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Pittsylvania County Commonwealth's Attorney PO Box 1068 Chatham VA 24531 7.9 miles from Blairs 434-432-7900
Danville County Commonwealth's Attorney 341 Main St Ste 200 Danville VA 24541 8.2 miles from Blairs 434-797-1635
Caswell County District Attorney 139 East Church Street Yanceyville NC 27379 20.6 miles from Blairs 336-459-4010
Halifax County Commonwealth's Attorney PO Box 550 Halifax VA 24558 25.4 miles from Blairs 434-476-2139
Martinsville County Commonwealth's Attorney PO Box 1311 Martinsville VA 24114 26.9 miles from Blairs 276-403-5470
Henry County Commonwealth's Attorney 3160 Kings Mountain Road Martinsville VA 24112 28.5 miles from Blairs 276-634-4500
Rockingham County District Attorney PO Box 35 Wentworth NC 27375 29.4 miles from Blairs 336-634-6010
Franklin County Commonwealth's Attorney PO Box 250 Rocky Mount VA 24151 35.0 miles from Blairs 540-483-5113
Campbell County Commonwealth Aty 732 Village Highway Rustburg VA 24588 42.7 miles from Blairs 434-332-9520
Alamance County District Attorney 212 West Elm Street Graham NC 27253 43.6 miles from Blairs 336-570-5210
Bedford County Commonwealth's Attorney 123 East Main Street Bedford VA 24523 44.6 miles from Blairs 540-586-7628
Bedford County Commonwealth's Attorney 123 E Main St Ste 302 Bedford VA 24523 44.7 miles from Blairs 540-586-7628
Orange County District Attorney 144 East Margaret Lane Hillsborough NC 27278 45.9 miles from Blairs 919-644-4600
A district attorney prosecutes cases on behalf of the public. District attorneys manage the prosecutor's office and play a central role in investigating charges, deciding whether to charge someone with a crime, offering plea bargains, and litigating appeals. They also advise parole boards on inmate requests for early release.
District attorneys maintain records on current and former cases. Many of these records are available online and open to the public. This site can help you access the records you need from a district attorney.


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Maryland (November 3, 2011) A woman crashed on I-95 after leading police on a high-speed chase Thursday night. According to the Maryland State Police the chase started in Howard County when the suspect fled south on Interstate 95. The female suspect collided with another vehicle and crashed in the center median in Prince George's county, where she was placed under arrest.
The female suspect was injured in the crash and transported to the hospital for treatment.
Police have not released what started the pursuit.

subset: commoncrawl


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Commercial interiors are playing an increasingly significant role in the productivity of employees, as well as being an instant reflection on the status of the company. As companies within the commercial sector continue to prioritise employee well-being and job satisfaction, expert advice on creating a strong working environment and strong partnerships that deliver perfect interiors are more important than ever before.
We cater for all types of business, what the requirement; from industrial premises to creative office fit outs. Our comprehensive range of services includes every detail from corporate furniture systems and joinery, to flooring.
Like what you see? Contact our team today.


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Deepest green are perfect for Autumn and Winter.
Dorothy Draper collection
You can order vintage books by color via Retro Reading.
A Fortuny wrap from the 1920s. Can you believe how gorgeous this is?
I think green is a color that just makes people feel good!
Do you think you're on the green team or not? :)
(A kind of a joke because I'm on our elementary school's Green Team- and love it. - Totally different post of course!)
Images sources via my Pinterest board.


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Projects large and small were handled with one acceptable outcome: Client satisfaction.
Their short history is dotted with valuable insights. Experience underscores how important relationships are to business success. The team knows they must work hard to earn their place in the market.
And, work even harder in the mind of their clients.
As a premier service provider and commercial project vendor we are licensed, bonded, and certified in Plumbing, Gas Fitting, HVAC, and Septic Systems.


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T-Mobile One promo will give you a fourth line for free
After teasing a T-Mobile One promo yesterday, T-Mo has now fully detailed the offer. Starting today, Sept. 8, customers can sign up for a T-Mobile One family plan of four and pay $140 per month with Auto Pay. That's $20 less than it'd normally cost for a family of four on T-Mobile One, so you're getting the fourth line for free. This promo is available in T-Mobile stores, by calling 611 or 1-877-533-2533, or through … [read full article]


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$10 Off $50+: TRICKORTREAT
Keep your best looks on hand in the ggHansley Tall Shaft Boot from G by Guess.p Faux-leather upper in a tall shaft boot style with a round toe Side zipper entry with stretch calf for a flexible, custom fit Wraparound buckle straps for added interest Soft lining with comfort footbed Durable rubber traction outsole 1 inch heel /
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A towering silhouette and dramatic height pair with a peep-toe for a sensational accent to skirts and leggings in these Disk over-the-knee boots from G by Guess. (Clearance)


text: 17. Ann Perkins and Leslie Knope on Parks and RecreationPlayed by: Rashida Jones and Amy PoehlerNov. 4–5, 2017 in Long Beach, CAExclusive drops, one-of-a-kind art, andriveting panels featuring André 3000A$AP Ferg · Don C · Lonzo Ball and morePerformances by N*E*R*D · Gucci ManeYoung Thug · M.I.A. · A-TRAKDJ Khaled · Jaden Smith and moreComplexCon.comPrevious SlideNext SlideWatch NowTags: Lists, Girls, Pretty Little Liars, Shay Mitchell


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|Character Design
|Series Story
|Episode Story
|Unevaluated 4
(One episode watched):
The mention of the BETA and illustrations of them in the introduction rang a bell in my head, and today I tracked down the show that Schwarzesmarken is a prequel of: the 2012 Muv-Luv Alternative. The author of both series seems to enjoy playing with Cold War tensions, whether it be in Alaska in Muv-Luv or eastern Europe here. But, as a person with a fair knowledge of history, both series strike me as ones that don't go into much detail. Words like 'Stasi' (the East German secret police) are just used as eye candy for another mecha series with cute girls serving as pilots, and apparently the words alone are supposed to shock and enthrall us. If you're going to set the story in East Germany, at least teach us a few things we didn't already know about the place. Even the execution scene at the end wasn't all that infuriating or shocking, since the show clearly isn't taking it's subject all that seriously. I recall from Muv-Luv that it was often unclear whether the main premise of the show was the war against the BETA or suspicion and spying among enemies who have been forced to cooperate by an extraterrestrial threat. During episode one of Schwarzesmarken I often found myself composing lines of my own that I would have had the characters speak if I had somehow been the director ("The first thing you need to learn here is to keep your mouth shut. Talking will only get you in trouble'). What's more, I was left confused at the end of episode one. Is this girl that Eberbach has found really his sister, brainwashed so that she doesn't remember him? Or does she just look so much like his sister that he experiences deja vu? Even the lengthy battles against the aliens weren't all that exciting. This show just strikes me as shallow and overblown. I thought about watching some more, but ultimately did not.
Last updated Wednesday, February 15 2017. Created Wednesday, January 13 2016.


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There are many potential ways to communicate the results of a wildfire hazard assessment with members of your community. For example, simply mailing the results to homeowners, along with general information on reducing wildfire hazards, may suffice in some communities. In others, creating targeted suggestions for specific homeowners may be more desirable.
One particularly good approach for some communities is the use of web-based maps. The web-based map approach is an easy way for community leaders and homeowners to identify particular areas of concern.
There are two main components to this type of approach:
- A "report card" that summarizes the hazard assessment results for each parcel, and
- A web-based mapping application (webGIS) interface that allows users to explore both their report card and the results of the assessment throughout their community. WebGIS is particularly useful in this context because it readily portrays the spatial configuration of hazards in a community.
This type of webGIS system can also be created using ESRI's ArcIMS product and many types of open source tools, though this type of effort would require specialized knowledge by a trained technician.


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Event Archive - ALBUM RELEASE PARTY FOR PICK UP STICKS, They Shoot Horses, Don't They?, Hank Pine & Lily Fawn, The Doers
Fri. May 18th 2007 @ The Lamplighter (No Minors)
Presented by: kyle and khol
CD RELEASE PARTY ACTION FOR "Pick Up Sticks"
ReviewsNo articles have been linked to this profile
They Shoot Horses, Don't They?
There is nuffin we won't do. We dun dunnit an' We be doin' it sum more! We be pleased and pleasured to be pleasin' and pleasurin' y'all. Just give us da opportunidad. more info
Hank Pine & Lily Fawn (A bit of everything. Interactive Live shows!)
Hank Pine & Lily Fawn are a DUET based upon a comic book. New Album - Crank City comes with comic book Electro Pop / Disco / Rock / Hip Hop / Rockabilly more info
The Doers (Other)
Acoustic protest-jingle trio more info[Upload Show Photos] // [Add Video] // [Add Review] // [Upload Poster]


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Pork Shank With Star Anise
Star Anise Brine
Tom Schierlitz for The New York Times. Food stylist: Brian Preston-Campbell. Prop stylist: Bettina Budewig.
- 1 cup kosher salt
- 1 cup packed brown sugar
- 2 pods star anise
- 4 bay leaves
Nutritional Information
Note: The information shown is Edamam's estimate based on available ingredients and preparation. It should not be considered a substitute for a professional nutritionist's advice.
Nutritional analysis per serving (4 servings)214 calories; 0 grams fat; 0 grams saturated fat; 0 grams monounsaturated fat; 0 grams polyunsaturated fat; 54 grams carbohydrates; 0 grams dietary fiber; 53 grams sugars; 0 grams protein; 131 milligrams sodium
- In a large pot set over high heat, combine 1 gallon of water and the rest of the ingredients and stir to combine. Heat until the sugar and salt are dissolved, then remove from stove.
- Let cool completely and refrigerate until needed.


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FICTION, GENERAL* Author: DARRYL PONICSAN Title: CINDERELLA LIBERTY Product ID: 023568
ISBN: Binding: Hard CoverEdition: First EditionPublisher: HARPER AND ROW PUBLISHERSPlace of Publication: New York, New York, U.S.A.Date Published: 1972Signature: Book Condition: Very Good-Jacket Condition: GoodBook Size:
Type: Ex-Library All orders shipped media mail the following working day..179 PAGES.
Keywords: GENERAL FICTION
We offer a exchange or refund policy if the item you purchased does not meet your expectations in any way. Please return within 7 Days.


text:
|Publication number
|Publication type
|Application number
|Publication date
|Nov 21, 1995
|Filing date
|Dec 30, 1993
|Priority date
|Dec 30, 1993
|Fee status
|Publication number
|Christine A. Shoemaker, Gregory J. Whiffen
|Original Assignee
|Cornell Research Foundation, Inc.
|Export Citation
|BiBTeX, EndNote, RefMan
|Patent Citations (5), Referenced by (41), Classifications (12), Legal Events (4)
|External Links: USPTO, USPTO Assignment, Espacenet
The research for this invention was funded in part by a grant from the National Science Foundation (ASC 8915326) to Christine A. Shoemaker. Primary support for Gregory J. Whiffen was in the form of a fellowship award by the Department of Energy Computational Science Graduate Fellowship Program. The U.S. government has certain rights in this invention.
The present invention pertains to a method of groundwater remediation and, more particularly, to a groundwater remediation method utilizing differential dynamic programming (DDP) for computing optimal, time-varying pumping policies.
In every state of this country and throughout the world, underground aquifers and other subterranean groundwaters have been contaminated. The procedures utilized to clean up these water resources are expensive; hence, it has become necessary to optimize the methods by which these natural resources can be made purer.
The current invention entails a method of pumping the contaminants out of the underground waters. The method has developed an optimized procedure that performs well, even when substantial uncertainty exists regarding aquifer characteristics.
The invention uses a "weighted feedback" law that adjusts pumping rates of extraction wells, when the observed values of hydraulic head and pollution concentration deviate from the predicted values over time.
Several approaches have been proposed in the prior art to preserve the value of optimization analysis, when there is significant error in the aquifer model, i.e., changes over time. One such method21 is a chance-constrained technique for finding constant pumping policies to remediate contaminated aquifers. The method used the inverse problem via nonlinear multiple regression to obtain parameter estimates and to estimate the covariance matrix for the uncertain flow and transport parameters. These values were used in a chance-constrained algorithm, using first-order first- and second-moment analysis to obtain an optimal strategy with an estimate of the probability that the aquifer will be cleaned. This method does not allow for the use of new information obtained during the remediation to alter the policy. The policy is completely determined before the remediation even begins.
Another method20 presents a neural network technique for identifying the most pessimistic or constrained realizations of hydraulic conductivity values in a set generated randomly for use in a chance-constrained optimization. The procedure employs hydraulic gradient control strategies for contaminant capture. This method is tested to identify pessimistic realizations for a linear programming optimization model of gradient control for a two-dimensional aquifer. This approach can allow large sets of conductivity realizations to be used in chance-constrained methods, because nonconstraining conductivity realizations can be screened before the optimization in order to reduce computational complexity.
This neural network screening method19 has further been applied to a mixed integer chance-constrained programming model for hydraulic gradient control. For this newer technique, it is crucial to reduce the number of constraints corresponding to conductivity realizations, because the computational effort needed to solve the problem grows geometrically with the number of constraints.
Another proposed method4 reduces parameter uncertainty as a function of future measurements, remediating the contaminated aquifer in a cost-effective manner. The optimization problem is resolved each time new parameter estimates are obtained. This method is compared to an unweighted feedback law generated by differential dynamic programming, neglecting second derivatives of the transition function and using the active constraint method. The method has been tested on a 20-node, one-dimensional aquifer. It does not incorporate inequality constraints. This method has been applied to a two-dimensional aquifer; the approach has been extended to include more general constraints. A feedback law using the penalty function method or second-derivative information from the transition equation has not been used, however, with this technique.
A further method22 uses what is called a stochastic programming technique, with recourse to calculate optimal steady-state pumping policies for gradient contaminant containment. The cost of plume escape or recourse cost is included in this objective. Four model formulations were solved, using a linear finite difference approximation for the steady-state flow equations. The stochastic programming approach finds the least-cost policy constrained to contain the modeled pollution plume, using both the best-guess parameter values and a specified set of different realizations of the uncertain parameters. Violation of the containment constraints is possible, if recourse costs are included. Recourse costs are the costs associated with the escape of the plume from the containment region; they include fines and the costs associated with drilling new wells. Policies calculated by these methods will satisfy the containment constraint over a wide range of conditions (typically, by pumping a great deal).
The inventive method herein represents a different approach to incorporating uncertainty than has been utilized in most earlier approaches. The feedback procedure developed by the current inventors uses input probability distributions for uncertain parameters in a different way than do way other, former approaches. Frequently, information is inadequate to reliably determine probability distributions. Feedback laws can be tested using a range of probability distributions. In particular, feedback laws can be developed and tested without the assumption that the analyst can assign relative probabilities to each set of randomly generated parameters. This property allows the analyst to develop feedback policies which are robust, with respect to assumed probability distributions used to characterize model uncertainty and error.
Another way to view this property is to recognize that feedback policies developed by the weighted feedback approach are more sensitive to measurements taken during the remediation than they are to assumed distributions. This relieves the analyst of the task of producing an "accurate" probability distribution.
Unlike some earlier approaches, the inventive feedback policies use information during the remediation as it becomes available; the policies are not assumed to be completely determined before the remediation begins (as in earlier methods21).
Unlike the foregoing procedure4 that reduces parameter uncertainty as a function of future measurements, the invention takes into account feedback laws generated by the penalty function method, coupled with differential dynamic programming as the basis of a nonlinear feedback law. Feedback laws generated in this way are sensitive to all constraints.
In accordance with the present invention, there is provided a differential dynamic programming (DDP) method for computing optimal, time-varying pumping policies utilized in groundwater remediation. The strategy for treating the groundwater uses a feedback law generated by a constrained differential dynamic programming algorithm having penalty functions. The method has been tested in cases where there is uncertainty in the hydraulic conductivity. Confined transient aquifer flow and transport were modeled, using a two-dimensional Galerkin finite element scheme with implicit time differencing. Optimal policies were calculated using a given or "measured" set of hydraulic conductivities and initial conditions. The optimal policies were applied using the same finite element model with a second, or "true" set of conductivities. The "true" sets of conductivities were generated randomly from an autocorrelated lognormal distribution by the spectral method. The approach used had an advantage over other uncertainty approaches, because it was not necessary to specify precisely which parameters were considered uncertain and which were certain. The method did not require any single probability distribution for each uncertain parameter. The relative weight assigned each penalty function was adjusted, which resulted in obtaining robust feedback laws that performed equally well under different, assumed error distributions. The water remediation method of this invention resulted in a cost savings within the approximate range of between 4% and 51% less than the cost of applying the calculated optimal policies without using a feedback law.
The pump-and-treat method of this invention can be summarized as follows. First, based on the measured or inferred pollution distribution and the flow characteristics of the site, well locations are chosen for withdrawal. Secondly contaminated water is withdrawn until adsorbed, and dissolved pollutant concentrations reach some pre-assigned, safe level. Thirdly, while withdrawing the water, the withdrawn water is treated and discharged to the surface water.
A complete understanding of the present invention may be obtained by reference to the accompanying drawings, when considered in conjunction with the subsequent detailed description, in which:
FIG. 1 illustrates an extraction well system that is remediated in accordance with the invention; it is displayed upon a mesh (grid) diagram;
FIG. 2 depicts a three-dimensional graph of a pollution concentration distribution;
FIG. 3 shows a graph of average performance for eleven remediation policies (feedback laws) with respect to nine combinations of conductivity bias and standard deviation; and
FIG. 4 illustrates a graph depicting performance of the eleven remediation policies shown in FIG. 3 (for the 10% bias, 25% standard deviation case).
Generally speaking, groundwater contamination is recognized as a widespread and serious threat to drinking water sources in this and many other countries. Contaminated aquifers have been identified in every state of the United States. The rate of discovery of new, polluted sites is increasing16. It is estimated that between 1% and 2% of all usable, near-surface groundwater in the United States is contaminated by point sources alone. The cost of a single remediation can range from several thousand to over a billion dollars.
The prevalence of groundwater contamination and the high costs associated with remediation by pump-and-treat methods have led many researchers to use a variety of remediation strategies. More recently, optimization methods have been utilized as a means to cut costs. Linear, nonlinear and neural network optimization techniques are quite common2,10,19. One combinatorial remediation optimization problem has been solved by using simulated annealing8,10.
Transport models for groundwater are nonlinear in nature; therefore, nonlinear optimization methods offer a more accurate tool, when computationally practical.
Nonlinear optimization methods rely upon associated predictions of their flow and transport. Accurate modeling of any aquifer can be very difficult or impossible; therefore, calculations attempting to optimize clean-up procedures that are based on deterministic models of flow and transport will not, in fact, be optimal for real aquifer systems. There is concern that such optimization analyses may fail to meet clean-up goals.
The optimization method of this invention is a continuation of previous analyses performed at Cornell University on deterministic groundwater remediation5.
The method comprises techniques for computing time-varying, optimal pumping policies, using a modified version of the optimal control algorithm differential dynamic programming6. The method described herein can be used in conjunction with the management period and the quasi-Newton approach. The technique of management periods is one in which the user chooses the number of finite element time steps to incorporate into each "management" period of the optimization. This approach reduces the computational requirements and generates pumping policies that are more practical to implement, because the pumping rates are not allowed to change too frequently. Quasi-Newton approximated second derivatives of the transition function can be used to reduce the number of iterations required for convergence and to calculate the overall computation time.
Prior art includes the use of unweighted feedback for constrained optimal control problems11. The current invention, however, has developed a new, weighted feedback approach for constrained optimal control problems. The new procedure adjusts penalty function weights to obtain a robust feedback policy for constrained optimal control problems.
Feedback policies respond to uncertainty by modifying the pumping policy in each time period, based upon the measurements of groundwater heads and pollution concentrations at the start of the same time period. Feedback policies typically consist of two parts. First, in the pump-and-treat case, there is a specified, optimal pumping schedule based on the best-estimate parameter values used with the flow and transport simulation model. Second, a feedback law is specified that will indicate how the optimal pumping policy should be altered, in the event that, during remediation, the observed state of the system differs from the predicted state thereof. In this sense, feedback laws can respond to all types of modeling errors, without requiring the specification of which parameters are to be considered uncertain.
Feedback laws differ from inverse modeling updates, in that no improved set of parameters is generated for remodeling the system. Feedback laws directly respond to the observed deviations by changing pumping rates. For example, if a certain region seems to have both a higher-than-predicted pollution concentration level and hydraulic head after a portion of the remediation, then a feedback law may respond to this information by increasing the pumping rate or shifting the pumping rates spatially among active wells. Feedback can be combined with inverse methods, as well as with reoptimization.
The feedback laws considered in this invention respond to model error by changing the pumping schedule during the remediation, whenever observed measurements of hydraulic head or pollution concentration conflict with the model predictions. Differential dynamic programming generates a feedback law, whereas nonlinear programming algorithms do not. For systems with nonlinear transition equations (such as contaminant transport), coupled with parameter uncertainty, there is no guarantee that the differential dynamic programming feedback law is optimal. However, the numerical results obtained by this invention indicate that the algorithm can be used to produce weighted feedback laws which outperform policies without feedback, under a range of uncertainty conditions.
Optimal time-varying pumping rates for the deterministic problem can be computed by an optimization method. In the numerical example given here, a modification of the DDP algorithm was used. In order to distinguish this algorithm from the true DDP algorithm, the prior method upon which this invention is based used the term "successive approximation linearized dynamics quadratic regulator" or SALQR, to define the modified DDP algorithm. This modified DDP algorithm neglects second derivatives of the transition function "T" but still uses a quadratic approximation to the objective (regulator) function, when calculating a new search direction.
Once optimal, time-varying pumping rates for the deterministic case are found, DDP is used with the second derivatives of the transition function and the penalty function method for constraints to generate feedback laws.
A method4,12 of the prior art uses a feedback law that is based on SALQR (i.e., it sets second derivatives of the transition equation equal to zero) and the active set (rather than a penalty function) technique for constraints. (The use of deterministic feedback has not been a major focus of this method, and nonlinear feedback has not otherwise been discussed in the groundwater contamination literature.)
The invention demonstrates the advantage of complete second derivative information for the formulation of linear feedback laws. The method also modifies the penalty function-DDP-generated, weighted feedback laws to ensure that all control or pumping constraints are met at each time step during the application of the feedback law.
The introduction of penalty functions to convert the groundwater remediation-constrained optimal control problem to an unconstrained optimal control problem allows flexibility in designing the response of feedback laws to violations in constraints. For instance, heavily weighting a penalty function will cause the feedback law generated by DDP to react strongly to any information that the constraint corresponding to this penalty function will be violated. In the pump-and-treat case, feedback may greatly increase the pumping rates near an observation well, whenever the pollution concentrations of the extracted water therefrom exceed the predicted concentrations by the flow and transport model in use.
Another advantage to using the feedback approach is efficiency. Rather than simply generating robust, open-loop policies which work well under a wide variety of conditions, feedback laws respond to site data on heads and pollutant concentrations as they become available. Feedback laws can take advantage of situations where the real aquifer can be cleaned with less effort than that predicted.
The pump-and-treat method of this invention can be summarized as follows:
First, based on the measured or inferred pollution distribution and the flow characteristics of the site, well locations are chosen for withdrawal.
Second, contaminated water is withdrawn until adsorbed, and dissolved pollutant concentrations reach some preassigned, safe level.
Third, while withdrawing the water, the withdrawn water is treated and discharged to the surface water.
Design variables that can be optimized include well location; pumping rates as a function of time; and treatment facility flow rate capacity. Typical design constraints include a maximum allowable total extraction rate to reflect limitations in treatment facility capacity, safe drinking standards, and limitations on individual pumping rates to avoid pumping wells dry. Costs include treatment costs, energy costs to run the pumps and the maintenance of the systems. The cost (or one index thereof) is minimized, subject to the constraint that the aquifer contamination meet specified tolerances by the end of the remediation.
Optimal policies were calculated using SALQR to solve the following constrained optimal control problem: ##EQU1## where: xt is a state vector of dimension n containing the head and concentration at each active node of the finite element mesh at time step t,
Ut is a control vector of dimension m containing the pumping rates at each potential remediation well at time t, and
gt (xt, ut.sub.) is the cost incurred at time t due to state xt and control ut. The total number of decision time periods is N.
The cost function can be any nonlinear, twice-differentiable function of xt and ut. The minimization is constrained by the finite element model's prediction of the state of the aquifer at a future time step, given the control and state at the current time step:
xt+1 =Tt (xt, ut ) t=(1, 2, . . . , N-1) (2)
where: the function T is composed of matrices generated by the finite element model for each time step t. The initial state of the aquifer before any remediation is as follows:
xt=1 =x0. (3)
Further constraints were added to ensure that only extraction is allowed at each withdrawal site (this is optional); to ensure that total pumping at each time step does not exceed waste removal treatment capacity Umax, and to ensure that a water quality standard Cstandard is met at all observation wells by the final time step, t=N:
Extraction only
llt ≦0t=(1, 2, . . . , N) (4)
Treatment capacity ##EQU2## Drinking standard
c(xt=N)≦Cstandard t=N (6)
The function c(xt=N) returns the concentrations at each observation well at the final time step, N. The constrained optimal control problem, (1)-(6), can be approximated by an unconstrained optimal control problem by introducing a penalty function into the objective function, ##EQU3## where: Yj l is the penalty assessed for a violation of constraint j in time step t, (rt) is the set of constraints from (4)-(6) that are in effect at time step t, and wj is the weighting or strength assigned to the jth constraint. The penalty functions, Yj, in (7) do not approximate physical or economic penalties for constraint violation. In this equation, they are introduced as a numerical construct to solve the original constrained optimal control problem, (1)-(6). The solution of the constrained problem, (1)-(6), can be obtained to arbitrary precision by solving the penalty function formulation, (7)-(9), by letting wj become arbitrarily large as the algorithm converges. In practice, wj is increased, and the problem is re-solved until there is no numerically significant change in the optimal policy with increasing wj. Constraint violations are typically made to be less than 0.001% Solution of (7), (8) and (9) using SALQR requires first and second derivatives of g and Y, and first derivatives of T with respect to the control variables ut and the state variables Xt.
The form of the penalty function used in the numerical examples is the same as in the previous method5 upon which this invention is based:
Yj (fj (xt,ut), wj)=ξj ξj ≧ξ0 Yj (fj (xt, ut), wj)=α(ξj)"+b(ξj)'"+c ξj ≧ξ0 (10)
ξj =(wj 2 fj 2 +εj 2)1/2 +wj fj. (11)
The parameter εj is a shape parameter of the hyperbolic function ξj. The function fj (xt, ut) is the jth constraint of the constraint vector where the constraints (4)-(6) are written in the form fj (xt, ut)≦0. Hence, fj (xt, ut) is the right-hand side of each constraint equation, (4)-(6), minus the left-hand side, where j ranges over all constraints to be enforced at time t.
The constants a, b and c are chosen so that Yj, δYj /δξj and δ2 Yj /δξj 2 are continuous at ξj =ξ0. In particular, the values ξ0 1, n=2, and m=1/2 were used, which leads to a=1/3, b=4/3, and c=-2/3.
The cost function gt (xt, ut) used in the numerical examples is also the same as that used in the prior method5,6 : ##EQU4## for constants a1 and a2. In (12), the first term on the right-hand side represents water treatment cost, and the second term reflects the pumping cost. The operation cost at each well is assumed to be the product of the extraction rates ut and the lift (h*=l -ht+1,i). The summations in (12) are over the set of all possible pumping sites Ω. It is important to note that many other forms of the objective function and penalty function can be used. All that is required of the cost function gt, and the penalty functions, Yj l, is that they are each twice continuously differentiable in both xt and ut. The values of a1 and a2 were chosen to be 10.0 and 1.0, respectively. These are hypothetical values to demonstrate the technique.
Once optimal policies are established for estimated parameter values, feedback laws can be generated using the optimal solution. Unlike nonlinear programming, DDP generates a feedback law during each iteration and uses this feedback law to establish an improved policy. The feedback law generated by DDP will always result in the optimal policy when applied, if the system dynamics are linear and the objective to be minimized is quadratic in x and u11. The form of the feedback law generated by DDP (see Appendix A) is:
llt act -ut =δllt,=βt δxt +αt. (13)
The term ut act is the policy that is implemented under feedback and ut is the optimal policy. The term δxt =xt -xt is the vector difference between the current observed state xt, after applying (13) from time step 1 to t-1, and the predicted state xt. The term βt is an m x n matrix and αt is an m vector, both of which are functions of the first and second derivatives of Tt', gt', and yt' with respect to xt, and ut, where t' ε{t, t+1, . . . , N). For a detailed description of the DDP-SALQR algorithm, including the calculation of βt and αt appearing in (13), see Appendix A. Motivation and derivation of βt and αt can be found in the literature11,23.
If we apply the optimal policy and a corresponding feedback law to a deterministic simulation, based on the same parameters as used to generate the optimal policy, then we expect any reasonable feedback law will not alter the optimal policy (i.e., ut =ut, t). In other words, the feedback law (13) should not alter the optimal policy when there is no error in the prediction of the system, δxt =0. This is the reason that any feedback law produced near an optimal deterministic solution by DDP will have a negligible αt. When the DDP algorithm converges to a solution, the vectors αt in (13), which are proportional to the gradient, vanish. Thus, the form of DDP feedback applied when there is uncertainty is δut =βt δxt with no constant term αt.
When T is represented by an implicit time-finite element model, the degradation in the improvement per iteration of SALQR, compared to DDP, is more than made up for in the savings achieved by not calculating the second derivatives of the finite element model (an 0(n4) calculation, where n is the number of finite element nodes). The discovery of this is found in the prior art5. It is for this reason that SALQR was used to find the optimal policies for the numerical example.
However, it is reasonable to compute feedback laws using the full, second-order formulation of DDP (without approximation) for the generation of βt, once an optimal policy is known, even if the iterative process used to calculate the optimal policy uses only first derivatives of the transition in the manner of SALQR or quasi-Newton approximations. Although the calculation of second derivatives of an implicit time-finite element model is expensive, these derivatives need only be calculated once for the generation of a feedback law, unlike the iterative PG,30 process which DDP requires to find an optimal policy in the first place. Theoretically, feedback laws generated using the full, second-derivative formulation should be more effective, because they incorporate more complete information about the system dynamics described by the transition function. In fact, second-order information is just as necessary in the formulation of a linear feedback law as is first-order information. The curvatures of the transition function T, the objective g, and the penalty functions Y are necessary to define the linear coefficient matrices βt. We would expect that feedback laws that incorporate the second-order curvature of the transition equation, T (which describes the groundwater physics and chemistry) will perform better. This has been demonstrated in our numerical results.
The matrix βt and the vector αt in the feedback law (13) depend on the penalty functions Yi and the weights wi as described in detail in Appendix A, (19)-(27). Hence, the feedback law generated here differs from feedback laws generated using SALQR and the prior active constraint method4,12. Feedback laws generated by the active constraint set method coupled to DDP are not sensitive to constraints other than those which are "active" or constraining at the optimal solution. Hence, active set feedback laws will not work to prevent violation of inactive constraints, given system uncertainty. The numerical results of this invention indicate that inactive constraints are often violated by a linear DDP feedback law, when there is significant model set method coupled to DDP are not sensitive to constraints error (see the unmodified feedback columns of Table 2 below), which supports the use of penalty methods, rather than active set methods. By varying penalty functions, weights, and modifying the final form of the feedback law, it is possible to produce "weighted" feedback laws that will likely avoid constraint violations.
Four issues must be addressed whenever weighted feedback analysis is applied. First, it must be understood that the influence of weights on feedback laws affects the selection of candidate weights. Second, a criterion must be established to compare the performance of feedback laws. Third, measurement error and uncertainty must be modeled for feedback testing. Fourth, a modification must be made to DDP feedback to ensure that all control (pumping) constraints are satisfied. These issues are addressed hereinbelow.
A family of weighted feedback laws can be generated by set method coupled to DDP are not sensitive to constraints changing the constraint weightings wj appearing in (7), and using one iteration of the DDP algorithm starting with an set method coupled to DDP are not sensitive to constraints optimal policy to calculate the resulting βt. The matrices set method coupled to DDP are not sensitive to constraints βt along with the optimal policy constitute feedback policy (13), which can be used in cases where there is uncertainty in the validity of the flow and transport model.
Adjustment of the weightings wi has a simple, intuitive meaning with respect to the feedback laws generated. As an example, suppose it is very important that a particular water quality constraint be satisfied in the last time step. If a feedback law is generated using a large weight wj on that constraint, then the feedback law will react strongly to any observed information during the remediation which it considers threatening to the satisfaction of the water quality constraint. Typically, the change in the policy, δu in (13), will be an increase in the pumping rates and/or a shifting of pumping to the offending region.
In general, the selection of a performance criterion for comparing feedback laws will help dictate the appropriate simplifications that should be made when searching the weighting parameter space. For example, if it is particularly important that certain individual constraints are satisfied (such as one particular observation well must satisfy the drinking standard with very high probability), then the weighting associated with this constraint should be explored individually.
Once a criterion is established for performance, feedback laws can be tested using simulations based on parameters and boundary conditions with the range of errors anticipated for the site in question. A systematic exploration of the weighting parameter space wj can be carried out to find feedback policies which perform well. Unlike some stochastic programming optimization methods, the computational effort grows only linearly with the number of realizations used to test the feedback policy.
For the inventive method, a comparison of performance based on a single performance index is utilized. A performance index for the groundwater remediation problem should depend strongly on any violation of the drinking standard constraint, (6); it should also reflect the operating cost of the feedback policy. For these reasons the unconstrained objective function, ##EQU5## (where wj was chosen and is the same for all comparisons) was used for our performance index. The penalty functions in (14) are used to compare feedback laws. In practice, the fixed weights, wj, can be defined to reflect the regulatory environment or to approximate economic penalties. The index P will be large when there is a violation in any of the constraints, (4)-(6), due to the penalty functions Yj. In particular, any violation in the drinking standard will result in a high index value. Violation of the constraints on the control variables (4) and (5) by the feedback policy can be avoided by modifying the feedback policy as discussed below. It is important to note that, for the methodology described, many other more complex indices or criteria can be used. The index need not be smooth or differentiable.
Model uncertainty can be modeled by generating sets of parameters with random values, so that the random fields exhibit the range of statistical error and systematic error one might encounter at the design site. The performance of different feedback laws can be judged, based on a direct comparison of the average and variance of the performance index.
Two types of errors are considered in the numerical analysis. First considered is the overall systematic error or "bias" such as underestimating or overestimating the conductivity on average. The second consideration is the magnitude of the individual scatter of measured or inferred values at each node of the computational mesh. The magnitude of the scatter, or the "variance", is defined as the variance of the field after subtracting the bias. Variance error represents both undetected spatial variability (uncertainty) and measurement scatter.
Uncertainty was modeled in the numerical example of this invention by generating 90 nonbiased, inhomogeneous isotropic conductivity fields from a lognormal distribution using the spectral method15. A prior art program9 was used to generate the fields. The correlation structure of the field is of the form:
.sub.ρx (l)=e-k|k| (15)
where: X is normally distributed and defined by
X=log10 K, (16)
where: K is the conductivity field. The correlation distance, 1c =1/k, or the distance over which conductivity values are appreciably correlated, was chosen to be 750 m (see FIG. 1).
Thirty fields, out of ninety fields with the same mean, were generated to represent a measurement error and/or uncertainty with standard deviation of five percent (5%) of the field mean. The thirty fields represent a standard deviation of ten percent (10%), and the remaining thirty fields represent a standard deviation of twenty-five percent (25%). Spatial variability is usually much greater than twenty-five percent (25%). For instance, a prior art report1 presented vertically averaged hydraulic conductivities for the stratified drift aquifers of Connecticut with standard deviations ranging from 89 to 262 feet/d (27.1 to 79.7 m/d), and means from 99 to 244 feet/d (30.2 to 74.4 m/d). These values correspond to normalized deviations ranging from 80% to 140%. However, a value of 25% may be reasonable, with the interpretation that it represents not the whole of the existing spatial variability, but, rather, just the difference between the estimated and actual values. Thus, for the numerical example, consider the spatial variability has been characterized to a precision such that errors are roughly bounded by 25%. It is assumed that all measured spatial variability is used in the calculation of the optimal policy and feedback laws The task of developing feedback laws, given much larger measurement error and uncertainty, must be left for future research.
Three optimal policies were calculated, using homogeneous conductivity fields which represent: (b 1) an overall 10% negative bias or underestimation of the conductivity on average, (2) no bias (which is equivalent to achieving a very good estimate of the average conductivity over the whole modeled region), and (3) an overall 10% positive bias or overestimation of the conductivity values on average. It is assumed for simplicity that measurements indicate homogeneity; it is not necessary to make this assumption for the method. The three sets of thirty conductivity fields in conjunction with the three optimal policies result in nine (3�3=9) different statistical conditions. The nine different statistical conditions of the simulated error, each with effectively thirty (30) realizations, result in a total of 270 combinations. Control Constraints and the Application of Feedback
When model errors are large, it is expected that the difference δxt between the predicted state of the system xt, and the observed state thereof after application of feedback xt will be large. Since the feedback law (13) is based on a quadratic approximation around xt, the constraints (4), (5) and (6) may be violated in the implementation.
Violation of the control or pumping constraints, (4) and (5), within a time step can be avoided entirely at each step by truncating and/or scaling the feedback policy, ut act, after it is calculated from (13) and before it is applied to the groundwater system or simulation model. Any of a number of schemes will likely be possible for each set of control constraints. It should be pointed out that direct enforcement of state constraints, such as the concentration constraint (6), is not possible.
For our example, the following truncation and scaling was used to ensure that the feedback pumping policy for time step t, ut, satisfies both the extraction-only constraint, ut ≦0, and the treatment capacity constraint, -Σwells i ut (i)≦Umax (equation (5)). First calculate ##EQU6## Next, γ=min (γ, 1) is the factor by which each extracting well rate needs to be scaled to ensure that the treatment capacity, Umax, is not exceeded. Thus, to ensure that both the treatment and extraction-only constraints are satisfied, choose:
ut =γmin (β, δxt +ut, 0) (18)
Equations (17) and (18) represent a simple, commonsense approach that would be used in any field implementation: Do not pump outside capacity ranges for the pumps or the treatment plant, yet use the relative ratios of the pumping rates prescribed by the feedback law. Equations (13), (17) and (18) define the nonlinear feedback law that is tested herein.
The feedback law method described was tested on an aquifer modeled by a finite element mesh with 77 nodes and 66 elements covering an area of 900 m by 1500 m. The boundary conditions create a net flow from west to east in FIG. 1 of the computational mesh. All nonconductivity parameter values used for the flow and transport model are the same as those previously adopted5. A table indicating parameter values for the simulations is given in Appendix B. The optimization was allowed to consider 18 possible pumping sites, indicated by open diamonds on the computational mesh in FIG. 1. The optimizations were constrained to require that a water quality standard of 0.5 μg/L be achieved at 13 water quality monitoring wells, indicated by solid squares, by the end of the 5-year remediation horizon. Treatment facility maximum flow rate, Umax, was chosen to be 0.04 m3 /s. In all cases, an initial pollution plume was used, with a peak pollution concentration of 40 μg/L representing a diffused point source release.
Referring to FIG. 2, a graph is illustrated of the initial pollution distribution at time zero. The optimization of pumping rates was allowed to consider changing the pumping rate at each well every three months or twenty times over the entire five-year remediation. The solved problem has a total of three hundred-sixty (18�20=360) control or decision variables. The optimization method used herein can solve even larger problems, such as ones involving fifteen or more years5.
TABLE 1______________________________________Average Performance (P) and Standard Deviation of thePerformance (σp) when no Feedback is UsedUncertainty: ConductivityMeasurement Standard PerformanceDeviation Without Feedback______________________________________ 5% 44.5 (3.90)10% 52.6 (11.9)25% 88.0 (40.0)______________________________________
Also, the duration of time that is desirable to keep the pumping rates fixed can be adjusted to meet mechanical constraints6. The optimizations were constrained to consider only extraction wells.
Three optimal policies for the deterministic remediation problem (b 1)-(6) were calculated, based on three homogeneous conductivity fields with conductivities of 0.90, 1.00, and 1.10 times 4.31�10-4 m/s. The first field represents a 10% underestimation of the conductivity on average, or a -10% bias. The second field represents using the true average conductivity, or no bias. The third field represents a 10% overestimation of the conductivity on average, or a +10% bias. All three policies use only four of the 18 possible wells. Although fixed costs are not considered in the objective function, there were no low-flow or "trickle" wells selected by the optimization.
The deterministic optimal policy corresponding to no bias was applied without feedback to each of the 30 realizations with a 5%, 10%, and 25% standard deviation scatter. The average of the performance index and its standard deviation over each set of 30 aquifer realizations are presented in Table 1. All values for the performance index in Table 1, and all other tables, are calculated using the same set of weights, i.e., wj =wj. Table 1 indicates that, as expected, the average performance of the deterministic nonfeedback policies is higher (worse) as the uncertainty increases.
Table 2 presents the average performance of two feedback laws modified by (17) and (18) and unmodified as a function of the magnitude of the uncertainty, and compares them to the performance when no feedback is used. In this case, the weighting parameters used by both the SALQR and DDP algorithms, wj, are chosen to be the same as those which define the performance index: wj =wj (see (14)). Table 2 below presents the results when a bias of -10% is present in the conductivities used to generate the optimal policy.
In all cases in Table 2, modified feedback performed better than did no feedback; in two out of three cases, modified DDP feedback outperformed modified SALQR feedback. Based on the arguments presented earlier herein, it can be expected that DDP will, on average, outperform SALQR. Table 2 includes average performances for unmodified feedback, i.e., feedback defined by (13) without the modifications given by (17) and (18). The performance for unmodified feedback is often quite poor, due to violation of pumping constraints.
TABLE 2__________________________________________________________________________Average Performance <P> and Standard Deviation of the Performance(σp)for Four Feedback Laws and When No Feedback is UsedUncertainty:ConductivityMeasurement Performance SALQR DDP SALQR DDPStandard Without Feedback Feedback Feedback FeedbackDeviation Feedback (Unmodified) (Unmodified) (Modified) (Modified)__________________________________________________________________________ 5% 48.2 (3.9) 551. (293.) 174. (157.) 44.9 (2.8) 45.3 (3.4)10% 54.1 (11.2) 792. (375.) 306. (223.) 48.6 (7.3) 47.9 (5.5)25% 88.6 (43.0) 1104. (589.) 612. (320.) 73.3 (34.1) 68.1 (29.2)__________________________________________________________________________ All performance index values are calculated using the same set of weights wj. Modified feedback incorporates (17) and (18). Bias is -10% for all cases.
In general, feedback laws (modified or unmodified) produced using either DDP or SALQR with arbitrary penalty function weighting can perform quite poorly However, it appears that this first logical choice (wj =wj) is an improvement over using no feedback. Next, the weighting parameter space is searched to find better feedback laws. Hereinafter, when "feedback" is mentioned, the reference is to modified DDP and SALQR feedback, i.e., (17) and (18) are enforced.
The weights wj used to derive feedback laws can be adjusted to find laws which perform well with respect to the performance index, (14), defined by the fixed weights wj. It is the fixed weights, wj, which measure the undesirability of constraint violation. By varying the penalty function weights wj and using either SALQR or DDP with the optimal policy, ten modified feedback laws were generated. For our example, the weighting space was searched by assigning a single weight to the control constraints, (4) and (5), and assigning a second single weight to the state constraints, (6). The two relative weights are denoted as wu for the control, or pumping, constraints and wc for the state, or drinking standard, constraints. Hence, the weight is wu wj, if j is a pumping or control constraint, and wc wj, if j is a concentration or state constraint. This procedure reduced the dimension of the weighting parameter space, wj, to only two dimensions. Even with this simplification, there was a lot of freedom in designing the response of the feedback laws generated. For our example, ten feedback laws were generated with different values of wu and wc for each optimal policy (see Table 3 below).
TABLE 3______________________________________Definition of Modified Feedback Law NumbersNo. Description of Feedback Law______________________________________1 no feedback used (nonlinear programming)2 SALQR with [wc, wu ] = [1.0, 1.0]3 DDP with [wc, wu ] = [1.0, 1.0]4 DDP with [wc, wu ] = [0.10, 1.0]5 DDP with [wc, wu ] = [10.0, 1.0]6 DDP with [wc, wu ] = [0.01, 0.1]7 DDP with [wc, wu ] = [0.01, 1.0]8 DDP with [wc, wu ] = [1.0, 0.05]9 DDP with [wc, wu ] = [1.0, 0.10]10 DDP with [wc, wu ] = [0.1, 0.10]11 DDP with [wc, wu ] = [10.0, 0.1]______________________________________ The weighting values, [wc, wu ], are normalized with respect to the fixed weighting values wj, used in the performance index.
The feedback laws 3 through 11 given in Table 3 were generated and tested in the order they are given. A subset of the 270-case combinations was used as an indicator of the quality of a particular law. Successive values of (wc, wu) given in Table 3 were chosen based on the average performance (14), for each of the previously tested pairs, (wc, wu).
Table 4 below indicates the average performance for the ten different feedback laws, each with different values of the weighting parameters wc and wu, and also when no feedback is used. The performance is based on the optimal policy representing a modeled error of a+10% bias, applied to the thirty aquifers with a standard deviation of the error of 25%. For this example, all DDP laws outperform "no feedback" and SALQR. The last four laws (8 through 11) do much better than do other DDP laws; law 9 is the best.
TABLE 4______________________________________Modified Feedback Law Average Performance for 10% PositiveBias and a 25% Standard Deviation in ConductivityLaw Description of Average Performance forNumber Law [wc, wu ] σk = 25%, μk = +10%______________________________________1 no feedback used 118.9 (61.0)2 SALQR [1.0, 1.0] 139.2 (117.)3 DDP [1.0, 1.0] 89.50 (44.8)4 DDP [0.1, 1.0] 93.40 (40.5)5 DDP [10.0, 1.0] 90.76 (49.0)6 DDP [0.01, 0.1] 91.93 (46.1)7 DDP [0.01, 1.0] 92.03 (46.5)8 DDP [1.0, 0.05] 68.09 (30.5)9 DDP [1.0, 0.1] 58.93 (18.7)10 DDP [0.1, 0.1] 62.23 (23.1)11 DDP [10.0, 0.1] 63.42 (24.1)______________________________________ All average performance values were calculated using wj.
Referring to FIG. 3, the average performances over thirty aquifers are illustrated. All eleven policies are defined in Table 3 for each of the nine combinations of bias and standard deviation. FIG. 3 demonstrates how much laws 9 through 11 reduce the averages and variability, relative to the other feedback laws (2 through 8), and the case where no feedback is used (law 1).
It is evident from FIG. 3 that feedback law 9 outperformed the other laws overall. Also, law 9 outperformed other laws based on most of the individual combinations of bias and standard deviation, which demonstrates the robustness of feedback law 9. Most laws perform worse on the cases with 25% variance; law 9 does particularly well on these difficult cases.
Table 5 below summarizes the results of the nine different statistical conditions of the conductivity measurement error under three of the ten feedback laws, including law 9. Each value in a given row represents an average over the same set of thirty different aquifers generated randomly with the specified bias and standard deviation. The quantities in parentheses are the standard deviations of the performance index for the thirty aquifers.
TABLE 5__________________________________________________________________________Average Performance <P> and Standard Deviation of the Performance(σp) forThree Feedback Laws and When No Feedback is UsedUncertainty:ConductivityMeasurement Performance DDP Best PerformanceStandard Without SALQR Law 2 DDP Law 3 Law 9 IndexBias Deviation Feedback [1.0, 1.0] [1.0, 1.0] [1.0, 0.1] Decrease__________________________________________________________________________+10% 5% 51. (6.5) 66.0 (19.0) 60.6 (21.0) 43.2 (1.9) 15.2%10% 65.0 (17.0) 78.6 (37.2) 69.56 (20.6) 45.8 (3.8) 29.5%25% 118.9 (61.0) 139.2 (117) 89.5 (48.5) 58.9 (18.7) 50.8%No Bias 5% 44.5 (3.9) 61.9 (16.0) 48.6 (7.2) 42.7 (2.2) 4.0%10% 52.6 (11.9) 73.3 (26.9) 59.8 (17.0) 46.4 (4.9) 11.7%25% 88.0 (40.0) 98.0 (50.0) 81.9 (36.3) 57.7 (12.9) 34.4%-10% 5% 48.2 (3.9) 44.9 (2.8) 45.3 (3.4) 44.3 (2.7) 8.1%10% 54.1 (11.2) 48.6 (7.3) 47.9 (5.5) 47.2 (4.5) 12.7%25% 88.6 (43.0) 73.3 (34.1) 68.1 (29.2) 59.3 (17.5) 33.3%__________________________________________________________________________ All performance index values are calculated using the same set of weights wj. The values in brackets are the penalty function weightings associated with a feedback law [wc, wu ]. The performance index decrease column is the percent decrease achieved in the index, using the best feedback law over the performance without using feedback.
Table 5 indicates that law 9 is remarkably robust: it outperforms the "no feedback" policy under each of the wide range of uncertainty conditions. Further, law 9 achieves the greatest reduction in the performance index over the "no feedback" policy when there is a large, undetected spatial variability and nonzero bias. Laws 2 and 3 are representative of the performance of poorly tuned feedback laws: laws which do not have well-chosen weights. In particular, feedback can perform worse than no feedback with certain weight choices.
Table 6 below compares the actual concentration standard violation, constraint (6), of feedback law 9 to the case where no feedback is used. The results are averages over thirty aquifers representing the application of a policy and feedback with a bias of -10% and a standard deviation of 25%. This bias and standard deviation combination is one of the most difficult to manage for all the laws considered (FIG. 3). Individual observation well maximum violations resulting from feedback are an order of magnitude smaller than that with no feedback. Furthermore, the fraction of observation wells at which there are violations of the concentration constraint is reduced by a factor of 3, when feedback law 9 is used. These results, along with the performance values given in Table 5, indicate how well feedback can perform under uncertainty.
TABLE 6______________________________________Comparison of Concentration Constraint Violationsfor Law 9 and When No Feedback is Used WithoutStatistic Feedback Feedback Law 9______________________________________Average maximum violation, μg/L 0.390 0.033Average number of violations 3.5 1.2at 13 observation wellsAverage maximum violation as a 78 6.6percentage of the waterquality standard, %Average violation at violating 0.260 0.038wells, μg/L______________________________________ Values given are averages over 30 aquifers representing the application o a policy and feedback with a bias of -10% and standard deviation scatter of 25%. Each aquifer simulated has 13 observation wells at which the concentration of contaminant must be less than 0.5005 μg/L to be considered nonviolating.
FIG. 4 is a graph of further criteria or different performance indices that can be used to distinguish between the feedback laws tested. In particular, FIG. 4 illustrates a decomposition of the performance index (14) into its two components. The first component is the operational cost, ##EQU7## and the second is the penalty for constraint violation or recourse, ##EQU8## A comparison is made of the ten feedback laws for the case when there is a +10% bias and a 25% standard deviation scatter. The performance index chosen does not strongly distinguish between laws 9 and 10. However, it is clear from the decomposition of the index shown in FIG. 4 that law 9 typically pumps more than law 10; also law 9 correspondingly violates the concentration constraints by a lesser amount than does law 10 on average. Further site criteria, such as risk aversion, distinguish these two laws Law 9 will, in the average sense, have higher operating costs; however, it will be more likely to satisfy the contamination tolerances at the end of the planning horizon. This difference between laws 9 and 10 is predictable, considering the constraint weightings used to generate the laws. Law 9 has the weights (wc, wu)=(1.0, 0.1), which represents a higher weight on concentration violation, wc, than the weights (wc,wu)=(0.1, 0.1) associated with law 10. This is a simple example of the flexibility available in the design of feedback laws based on the penalty function method.
The computational requirement for generating and testing feedback laws for problems of the size of our example is not demanding, once a deterministic optimal policy ut is known. In particular, 90 seconds of CPU on an IBM 3090J are required to calculate α and β, using the full second-derivative formulation of DDP for our example. The solution of the original optimal control problem can be computationally expensive; the numerical example shown here requires 45 minutes of IBM 3090J CPU time6. For conversion of CPU time to other machines, the calculation rate was estimated to be 60 million floating point operations per second (MFLOPS). Thus, a workstation operating at 15 MFLOPS will require approximately 6 minutes to calculate a feedback law. Finite element simulations using feedback can be performed easily on a personal computer. Since the typical cost of remediation projects can be on the order of millions of dollars, even a large computational budget will be well worth the operation cost savings achieved.
The invention suggests that a new, or "secondary", optimization problem can be defined to minimize a function of the performance index over the weighting parameter space, in order to produce a "best" feedback law. This secondary optimization can be used in place of a systematic search of the weighting parameter space. A formulation of the feedback law optimization problem could be, for example, minweighting space w.sbsb.j (P), where (P) is the average value of the performance index over some established set of randomly errored flow and transport model parameter sets, and P is calculated according to (14) with wj fixed.
For the numerical example presented in this invention, well-designed, weighted DDP feedback outperformed pumping policies with no feedback under every type of modeled error The results indicate that the use of a weighted, constrained DDP feedback law with an optimal policy is preferable to using an optimal policy without feedback, which may be generated with nonlinear programming NLP, since (NLP) does not generate any form of a feedback law. Further, using the full, second-order algorithm, DDP generated superior feedback laws when compared with those generated by the SALQR algorithm (which neglects second derivatives of the transition function). Thus, the second derivatives of the transition function should be included, when calculating feedback laws.
A significant advantage to using the method of the invention, is that the results of the average and standard deviation of cost-related performance indices under feedback can be used to estimate the cost bounds expected for a remediation under uncertainty. This will allow remediation planners to generate cost estimates with confidence measures, thus reducing the likelihood of cost overruns due to modeling errors.
The numerical results of this invention indicate that feedback laws can be generated that are highly robust, with respect to the type and size of the model error and uncertainty, and yet remain highly efficient for most specific applications. For the numerical example, it was found that feedback law 9 performed well for all nine error conditions. Hence, if any subset of the set of erroneous conductivity fields was used, law 9 was still the best law. This suggests that the selection of the best feedback law is not very sensitive to pre-assumed (and artificial) form for a distribution of model error. This is in contrast to many methods related to stochastic, linear or dynamic programming, which require this choice and can be highly sensitive to the assumed distributions of the uncertain parameters.
Methods which incorporate uncertainty by modeling error with specified distributions may become very complex, when multiple sources of error are considered. For instance, consider error due to initial conditions, boundary conditions, adsorbtivity, recharge rates and dispersivity, as well as conductivity. Feedback will respond to all of these sources of error without added complexity. Testing and selecting feedback laws for other sources or multiple sources of error is no more complex.
The following is an outline of the differential dynamic programming (DDP) algorithm and the sequential approximation linear quadratic regulator algorithm (SALQR) used to solve the unconstrained optimal control problem with penalty functions, equations (7)-(9), and also used to generate feedback laws. Both algorithms are identical except where specifically indicated below. For an in-depth derivation of the DDP method, see the article cited as No. 23 in the appended REFERENCES.
Step 1. Find an initial guess (nominal) policy for the starting point of the iterative process to find the optimal policy Denote this policy u. Find the nominal state trajectory using the transition function, xt+l =Tl (xt, ut). Calculate the loss associated with the nominal policy, Σt N =1 [gt (xt, ut )+Y* l (xt, ut, wj)]. (See Table 7 below for notations and definitions.)
Step 2. Set the parameters PN+1 =0.sub.(nxn), QN+1 =0.sub.(nx1) and ΘN+1 =0. Begin with time t=N and calculate the following values: ##EQU9##
The superscript dagger () indicates the transpose. The difference between the DDP and the SALQR algorithms is that the SALQR algorithm assumes the Hessian of T, Tt i,xx, Tt i,xu, and Tt i,uu, is zero, when calculating the matrices At, Bt and Ct, in (19)-(21) . Once the matrices A, B and C and the vectors D and E are evaluated, then calculate and store the following values: ##EQU10##
Qt =-1/2B.sup. t [Ct -1 ].sup. Dt +Et. (25)
Next, calculate and store the feedback law for time step t according to:
αt =-1/2Ct -l Dt (26)
βt =-1/2Ct -1 Bt (27)
Finally, calculate and store in place of Θt+1
θt =-1/2Dt.sup. Ct -1 Dt +θt+1. (28)
If t>1, then let t=t-1, and repeat the calculations of (19)-(28).
Step 3. Compute the new policy using the feedback law and the nominal policy, u. Set ε=1, and then for t=1, 2, 3, . . . , N-1 compute:
llt ut +εα+βt (xt -xt) (29)
xt+l =Tt (xt, ut) (30)
subject to:
xt=1 =x0. (31)
Step 4. Compute the new loss associated with the new control u and subtract this loss from the loss associated with the nominal policy u: ##EQU11## If Δ is less than εΘ/2, then let u=u and go to Step 1; otherwise, let ε=ε/2 and repeat Step 3. Convergence to a minimum is signaled when 0, which is related to the gradients of g, Y and T, becomes very small.
It is noted that for this method to find reasonable descent directions, the matrices Ct must be positive definite, and will require an additional technique, such as shifting13, whenever u is far from optimal and the DDP method is used.
TABLE 7______________________________________Notation Used in the DDP AlgorithmVariable Definition______________________________________gt cost incurred during decision period t [l, N]gx t, gu t first derivatives of the cost function with respect to the state and control variables, xt and utgxx t, gxu t, guu t blocks of the Hessian of the cost functionTi t the ith component of the transition function, xt+l = T(xt, ut, t)Tx t, Tu t Jacobians of the transition functionTi,xx t, Tixu t, Ti,uu t blocks of the Hessian of T: ∂2 Ti t /∂x.different ial.x, etc.Y* t sum of all penalties incurred for decision period t which is Σj {r.sbsb.t } Yj (xt, ut, wj) where {rt } is the set of constraints to be enforced at time tY*,x t, Y*,u t first derivatives of the penalty sum with respect to the state and control variables, xt and utY*,xx t, Y*,xu t, blocks of the Hessian of the penaltyY*,uu t sumN number of time steps or constant control periodsn state dimensionm control dimension______________________________________
A two-dimensional implicit time Galerkin finite element model is used to model the example groundwater system. The transient flow equation for a two-dimensional confined aquifer with storage, but without leakage, can be expressed as (see Table 8 below for notations) ##EQU12##
The following boundary and initial conditions are used to yield unique solutions to (33):
∇.sub.⊥h=βh (h-hb) +γh |.sub.(all points on the boundary) (34)
h(x, y, t=0)=h0 (x, y), (35)
where: βh and γh are given consistent functions on the boundary. Containment transport with a linear adsorption isotherm was used for the simulation model. The form of the transport equation is ##EQU13## subject to the following boundary and initial conditions:
∇.sub.⊥ c=βc (c-Cb)+γc |.sub.(all points on the boundary) (37)
c(x, y, t=0)=c0 (x, y ), (38)
where: βc and βc are given consistent functions on the boundary.
The linear adsorption isotherm is of the form: ##EQU14##
The following dispersion velocity relationships were assumed in the finite element model:
Dxx =(αL υx 2l +αT υy 2) /|υ|+DM τ(40)
Dyy =(αL υy 2 +αT υx 2) /|υ|+DM τ(41)
Dxy =Dyx =(αL -αT)υx υy /|υ| (42)
where: αL is the longitudinal dispersivity, αt is the transverse dispersivity, DM is the molecular diffusion coefficient, and τ is tortuosity. A detailed description of the Galerkin finite element method used to solve the transport and flow equations can be found in the articles cited as Nos. 17 and 18 in the appended REFERENCES. Table 9 below presents the model parameters used in the simulations; these are the same as used in the prior Cornell University method5.
TABLE 8______________________________________Flow and Transport Model VariablesVariable Definition______________________________________b saturated vertical thickness of the aquifer (L)c contaminant concentration (M/L3)cb concentration boundary value (M/L3)c0 (x, y) initial concentration (M/L3)D hydrodynamic dispersion tensor (L3 /T)δ(xi, yi) two-dimensional Dirac delta function centered at xi, yiΔ.sub.⊥ c directional derivative of c normal to the boundary (M/L4)Δ.sub.⊥ h directional derivative of h normal to the boundary (L/L)h vertically averaged hydraulic head (L)hb head boundary value (L)h0 (x, y) initial head field (L)k equilibrium constant for linear isotherm (L3 / M) ##STR1## ##STR2##pB bulk density of the porous medium (M/L3)S mass of adsorbed pollutant per unit mass of porous mediumSs specific storage (L-1)θ porosityν Darcy velocity defined as ν = -K � Δh______________________________________ (L/T)
TABLE 9______________________________________Flow and Transport Model Parameter ValuesParameter Value______________________________________Aquifer thickness (b) 10 mPorosity (θ) 0.2Specific storage (Ss) 0.001Retardation coefficient (R = θ + 0.72pB (∂S/∂c))Molecular diffusion (DM τ) 0.0000001 m2 /SLongitudinal dispersivity (αL) 70 mTransverse dispersivity (αT) 3 mIsotherm equilibrium constant (k) 0.52 L/μgModeled area 900 � 1500 m2Element size 150 � 150 m2Time step size (Δt) 2190 hoursNumber of time steps (N) 20Planing time (N Δt) 5 years______________________________________
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3. Ahlfeld, D. P., J. M. Mulvey, G. F. Pinder, and E. F. Wood, Contaminated groundwater remediation design using simulation, optimization, and sensitivity theory, 2, Analysis of a field site, Water Resour. Res., 24(3), 443-452, 1988b.
4. Andricevic, R., and P. K. Kitanidis, Optimization of the pumping schedule in aquifer remediation under uncertainty, Water Resour. Res., 26(5), 875-885, 1990.
5. Chang, L.-C., C. A. Shoemaker, and P. L.-F. Liu, Application of a constrained optimal control algorithm to groundwater remediation, Water Resour. Res., 28(12), 3157-3173, 1992.
6. Culver, T., and C. A. Shoemaker, Dynamic optimal control for groundwater remediation with flexible management periods, Water Resour. Res., 28(3), 6290641, 1992.
7. Culver, T., and C. A. Shoemaker, Optimal control for groundwater remediation by differential dynamic programming with quasi-Newton approximations, Water Resour. Res., 29(4), 823-831, 1993.
8. Dougherty, D. E., and R. A. Marryott, Optimal groundwater management, 1, Simulated annealing, Water Resour. Res., 27(10), 2493-2508, 1991.
9. E1-Kadi, A. I., A computer program for generating two-dimensional fields of autocorrelated parameters, Groundwater, 24(5), 663-667, 1986.
10. Gorelick, S. M., C. I. Voss, P. E. Grill, W. Murray, M. A. Saunders, and M. H. Wright, Aquifer reclamation design: The use of contaminant transport simulation combined with nonlinear programming, Water Resour. Res., 20(4), 415-427, 1984.
11. Jacobson, D. H., and D. Q. Mayne, Differential Dynamic Programming, Elsevier Science, New York, 1970.
12. Lee, S. I., and P. K. Kitanidis, Optimal estimation and scheduling in aquifer remediation with incomplete information, Water Resour. Res., 27(9), 2203-2217, 1991.
13. Liao, L.Z., and C. A. Shoemaker, Convergence in unconstrained discrete-time differential dynamic programming, IEEE Trans. Autom. Control, 36(6), 692-706, 1991.
14. Mayne, D., A second-order gradient method for determining optimal trajectories of non-linear discrete-time systems, Int. J. Control, 3(1), 85-95, 1966.
15. Mejia, J. M., and I. Rodriguez-Iturbe, On the synthesis of random field sampling from the spectrum: An application to the generation of hydrologic spatial processes, Water Resour. Res., 10(4), 705-711, 1974.
16. Patrick, R., E. Ford, and J. Quarles, Groundwater Contamination in the United States, 2nd ed., University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1987.
17. Pinder, G. F., and E. O. Frind, Application of Galerkin's procedure to aquifer analysis, Water Resour. Res., 8(1), 108-120, 1972.
18. Pinder, G. F., and W. G. Gray, Finite Element Simulation in Surface and Subsurface Hydrology, Academic, San Diego, Calif., 1977.
19. Ranjithan, S., and J. W. Eheart, Neural network-based screening for groundwater reclamation under uncertainty, Water Resour. Res., 29(3), 563-574, 1993.
20. Ranjithan, S., J. W. Eheart, and J. H. Garrett, Jr., Application of neural network in groundwater remediation under conditions of uncertainty, paper presented at International Workshop on New Uncertainty Concepts in Hydrology and Water Resources, Int. Assoc. of Hydrol. Sci., Madralin, Poland, Sept. 24-26, 1990.
21. Wagner, B. J., and S. M. Gorelick, Optimal groundwater quality management under parameter uncertainty, Water Resour. Res., 23(7), 1162-1174, 1987.
22. Wagner, J. M., U. Shamir, and H. R. Nemati, Groundwater quality management under uncertainty: Stochastic programming approaches and the value of information, Water Resour. Res., 28(5), 1233-1246, 1992.
23. Yakowitz, S., and B. Rutherford, Computational aspects of discrete-time optimal control, Appl. Math. Comput., 15, 29-45, 1984.
Since other modifications and changes varied to fit particular operating requirements and environments will be apparent to those skilled in the art, the invention is not considered limited to the example chosen for purposes of disclosure, and covers all changes and modifications which do not constitute departures from the true spirit and scope of this invention.
Having thus described the invention, what is desired to be protected by Letters Patent is presented in the subsequently appended claims.
|Cited Patent
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|Jan 6, 1986
|Jul 5, 1988
|Four Seasons Venture Capital Ab
|Method of purifying ground water
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|Sep 20, 1994
|Ieg Industrie-Engineering Gmbh
|Method and arrangement for influencing liquid in ground
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|Jan 10, 1995
|Ieg Industrie-Engineering Gmbh
|Method of and arrangement for rinsing out impurities from ground
|Aug 23, 1993
|Jan 24, 1995
|International Technology Corporation
|System for treating a subterranean formation having an aquifer contaminated with organics
|Nov 9, 1993
|Feb 7, 1995
|Deloach; Anthony
|Contaminated ground site remediation system
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|May 31, 1994
|Jun 17, 1997
|Misquitta; Neale J.
|System for automating groundwater recovery controlled by monitoring parameters in monitoring wells
|May 19, 1995
|Jun 24, 1997
|University Of Waterloo
|Treatment of contaminated water in clays and the like
|Mar 28, 1997
|Sep 29, 1998
|Whiffen; Greg
|Piecewise continuous control of groundwater remediation
|Jan 9, 1998
|Nov 21, 2000
|Whiffen; Greg
|Piecewise continuous control of groundwater remediation
|Oct 7, 1999
|Jun 18, 2002
|The University Of Iowa Research Foundation
|System and method for controlling effluents in treatment systems
|Nov 20, 2000
|Sep 17, 2002
|General Electric Company
|Method and system to remotely monitor a carbon adsorption process
|Nov 7, 2000
|Dec 10, 2002
|General Electric Company
|Method and system to remotely monitor groundwater treatment
|Feb 15, 2002
|Sep 14, 2004
|Halliburton Energy Services, Inc.
|Downhole sensing and flow control utilizing neural networks
|Oct 22, 2002
|Aug 7, 2007
|Coppola Jr Emery J
|Neural network based predication and optimization for groundwater/surface water system
|Jan 8, 2003
|Dec 11, 2007
|Bentley Systems, Incorporated
|Universal hydraulic solver with techniques for improving the representation of flow data
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|Jun 9, 2009
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|Unico, Inc.
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|Dec 7, 2005
|Apr 27, 2010
|Controlsoft, Inc.
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|Mar 15, 2011
|Jacob Mettes
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|Estimation and control of a resonant plant prone to stick-slip behavior
|Dec 11, 2007
|Dec 24, 2013
|Tufts University
|Method for mutli-stage spatial sampling with multiple criteria
|Mar 9, 2009
|Nov 11, 2014
|Exxonmobil Upstream Research Company
|Functional-based knowledge analysis in a 2D and 3D visual environment
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|Nov 18, 2014
|Exxonmobil Upstream Research Company
|Robust well trajectory planning
|Oct 19, 2010
|Jan 13, 2015
|Exxonmobil Upstream Research Company
|Method for using dynamic target region for well path/drill center optimization
|Oct 20, 2008
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|Jehangir Framroze PUNTHAKEY
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|Exxonmobil Upstream Research Company
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|Mar 14, 2017
|Exxonmobil Upstream Research Company
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|Mar 14, 2017
|Exxonmobil Upstream Research Company
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|Oct 17, 2002
|Schultz Roger L.
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|Oct 22, 2002
|Apr 24, 2003
|Coppola Emery J.
|Neural network based predication and optimization for groundwater / surface water system
|Apr 30, 2004
|Nov 4, 2004
|Cullick Alvin Stanley
|Stochastically generating facility and well schedules
|Mar 18, 2005
|Jul 28, 2005
|Jacob Mettes
|Automated regression analysis and its applications such as water analysis
|Dec 7, 2005
|Jun 7, 2007
|Alireza Haji-Valizadeh
|Utility management system and method
|Oct 11, 2006
|Jun 14, 2007
|Ellis Mark T
|System and method for detecting and remediating contamination
|Nov 29, 2006
|Jun 28, 2007
|Unico, Inc.
|Estimation and Control of a Resonant Plant Prone to Stick-Slip Behavior
|May 29, 2007
|Oct 11, 2007
|Coppola Emery J Jr
|Neural Network Based Predication and Optimization for Groundwater / Surface Water System
|Dec 2, 2009
|Mar 25, 2010
|Garlow Mark E
|Estimation and Control of a Resonant Plant Prone to Stick-Slip Behavior
|Apr 16, 2010
|Aug 12, 2010
|Jacob Mettes
|System and method for determining impurity content in a liquid
|Dec 11, 2007
|Aug 19, 2010
|Tufts University
|Method for mutli-stage spatial sampling with multiple criteria
|Mar 9, 2009
|Feb 24, 2011
|Holl James E
|Functional-Based Knowledge Analysis In A 2D and 3D Visual Environment
|Jul 2, 2009
|Jul 14, 2011
|Budiman Benny S
|Robust Well Trajectory Planning
|Dec 4, 2012
|Jun 27, 2013
|Jehangir Framroze PUNTHAKEY
|Groundwater management system
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|Nov 4, 2015
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|U.S. Classification
|166/245, 405/52, 210/747.7
|International Classification
|Cooperative Classification
|European Classification
|Dec 30, 1993
Owner name: CORNELL RESEARCH FOUNDATION, INC., NEW YORK
Free format text: ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNORS INTEREST;ASSIGNORS:SHOEMAKER, CHRISTINE A.;WHIFFEN, GREGORY J.;REEL/FRAME:006829/0843
Effective date: 19931230
|Jun 16, 1999
|Maintenance fee reminder mailed
|Nov 21, 1999
|Lapse for failure to pay maintenance fees
|Feb 1, 2000
|Expired due to failure to pay maintenance fee
Effective date: 19991121


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Ahh, Steam. How i have abandoned thee since I discovered thy guilty pleasure of the blessed Fallout 3...Too bad it requires Games for Windows Live instead of Steam.....My name is Noxious, or Nox or something, I can't remember, by the way. I'm in the FT group.
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For the past 105 years, Cannon Park has been the home of the Cairns Jockey Club and has continued its commitment to local racing making it one of the top things to do in Cairns and the Great Barrier Reef.
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Offers in region of £575,000.00 (Freehold)
Character and charm abound in this unique 1 bedroom flat on the first floor of a beautiful period building located close to Wood Green station and the associated shops and amenities. Entering from the secure communal entrance the wide sweeping staircase leads to the apartment which benefits from a large open plan lounge & fully fitted kitchen, contemporary bathroom suite & good size double bedroom. Finished to a high standard including laminate flooring, UPVC double glazing, Gas Central Heating and intercom entry system this property also benefits from high ceilings, deep alcove windows and stunning fireplace.
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