
This what is likely to happen in the Hills if fuels are not controlled.
2. Another Perth Hills Hot Spot
A short drive around the Hills area will show that there are many places that would be very dangerous in a severe wildfire. Quite apart from the heavy fuel loads on many private property blocks and on the scattered blocks of forest that constitute the Darling RangeRegional Park (which would support a Victorian style disaster), there are many examples of overgrown roads that would make escape from a bushfire almost impossible.
Here is just one example, below. It is Moola Road, Glen Forrest. You can see how heavy shrubbery grows right up tothe road surface, almost touching the sides of a vehicle at one point. If this was on fire, a vehicle could not escape the flames. This was a crucial issue in the 2009 Victorian fires.
The bush either side of this spot has not been burned for over 10 years. Who is responsible for maintaining the road verges in a state that would allow vehicles to escape in the event of a severe wildfire? Just now this is a death trap. It cannot be allowed to remain that way.
And there is another thing. There is a powerline situated down the right hand side of this same road in the photo. At the very least, the poles will burn down, but the wires might also be melted. Not cheap to replace, not to mention the inconvenience of cessation of power for anyone living down this road (provided they survived thefire). One might expect that Western Power would have an interest in minimising the risk of damage to their infrastructure, but do they?
Each Shire Council in the Perth Hills region needs to identify dangerous places like this and commence a program to progressively eliminate them. What they really need to do is develop a comprehensive program to remove fire hazards like this. In part it will involve periodically removing the shrubbery along roads like this to enable safe escape in the event of a fire, but mainly it will involve reducing fuel loads so that the intensity of any wildfire is low, so that it can be successfully (and safely) fought.
Since there is a jumble of private and public land in the region, the Shires need to make sure that DEC plays its part in increasing the amount of burning it does on the DRRP blocks. A coordinated program is what is required. It's up to the Shires to take the initiative. It's their ratepayers who are at risk.
3. A Dunsborough Hot Spot!
The map below shows the location of houses near the popular holiday resort (and retirement centre) of Dunsborough, Western Australia. The red squares are the houses,marked on a recent aerial photograph. That the area is heavily forested is clear from the photograph. What is not apparent from the photograph is the heavy ground fuels in the area.
It is just this sort of situation where the houses, and householders, are at grave risk in the event of a wildfire under even moderately severe weather conditions. This was tragically demonstrated in Victoria in February 2009.
In addition, it can be seen that many houses are well off roads, and a fleeing householder will have to run the gauntlet of fire along narrow access tracks – a highly dangerous thing to do.
In situations like this, landholders must take the initiative to protect themselves, by arranging cooperative fuel reduction burning programs and carry out burns on a rotational basis over the whole area. Shire Councils and FESA have a duty to support such cooperative burning programs. There is no doubt whatever, that a properly organised and maintained fuel reduction program would provide good protection for householders in this area.
The design of some roads, having dead ends, is also a dangerous factor in a wildfire. In fleeing a fire in thick smoke it would be easy to become disoriented and turn the wrong way, towards the dead end, and so become trapped by the flames.


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parleynoun [ C ]uk /ˈpɑː.li/ us /ˈpɑːr.li/ old-fashioned or humorous
› a discussion between two groups of people, especially one that is intended to end an argument
Thesaurus: synonyms and related words
(Definition of "parley" from the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary & Thesaurus © Cambridge University Press)
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lend a helping hand
to help someone


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Circle Ring
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