text:
Are you sure?
This action might not be possible to undo. Are you sure you want to continue?
Russell Joseph Hobbs, M.A., D.Min. Mentor: Ralph C. Wood, Ph.D. This dissertation examines the theology of celibacy found both in John Paul II's writings and in current Protestant theology, with the aim of developing a framework and legitimation for a richer Protestant theology of celibacy. Chapter 1 introduces the thesis. Chapter 2 reviews the Protestant literature on celibacy under two headings: first, major treatments from the Protestant era, including those by Martin Luther, John Calvin, John Wesley, various Shakers, and authors from the English Reformation; second, treatments from 1950 to the present. The chapter reveals that modern Protestants have done little theological work on celibacy. Self-help literature for singles is common and often insightful, but it is rarely theological. Chapter 3 synthesizes the best contemporary Protestant thinking on celibacy under two headings: first, major treatments by Karl Barth, Max Thurian, and Stanley Grenz; second, major Protestant themes in the theology of celibacy. The fourth chapter describes the foundation of John Paul II's theology of human sexuality and includes an overview of his life and education, an evaluation of Max Scheler's influence, and a review of Karol Wojtyla's Love and Responsibility and The Acting Person. Chapter 5 treats two topics. First, it describes John Paul II's, Theology of
the Body, and more particularly the section entitled "Virginity for the Sake of the Kingdom." There he examines Jesus' instruction in Matt 19:11-12, celibacy as vocation, the superiority of celibacy to marriage, celibacy as redemption of the body, Paul's instructions in 1 Cor 7, and virginity as human destiny. Second, the chapter reviews John Paul II's statements regarding celibacy found in various encyclicals, audiences, homilies, and speeches. Finally, chapter 6 summarizes John Paul II's theology of virginity and reviews several Roman Catholic evaluations of his understanding of human sexuality. The chapter analyzes areas of commonality and contrast between contemporary Protestant thought on celibacy and John Paul II's thought. In addition, the chapter highlights major areas in need of further development. Chapter 7, the conclusion, reviews discoveries and makes further suggestions.
Copyright © 2005 by Russell Joseph Hobbs All rights reserved
MAJOR CONTEMPORARY PROTESTANT TREATMENTS OF CELIBACY: STANLEY GRENZ. INTRODUCTION The Purpose of the Dissertation The Significance of the Topic The Development of the Dissertation 2. AND MAX THURIAN Three Significant Contemporary Protestant Theologies of Celibacy Stanley Grenz Karl Barth Max Thurian 1 1 2 5 7 8 8 28 32 32 44 46 vii 47 47 47 49 52 iii .CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Chapter 1. KARL BARTH. REVIEW OF PROTESTANT WRITINGS ON CELIBACY Important Protestant Theologies of Celibacy Prior to 1950 From the Fathers to the Reformation Protestants and Celibacy from 1850-1950 Contemporary Protestant Theologies of Celibacy Popular Writings on Singleness and Celibacy Theological and Ethical Works that Address a Theology of Celibacy Conclusion 3.
Chapter Major Themes in the Modern Protestant Theology of Celibacy Relationship of Marriage and Celibacy Implications of Christ's Celibacy Eschatological Context of Celibacy Theological Motivations for Celibacy Conclusion 4. FOUNDATIONS OF JOHN PAUL II'S THEOLOGY OF HUMAN SEXUALITY Influence on John Paul II's Thought His Home and Country His Formal Education His Informal Education Scheler and Husserl Love and Responsibility Chapter One: The Person and the Sexual Urge Chapter Two: The Person and Love Chapter Three: The Person and Chastity Chapter Four: Justice Towards the Creator Chapter Five: Sexology and Ethics Evaluation The Acting Person Synthesis 5. JOHN PAUL II'S THEOLOGY OF CELIBACY iv 56 56 59 61 62 68 71 72 72 73 77 78 82 82 86 92 96 100 101 102 108 110 .
Paul's Teaching on the Human Body The Resurrection of the Body Virginity for the Sake of the Kingdom The Sacramentality of Marriage and Reflections on "Humanae Vitae" John Paul II's Comments on Celibacy outside of The Theology of the Body Various Manifestations of Celibacy Reasons to Choose Celibacy Results of Choosing Celibacy The Superiority of Celibacy Summation 6. TOWARD A PROTESTANT THEOLOGY OF CELIBACY Summary of John Paul II's Theology of Celibacy Philosophical/Theological Aspects Biblical Theological Aspects 110 113 124 131 135 137 146 146 146 148 154 155 157 159 159 160 163 Roman Catholic Evaluations of John Paul II's Theology of Sexuality 169 General Evaluations Evaluations of John Paul II's Moral Reasoning 169 173 v .Chapter The Theology of the Body Original Unity of Man and Woman: Catechesis on the Bookof Genesis Blessed Are the Pure of Heart: Catechesis on the Sermon On the Mount St.
CONCLUSIONS Discoveries Suggestions The Need WORKS CITED 176 178 178 182 201 201 202 204 205 vi .Chapter Evaluations of John Paul II's Theology of Celibacy Toward a Protestant Theology of Celibacy Comparing John Paul II's and Contemporary Protestant Theologies of Celibacy Areas Needing Further Study 7.
Williams and Dr. and for his diligent efforts to improve this paper. Miner for their insightful comments on the dissertation. Wood for stimulating my interest in John Paul II. He went above the call of duty in reading each chapter and helping me avoid pitfalls common to a Protestant journeying in the writings of a Roman Catholic theologian. Texas. Robert C. Ralph C. I thank Dr. In addition. I want to acknowledge Father Timothy Vavarek of Saint Joseph Church of Bellmead. Finally. vii . Daniel H.ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I want to thank Dr.
Whenever Monks come back. marriages will come back. The Return of Don Quixote . Chesterton.
1997). 1 1 . Protestants write about the struggles of single adults. sexual dysfunction as a lure to celibacy. The purpose of this research project is to examine the theology of celibacy found both in John Paul II's The Theology of the Body1 and in current Protestant theology.CHAPTER ONE Introduction The Purpose of the Dissertation Contemporary attitudes towards celibacy neatly divide most Protestants from Roman Catholics. with the aim of developing a framework for a richer Protestant theology of celibacy. the number of single adults in Europe and North America has risen dramatically in recent decades. Instead. celibacy as an option for Christian homosexuals. More than ever. In this dissertation. lifelong commitment to virginity for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. yet seldom write about the theology of virginity. At the same time. I engage the more expressly theological features of virginity. John Paul II. I do not deal with related themes such as the celibate priesthood. The Theology of the Body: Human Love in the Divine Plan (Boston: Pauline Books & Media. Roman Catholics write extensively about celibacy and its theology. the Western Protestant Church needs a thoughtful theological foundation to guide Christian women and men in decisions about marriage or singleness for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. but most frequently they write about it in the context of clerical and monastic practice. or the specifically psychological or sociological dimensions of celibacy. I define celibacy as a voluntary.
Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka.4 in which he expressed in detail the personalism that supports his understanding of human sexuality. Love and Responsibility [1960]. From 1979-1984. in which he expressed his concern that marriage center around self-giving love. 1979). Boleslaw Taborski (San Francisco: Ignatius Press. In addition. Straus. The Jeweler's Shop: A Meditation on the Sacrament of Matrimony Passing on Occasion into a Drama [1960]. In 1960. and celibacy designed for the thoughtful. Willetts (New York: Farrar. Wojtyla further contributed to the Catholic dialogue regarding the human person through his participation in Vatican II and the production of two of its documents: Dignitatis Humanae and Gaudium et Spes. Behind these addresses are three decades of Karol Wojtyla's thought and writing on human sexuality. 1981). 1992).2 a play about three very different marriages.2 The Significance of the Topic This research project is significant for at least two reasons. in 1969. Holland: D. and a nuanced expression of the motivations and purposes of celibacy. trans. Reidel Publishing Company. Specifically. Wojtyla published his premier philosophical work. an integration of the Tradition. H. he offers the Protestant reader a philosophical foundation. and Love and Responsibility. Karol Wojtyla. marriage.3 an analysis of love. he published two works dealing with the topic: The Jeweler's Shop. questioning young person who is considering marriage. T. Andrzej Potocki. these have since been published as The Theology of the Body. trans. and Giroux. Analecta Husserliana (Doredrecht. Karol Wojtyla. The second is that John Paul II's thinking on virginity has great potential for the development of a Protestant theology of celibacy. sexual attraction. 4 3 2 .. trans. John Paul II. Inc. The first is that there exists little seriously developed Protestant theology of celibacy. ed. Pope John Paul II gave a series of 129 addresses on human sexuality. The Acting Person [1969]. The Acting Person.
Self-help literature written by Protestants for singles is common and some of it is insightful and helpful. 5 Kristin Aune.3 In The Theology of the Body. and virginity as human destiny. 1. both normative and non-binding—available for such a theology: the example of Jesus Christ himself. . virginity. In spite of the dramatic growth in recent decades of the proportion of unmarried adults in the population of both the United States and Europe. he combines important elements of these writings and uses biblical exegesis as a framework to describe his understanding of sexuality as it relates to marriage. among which are Jesus' instruction in Matt 19:11-12. there has been little theological work done to address this need. John Paul II's philosophical personalism as well as his understanding of the nature of humans as sexual beings encompasses each of these emphases. but it is rarely theological. The second reason this research project is important is that Protestants have done little serious theological work on the topic of celibacy. 2002). celibacy as vocation. and the use of contraception. and the specifically Roman Catholic theological developments since the Reformation. temptation. the biblical teaching in the Gospels and Pauline literature. He approaches celibacy from numerous directions. the "superiority" of celibacy to marriage.5 and the corresponding growth in the number of persons within the church who might seek a theological understanding of celibacy. the steady theological work throughout the pre-Reformation centuries. This lack of development is surprising in light of the resources—both biblical and traditional. celibacy as redemption of the body. GA: Paternoster Press. Paul's instructions in 1 Cor 7. the rich tradition of church practice. Single Women: Challenge to the Church? (Waynesboro.
The current Protestant focus on the family can also raise questions about the legitimacy of celibacy. as a result. the exclusion of women from the clergy. 6 ." in Luther's Works. unchaste celibacy"6 sometimes found in past and present Roman Catholic priests and monastics and. Celibacy is exactly such an option. Clearly. pedophilia. thoughtful biblical exegesis.4 In Protestant thought. ed. James Atkinson (Philadelphia: Fortress Press. marriage. Other Protestants doubt that lifelong sexual abstinence is either possible or desirable. The radical nature of virginity for the Kingdom can appear to be a threat to this false priority given to the nuclear family. the Protestant churches need a theology of celibacy. shy away from the concept of celibacy. Many Protestants seem to share Martin Luther's abhorrence of the "wretched. Some ask how it is possible to strengthen families in the midst of a society bent on destroying the family. 1966). thus granting the church itself a lower priority. while at the same time affirming the legitimacy and importance of celibacy. Often. or the special needs of singles so dominate the discussion that virginity for the sake of the kingdom receives no attention at all. growing dissatisfaction with the fruits of the sexual revolution cause many in the Protestant churches to seek Christian options for sexual self-understanding and behavior that have eluded our society. In spite of the lack of attention given to celibacy. Conservative Protestants in particular often place family as the church's first priority after the worship and service of God. 176. negative attitudes towards lifelong commitment to virginity frequently overshadow the positive potential of such commitment. John Paul II offers a richly nuanced understanding of celibacy that represents the ancient and modern thinking of the Church. "To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation Concerning the Reform of the Christian Estate [1520]. issues such as homosexuality. relevant Martin Luther.
I synthesize the best contemporary Protestant thinking on celibacy. Church Dogmatics. in addition to authors who debated clerical marriage during the English Reformation. trans. (Louisville. Marriage and Celibacy. I review major Protestant themes in the theology of celibacy. major treatments of celibacy from throughout the Protestant era. This chapter also has two foci. and Max Thurian. and various Shakers. 7 Second. 2nd ed. his theology of virginity can be separated from its specifically Roman Catholic elements and remain a robust contribution to an ecumenical conceptualization of celibacy for the sake of the Kingdom. I examine three major treatments of celibacy that deserve special notice: those by Karl Barth. 1959). W. second. This description includes an overview of his life and education. KY: Westminster John Knox Press. 7 . Clark. First. The review has two foci: first. John Wesley. an evaluation of Max Scheler's influence on him. ed. The Development of the Dissertation Chapter 2 of the dissertation reviews the Protestant literature on celibacy. Bromiley and T. Max Thurian. In the fourth chapter. John Calvin. 181-199. Norma Emerton. Stanley Grenz. Pt. Studies in Ministry and Worship (London: SCM Press. G.5 philosophy. 1997). the Protestant treatments of celibacy from 1950 to the present. & T. Karl Barth. Grenz. III. and doctrinal integration. I describe the foundation of John Paul II's theology of human sexuality. vol. 4 (Edinburgh: T. 1961). In chapter 3. Stanley J. Sexual Ethics: An Evangelical Perspective. including those by Martin Luther. and a review of Wojtyla's Love and Responsibility and The Acting Person. Although his understanding inevitably interfaces with the Roman Catholic Church's mandated clerical celibacy and vowed monastic celibacy. F. 116-240. Torrance.
6 Chapter 5 treats two topics that are at the heart of the dissertation. 262-303. and the effect of his view of the human person and human sexuality on his doctrine of celibacy. The Theology of the Body: Human Love in the Divine Plan (Boston: Pauline Books & Media. it describes John Paul II's. 8 . Finally. The second topic treated in this chapter is John Paul II's statements regarding celibacy found outside his Theology of the Body. In this section. Theology of the Body. Pope John Paul II. and speeches. I suggest areas of commonality and contrast between contemporary Protestant thought on celibacy and John Paul II's thought with a view to highlighting major areas in need of further development. in chapter 6. I summarize John Paul II's theology of virginity and review several Roman Catholic evaluations of his understanding of human sexuality. audiences. I approach this theology of virginity with an eye on two perspectives: the relationship of his understanding of celibacy to the larger argument of The Theology of the Body. homilies. 1997). I review his comments on celibacy found in various encyclicals. and more particularly the section entitled "Virginity for the Sake of the Kingdom"8 in which he develops his theology of celibacy. First.
CHAPTER TWO Review of Protestant Writings on Celibacy Protestantism's relationship with celibacy has never been comfortable. From the time of the Reformation. . Wright. and today few Protestants have much to say about singleness for the sake of the kingdom. Perhaps such a history is sufficient to explain the scarcity of Protestant literature on the theology of celibacy. contemporary discussion of celibacy is almost nonexistent. . Protestant thinking on 1 D. spurred along by the debate regarding clerical marriage in the English Reformation."1 as well as those of the Radical Reformation who on occasion reject the word Protestant and its implications. well-developed. 1984. Protestant uneasiness with celibacy grew steadily. It is a relationship with the one Christian Church combined with an affirmation that its sixteenth-century expression was seriously flawed. Thus. Martin Luther's condemnations of obligatory clerical celibacy set the tone. Protestantism "denotes the whole movement within Christianity that originated in the sixteenth century Reformation and later focused in the main tradition of Reformed church life—Lutheran. and Anglican-Episcopalian. Reformed . and the late twentieth-century scandal of sexual abuse among Roman Catholic priests. the selfextinguishing character of American Shaker celibacy. . The word 'Protestant' denotes both a relationship and an affirmation. "Protestantism. F." in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. 7 . Thoughtful.
C." Theological Studies 51.. 1988). In this chapter. 1986). ed. yet the reformers' theological inheritance deeply influenced their response to a subject such as celibacy. Schillebeeckx. Hunter.8 celibacy unavoidably relates to pre-Reformation Christian2 thought in two ways: as a reaction to it and as a revision of it. Christian Cochini. Inc. David G. L. Nelly Marans (San Francisco: Ignatius Press. For example: Peter Brown. New York: The Edwin Mellen Press. trans. 19-72. no. 1992). Inc. Duke University. The Body and Society: Men. Philip C. 1-40. There is a great deal of scholarly work on marriage and celibacy in this period. Celibacy in the Early Church: The Beginnings of a Discipline of Obligatory Continence for Clerics in East and West. Marriage in the Early Church (Minneapolis: Fortress Press. A good overview of this thinking can be found in the following: Ibid.3 Both the reformers' sola scriptura and sola fide emphases acted as filters through which church traditions passed. Michael J. The Eastern Church also thought deeply about celibacy. Mark Dorsey Hart. Message of the Fathers of the Church (Wilmington. Elizabeth Clark. "The Chaste Heart: Martin Luther and the Discourse on Marriage and Celibate Practice in Christian Theology. I will say little about Orthodox celibacy. Christianity and Society: The Social World of Early Christianity (New York: Garland Publishing. Studies in Women and Religion (Lewiston.. Important Protestant Theologies of Celibacy Prior to 1950 From the Fathers to the Reformation Protestant theologies of celibacy grew out of the mature and complex thinking of the church in its first 1500 years. Delaware: Michael Glazier. 1521-1559" (PhD. A. 3 (1990). Apostolic Origins of Priestly Celibacy. trans. Van Vleck. Celibacy. 1983). Jarrott (New York: Sheed and Ward." Theological Studies 4 3 2 . but the direct influence of the Eastern Church on Protestantism's understanding of celibacy is minimal. Miller (San Francisco: Ignatius Press. Stefan Heid. "Resistance to the Virginal Ideal in Late-Fourth-Century Rome: The Case of Jovinian. "Reconciliation of Body and Soul: Gregory of Nyssa's Deeper Theology of Marriage. For a brief analysis of the Eastern viewpoint and canonical law see E. trans. 1990). This inheritance was twofold: the patristic writers4 and the writers of the Middle Ages. 1999). 2000). Women in the Early Church. Elizabeth Clark. 1968). For this reason. Women and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity (New York: Columbia University Press. Hunter. Everett Ferguson. 1994). In addition.. I will gather the Protestant literature on celibacy under two major headings: 1) several important historical theologies of celibacy dealt with in chronological order. the continued tension between Catholics and Protestants has affected the theology of celibacy of both groups.. 33-37. Ascetic Piety and Women's Faith: Essays on Late Ancient Christianity. David G. and 2) the contemporary documents (since around 1950).
9 Alongside the New Testament comments on celibacy. Ignatius of Antioch commended those who chose virginity5 in honor of the incarnate Jesus' celibacy. 6 7 5 Gregory of Nyssa was married yet had much to say regarding celibacy. Van Vleck mentions that Jerome was." Church History 69. and Augustine. yet without lust. "The Virgin. responded fiercely to 48 (1987). Hunter. In these treatments.7 were more moderate and thus defended the honor or marriage. and abstinence best? Important voices throughout the patristic period responded with a sometimes-confusing "Yes" to each of these questions. Jerome. celibacy and virginity will be used interchangeably for a lifelong commitment to chastity and not marrying. Later on he understands it as part of God's design for procreation. Some. Gregory of Nyssa. trans. he understands the sex act to be the result of the fall. and he also exalted the "virginity" of the church. a struggle appeared over questions that would come to characterize the history of celibacy. the Bride. although they considered it inferior to celibacy. Jerome. the earliest Christian writers made a number of incidental observations about celibacy. and Augustine. David G. and Justin Martyr held up the life-long Christian virgins as evidence against the accusation of Christian immorality. like Jerome8 were strident and condemned all sexual intercourse—even in marriage—as unclean. 8 . and the Church: Reading Psalm 45 in Ambrose.6 Ambrose of Milan. each commented at length on these questions. Porneia: On Desire and the Body in Antiquity. 1983). "the early theologian most frequently cited by sixteenthcentury Catholic theologians. Augustine struggled with these issues. much sexual restraint better. others. Hermas spoke of the need to resist sexual temptation. 14. Origen. "The Chaste Heart". The first extended treatments of the topic came from Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria. Aline Rousselle. Jerome. Felicia Pheasant (Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Unless indicated otherwise. John Chrysostom. Is celibacy a superior state to marriage? Is marriage an honorable state? Do ascetic practices (such as celibacy) tend to perfect the Christian? Is some sexual restraint good. 2 (2000). no. In his early commentary on Genesis." Van Vleck. like Clement of Alexandria and Augustine.
377. 14. W." 11 With marriage. that they may boast of the beauty of their husband. 1. 10." 46. 6. 1. H. A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicence Fathers of the Christian Church (Grand Rapids: Wm.24. Ambrose. trans. B.' Who is that Spouse? One not given to common indulgences. grace is poured on Thy lips.6. they must of necessity confess that they are inferior to virgins. 1955). He clearly states that marriage is not in itself sinful. "Resistance to the Virginal Ideal. Jerome.9 For Jerome. and straw on the foundation of Christ. Second Series. "If it is good not to touch a woman. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. 1954). Eerdmans Publishing Company..Ambrose. 11 10 9 . nonetheless. Explaining Paul's words. The Principles Works of St. and precious stones (1 Cor 3:12). Furthermore. ed. ed. 14 vols. The former is not reproved.. St. Some of the Principle Works of St. But surely a thing which is only allowed because there may be something worse has only a slight degree of goodness. De Romestin. St. Concerning Virgins. H. A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church (Grand Rapids. the latter is praised. St. wood. Jerome. not proud of possessing riches. Fremantle. But if it be bad and the evil is pardoned. Ambrose. Brown notes that Jerome's response Jovinian's was considered harsh and extreme at the time it was written: Brown. in the latter the glory of chastity. trans. vol. it is bad to touch one: for there is no opposite to goodness but badness. vol. celibates build gold. Jerome says. B. the married are those who build hay. "In the former is the remedy for weakness. 7. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Second Series vols. but He For evidence that Jovinian is best understood as the opponent of Manichaeism rather than the opponent of celibacy see: Hunter. Against Jovinianus. celibacy is superior because. than a wife. Michigan: Wm. he says. as such. silver. The Body and Society. to Whom alone it is suitable to say: 'Thou art fairer than the children of men.10 Jovinian's assertion that a virgin was no better."10 Ambrose typifies the dominant attitudes of the Patristic period. Jerome.3. St. the reason for the concession is to prevent worse evil. come abundant difficulties and sorrows from which celibates escape. "those who purpose to marry desire above all things.
he encourages virginity. Victor. and they wrote with an eye to celibacy as well.7. Lying behind the later works is the ebb and flow of the ever-returning tide of debate regarding the celibacy of priests and religious. Their writings. served. 302. David Hunter notes that Psalm 45 was used by Ambrose to transfer all the purity of the virgin bride. The Reformers also tended to stay within that framework. speak of marriage as inferior to celibacy. he notes. "The Virgin. rather."12 Ambrose maintains that he does not discourage marriage. says Hunter. the contribution of the Middle Ages to the debate should be mentioned. 12 . Before turning to the Reformers. the Bride. they also raise marriage a notch when they speak of sacramental marriage consummated in the conjugal Ambrose. however. the purity of sexual abstinence demanded of priests understood within the Levitical guidelines for priesthood. 1. Albertus Magnus. and the Church. to intensify the ideal of the church at a time when the church was in danger of being corrupted. This use of Psalm 45. refuting clerical celibacy and promoting clerical marriage. Schillebeeckx argues that the Patristic motives for clerical celibacy were: 1) desire for closeness to God. Hunter. From these motives came canon law and the detailed refinements of clerical celibacy. that is." 286-287. After all. which appears again in Jerome and Augustine. to the celibate Christian women. the church. especially those of Aquinas and Hugh of St. The vow of celibacy required of priests and of those entering religious communities eventually became the framework of all debate regarding virginity. In the Middle Ages a growing understanding of marriage as a sacrament came alongside of the older theology of celibacy.35-36. without marriage there would be no virgins. and Peter Lombard wrote extensively on marriage. Concerning Virgins. Important thinkers such as Peter Abelard.11 Whose throne is for ever and ever. and rejecting both the superiority of the ascetic life in general and thus the specific superiority of celibacy. Thomas Aquinas. and 2) concern for cultic purity. The king's daughters share in His honor. nonetheless.
39. "Erasmus and Celibacy. for these writers marriage is remedial. Schillebeeckx notes that even though the Second Lateran Council (1139) established the canon law that made illegal the marriage of all sub-deacons. on a more mundane level. Erasmus-himself the son of a priest-whose research had a profound influence on majesterial reform. 45-46. 4) Abuses. and prostitution. created scandal for the church. See J. with its unitive and procreative function. goes back as far as the Council of Elvira in 306 and the decretal of Pope Siricius in 385.14 With the advent of the Reformation. a remedy for concupiscence. which embraced celibacy. M. the cost of clergy families was greater than the cost of celibate clergy. 29. First. The convoluted history of official discomfort with the sexual activity of priests. The celibate ideal "found widespread." in Priesthood and Celibacy. deacons. while celibacy needs no such remedy. Finally. Celibacy. ed. Van Vleck. (Milano: Editrice Ancora. was considered a surer path to closeness with God. Second. "The Chaste Heart". yet he did so without denying his Catholic faith. Schillebeeckx. determined resistance" among the clergy. opposition to the law was strong and concubinage "assumed larger proportions" in the fifteenth century. though it was regarded in essentially positive terms. found reason to question the Church's stance on clerical celibacy both from his own experience and in the all-too-common immorality of clergy. "The Chaste Heart".12 act. Coppens. Ibid.. A. This requirement stemmed in large part from an insistence on cultic purity. 38. when the canonists began to see it as helping the church avoid two problems related to having a family in the manse. Charue. 16 . 599.16 5) Marriage was exalted as a 13 14 15 Van Vleck.15 Celibacy was required of all clergy whether secular (priestly) or religious (in the religious orders) within Roman Catholicism. that is. 3) The ascetic life. 13 Even so. or priests. the understanding and practice of celibacy had come to have a mixed status in the church. 1972). in the Middle Ages the discussion of clerical celibacy was further complicated. children of priests. such as concubinage (common-law marriages of clergy). 2) Since the Lateran councils of 1123 and 1129. 1) Celibacy represented a higher spirituality and greater love for God than marriage. et al. children of clergy made inheritance claims on church property.
22 Marking the difference between pre and post-fall sexuality. Hilton (Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House." in Luther's Works. it was humbled by being considered a remedy for lack of sexual self-control. rather than being justified by the blood of Christ. ed. he notes that Adam received Eve "without the epileptic and apoplectic lust of present-day marriage. Oswald C. Jaroslav Pelikan (Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House. 1:134. For Luther. "Luther Et Le Monachisme. including celibacy. "need commands it. 22 Luther. Before the fall. 1:115-116. the immorality of many priests and members of religious orders. Martin Luther Martin Luther wrote about celibacy with four concerns: the rampant. 1973). Lienhard notes Luther's accusation that many celibates of his day sought to be justified before God by their works. "Commentary on 1 Corinthians. Lienhard. When he was young. Luther concludes that "marriage is a divine kind of life. and at the same time. Martin Luther. "Lectures on Genesis." The Roman Catholic tendency21 was to cajole the young into celibacy. Marriage."20 He holds up this ensign of marriage against the perceived onslaught of anti-marriage Roman Catholic propaganda. God gave Adam a wife and the instruction to procreate. it was a chaste and delightful love. ed. this gift of God provided companionship and a medicine for immorality." Martin Luther. 28:27. 2 (1994): 11. needed to marry. 18 19 17 Ibid." and "God created woman that she should and must be with man. he says. no. He says. official deprecation of marriage. 1958). and the misuse of vows that prohibited marriage. he says. "Commentary on 1 Corinthians."19 Citing 1 Tim 4:1. .. "women must be used either for marriage or for fornication. in particular." 28:6." in Luther's Works.13 sacrament. M. is a blessed gift. "everybody was fully persuaded that anyone who intended to lead a holy life acceptable to God could not get married but had to live as a celibate. M. His remedy was the exaltation of marriage.17 after the fall.18 Of marriage he asserted. 20 21 Luther. the corresponding exaltation of celibacy. "Commentary on 1 Corinthians 7 [1523]. "Lectures on Genesis [1535]." 28:5-6. women." 1:134." Luther." Foi et Vie 93.
Luther.. the married couple must trust God for their daily provision.27 true continence forms a stark contrast with such "wretched. in Luther's day the priesthood and sexual chastity were popularly regarded as nearly mutually exclusive. Thomas A. Ibid. defined marriage as in accord only with the law of nature." No priest should vow celibacy. 2 (2003): 323. Fudge. Luther. due to the grace of God at work in the reforms."29 As Thomas Fudge notes. 44:175.14 Now. He insisted that marriage is also "according the will and pleasure" of God. no.24 Contrary to those in the endowed religious orders. said Luther. "To the Christian Nobility. because the one promotes faith and the other unbelief. while the religious are without faith." As Thomas Fudge points out. restore freedom to everybody and leave every man free to marry or not to marry. After all. 26 27 28 29 30 25 Luther. having everything supplied for them. Fudge." 327."26 Luther was scandalized by "the wicked and impure practice of celibacy". thus. he said."23 The canonists. "Lectures on Genesis. Luther believed greed to be the principle motivation for entering the consecrated life." 1:135." 28:21." Sixteenth Century Journal 34.25 Thus. the married are a people of faith. His penchant for vulgarity and hyperbole appears here in his reaction to these canons: "I shall defecate all over the canons and the pope. unchaste celibacy"28 in which "many a poor priest is overburdened with wife and child. "Commentary on 1 Corinthians. 4:222-233. "Incest and Lust in Luther's Marriage: Theology and Morality in Reformation Polemics. "we conclude that marriage is gold and the religious orders are dirt. .. "Incest and Lust in Luther's Marriage. he says. "Lectures on Genesis." 44:176. the desire of some priests for a woman is so urgent that "the pope has as little power to command as he has to forbid 23 24 Luther. "everyone declares that it is something good and holy to live with one's wife in harmony and peace. his conscience troubled. Ibid." 1:135.30 Luther had no doubts about the solution: "My advice is.
and so reflected the ancient honor given to celibacy. he honored it.36 Celibacy is neither a good work nor a state of perfection. W. 44:262. "Commentary on 1 Corinthians." 28:17. "Judgment of Martin Luther on Monastic Vows [1521]. 44:264. to remember that he was reacting to the abuses of celibacy38 and the deprecation of marriage." in Luther's Works. Also see. in 1535. "To the Christian Nobility. instead.32 Not only so. it is of utmost importance. 31 32 33 34 Luther. Ibid. 35 36 37 Ibid. much of the current problem would not exist. 44:256-258.37 In order to understand Luther's opinion of celibacy. Luther asserts. the natural movement of the bowels. He seems less vocal regarding its honor in his later writings.33 If indeed celibacy is a counsel—although Luther rejects this idea—then how is it legitimate to require it of anyone?34 In fact.."31 It is presumptuous to make vows regarding a gift that God controls. H. James Atkinson (Philadelphia: Fortress Press.. but if priestly vows of celibacy had never been required. Luther contradicted the prevailing opinion that celibacy is an evangelical counsel. 1966).15 eating." Luther. Ibid. 1960). and not about the state of chastity. Neither Jesus nor Paul counseled celibacy. or growing fat.39 If he appears to oppose it. Lazareth. Martin Luther. Luther desired to honor the Tradition. 44:261. Ibid. drinking. ed. Luther." 44:178.. the division of the gospel into counsels and precepts wherein the precepts are for all the baptized and the counsels for the consecrated is faulty. it is simply a means to doing good works.35 Furthermore. He hints that this is his specific target when he says his attack is on "the religious orders over against the matrimonial order. 28:23. Luther on the Christian Home (Philadelphia: Muhlenberg Press. Because they have a greater gift 39 38 . "There are some who can live chastely without marriage.. Yet." 28:21. he is still able to say. as noted below. "Commentary on 1 Corinthians. It is nearly impossible to be certain that one has the gift of celibacy. He did not oppose celibacy per se. both of them discouraged it.
Luther." 44:264. It is for this end that he aggressively refutes the idea of the superiority of the celibate and seeks to lift marriage out of its profane location and place it on the sacred plane beside or even above celibacy." he said. come from a variety of literary contexts and time-periods in his life. 56. "Commentary on 1 Corinthians. "Lectures on Genesis. Martin Luther. A thorough treatment of each passage is beyond the scope of this paper. Luther. Luther quips that Paul believes the single state is good "because of the impending distress . ." 345. then of course chastity is a nobler gift than marriage."43 However. delightful. It is noteworthy that Luther did not marry until 1525. 44:9." 28:49. vol.49 yet he believed than ordinary folk. The citations in this paragraph. "Commentary on 1 Corinthians. "The Chaste Heart". 43 44 45 42 41 40 Luther. 46 47 48 49 Luther. Fudge. one should marry. 45:153. "Lectures on Genesis.41 "Chastity is better. Luther."47 Indeed." Luther. "when one compares marriage and virginity. Van Vleck. Luther's Works (Philadelphia: Muhlenberg Press. . not on account of a halo in heaven. Hemut T. overall view of Luther's perspectives. 1966). Martin Luther. 28:16. Ibid. simply listing the citations without reference to their contexts can give a fair. as in this entire description of Luther's view.42 Celibates "have a greater gift than the ordinary folk. it was only so because of practical44 considerations. James Atkinson (Philadelphia: Fortress Press. Exhortation to the Knights of the Teutonic Order That They Lay Aside False Chastity and Assume the True Chastity of Wedlock. Lehmann. 1523).40 His statements above regarding the superiority of marriage on the one hand and celibacy on the other are difficult to reconcile." 28:16. if celibacy was superior in any way." 1:135. but if continence is impossible." This reflects the Christian position of the Tradition. ." 1:135. "Judgment on Monastic Vows."48 He admitted that a rare divine gift of celibacy existed." 28:11. 45. ed. "Commentary on 1 Corinthians. "Incest and Lust in Luther's Marriage.16 he does so only in the service of refuting scandalous practices.46 Nonetheless." in Luther's Works.. celibacy is "a beautiful. "A Sermon on the Estate of Marriage [1522]. and noble gift for him to whom it is given. each of which influences the interpretation of the citation. ed. Ibid.45 the practice of celibacy is not a virtue. Nonetheless.
28. Fudge. See comments in Maurice E. unnecessary.50 Responding to Paul's argument in 1 Cor 7:9 that it is better to marry than to burn." 28:25." Reformed Theological Journal 39 (1980): 70. Van Vleck. . says Thomas Fudge. 44. "The Chaste Heart". 54 Fudge. Such persons are rare. "it will be immaterial to God whether you marry or not." 45:21. Luther's efforts to show the fundamental purity of marriage by showing its prelapsarian existence were. spiritual. and misunderstanding than of substance. 56.54 thus they did indeed recognize that part of the thought of the Church was that marriage was good.17 marriage to be a superior. "Commentary on 1 Corinthians. "Incest and Lust in Luther's Marriage. . "Marriage Matters in Erasmus and Luther."51 Finally."52 As Philip Van Vleck points out. For example. A second example of basic agreement between Luther and his opponents appears in Luther's insistence that Gen 1:28 commands Luther. Luther. can marriage be said to make a priest unfit for ministry? Luther. "Commentary on 1 Corinthians. the arguments and counter-arguments of Luther and his opponents regarding celibacy were at times more a matter of posturing. Luther." he says. "Sermon on the Estate of Marriage. in a sense. "Incest and Lust in Luther's Marriage. Luther states. . asks Luther. and godly" order when compared to the "earthly." 28:47. "not one in a thousand. for they are a special miracle of God." 323. who are equipped for marriage by nature and physical capacity and nevertheless voluntarily remain celibate . would not give an opinion whether or not an individual should marry or remain single. bridled by the grace of God. and mandatory clerical celibacy on the other. The Church already considered marriage a sacrament. 52 53 51 50 Luther. . he does not balk at describing celibates as "those spiritually rich and exalted persons. emphasis." 28:20. both Luther and Calvin noted the inconsistency between affirming the sanctity of marriage on one hand. How then. worldly and heathenish" celibate religious orders of Catholicism. Schild.53 More significantly." 321. and thus fundamentally good. "Commentary on 1 Corinthians. "heavenly.
Clerical celibacy must remain and the Church would enact its own reform efforts in the monasteries. and Henry P.18 marriage. the Church was unwilling to yield to Luther's pushing. ed. and the Reformation threw out the baby with the dirty bath water. Church Dogmatics. 51-52. in conclusion. 57 John Calvin. 141.55 Yet. num. "The conjugal relation was ordained as a necessary means of preventing us from giving way to unbridled lust. The Library of Christian Classics (London: Westminster John Knox Press. though exceedingly rare. John Baillie. he explains that the seventh commandment is difficult because of the fall and that the fall makes man's help-meet more necessary than ever. therefore. Luther's few words in favor of celibacy disappeared from view amidst the torrent of his accusations against it. 41. A refutation by John Eck pointed out that the world was already well populated and humanity had fulfilled the command."57 The truth is that "natural feeling and the passions inflamed by the fall make the marriage tie doubly necessary. 2 vols. He believed celibacy was a gift. Karl Barth notes that Luther's inversion of celibacy over marriage appears in the Reformers as "the universal obligation of marriage on the basis of a supposed order of creation. "The Chaste Heart". save in the case of those whom God has by special grace exempted. ch. 8." Because complete. Luther would have agreed with the conclusion."56 John Calvin John Calvin makes similar arguments. In his Institutes of the Christian Religion. 4. Barth. John T.. McNeill. 1960). rather than as a diseased practice needing remedy. Marriage is the provision for the weakened human condition. Van Dusen. marriage was not obligatory for every person. permanent 55 56 Van Vleck. . Ford Lewis Battles. Institutes of the Christian Religion. The churches of the Reformation came to view Celibacy itself as a cancer. With time. III. 2. trans. bk.
num. bk. The Reformers' response to this contradiction was to reject the Levitical based moral uncleanness of sex. "The Chaste Heart". ed. Van Vleck. Torrance. even in marriage. answers Calvin. marriage is an obligation. in order that they may be less encumbered in his service. Fraser. 8. if we do not accommodate our mode of life to the measure of our ability?" Without doubt. 42. makes the same claim in 1 Cor 7:7. Paul orders all: "If they cannot contain." Furthermore. is to be preferred but marriage is not 58 59 60 Ibid. he insists that celibacy. this containing refers not to the body only. 2. David W. but also to the thoughts. num. 61 Like Luther. John W. Calvin's Commentaries (Grand Rapids.59 In his comments on 1 Cor 7 Calvin reminds "fanatical supporters of celibacy" who condemn as sin all sexual intercourse. . 7:6. Furthermore. MI: Wm. Torrance and Thomas F. 61 John Calvin. says Calvin. ch. 43.. 2. marriage is the remedy.19 self-control is rare. B. Calvin makes it clear that God's help to abstain from sex cannot be expected by those who have no calling to celibacy. 8. Calvin concludes by reminding his readers that it is better to marry than to burn.58 As a result. Calvin and Luther saw what they believed was a contradiction in Catholic teaching: marriage is a sacrament but sex is unclean. ch. let them marry. marriage purifies moderate sexual activity. 1960). according to Calvin. that Augustine taught the purity of intercourse in marriage.60 In fact. Ibid. do we not oppose God. bk. Calvin asks a question: Since chastity "is a special grace which the Lord bestows only on certain individuals. Paul. and nature as constituted by him. trans. The First Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Corinthians. when possible. If at some point continence becomes impossible. 177. Christ words in Matthew 19:11-12 specify that not all are capable of being eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom. Eerdmans Publishing Company. the blessing of celibacy may be temporary..
Maurice Shild notes that Erasmus. 7:38. are able to contract marriage. but for procreation. and. that all who do not feel that they have the gift of chastity. When celibacy is not possible. is not the reasons for which marriage has been instituted. or vow. Not that marriage exists solely for this purpose. (2) Yet no compulsion should be used to prevent individuals from marrying. even though they have made a vow thereof. 7:2. because it gives us freedom. one sees clearly where the point of Reformation teaching on marriage and celibacy had driven home. that clerics constituted in sacred orders. Many who remained within Roman Catholicism joined their voices with the centuries-long chorus of objections to obligatory clerical celibacy. . or Regulars.. and that being contracted it is valid. Ibid. Luther. The institution of marriage in Genesis 2 is not for the purpose of remedying the tendency to immorality. Calvin notes that in 1 Cor 7 "what is at question . Canons nine and ten of session twenty-four say: If any one saith. notwithstanding the ecclesiastical law. . may 62 63 64 Ibid. but the person for whom it is necessary. if they want to do so. and everybody who is not blessed with the gift of continency ought to make use of it. but the rulings were finally upheld. "Marriage Matters in Erasmus and Luther. ." 67. marriage is the remedy.64 At the council of Trent many contested the legality of the canonical rulings on clerical celibacy. Schild.20 unclean.63 Calvin. (3) Moreover marriage itself is the remedy which God has provided for our weakness.. and that the contrary is no thing else than to condemn marriage. was among those who did not believe clerical celibacy to be either wise or to have a biblical base."62 He summarizes Paul's teaching on marriage in 1 Cor 7 as follows: (1) Celibacy is preferable to marriage. in consequence better opportunity for the service of God. and. and the other Reformers were not alone in their calls for changes in the church's view of celibacy and marriage. who have solemnly professed chastity. In the canons of Trent.
let him be anathema..68 Fuel for the debate was often imported from the continent. See the Augsburg Confession." Church History 50. If any one saith. Second Helvetic Confession. no.. 68 67 . For the process of final authorization of clerical marriage see Carlson: Ibid. and that it is not better and more blessed to remain in virginity. 3 vols. Schaff. 49.66 Luther. 9-10. Calvin. Helen Parish in Clerical Marriage and the English Reformation mentions English translations of many works. John K. let him be anathema: seeing that God refuses not that gift to those who ask for it rightly. eds. 3 (New York: Harper and Row. Celibacy. Sess. 47. can. and reinstatement of clerical marriage over the following ten years. chapter 29. article 32 of the Thirty-nine Articles (1571). clerical marriage never enjoyed the unalloyed support of the monarchy or the leading clergy. Eric Josef Carlson notes that "although ultimately made legal. including several by 65 66 Council of Trent. 65 For the Reformers and the churches that they birthed. The Creeds of Christendom with a History and Critical Notes. "The Reformation Defense of Clerical Marriage in the Reigns of Henry Viii and Edward Vi. and other Reformers sowed the seeds that would eventually grow to such a height that by the mid-nineteenth century they would almost totally overshadow Protestantism's ability to view celibacy except negatively. vol. Yost. 2 (1981): 153." Eric Josef Carlson.67 Intense conflict was particularly common in the decades surrounding the legalization of clerical marriage in 1549. article 2 and its Apology. neither does He suffer us to be tempted above that which we are able. John Yost describes the complexity of this debate and describe in some detail the literature involved. than to be united in matrimony. it is evident that direct or indirect denial of clerical celibacy often became an article of faith. the Methodist Article of Religion (1784) article 21. 24. that the marriage state is to be placed above the state of virginity. and later. the subsequent retraction of that privilege in 1553.21 contract marriage. Marriage and the English Reformation (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.. 1987). part 2. 6th ed. See also Schillebeeckx. See Philip Schaff and David S. The English Reformation Hot polemical debate regarding clerical celibacy accompanied the English Reformation. 1931).. or of celibacy. article 6. 58-59. or in celibacy.
vol. Philip Melanchthon. An Answere Vnto Sir Thomas Mores Dialoge. 52. Parish notes that both Catholics and Protestants made heavy use of the Bible: "Despite their opposing view on the relative authority of Scripture and tradition. Burlington."71 This debate focused on clerical celibacy rather than chastity itself. and Heinrich Bullinger. VT: Ashgate. 13. 73 Ibid. 70 71 72 69 Ibid. especially in Luther's case.69 Accusations of a causal link between sexual immorality and celibacy were common. Policy.22 Luther. they abhorred the notion that vows of celibacy be required of clergy. 12. the Protestant theology of celibacy was based on expositions of 1 Cor 7 and in particular verse 9: "if they cannot contain themselves. 156.70 John Bale used descriptions of Catholic priestly immorality to discredit the idea of clerical celibacy.. DC: The Catholic University of America Press. 56. 17-20. for it is better to marry than to burn. Ibid. As Parish notes. The Independent Works of William Tyndale (Washington. Rather. Ibid.. ed. both Catholic and Protestant. O'Donnell and Jared Wicks. and Practice (Aldershot." William Tyndale was among those who followed Luther in emphasizing marriage as a legitimate remedy for those who could not remain sexually pure. and allegations of sexual misconduct added weight to doctrinal debate. Some Protestants went further and Helen L. then they should marry. 2000). Clerical Marriage and the English Reformation: Precedent. Anne M. 2000).73 These polemicists linked 1 Cor 7 with Heb 13:4 arguing—in light of what they believed to be the extreme rarity of the gift of celibacy—that it is better for clerics to live in honorable marriage than dishonorable fornication. neither side in the debate questioned the ultimate authority of the Bible. .."72 In large part. 3. "Issues of morality and theology were inextricably linked in the minds of many polemicists.. as were accusations of the immorality of breaking the vow of celibacy. Parish. William Tyndale. The reformers did not deny the possibility of celibate living.
her lightnesse. Helen L. 62. Consider. see Parish. Swanson (Woodbridge. 1997). Is Plainely Declared the Felicity of the Other [book on-line] (Early English Books Online." This author continues by pointing out the essential problem—the woman. Misogamy and misogyny at times entered into the debate.75 The intensity of the debate regarding clerical marriage declined sharply after 1563. 76 75 74 . celibacy is extolled as easier than marriage due to the many difficulties of marriage." in The Church Retrospective: Papers Read at the 1995 Summer Meeting and the 1996 Winter Meeting of the Ecclesiastical History Society. is Plainely Declared the Felicity of the Other." and so forth. These citations are from the portion called "To the Reader" in A Discourse of the Married and Single Life Wherein. He described the Roman church as "the Mother of Fornications" and spoke of Catholic William Turner. available from http://80wwwlib. Parish. Policy. Tyndale.76 In writing about marriage and celibacy in 1679. Thomas Hodge employed the same anti-Catholic polemical language that Protestants had used a hundred years earlier. Answer to More. but the vocabulary and themes established in the heat of the debate would continue to affect the English church and society for years to come. he says. to his patience. 1621 [cited May 2003]). to his humilitie. Also. to his sobrietie. to his meekenesse. By discovering the Misery of the One.baylor. In an anonymous work printed in 1621 called A Discovery of the Married and Single Life: Wherein. Suffolk. ed. 155. her pride.edu/eebo/image17480. R. sig. "'by This Mark You Shall Know Him': Clerical Celibacy and Antichrist in English Reformation Polemic. by Discovering the Misery of the One.ezproxy. the comparison of qualities. her stubbernnesse. N.23 implied that marriage should be a prerequisite for clergy.umi.74 while others considered the requirement of clerical celibacy to be a sign of the Antichrist. 255. UK: The Boydell Press. E7r-v. and Practice. The author asks his or her reader to "consider of that happinesse wherein man lived before he inioyed the company of a woman.com. The Huntyng & Fyndyng out of the Romishe Fox (Basle: 1543). her frowardnesse. and so behold that miserie wherein he is inwrapped since the time he partaked therein. "her wantonnesse. Clerical Marriage and the English Reformation: Precedent. to his gravitie.
baylor. thirteen years after his marriage at age forty-eight." in In God's Name: Examples of Preaching in England from the Act of Supremacy to the Act of Uniformity 1534-1662. said Taylor. 507. cam down to the brooks of the vallies . Jeremy Taylor.ezproxy. as They Shall Judge the Same to Serve Better to Godliness [book on-line] (Early English Books Online. says Wesley. Bishops."79 John Wesley John Wesley was a lifelong proponent of celibacy even though he eventually married. Priests and Deacons Are Not Commanded by God's Law Either to Vow the State of Single Life. 1673 [cited May 2003]). .edu/eebo/image/45578.24 nuns as "stewed. A Treatise of Marriage with a Defence of the 32th Article of Religion of the Church of England: Viz. In "Married Life. hoping to thaw their joints with the waters of the stream. 79 80 78 77 Ibid. impudent Whores.77 Milder references to celibacy can also be found in the sermons of the seventeenth century. whose knees were clog'd with frozen snow upon the mountains. he asserts that the Catholic prohibition of marriage for those in religious orders and the clergy is a "doctrine of demons" mentioned by Paul." for example. only to find they have been "bound to sorrow by the cords of a mans or womans peevishnesse.78 So it is for many. ed. 506. Jeremy Taylor illustrated the uninformed choice to marry made by certain single persons: The Stags in the Greek epigram. 1971). First. ." Hodges also quotes several Catholic authors opposed to clerical celibacy.. John Chandos (Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company. who find single life difficult and marry for relief.umi. deceitful. . In 1764. "Married Life. he published his most definitive statement on celibacy—a six page pamphlet called Thoughts on a Single Life. or to Abstain from Marriage: Therefore It Is Lawful for Them. in which he makes three complementary assertions. These quotes are from the "Epistle Dedicatory" and the "To the Reader" pages of Thomas Hodges. available from http://80wwwlib. This is from Paul's statement in Titus 4:1.com. till the young herdsmen took them in their stranger snare. as for All Other Men. to Marry at Their Own Discretion. marriage is not a bar to holiness. and bound them fast in ice.80 Clearly. but there the frost overtook them.
he says." Celibacy. although most of them lost the gift through their own lack of circumspection. ed. and the bed undefiled. but in an absolute devotion of all our heart and all our life to God. and John Wesley. Referring to the Greek text of Matt 19:12. since perfection does not consist in any outward state whatever. A. For the Word is Peremptory. (an idle dispute. Manson. if he will.. according to Wesley.: Sometime Fellow of Lincoln College.) we may safely say. 539. 1832). implying the superiority of celibacy. in the final paragraph. And least of all. Oxford. Wesley asserts that "every man is able to receive [the gift] when he is first justified. but with most it does not continue long" because God withdraws the gift through some "fault" of the believer. "The Holy Ghost says."81 Second. It has no Place in Scripture. (Not. here. "Thoughts on a Single Life. Wesley had stated this doctrine with greater firmness." and that "every one then receives this gift. Such a belief. having made clear the goodness of marriage. He cites Heb 13:4 saying.25 "Persons may be as holy in a married as in a single state.83 Some twenty years earlier. 84 83 82 81 . 1996). 'Marriage is honourable in all.82 Wesley proceeds to explain his agreement with Paul's statement in 1 Cor 7:1. He may receive it. John Emory (New York: B.'" Later." Third." in The Works of the Reverend John Wesley.) How could a Command be more clearly expressed?"84 Although Wesley moderated this view in the following decades. must surely have affected his often-unhappy marriage. he continued to maintain that all believers were gifted for celibacy at the time of salvation. Ibid. He readily counseled celibacy to those who could accept it. without disputing whether the married or single state be the more perfect state.. 540. John Wesley and Marriage (London: Associated University Presses. "It is good for a man not to touch a woman. 543. not a command: "We allow of no such Distinction as this. Blessed are 'they who have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven's sake. 59. Coe. is good for the one who has the gift.'" Ibid. Let him receive it. he rejected the Catholic view that celibacy is a counsel. "Upon the whole. From Wesley's 1743 Thoughts on Marriage and a Single Life cited in Bufford W. Choreito. because we find it not in Holy Writ. "He that is able to receive it. Waugh and T. M. let him receive it.
84. "To the Circuits: The Methodist Diaconal Order. let him receive it —This gracious command (for such it is unquestionably. 1 (1996): 8. celibacy had a significant role in the life of Methodism for many years. Notes on the Entire Bible: New Testament. such a man may live single. Oregon: Ages Software.26 he remained celibate until later in life. since to say. For instance. by the mid-nineteenth century. no. he lists both the advantages of a celibate life and the means to maintaining the gift of celibacy. Because of Wesley's strong commendation.85 Wesley's position is summed up in his comments on Matt 19:12: "Happy they! who have abstained from marriage (though without condemning or despising it) that they might walk more closely with God! He that is able to receive it. As noted below." Epworth Review 23. is saying nothing. O let these receive it joyfully!"86 Wesley. In Thoughts on a Single Life. (Albany. it was not until 1965 that the Wesley Deaconess Order allowed married members. Outside of Methodist circles. 1996). several millennial movements of the late eighteenth century incorporated celibate practices. In the United States a number of European- 85 Christine Walters. It would not appear again for one hundred years with the rise of the sexual revolution and singles literature. The Master Christian Library: Ages Digital Library [CD-ROM]. 86 . Who ever doubted this?) is not designed for all men: but only for those few who are able to receive it. therefore. however. such positive treatment was rare. presented a positive evaluation of celibacy quite apart from the debate regarding clerical celibacy. Nevertheless. John Wesley. a positive Protestant evaluation of celibacy had all but disappeared. The Shakers Several religious movements after the Reformation experimented with alternate understandings of marriage and sexuality.
and the Amana Society which came to America from Germany in 1843 and dissolved as a religious community in 1932. and swallows up the whole man in its own peculiar enjoyment. One of the basic Shaker doctrinal works. England. Through that vision. the governing power. which is formed by the near relation and tie between male and female. had a vision of Adam and Eve having sexual intercourse. As a gushing fountain is more powerful in its operations than an oozing spring. so that desire of carnal enjoyment. The Testimony of Christ's Second Appearing: Containing a General Statement of All Things Pertaining to the Faith and Practice of the Church of God in this Latter Day." Church History 39. 88 87 . Three successful celibate groups were the Ephrata Community. the Shakers. . Durnbaugh. she realized that the fall of humanity was sexual and that human redemption required celibacy. and which being corrupted by the subversion of the original law of God. Foster indicates that it comes from Benjamin Seth Youngs. . no.88 While imprisoned in Manchester. 78-79. the founder of the Shakers. that must be the fountain head. is far more powerful than any other passion in human nature. 21. converted that which in the beginning was pure and lovely. founded in 1720 by Johann Conrad Beissel and continuing today in a small group of German Seventh Day Baptists. Ohio: John McClean. all members practiced celibacy. And such is that feeling and affection. that has so sensible. the Harmony Society founded by Johann Georg Rapp in 1785 and continuing into the early twentieth century. (Lebanon. into the poison of the serpent.87 In what is perhaps the best-known celibate group.27 based radical movements variously associated with the Pietists. Ann Lee. . 1 (1970): 76-82. within the comprehension of man. Cited in Lawrence Foster. that mutually operates between male and female. and stupefies the sense to all other objects of time or eternity. and the noblest of affections of man. explains Shaker thinking as follows: What is there in the universe. Shakers sought to eradicate lust—the essence of sin—completely from their Donald F. stops the ears. that shuts the eyes. 1981). The Testimony of Christ's Second Appearing (1808). Surely then. "Work and Hope: The Spirituality of the Radical Pietist Communitarians. into the seat of human corruption. . and the Quakers practiced celibacy in a range of ways. so quick and ravishing an operation as a corresponding desire of the flesh in the different sexes? . Religion and Sexuality: Three American Communal Experiments of the Nineteenth Century (New York: Oxford University Press. . 1808). the Anabaptists.
" Journal of Family History 24. . the Shaker practice of asking married candidates to renounce their marriage destroyed families. in Union with the Church. ."89 Lee considered herself married to Christ and called herself the Bride of Christ—the Second Eve married to the Second Adam.—I felt my soul walking with Christ in groves and valleys. crying and singing and dancing was used to sublimate sexual impulses. so straight that if you go one hair's breadth out of the way. 1888). Testimonies of the Life. and to replace it with fervent love for Christ. Lee said. however. They are. reminiscent of the ancient Christian debates regarding original sin. Second. the heightened spiritual sensitivity of celibates. renunciation of marital relations for the sake of a religious call. Collected from Living Witnesses.90 Erik Seeman mentions that the Shaker doctrine making sexual intercourse in marriage sinful received four common criticisms from contemporary theological opponents of the Shakers. Seeman. and the Elders with Her. (Albany. New York: Weed. 1600-1800." Third.—It is good for a man not to touch a woman. Character. of Christ's Second Appearing. "The way of God will grow straighter and straighter.28 lives. celibacy was unscriptural in light of Gen 1:28 and the command to be fruitful and multiply. 163-165. First. 2nd ed. They hardly resemble at all the Reformation debates or the biblical arguments of Wesley. as really as if he had been here on earth. 164. the female-led Shaker movement turned women against all natural affections. Revelations and Doctrines of Mother Ann Lee. Finally.. . Printers. Parsons & Co. the impurity of all sexual acts. through Whom the Word of Eternal Life Was Opened in This Day. you will be lost. 90 91 89 Ibid.. no.91 The justifications of celibacy given by Shaker thinkers in answer to their critics sound somewhat familiar. "It Is Better to Marry Than to Burn: Anglo-American Attitudes toward Celibacy. Erik R. celibacy damaged the mental faculties and "as a result . 4 (2000): 411-12.
and Ecclesiastical Literature (nine volumes) by John M'Clintok and James Strong mention only clerical celibacy with an emphasis on the early church and the Reformers' debates with the Catholic Church. the Harmony Society. and the Cyclopedia of Biblical.29 and the higher marriage of the believer to Christ. They never mention celibacy as a Protestant possibility. unlike the Encratites who significantly influenced later Christian thought on celibacy . much less a norm. Orthodox in many other respects. Theological. 134. and the Amana society experienced slow decline. Brown. unless perhaps the Shaker tradition served to provide large nails used to further fasten shut Protestant thought on celibacy. 92 . they nonetheless fled sexual contact condemned all conjugal acts and procreation as distracting to and polluting the soul. relatively little changed in the hundred years following the mid-nineteenth century peaking of the Shaker movement. the Encratites forbade marriage. even the resurrection life. 1995). 127-128. In the late second century. However. for example. Vincent L. Giulia Sfameni Gasparro. The Body and Society. as the ideal of sexual continence came to be considered by some as necessary for Christian perfection. "Ascetism and Anthropology: Enkrateia and 'Doubel Creation' in Early Christianity. to the disputes surrounding the second century Encratite tradition are striking. Wimbush and Richard Valantasis (Oxford: Oxford University Press. major Protestant publishing efforts produced during this time such as The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge (twelve volumes). ed. 101. the Shakers were to leave little imprint on the Protestant theology of celibacy. They believed heirs was the higher life." in Ascetisicm. Other millenarians with a celibate emphasis such as the Ephrata community. Occasionally some Methodists chose celibate living.92 But. The similarity. Protestants and Celibacy from 1850-1950 Within the large expanse of Protestantism.
(Harrisburg. Anglican Religious Communities Year Book 2002-2003." Celibacy was likewise a feature of this movement. William Mcgarvey and the Open Pulpit: An Intimate History of a Celibate Movement in the Episcopal Church and of Its Collapse 1870-1908 (Philadelphia: The Dolphin Press. In particular.95 fruit of this discovery exists today. however. Notable among these was John Henry Newman..96 Kenneth Scott Latourette. The Anglican Religious Communities Yearbook. A History of Christianity. Edward Hawks. 24. 1953). M.30 Anglicans. 2002). "The Revival of the Conventual Life in the Church of England in the Nineteenth Century" (Columbia University. For an excellent overview of the nineteenth century Anglican religious communities see the following: A. it was associated with Henry Percival and William McGarvey. Allchin. "The Companions of the Holy Savior. 2002-2003 lists over one hundred communities with a worldwide total of around 2500 Anglican Religious. Sockman. 1935). 2 vols. vol. 1917). All these communities include in their rule the commitment to celibacy. who together with others formed a society named. 1170. the Oxford Movement (1833-c1860) and the religious orders that sprang from it. that Anglicanism and Protestantism rediscovered religious vows of poverty. strictly speaking. Ralph W. PA: Morehouse Publishing. 2 (New York: Harper and Row. 96 95 94 93 . This is clearly seen in the fact that some priests and laity associated with the movement left it and were received into the Roman Catholic Church. it was in the mid-nineteenth century. chastity. The Silent Rebellion: Anglican Religious Communities 1845-1900 (London: SCM Press Ltd. have strong affinities with Catholicism. and obedience. 93 In the Episcopal Church in America a similar movement developed. such as Anglo-Catholic movements. Protestant. 1958). and McGarvey along with others eventually converted to Roman Catholicism. continued to debate the advantages of clerical celibacy and the value of a Roman Catholic style of monasticism. Although the movement was Anglican. its understanding of celibacy was a return to Catholic views and not.94 Nonetheless.
97 A Lutheran Benedictine monastery. first because of the close affinity of many of these communities to Roman Catholicism. continues to function today.98 These communities and many others like them represent a movement that by its very nature has a somewhat unobtrusive and even hidden character. are better-known expressions of the Reformed Church that were founded in the mid-twentieth century. other Protestant denominations also have monastic movements.31 On a smaller scale. Weiser. Thorough research in this devotional literature would without doubt uncover many brief statements regarding aspects of the theology of celibacy. in Switzerland. Cloister Walk (New York: Riverhead Books. This one hundred year lull is likely one of the less desirable fruits of the Reformers' revolt against the superior valuation of celibacy and against the 97 Robin Sharp. is the work by Max Thurian. 3 (1966). Augustine's House. Frederick S. 1992). Tim Vivian points to current resources on modern Protestant monasticism in Tim Vivian. Marriage and Celibacy. Grandchamp. 100 99 98 Thurian. "Modern Monastic Spirituality. . Virginia: Brunswick Publishing Corporation. "Monasticism in Modern Protestantism. In Germany. this literature is slightly off topic for this chapter." Una Sancta 23. For an insightful Protestant view of Roman Catholic monasteries in America see Kathleen Norris." London Quarterly and Holborn Review 188 (1963)." Anglican Theological Review 83. the communities have produced some devotional literature. established in 1956 in Michigan. 1927). George Weckman. 2 (2001). no. no. Mary's Sisterhood in Darmstadt was formed near the same time within the Lutheran Church. a founding member of the Taizé community who wrote Marriage and Celibacy. St. yet their specific contribution to the theology of celibacy99 appears small. A notable exception that is examined in detail later in this paper. Nonetheless. The Taizé community for men in France and its sister community for women. as mentioned below. there was almost no Protestant concern for celibacy from 1850-1950. 1996). John the Evangelist. St. My Brothers' Place (Lawrenceville. See for example the pages on celibacy in Richard Meux Benson. and second because celibacy is subsumed under the evangelical counsels and life in the religious community. As might be expected. "New Directions in Evangelical Communities.100 Beyond this interest in monasteries. Instructions on the Religious Life (Oxford: Society of S.
Duke University." "The Church and the Single." and other such practical topics. a large number of Christian books on singleness appeared. "Ambivalent Bodies: Making Chrsitian Eunuchs" (PhD. Gary Robert Brower. Books with no theology of celibacy. . Most of these books attempt to address issues related to being unmarried in the midst of a society obsessed with sexual expression. a separate category of contemporary Protestant literature on celibacy needs examination— singleness literature with little of no overt theological content. Typical chapter headings are "Loneliness. 1996). Almost without fail. of course.32 disgrace of the Church because of the sexual malfeasance associated with late medieval celibacy. or as it came to be called. however. Although the majority of these books include discussion of relevant passages from the Bible. A number of Protestant works on singleness have no theological development of celibacy. both in the early church and the present day. one finds a page or two on 1 Cor 7 or Matt 19." "Self-Esteem. understand Mat 19:12 to refer to self-castration. This. Before looking at Protestant theological thought on celibacy. however. Typically. It is not until the sexual revolution of the 1950s that Protestants again begin seriously to address celibacy. very few discuss the theology of celibacy. singleness. Contemporary Protestant Theologies of Celibacy Popular Writings on Singleness and Celibacy Following the beginning of the sexual revolution in the 1950s." "Sexual Temptation." "Finding a Marriage Partner. does not mean they have 101 It is of interest that some.101 but the comments on these passages are theologically undeveloped. these contemporary writings studiously disregard Christian thought on celibacy from the end of the New Testament to mid-twentieth century.
105 In another work written for those who minister to singles. however. a number of women in the 1960s and 1970s wrote with an eye to providing psychological insight and religious comfort to singles. and personal Elizabeth Mitting. 1976). and she deals with topics such as dating. 1966). Single Blessedness: Observations on the Single Status in Married Society (New York: Basic Books.104 Britton Wood wrote a useful guide for those wanting to minister to the single men and women in their church. Several of them are thoughtfully written and fulfill their purpose well. Margaret Adams. as with all the others in this category. Wood focuses more on social and emotional needs. Barbara Sroka focuses on the variety of kinds of singles found in the church. and the problems they face.103 That same year Linda Lawson. More importantly for the purposes of this paper. loneliness.102 One essay of particular value is the contribution by Margaret Fox called "The Single Woman Missionary. Life as a Single Adult: A Church Study Course Book for Use by Single Young Adults (Nashville: Convention Press.. but again. . and does not include a theology of celibacy." In it. Due to their concern for the difficulties of being a single person. The Single Woman: Comments from a Christian Perspective (London: Victory Press. 1977).33 no value. Linda Lawson. she demonstrates the importance of celibate women in the history of missions. 105 104 103 102 Britton Wood. 1976). in a book designed for use by singles in Baptist Sunday School classes. Elizabeth Mitting edited a collection of essays on the woman's experience of singleness. ed. Margaret Adams's 1976 work focuses on the psychology and sociology of singleness. In 1966. focused on another often mentioned aspect of the psychological needs of single persons—self-discovery. Single Adults Want to Be the Church Too (Nashville: Broadman Press. they exemplify the barren state of contemporary Protestant thought on celibacy.
"Singleness is one of the results of sin in the world--one of a host of evils in which we all share.'"109 Clarkson describes in detail the faithfulness of God to her as a single. 1978). Free to Be Single (Chappaqua.. depression. 44-45. Because he is giving me a role as a single to fill for him. Here she is quoting John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress."108 That is. So You're Single! (Wheaton. singleness is a time of waiting for the right spouse who may or may not appear. and it is good. 11. Because God's leadings thus far have led me to singleness. all his waves go over me. who feel. One Is a Whole Number (Wheaton. N. sexual temptation. like others before her.Y. 1979). and dissatisfaction with life as an unmarried Christian. She. IL: Victor.34 identity.107 Almost all of these writers assumed that singleness was usually temporary state. . includes chapters on loneliness. 'I sink in deep waters. and the need to express affection. 110 Ibid. loneliness. the billows go over my head. For Singles Only (Old Tappan. Margaret Clarkson. 1978). fulfillment. NJ: Fleming H. 1978). Revell. Elva McAllaster. For example.: Christian Herald Books. 2:18-23 she says. The tone of compassion found in many of these works is exemplified in a heartfelt comment in the introduction to a work by Margaret Clarkson: "If there are singles who find the waters of singleness dark and deep.106 Writings by Janet Fix and Zola Levitt deal with these same topics. Janet Fix and Zola Levitt. IL: Howard Shaw. 18.' this is my message to you concerning singleness: 'Be of good cheer. after reviewing Gen. I feel the bottom. I'm free to be single. my sister. A number of authors share the view explicitly expressed by Elva McAllaster in her book on singleness: "For now. my brother. The occasional bits of theology in her book are sometimes cryptic."110 106 107 108 109 Barbara Sroka. They offer a self-help book for those who are single and who struggle with issues such as selfconcept.
LA: Pelican Publishing Co. 114 J. Clark Hensley. are not unique to singles. TX: Word Books. 1981). But until that time. James E. Wide My World: Narrow My Bed (Portland. Luci Swindoll. James E. I am still praying that--if it is His will--the Lord will lead me to the man of my life with whom I can share. "At thirty-four years of age. TN: Convention Press. Singles Alive! (Gretna."114 This quote characterizes the approach to singleness taken by Hensley and others. however. The Single Experience (Waco. Towns had previously written two books: James E.111 Not all singles. Towns. Good News for Today's Singles (Nashville. These issues. 24. This attitude appears in J. 1982). dating. are as oppressed by sexual desire as the Millers seem to have been. works on singleness authored or coauthored by men began to appear. the women also continued to contribute.. In reality. Clark Hensley's book where he quotes a single person as saying. and marriage is central to successful living as a single.35 In the eighties and nineties. 1977). Keith Miller and his second wife Andrea Ward Miller wrote on their experience after divorce from their first spouses and before their marriage to each other. IL: Tyndale House. I will enjoy the full life He has given me. Much of their writing focused on understanding and coping with the sexual pressure experienced by single adults. current Protestant understanding of singleness is that it is a time of waiting for the right mate. Luci Swindoll wrote a lively description of her philosophy of the Christian life. especially as it related to the freedom she experienced as a single woman. 1984). One Is Not a Lonely Number (Dallas: Crescendo Press.113 A common. Towns deals with basics of Christian living that apply to both single and married people.112 James E. Towns' 1984 book returns to the perennial themes of singleness when he describes how the suffering group of Christians called "singles" can find full life. 1985). self-acceptance. Towns. Towns. Rick Stedman is even more explicit 111 112 113 Keith Miller and Andrea Wells Miller. Solo Flight (Wheaton. For example. A proper understanding of self-esteem. however. 1980). . OR: Multnomah Press.
during this time of waiting for marriage. briefly address such theological issues Books and articles with briefly developed theologies of celibacy. sexual health is important. clearly indicates that the book focuses on helping singles maintain healthy sexual attitudes. Although each work has a distinct emphasis. The title of Harold Ivan Smith's book. they say almost nothing to provide the single person with a theological perspective on the nature of singleness—much less on the nature of celibacy for the kingdom. Single and Feeling Good (Nashville. goes to the heart of the approach taken by the majority of those writing about and for Christian singles: being single is difficult but one can still be single. celibacy is only for a while. and happy. Generally. Matt 12:19. The instruction and advice given is very practical. however. 115 Rick Stedman. Harold Ivan Smith. Pure Joy: The Positive Side of Single Sexuality."115 According to these authors. for it derives from the sociology and psychology of the times. 1993). Several works that appeared during these same decades include brief references to a theology of celibacy. We are not hoping to establish a new order of evangelical monasteries and convents. TN: Abingdon Press. "Note carefully that. 116 . 22:29. and 1 Cor 7. 62. I am not advocating that singles take a vow of celibacy as a permanent. chaste. however. The title of Stedman's book. Single and Feeling Good. He says.36 about the temporary nature of celibacy as he understands it. most of these works also include comment on Gen 1-2.116 What all these works have in common is a concern for the welfare of adult unmarried Christians. Pure Joy: The Positive Side of Single Sexuality (Chicago: Moody Press. The following works. since most singles eventually will marry. lifelong lifestyle. 1987).
Citing 1 Cor 7 she notes the practical advantages of celibacy. and sometimes quoted. Matt 22:30 indicates that marriage is a temporary. She calls on her readers to accept their vocation." This stands in stark contrast to Anglican attitudes towards celibacy three centuries earlier. notes Knapp-Fisher. 442 (1957): 145-150. Knapp-Fisher's concern is that some speak of marriage as the only "proper and natural condition for all men and women. several thoughtful works appeared. relationship. With the vocation will come divine empowerment." Jesus is the "Proper Man" and his celibacy indicates the inauguration of a new creation in which biological sexuality is deemphasized (here she quotes Gal 3:28).117 He concludes the article with a threefold counsel regarding celibacy for those entering the ministry: take your time.37 An early contribution is E. an 117 118 E. "Celibacy. G. G. In addition. marriage is the norm. He concedes that in the order of creation. no. . she says. not an eternal." Theology 60. however. by later authors. He writes from within the Anglican tradition and exemplifies a new twist in that communion's ongoing debate regarding clerical celibacy. look to your situation.118 In the 1970s. Christ teaches and models renunciation. but more important to her is the celibate character of the "new creation. Knapp-Fisher's article that addresses the specific question of whether celibacy can be a vocation. Margaret Evening presented themes that are repeated.: 148. look to yourself. whatever it may be. Knapp-Fisher. Going further than most others. There exists." In fact. By the time of his essay (1957). Evening notes her belief that the results of genetic research indicate that in human being there is a blurring of the strict dualism of male and female. Ibid. he confesses that some "suspect that a celibate can be neither quire normal nor completely at home in the Church of England. In the order of redemption.
TX: Word Books. Lee further notes that because the biblical Adam first lived as a single. Gary R. 1974). "Being Single in Today's World. 1979). 18-23. "The Church and the Unmarried.38 intermediary type between male and female. She believes kinship ties are now secondary to ties to the family of God. Nancy Hardesty focuses on the Christian's identity as a member of the new family. 11-21. The causes of singleness. To Be Single: A Guidebook for Singles and the Church. then God grants the single person the gift of self-control enabling him or her to live continently.120 In a volume edited by Gary Collins. Nancy Hardesty.121 In another chapter in the same volume. Leonard wrote an Margaret Evening. 120 121 119 Ada Lum. To Be Single. from life experiences. since the beginning of the church. Gary R. Review and Expositor. and not only so but each person is a mix of male and female. Lee describes in detail his understanding of the application of Matt 19:12. Publisher. According to Lee. Birth situations can include birth defects as well as genetic predispositions. he says.122 In 1977 a Baptist journal. Publisher. Life situations can include physical mutilation as well as psychological scarring resulting from abuse. are situations arising from birth. the church. ed. Who Walk Alone: A Consideration of the Single Life (London: Hodder and Stoughton. She also expresses with some intensity her conviction that the church has treated single women badly. 41-57. Collins (Waco. Single & Human (Downers Grove." in It's O. dedicated the entire winter issue to singleness. or from religious commitment.119 Another brief theology of celibacy appears in the work of Ada Lum's book. therefore. Mark W. IL: InterVarsity Press. 1979). Collins (Waco. 122 . Mark W. ed. 1976).K. 112-133. TX: Word Books. Lee." in It's O. and the Christian's highest fulfillment is in Christ.K. married life is lived within the larger life relationship with Christ. That issue includes the following contributions: Bill J. the single life is not foreign to humanity. She notes three implications of Mat 22:29: marriage is not eternal. singleness has been an option. once a person makes a decision for singleness.
39 interesting article on the history of Christian celibacy. Stagg begins his article with a review of the Old Testament treatment of marriage and concludes by noting that marriage was normative and nearly universal in the ancient Jewish context. A Single Thought: God's Word on Singleness (Chicago: Moody Press. he notes that a person may choose to remain single simply because he or she believes in the benefits of the single life. even though he or she does not have the gift of celibacy. . remain unmarried. "Biblical Perspectives on the Single Person. Stagg then describes in detail evidences of celibacy in the New Testament. contains no development of a theology of celibacy other than that which is implicit in the scriptural expositions. "Celibacy as a Christian Lifestyle in the History of the Church. one may choose to temporarily. In his explanation. He emphasizes the practical advantages of being single both as Paul describes them and as Hadidian himself understands them. no. 1 Cor 7 focuses on persuading precisely those who do not have the gift of celibacy but who are nonetheless open to remaining single. Frank Stagg." Review and Expositor 74. and each one has its own emphasis.124 Additional works appeared in the 1980s.123 several authors contributed articles dealing with the practical needs of singles.125 Don Meredith's emphasis is application Bill J. 1981). The article. The gift is a specific supernatural empowerment for lifelong commitment to singleness." Review and Expositor 74. 1 (1977): 5-20. His work on the single life contains a theology of celibacy almost entirely based on the exposition of 1 Cor 7. 125 124 123 Allen Hadidian. Allen Hadidian's emphasis is biblical exposition. He also gives a detailed explanation of the nature of the gift of celibacy. or for an extended period. 1 (2001): 21-32. however. no. Leonard. In fact. he says. and Frank Stagg dealt at length with the biblical data regarding celibacy. However. even without such an empowerment. 19-75.
rather than exposition or theology. His theological thoughts on celibacy appear in comments attached to a list of the typical passages relating to celibacy in addition to a less often discussed passage—Isa 56:35.126 Dorothy Payne's treatment is theological, though without much direct interaction with the Bible, as she mixes her theology with practical advice on recognizing the gift of celibacy.127 David E. Garland, like Hadidian above, is more exegetical. He wrote an article in 1983 explaining marriage and celibacy as portrayed 1 Cor 7. Via direct interaction with the Bible, he provides a useful overview of Paul's thought, although he talks mostly about marriage and relatively little about celibacy.128 Julia Duin's book is both theological and mystical. When she speaks of the theology of celibacy, she reflects a mysticism similar to that of many Catholic authors. She also quotes the mystical Protestant author, Basilea Schlink129 of the Evangelical Sisterhood of Mary. Duin asserts that the celibate's "undivided 'bridal' love for Christ is possible for any believer." Thus, she does not believe the gift of celibacy is necessary for one to take a vow of celibacy.130 What she apparently means is that the gift—the rare, supernatural empowerment given by God to a few—makes celibacy more bearable. Any person, however, can choose to "surrender sexual desire to the Lord and find freedom."131 From the 1990s to the present, several additional works have appeared. The Lutheran, French theologian, Jean Ansaldi, wrote an article that is primarily theological
Don Meredith, Who Says Get Married? How to Be Happy and Single (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1981), 42-47.
127 128 126
Dorothy Payne, Singleness (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1983), 19-21, 90-91.
David E. Garland, "The Christian's Posture toward Marriage and Celibacy: 1 Corinthian 7," Review and Expositor 80, no. 3 (1983): 351-362.
129 130
Basilea Schlink, My All for Him (Minneapolis: Bethany Fellowship, Inc., 1971).
Julia Duin, Purity Makes the Heart Grow Stronger: Sexuality and the Single Christian (Ann Arbor, MI.: Vine Books, 1988), 130-133.
Ibid., 132.
and secondarily psychological. His concern, however, is quite specific: sexual identity and its relationship to celibacy. The Jews, he says, focused on producing descendants, but regarding this focus Jesus declares, "It is finished." Procreation is now peripheral, not central, to sexuality. Since the coming of Christ, sexuality centers on the energy produced by human sexual desire. The celibate draws together his or her past and present sexual desire and then sublimates this desire in order to channel it toward the experience of God. Christian celibate sexual identity, says Ansaldi, requires two steps: first, an abandonment of the demanding sexual object and, second, the use of the resulting psychic energy to aim at another object that is non-sexual, that is, to aim at the love of God.132 Stephen Vantassel, an Assemblies of God minister, examines the current Protestant attitude towards celibacy in an article in the Journal of Biblical Counseling in which he reminds his readers of the existence and importance of the gift of celibacy. He offers five reasons why the Protestant church neglects celibacy: the Reformation heritage of anti-celibacy; the belief that celibate ministers cannot effectively serve as pastors to families; the sense of sinful insecurity in relating to people who differ from us; the sensual influence of our society; and the idea that God effectively calls to celibacy, so that there is no need to preach celibacy.133 William L. Isley, Jr. emphasizes application to a specific situation. He brings a particular context for celibacy forward: missionary service. He contends that the missionary calling involves a summons to serve those outside of one's own culture and an eschatological orientation. Following 1 Cor 7, Isley
J. Ansaldi, "'Célibat Pour Christ' Et Sexualité," Études Théologiques et Religieuses 67, no. 3 (1992): 403-415. Stephen Vantassel, "Celibacy: The Forgotten Gift of the Spirit," Journal of Biblical Counseling 12, no. 3 (1994): 20-23.
133 132
argues that celibacy fits well with this combination of commitments. American Protestant Christianity, he says, should give a more positive presentation to Celibacy as a charism appropriate for missionaries.134 Albert Hsu's135 valuable book on Christian singleness contains elements of a theology of celibacy scattered throughout it, and some of this theology is carefully developed. After an informative review of the history of celibacy, he proceeds to emphasize four things. First, he calls on his readers to reject the traditional view of the gift of celibacy that sees it as a supernatural empowerment to remain single; rather, Hsu affirms that all unmarried Christians have the gift of celibacy. He emphatically states: "If you are single, then you have the gift of singleness. If you are married, you don't." He finds no evidence in the New Testament of two categories of singles: some who have the gift of celibacy and some who do not. In addition, for Hsu, this "gift" of celibacy does not require extraordinary supernatural grace to remain celibate; the grace available to celibates is available to all believers. Hsu bases his position in part on a fresh exegesis of 1 Cor 7:7. Second, God has no specific will considering whether a Christian marries. To discover whether it is best to marry or remain single one should do the following: avoid rashly committing (vowing) oneself to celibacy because it can take decades to sense God's call; try being single if it seems like a practical thing to do, and discover whether you are fruitful as a single.136 Third, Hsu challenges Christians to give serious thought to
134 135
William L. Isley, "A Spirituality for Missionaries," Missiology 27, no. 3 (1999): 299-309.
Hsu is a church leader in a Christian and Missionary Alliance church. His book is perhaps the best Protestant overview of celibacy in print; nonetheless, it would be stronger with less eclectic, more systematic theological analysis. His book has been translated into French as Pour une valorisation du célibat dans la société et dans l'église, Marne La Valée: Farel, 2001. Albert Y. Hsu, Singles at the Crossroads: A Fresh Perspective on Christian Singleness (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1997), 77-82.
the freedom and productivity that can accompany celibacy. Fourth, Hsu asks that we remember that marriage is no more normative for Christians than is singleness. Thus, singles should be careful to avoid the inordinate veneration of or desire for marriage.137 John Poirier's exegetical article moves a direction similar to that of Hsu in attempting to expose the root of the concept of a gift of celibacy. He proposes that the gift Paul mentions in 1 Cor 7:7 is Paul's own prophetic charism. Poirier's key arguments proceed as follows: Paul was a prophet, being a prophet required celibacy (ritual purity), the gift mentioned in 1 Cor 7:7 is Paul's prophetic gift; therefore, celibacy per se is not a gift either in the New Testament or in its environment.138 Kristin Aune has written an evaluative text dealing with the following themes: a social analysis of the single phenomena in Britain, a critique of the churches' response to singles, a discussion of sexual issues, a treatment of the dating single, and a set of recommendations for the church. In addition, Aune offers a brief theology of celibacy.139 She describes the important role of single women in the New Testament, touches on Matt 19:12, and then draws extensively on 1 Cor 7. Like Hsu, Aune believes all singles have the gift and denies that the gift implies special empowerment. She develops this further by stating that 1 Cor 7:1-2 simply teaches, on the one hand, that those who fornicate should marry, and on the other hand, that if a dating couple can keep from having sex, then they should remain single.140 In the development of her arguments,
137 138
Ibid., 48-62, 110-125.
John C. Poirier, "Celibacy and Charism in 1 Cor. 7:5-7," Harvard Theological Review 89 (1996): 1-18. . Poirier's argument would be more persuasive if it were not for several tenuous links in his chain of ideas and his dismissal of 1 Clem. 38:2 which speaks of celibacy as a gift.
139 140
Aune, Single Women: Challenge to the Church? 96-129. Ibid., 122.
Aune emphasizes that celibate Christians are a crucial prophetic voice declaring that the primary human relationship is with God. 143 144 Helmut Thielicke.. status to marriage. Theology of the New Testament (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Gone was the association of marriage and motherhood with ideal womanhood: Jesus exalted celibacy as an equally. and in some ways superior. however. The Ethics of Sex.143 Helmut Thielicke's The Ethics of Sex is entirely silent on celibacy except for a brief remark regarding sexual sublimation. 57. It is noteworthy.44 Aune appears to move steadily towards an exaltation of the single state. The following works are representative of theological and ethical works that only incidentally mention celibacy but are written by more widely known Protestant thinkers.142 and then became the perfectionism that appears in writings of the apostolic fathers such as 1 Clement and Didache. she says. Finally." 142 141 Rudolf Bultmann. 2:224. . 1951). Theological and Ethical Works that Develop a Theology of Celibacy Brief Treatments The contemporary Protestant works reviewed so far have all had as their primary focus singleness or celibacy and are written. none thoroughly develops such a theology. on the whole. 1:103. Publishers. Ibid. In his Theology of the New Testament. 1964). 126. Rudolf Bultmann makes passing comments about the high view of chastity found in Rev 14:1-5. trans.141 despite her late attempt at the end of the chapter to put marriage and celibacy on equal footing. John W. Bultmann believes this view of chastity grew out of sexual asceticism as exemplified in 1 Cor 7. "Gone was the importance of the biological family: all Christians are equally brothers and sisters in Christ..144 Joachim Jeremias' New Testament Theology likewise Ibid. that although several of these works discuss individual features of a theology of celibacy. Doberstein (New York: Harper & Row. by lesser known authors.
Douglas W.145 James B. Nelson. warmly. Celibacy is a gift granted for the purpose of intensive commitment to the kingdom of God. God and Marriage (Grand Rapids. 40-41. Stott. Between Two Gardens: Reflections on Sexuality and Religious Experience (New York: Pilgrim Press. God and Marriage. and 1 Cor 7. New Testament Theology: Part One.149 Richard Foster devotes a few Joachim Jeremias. is the normal state. Between Two Gardens. . Biblical Encounter Series (Nashville: Abingdon.45 only makes brief mention of celibacy. such as his comment on the fact that Jesus commended it. and masculinely sexual. Nelson affirms that God's androgynous nature indicates that "no individual absolutely needs another of the opposite gender in order to be whole.148 Erhard S. 148 149 147 146 145 Geoffrey Bromiley. Bromiley makes only a few comments on celibacy. 1978). 1981). 224. Commenting on Matt 19:12. 1980). Gerstenberger and Wolfgang Schrage. he says. trans. Embodiment: An Approach to Sexuality and Christian Theology (Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House. 104. 174-179." rather he deals with it from the perspective of gift and practicality.146 In his later work."147 In the book. Jesus relativized it by bringing out the various options enabled by the rule of God. For Nelson. Woman and Man. Geoffrey W. Even if Jesus was celibate. Nelson emphasizes that Jesus was still male. the docetic tendency in theology denies that Jesus was fully. Erhard S. 1983). he concludes that marriage. Nelson's work on sexuality and Christian theology emphasizes Jesus' humanity as seen in his sexuality. Gerstenberger and Wolfgang Schrage speak of celibacy in the context of opportunities for service. MI: Eerdmans. James B. the Proclamation of Jesus (London: SCM Press Ltd. must yield to a call to celibacy for the sake of the kingdom of God. at times. and Nelson leaves the question open. Marriage. Even though the Jews absolutized marriage. Gerstenberger and Schrage further note that Paul does not deal with celibacy from the standpoint of "timeless dogmatic or ethical considerations. 74-77. 58-59. but celibacy is a gift that can take precedence over marriage. 22:30. James B. 1971). Nelson.
celibacy for the sake of focusing life's energies on God's rule. The contemporary Protestant writers reviewed above show little knowledge of each other's thought and little systematic theological thought. and Power. Sex. There are two exceptions: first. For all practical purposes. 1985). Money. that is. 1981). the modern Protestant monastic movement. Nonetheless. Generally. First. In addition. and Stanley Grenz. came a general disinterest in virginity for the sake of the Kingdom. and Power (New York: Harper & Row. Freedom of Simplicity (New York: Harper & Row. Sex. the historical background plays a major role in current Protestant attitudes towards celibacy.151 His focus in both works is on celibacy for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. Second. and second. 136-137. celibacy for the kingdom of heaven as a lifelong choice and as an alternative to marriage has largely disappeared from the thought of the Protestant church. the three Protestant writers highlighted: Max Thurian.150 as well as Money. modern Protestant thought on celibacy is weak. . a pervasive underlying theme exists almost without exception in these writings: all single men and women are hoping for marriage. 131-132. in the second half of the twentieth century the role of unmarried Christians again came to the forefront. Karl Barth. Conclusion Two conclusions arise from this chapter. The writings of these three men are examined in some detail in the pages that follow. Richard Foster. which. falls slightly outside the parameters of this paper. as mentioned above. Protestant interest in celibacy has steadily declined in the last four hundred years. 150 151 Richard Foster. With the demise of monasteries.46 lines to celibacy in Freedom of Simplicity.
nonetheless.CHAPTER THREE Major Contemporary Protestant Treatments of Celibacy: Stanley Grenz. 181-199. Karl Barth. Stanley Grenz. and Karl Barth One must perform two tasks in order to bring the clearest and strongest contemporary Protestant understandings of celibacy to the surface. In each case. 47 . In Sexual Ethics: An Evangelical Perspective. here it will be treated first for two reasons: 1) it is less well developed than either Karl Barth's or Max Thurian's treatments. the author takes significant steps toward developing a theology of celibacy. one must chronicle three Protestant treatments that rise above the rest: those of Max Thurian. Even though Stanley Grenz's work is the most recent. Second. one must seek out and synthesize several major themes found in these three Protestant writers. and Stanley Grenz. in each case the theology falls short of full development. Max Thurian. 1 Stanley Grenz offers a theology of celibacy that is directly related to his larger theology of human sexuality and marriage. First. Three Significant Contemporary Protestant Theologies of Celibacy Three contemporary Protestant works on celibacy deserve special attention. 2) Thurian's frequently cites Barth. Sexual Ethics. but also here and there in other contemporary Protestant writers. After briefly describing the history of Christian celibacy as well as the Old Testament and 1 Grenz. and therefore it is best to treat them together.
this instinct towards union expresses itself in an exclusive. 2 3 Ibid.3 There he defines the imago dei and describes its relationship to human sexuality. primarily in the church and secondarily with friends. singleness. Overall. Their sacrifice of marriage and family. Grenz affirms that singles are fully sexual and thus experience the drive toward bonding which is God's intent in sexual differentiation. The Social God and the Relational Self (Louisville."2 The experience of the single person. . Grenz's theology of marriage. Grenz has established a foundation on which to construct a theology of celibacy. 2001). 267-303. and celibacy rests on the foundation described in his larger work. Those who are not simply single but celibates for the sake of the kingdom find additional theological significance in their status. says Grenz. but also from creation. . The Social God and the Relational Self. however. In marriage. non-exclusive relationships. Grenz. singleness is being single for any other reason.. . Grenz distinguishes between singleness and celibacy in the following way: celibacy is being single specifically for the sake of the kingdom. reflects the self-sacrifice of Christ. God has thus designed humans for the same community experienced in the Trinity. 195. Grenz also notes that the "marriage relationship derives its meaning not only from salvation history .48 New Testament passages relating to celibacy. covenanted relationship. he begins to develop a theology of singleness and then finishes with a one-page theology of celibacy. relates solely to salvation history and God's mandate for community in the church. Stanley J. but more work needs done. As males or females humans are fundamentally incomplete and are motivated towards joining others in intimacy and love. KY: Westminster John Knox Press. For the single person this drive expresses itself in broader.
For Barth. Marriage. therefore. The ethical question of being male or female in light of the command of God holds for both the married and the unmarried. is the telos of the male/female relationship. not to marry is a valid option. but it is not necessary for every individual to arrive at the center. nonetheless the light of marriage illuminates celibacy and not vice versa.49 Karl Barth. Church Dogmatics. By creation. he develops a theology of human sexuality in two major parts. Marriage is the center of the circle that circumscribes the divine command regarding sexuality. The divine command as expressed in Genesis chapters one and two applies to every relationship between a woman and a man. nonetheless. . remains an option within the divine command. every person is oriented to marriage because humanity is irrevocably fellow-humanity. Barth speaks of marriage as being decentralized. 4. 140-142. 116-240. The continuance of the seed of Abraham. and Luther human sexuality was a backdrop for both marriage and celibacy. Both Calvin and Luther end up saying a good deal more about marriage than celibacy. and Barth reflects their emphasis by drawing much of his theology of celibacy out of his theology of marriage. nonetheless. III.5 First. 6 Barth. Church Dogmatics. regardless of whether or not they are married.4 From his Reformed position. 4. he develops in detail a theology of marriage. Second. he describes the nature and significance of male/female relationships regardless of marital status. influenced by Calvin and other sixteenth and seventeenth century reformers. marriage is not necessary for the realization of the divine command regarding human sexuality. Karl Barth took some first steps towards a theology of celibacy in the Church Dogmatics. Thus. Calvin. which was to result eventually 4 5 Barth. says Barth. III. In the midst of these topics he touches on celibacy in a few pages of seminal ideas.6 Barth further notes that the Old Testament world knew nothing of celibacy as a simple option. The state of celibacy.
and Matt 19:12 that marriage is optional. 8 Only urgent matters should occupy the 7 8 Ibid. Nonetheless. Barth reminds his readers of Paul and others in the primitive church who substituted celibate membership in the community for marriage. however. Jesus provides an example of one whose beloved was the community of believers. this obligation disappeared. Ibid. Barth says. . Barth points out that underlying Gen 2:24 and the union of husband and wife is the union of Yahweh in covenant relationship with Israel. Paul described the nature of this choice in some detail in 1 Cor 7 where he was careful to avoid forbidding marriage and also careful to clarify the justifiable motives for both marriage and celibacy. the second way is godly celibacy. marriage is "of supreme dignity. Paul prefers it for two reasons. Jesus' makes clear in Mark 12:25.. Biological procreation has lost its primacy. 144-46." Being unmarried. Once the Messiah was born. Thus the union of marriage is relative to and based on a deeper union of God with his people. Marriage is but one way to avoid the impossible situation of immorality that occurs in uniting the spirit joined to the Lord with a prostitute (1 Cor 6). since "the history of salvation has reached its goal in the death of Jesus Christ" all things of this world are provisional and passing away.7 For Barth. Because of the coming of Christ. 142-143. is also a great good. Sex in marriage is not a form of legitimated carnality. singleness can express the union of God with his child. Christ relativized the value of marriage.50 in the Messiah. was the obligation of all. and marriage therefore becomes only one of two possibilities. Luke 14:26. marriage is no longer an obligation. In addition. First. entrance into the community of God is no longer by physical birth into ethnic Israel but by spiritual birth into the universal church.. After the coming of the Messiah. and as Barth points out.
In light of these two reasons. In fact. should be expressed in relationship and dependence. 10 11 . 147-48. therefore. the light of the future resurrection. Ibid. not in isolation and independence.51 believer.9 Barth warns of certain tempting dangers in this understanding of human sexuality. a man holding this belief may see in himself sufficient femininity to make his understanding of humanity complete without the interaction with women.10 Both celibacy and marriage. 157-158."11 The divine command requires three actions from all men and women: 1) to desire to know the opposite sex. believers must actively wait. For Barth. The outward neutralization or inward duality of sexuality cannot truly portray humanity.. just as God cannot be properly understood apart from the relational Trinity.. and watch. belief in an androgynous human being is akin to the error of monarchianism. both of them chosen in the freedom of the Spirit. in which there will be no marriage. This belief entails the possibility of a man or woman living in isolation from the opposite sex and declaring freedom from the need of the opposite sex. marriage with its responsibilities can be a distraction. 2) to be open to questions from the opposite sex. "There is no such thing as a self-contained and self-sufficient male life or female life. Ibid. 163. so humanity cannot be understood apart from the relationship of the sexes. Barth objects. marriage is relativized and made subject to the same special call and vocation that applies to celibacy. One is the danger of exalting androgyny. Second. and 3) to answer to the opposite sex for all of one's actions and attitudes. work. The divine command requires male and female complementarity for the proper understanding of humanity.. shines into the present. For instance. 9 Ibid.
Like both Barth (whom Thurian often quotes) and John Paul II. 23. 22. after becoming a Roman Catholic he was ordained as a priest. Since. the role of the man is to act as "inspirer.. involves a permanent. he was a Reformed pastor and theologian as well as a founding member of the ecumenical. 170-171. Similarly."15 Marriage. Thurian treats marriage and celibacy together. Thurian.14 The nondialogical practice of the modern Protestant church in speaking almost exclusively of marriage has created an environment in which marriage appears as normal and ordinary. it is necessary that the divinely established order be observed. "nothing is normal or ordinary any longer." and the role of the woman is to create the environment in which the man can thus act. Ibid. Throughout his life. however.. In 1987. He believes that the theology of the one intertwines with the theology of the other. Thurian has continued to fulfill his lifelong commitment to Taize. Max Thurian The Swiss theologian Max Thurian has presented the most thorough contemporary Protestant theology of celibacy. male. 12 13 14 15 Ibid. they cannot properly be studied separately. Since the coming of Christ. Ibid. exclusive.. leader and initiator. . In the divine order. When he wrote Marriage and Celibacy13 in 1955. the only two options in a relationship are either order or disorder. Marriage and Celibacy. and all-celibate Taizé community in France. according to Barth.52 A second error against which Barth warns is that of equating the roles for male and female.12 This order applies both inside and outside marriage. says Thurian. and lifelong vow.
the call to celibacy is a permanent vocation. celibacy does not belong to the natural order.. Ibid. the call to religious celibacy for the kingdom of heaven's sake must be sounded. 44. In him. and the ending of this world's order.. so are vows to celibacy. . in Christ. In anticipation of the coming new order. the order of creation and law is fulfilled. marriage is one of two ways to proclaim the unity of Christ and the church. 50. marriage and procreation were an obligation. Now in the New Covenant. permanent. The call to celibacy 16 17 18 Ibid. is begun. inclines to "free marriage" or polygamy. Nature. called on those who could do so to remain chaste "for the honour of the Lord's body. discipline and asceticism" into their lives. they were to remain humbly celibate in respectful "imitation and glorification" of Christ's celibacy. and irrevocable. For Thurian.17 Celibacy is a sign reminding the believer and the church of the coming kingdom. but Christian marriage is not merely a creation of nature. renunciation. Just as marriage vows are exclusive. Ibid. "In order that Christian marriage may be considered as a holy vocation and not just as a reality in the natural order to be blessed and sanctified. Celibacy is also a vocation. Thurian reminds his readers that Ignatius' Letter to Polycarp. Marriage proclaims this unity through the relationship of the husband and wife. celibacy proclaims it by the exclusive commitment of the celibate to Christ and his body. including marriage. but unlike marriage. the foundation of the call to celibacy is the life of Jesus Christ."18 That is. marriage is a vocation from God. since the birth of the Messiah. 52.. In the time of the Old Testament.53 the vow of chastity and lifelong commitment to a religious community may be permanent and exclusive."16 According to Thurian. believers "accept sacrifice. says Thurian.
counters the two contrary forces of "asceticism" and "wild libertinism" of the Corinthians by presenting marriage and celibacy as two legitimate options for believers." Paul is addressing only the specific situation in which a young woman is vowed to celibacy and has placed herself under the care of a reliable man. when Paul states in 1 Cor 7:38 that "he who does not give [his virgin] in marriage will do better. According to Thurian. he clearly recognizes that gifts vary and he in no way desires to remove their freedom. It is voluntary in that a man or women exerts his or her will to choose celibacy. in the order of redemption. Paul says it is better for her to keep her vow. "What other reason can there be to justify Jesus' use of the same word to describe eunuchs by birth or accident and celibates for the sake of the kingdom than that he wishes to point out the permanent nature of that state?"19 In summary. Jesus illustrates the nature of celibacy by comparing it to the permanent conditions of birth defects or castration. Ibid. Paul recognizes two orders: that of nature and that of redemption. . it requires a gift. it is neither good nor normal for man to be alone.54 signifies to the church the "absolute demands of Christ.. 57-58. Thurian asks. Although Paul would like to see all the Corinthians enjoy the benefits of celibacy. it is a gift in that it is an empowering grace available to any who ask for it.20 Thurian believes that Paul. 55." In Matt 19:12. celibacy for the kingdom has three characteristics: it is voluntary. and it signifies something unique. it is good and normal for some men and women to remain celibate. in 1 Cor 7.. but due to the complexity of 19 20 Ibid. In nature's order. notes Thurian. and it signifies the new dispensation in Christ.
The Christian man or woman can identify these gifts in four ways: by recognizing the "interior witness of the Spirit. and as such." by observing the "circumstance of life. 68-78.. Ibid. Ibid. and the theological.24 Acceptance of either gift is to be distinguished from the state of indecision or waiting." by choosing a vocation by faith. Celibacy enables the Christian to have a completely unattached 21 22 23 24 Ibid. For Thurian. not moral or spiritual." Thus. and he or she can "give himself entirely to intimacy with Christ. "in the sight of God and in relation to salvation and obedience. 83. and by listening to the spiritual direction of the Christian community. . celibacy frees a person for fuller service to the church. 80. Thurian acknowledges that Paul prefers celibacy for the sake of ministry. Finally. the state of celibacy is not more favourable to salvation or to obedience in the Christian life. marriage and celibacy are two equally valid ways of life.21 Paul's reasons for preferring celibacy are practical. the interior. 86-87. is a vocation.. it is a gift. marriage. like celibacy. Ibid.55 the living situation—she could not live on her own and there were no celibate communities for her to join—she could marry without sin."22 The benefits of celibate living are two: a celibate man or woman can more fully engage in ministry. although they involve different values and meanings. but Thurian does not believe Paul considers celibacy to be an intrinsically superior state. waiting for a marriage partner is different from accepting the lifelong vocation to celibacy. Thurian describes three meanings of Christian celibacy: the practical. Practically.." 23 For Thurian.. "In other words.
and 4) theological motivations for celibacy.. Thurian. Christian celibacy announces a new order.27 Major Themes in the Modern Protestant Theology of Celibacy The major themes of contemporary Protestant thought on celibacy found in Grenz. 1965). the church becomes one's family. 105-108. but few thoroughly relate the two. trans. Ibid. Mat 19: 3-12 and 1 Cor 7. the expectation of Christ's return is visibly declared.. and Thurian. In this new order.56 love for men and women. 28 A notable Roman Catholic example of this practice is Schillebeeckx's two volumes: Schillebeeckx. Smith (New York: Sheed and Ward. Ibid.25 The interior meaning of celibacy is that the celibate has opportunity to focus entirely on pleasing the Lord in a singleness of concentration of one's whole being. N. Celibacy.26 Theologically. 2) the implications of Christ's celibacy. The latter requires more extensive treatment due to its centrality in the Protestant theology of celibacy. 28 They consider marriage and celibacy as the two faces of human sexuality. Barth. and to devote him or herself to people's needs. Marriage: Human Reality and Saving Mystery. Most contemporary Protestant treatments of celibacy mention marriage. 108-112. Among these few are Grenz. marriage is no longer necessary. The Relationship of Marriage and Celibacy The two most influential biblical passages that address celibacy. This trio holds that the sexual complementarity of men and women constitutes 25 26 27 Ibid. also address marriage. D. and the nature of the resurrection is exemplified.. and some others fall under four headings: 1) the relationship of marriage and celibacy. . 112-114. Barth. Schillebeeckx. E. 3) the eschatological context of celibacy.
128. God. God intends humans to "become more fully human in [their] own androgynous capacities. says Evening. reveals in Christ. not erase it. who is complete in himself. "Modern genetical research has taught us that nature recognizes a great range of intermediary types neither clearly male or female. She says. whereas a celibate person seeks (or at least may seek) to express an androgynous humanity. Nelson. James Nelson is concerned that the idea that men and women have complementary natures binds them to culturally defined roles. the believer may be called to transcend the biological functions of sexuality and in addition may be called to express the "man-woman polarity" in a single person. God. . They also believe that celibacy must contain that complementarity. Evening turns to science to support this concept." 31 All humans are capable of 29 30 31 Gal 3:28 Evening. . Two dissenting contemporary Protestant understandings of the relationship of sexuality to celibacy require further elaboration. Paul bluntly stated that in Christ "there is no difference . between male and female. Perhaps the arrival of the unisex is not altogether a joke. Since the time of Christ." one who is freed from the bonds of male/female interdependence. he says. All human beings are a combination of both sexes. Who Walk Alone. Between Two Gardens: Reflections on Sexuality and Religious Experience."29 The opposition of male and female becomes irrelevant in Christ.57 a fundamental feature of humanity. the "Proper Man. Likewise."30 Evening's understanding of celibacy implies that a married person expresses his or her biological maleness or femaleness. 104. both contains and transcends sexual distinctions. in the New Testament era the historic interdependence of male and female began to be erased. Similarly. According to Margaret Evening. .
God's desire to live in covenant with humanity is a further theological 32 33 Ibid. five major themes regarding the relationship of marriage to celibacy appear in contemporary Protestant writings. the Genesis account of the creation of a complementarity—a man and a woman—in the image of God leads to the conclusion that bonding is essential to every human person. First. Barth. 140. In general. 34 35 Nelson." says Nelson. 35 whether in marriage or in celibacy. embracing the whole complex of relations at the centre of which marriage is possible.58 both autonomy and dependence. mentions specifically that no true fellowhumanity can be lived in isolation from the opposite sex. as well as the other traits typically designated as either male or female. 36 Ibid. Between Two Gardens: Reflections on Sexuality and Religious Experience. Here Nelson assumes for the sake of his argument that Jesus was single although he believes Jesus could have been married and widowed. Thurian does not discuss anything similar to Barth's concept of fellow-humanity or Grenz's concept of essential human incompleteness."32 Jesus' own example affirms this. "No individual. both rationality and intuition. Third. Barth. the creation of men and women in the image of the three-in-one unity called the Trinity indicates that God calls human beings to a unity in diversity that expresses itself in marriage as well as in celibate service to others. III. Thurian. 4.34 Grenz. Barth.. ."36 Second. single person33 whose eros was expressed in non-genital "intimacy and communion" that did not require complementarity through relationships with females. 104-105. Barth says marriage is the telos of male/female relationship. Church Dogmatics. on the other hand. He was a whole. and various others would heartily disagree. nevertheless. 163. "absolutely needs another of the opposite gender in order to be whole. This may be in part because he discusses only single-sex communal expressions of celibacy. "the sphere of male and female is wider than that of marriage.
sacrifice. Hsu emphasizes that marriage is no more normative than celibacy. Ibid. and celibacy was placed beside marriage to form an ellipse.. 38 the celibate's exclusive commitment to Christ is also a sign of these divine relationships.. 62. Hsu. Fourth. Thurian. 59."41 This foundation consists of three pieces. Theology of the Body. 116. He also calls them to marriage or celibacy. Implications of Christ's Celibacy Contemporary Protestant thought on celibacy gives surprisingly little attention to the theological import of Christ's celibacy. Singles at the Crossroads. Marriage is a sign of these divine relationships. Lee. 69. obedience. nonetheless. Christ's bride is the church. God calls believers to salvation. Hsu does not distinguish between the implications of creation order and those of redemption. is single for part of his or her life and singleness is a normal state." and "The 'Superiority' of Continence Does Not Devalue Marriage. 40 41 39 Thurian. for example considers Christ's celibacy to be "the valid foundation of the vocation of celibacy in the new era." in Pope John Paul II." 48. Christ's celibacy called into question the Jewish understanding of why there is disorder in 37 38 Ibid. "The Church and the Unmarried. Marriage and Celibacy. 270-275. John Paul II develops the relationship of original solitude to celibacy in the addresses "the Effective and Privileged Way of Continence. Christ's work of redemption established a new order39 in which marriage was moved from the center of the circle of God's salvific work related to human sexuality. Mark Lee notes that in Gen 2 Adam's singleness preceded marriage. . Everyone. 40 Finally. Almost every Protestant author writing on singleness or celibacy mentions Jesus' celibacy. and so forth. Thus. Evening and Thurian. these two acts can receive God's blessing and God's grace. however. First. 49. 37 Yahweh's wife is Israel.59 resource for understanding marriage and celibacy. these authors provide little developed comment. he says. develop the theme somewhat.
Third. the renunciation of marriage. however. "in honor of the Lord's flesh. . in the new order of the end of time in which we live. there was a new solution—the ideal of perfection found in the Sermon on the Mount and exemplified in Christ. to signify and make real that expectation. and. renunciation. one way Jesus both modeled and taught what it was to be in the world but not of the world was by being celibate. for some. "While we wait for the return of Christ which will give us holiness. discipline and asceticism into our life. but because. 50. Thurian says to his readers. the law was the solution to the problem of man's "disordered passions. Ignatius. notes Thurian. responding to his example and invitation. and how to solve this problem. V.. For Jewish persons. now "there are those for whom entrance into the married state is not only not commanded but temporarily or 42 43 Ibid. we must accept sacrifice. Jesus invited his followers to renunciations. Thus. we have to live in the world. Christ's celibacy declares the coming end of the order of creation and nature and the inauguration of a new order. That is."43 In summary. God places in his Church the signs of the kingdom of heaven." for Christians. by giving men and women an alternative to marriage. reflecting Ignatius' thought. 51-52." This they do."42 Celibacy— Christ's and that of his followers—is a concrete instance of this discipline. of which celibacy is one. Letter to Polycarp. Ibid. observe celibacy. the kingdom of God. contemporary Protestants find Christ's celibacy to be theologically significant in several ways. As Barth said. Second. 2. "not in order to choose a morally better way.. and in particular. Christ broke the mold of Jewish practice in his day. So today some of his followers.60 creation and nature. In light of the inadequacy of the law and in light of this new solution. by being celibate he lived as a sign of God's heavenly kingdom. First.
"Dignity and personhood come not from marriage and progeny but from identity within the kingdom of God. Christ's celibacy radically altered the older concept of human sexuality. the import of Christ's celibacy is neither the denunciation of marriage nor the institutionalization of celibacy. Church Dogmatics. Rather. 145. Singles at the Crossroads. Finally. the church. 35." Ibid. but the new family. Karl Barth would almost certainly disagree. III. blurring the sharp duality of male and female. Christ's celibacy made it clear that the priority for believers is not the physical family.45 Third. 4." Christ redefines human life by. nonetheless. "The nature of man as created by God has not been changed by the dawn of the last time. First. He says. In the resurrection."46 Eschatological Context of Celibacy Jesus' comment in Mat 22:3047 places celibacy in an eschatological context." 44 The older theology of marriage was forced to make room for new understandings of how the fallen human passions can be held in check and how men and women made in the image of God the Redeemer can live out their redemption. Christ's celibacy removed the obligation to marry that existed in ancient Judaism. He also specifically rejects anything that "necessarily entails effeminacy in the male or mannishness in the female. Most contemporary Protestants writings on celibacy do no more than quote this verse. That is. some themes do appear." Barth. Christ's celibacy proclaimed the inaugurated and coming kingdom of God in which there will be no marriage. Second. 44 45 Barth. Church Dogmatics. III. Mark 12:25 and Luke 20:35. 46 47 Hsu. opening the way for androgynous expression of humanity. in part. 157. according to Evening. there is no marriage. 4. She describes Christ as the "Proper Man" who is "the norm of the new realm. As Hsu noted.. . 144.61 even permanently forbidden. Cf.
Paul emphasizes the present distress and the nearness of the eschaton. celibacy reminds the Church of the need to avoid "being possessed by the attractions of the world. He extols the privilege that celibate men and women have of giving themselves entirely to an intimacy with Christ in which 48 49 50 51 52 See for example. Marriage and Celibacy. Thurian. as Thurian notes. To manifest love for God. Church Dogmatics. 49. 147. "marriage stands under the shadow of this imminent end. Thus. Thurian. Rather than giving deep. Some Protestant writers speak of celibacy as a voluntary commitment motivated by love for God.48 Second. Thurian celebrates this love.49 Third. with reservations. Marriage and Celibacy. It began in Eden and will end in the resurrection. Lum. 113. III. four are prominent. exclusive love to another human being. 4. 114-115. in either marriage or celibacy. 105. we live provisionally. some believers choose to give this profound love directly to God through celibacy. The first. Theological Motivations for Celibacy The most prominent contemporary Protestant theme in the theology of celibacy relates to its theological motivations. Single & Human.. 19. Ibid. as Barth notes.62 marriage is not eternal. ultimate human fulfillment comes from God alone. among the specifically theological motivations for celibacy is love for God. 146-147. . not from marriage. Barth. What theological impulses bring men and women to choose celibacy? According to current Protestant thought.51 On the other hand." 50 For that reason."52 Because we live in the end time celibacy is an appropriate means of carrying out Christ's purposes.
Ada Lum expands this idea when she notes that celibates serve as an important witness to Christian married persons. 44. celibacy can also provide men and women with an example of this bond. the man or woman who chooses the celibate expression of love for Christ becomes a prophetic voice declaring to all that the primary human relationship is with God and eternity. Christian singles should model their singleness in such a way as to 53 54 Ibid. Barth."55 J. Single & Human. 19. Lum. 132.54 This bond is. 83. as Kristin Aune notes. then. 143. marriage provided men and women with a living example of the bond of God and his people. Celibacy chosen as love for Christ reminds all believers that the primary love of one's life must be love for God. mirrors two fundamental relationships mentioned in Scripture: the Old Testament relationship of Yahweh with his people—he is their faithful Lover and Husband.63 deep love for God and a bond with God find unique expression. says Thurian. Christian singleness acts as a prophetic sign that 'the time is short' and Jesus is returning soon. now. Church Dogmatics.. Ansaldi describes the psychological mechanism that takes place in this commitment: the celibate redirects psychic/sexual energy from a human object to God.56 Therefore. Duin. and the New Testament relationship of Christ as the bridegroom of the church. III. whereas in the Old Testament. a love that offers the whole self.53 This bond. According to these Protestant authors. celibacy is a unique vehicle for exhibiting love for Christ. Marriage and Celibacy. The fact that marriage is eschatologically temporary (Mat 22:30) implies the existence of a deeper. Purity Makes the Heart Grow Stronger. It is "undivided 'bridal' love for Christ. 55 56 . eternal loverelationship with Christ. 4. because of the coming of Christ and his celibate practice and teachings. Barth notes that. See the same idea in Thurian. as Julia Duin describes it.
IL: InterVarsity Press. 62 Ibid. however. and lifelong commitment. as understood by Protestants. . Who Walk Alone.'" 57 To follow a divine vocation.60 Thurian specifies yet further the definition of the call. G. 55. on the one hand. Anyone. Tim Stafford denies that celibacy is a special calling. commitment. The second theological motivation for celibacy that is mentioned by some contemporary Protestants is a divinely given call. and he or she should expect neither a call to it nor a special empowerment in it. Evening. and marrying and being given in marriage. . Thurian."62 As is apparent." 144. In Luke 17:27 Jesus warns his followers not to be like those in the days of Noah who were 'eating and drinking. Knapp-Fisher reminds the Anglican Church that "the call to the unmarried state is a true and proper vocation" and that with the call comes the special grace to respond to it. For instance. in their view of the nature of the vocational commitment to celibacy.64 remind the church and to warn the world that judgment is approaching. Like marriage. the flood came and destroyed all of them. 113. can choose singleness. Single Women: Challenge to the Church? 118.. Jesus cautioned people against becoming like those for whom the future is meaningless and all that matters is marriage. Knapp-Fisher. 145. he says. 115. Although most of the following authors would agree to 57 58 59 60 61 Aune. E. 1993). questions regarding the call to celibacy closely relate to questions regarding the gift of celibacy. celibacy is a permanent. typically implies a long-term. . Tim Stafford.61 Thurian sharply distinguishes celibacy from "mere waiting for marriage. The "call" or "vocation". 89. He bases this in part on Jesus' comparison of eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom with the permanent condition of eunuchs by birth defect and castration. Protestant authors vary greatly.58 On the other hand. until . "Celibacy. Marriage and Celibacy. though not necessarily irrevocable. exclusive. Sexual Chaos (Downers Grove.59 Margaret Evening concurs: divine empowerment accompanies the vow to remain single. he says.
upon responding to the call. for example. see the call as specific to an individual man or woman. Evening and Lee. Duin seems to agree. and that the gift is necessary for faithful celibate living. and then the Christian recognizes that he or she has the gift. A Single Thought: God's Word on Singleness. 55. deserves mention for his distinct view that all believers begin their Christian lives with the gift of celibacy. 64 2) Thurian believes that anyone who asks for the gift of celibacy receives it. "Thoughts on a Single Life. 65 66 64 63 Thurian.66 3) Poirier. Lee. Hadidian also notes that the gift is not necessary for choosing celibacy. Hadidian. Aune. that is. There is nonetheless a difference between Thurian and the other two writers. Who Walk Alone. Nonetheless. Poirier makes his stand on an exegetical foundation. That is. that is.65 This is also similar to the position of both Evening and Lee. "The Church and the Unmarried.65 define the "gift" of celibacy as a special divine empowerment for living the celibate life." 540. 58-59. Duin. Wesley. Factors such as the fear of marriage or an aversion to persons of the opposite sex. . 132. and see the gift as accompanying the call. although most soon lose it through personal defects. can lead one to remain single even though one does not have a special endowment of grace for celibacy. Upon choosing it. Marriage and Celibacy. who say that the gift comes with the vocation. the gift is granted. He says that in Wesley. 1) Hadidian. God first grants the gift. says Hadidian. believes the gift of celibacy leads to the decision to remain celibate. one may choose celibacy with or without the gift. as traditionally understood. Evening. and Hsu deny that the gift. 121. although not a contemporary Protestant. when one receives the call one also receives the gift. exists. Purity Makes the Heart Grow Stronger. there are at least three perspectives63 on the relationship of the gift to celibacy." 49. and therefore. however. Thurian believes the call to celibacy is general and thus any believer can choose celibacy. The gift in this case is a potential to be actualized. and finally the Christian chooses the lifelong exercise of the gift.
68 69 70 67 Poirier. she says.66 1 Co 7:7 Paul refers to his own gift of prophecy and his observance of "prophetic celibacy. the concept of vocation. 2) the empowerment is granted upon accepting the call. she believes that single women and men. especially as it relates to the vows associated Poirier draws from the discussion of prophetic celibacy in Geza Vermes. As a result. Single Women: Challenge to the Church? 110. "Celibacy and Charism in 1 Cor. Thurian's and E. 1973). he says that the gift of celibacy is not a special empowerment. consequently anyone can choose celibacy. there is no such thing as a gift of celibacy. Singles at the Crossroads. The power to live celibately is the same power available in Christ to all believers. . all singles have the gift. married women and men. Thus. there is no special divinely given propensity for singleness that points to a divine vocation to celibacy."67 the verse does not refer to a separate gift of celibacy. 58-62. by virtue of the fact that they are married.68 Consequently. That is. it is not a spiritual gift. Aune. being and staying single is a choice freely made at any time. In a chapter dedicated to this issue. for Poirier. Knapp-Fisher's Anglican context reflects the ancient tradition of the church on two key points: 1) the call is general. G. Hsu. have the gift of celibacy. Furthermore. 7:5-7. have the gift of marriage. likewise. but rather it is simply another way of referring to the fact of singleness. from the context of the authors.69 Hsu agrees. there are not two tiers of singles—those who have the gift and those who do not. by virtue of the fact that they live in singleness. the gift has no necessary permanence. he says. in part. Jesus the Jew (Philadelphia: Fortress Press.70 These postures taken toward the issue of gift and calling come. Aune equates the gift of celibacy with the state of singleness." 7. For these two men. nor is there a special empowerment for faithful celibate living.
. . 1984). Grenz approaches this somewhat differently. Aune." 16. now they are available in the church. Grenz. "Evangelicalism.67 with a religious order. the church. . Marriage and Celibacy. Sexual Ethics. believers have a new family—the church. Elwell (Grand Rapids. the exclusive nature of divine love is presented in the marital bond. V. ed. Thurian. Pierard defines evangelicalism as "the movement in modern Christianity. To bond with the believer's new family. . A few contemporary Protestant writers mention a third reason men and women choose celibacy: recognition of the church's role as spiritual family. it is because of this new family that marriage is no longer a requirement. the church can become the celibate's family where "human brotherhood and sonship of God are of a spiritual kind. 112-114. from a more contemporary evangelical71 perspective. that emphasizes conformity to the basic tenets of the faith and a missionary outreach of compassion and urgency. 195. "Being Single. Singleness. is "intended to form a reflection of God as the One who loves. Pierard. The celibate Christian can choose the wider family of faith over blood ties.72 For Thurian. Specifically." in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Hardesty notes that kinship ties are now secondary. Hsu. the universal. namely. he says. Marriage. Walter A. and expanding nature of the divine love." R."73 The bonds of community essential to human nature were previously expressed primarily in the family. and Lee on the other hand. lies in the background of their analysis. nonexclusive. 72 73 74 71 Hardesty. on the other hand. Beginning with Christ. readily reject or ignore tradition where they believe it conflicts with either their interpretation of Scripture or the needs of single men and women."74 Within R. constitutes an equally powerful image of yet another dimension of the divine reality as the One who loves. transcending denominational and confessional boundaries. MI: Baker Book House. V.
Anthony. there is wide agreement among authors regarding the general benefits related to the single life. Koons and Michael J. III. the demands of the Christian life lived to the full often work against the concerns of family life."77 That is. Second. In fact. both aspects of divine love are reflected: married couples reflect God's exclusive love. celibate women and men reflect God's nonexclusive love. for example. 76 77 75 Thurian. MI: Baker Book House. Ibid. To enjoy the practical benefits of celibacy as compared to marriage.75 Because Paul's comments are relatively straightforward. 19-75. Barth. 112. celibate men and women are able to offer undistracted devotion to the Lord (1 Cor 7:35). and a concern for the spiritual and psychological wellbeing of single men and women. 147-148. Nonetheless. Conclusion In general. Carollyn A."76 That is. "Celibacy is well suited to the contemplative life. four See. the following: Hadidian. "Celibacy permits a freedom and an unattachedness in the Christian life and in the ministry which make it very appropriate to the service of the Church. most contemporary Protestant authors writing on celibacy make mention of 1 Cor 7 and Paul's description of practical advantages of remaining single. 1991). A Single Thought: God's Word on Singleness. the strength of contemporary Protestant work on celibacy is twofold: a willingness to treat the texts of the New Testament seriously. The most frequently quoted passages from 1 Cor 7 are verse 28 and verses 32-35. Church Dogmatics. A final motivation that leads some men and women choose celibacy—its practical advantages over marriage—is mentioned by many Protestant authors.68 the church. Single Adult Passages: Uncharted Territories (Grand Rapids. .. 105. Thurian's analysis captures well the thought of his fellow authors in two statements. 74-76. First. 4. Marriage and Celibacy.
Third. theological. and the purpose of sexuality in both the present and future kingdom. although nearly all the potential features of a theology of celibacy can be found scattered like seeds among the Protestant writings. In addition. but his philosophical. Barth's theology of celibacy is perhaps broadest in that he approaches celibacy from a number of theological perspectives. and ecclesiastical framework that underpins their understanding of celibacy. and to some extent Hsu. Protestants writing on celibacy seldom acknowledge the philosophical. As a result of this singular focus. .69 things are missing. theological. Grenz has taken one clear idea—"God has designed humans for bonding"— and constructed a theology of marriage on it with an appended theology of celibacy. First. Hsu offers a wide-ranging understanding of celibacy. and historical framework seems more eclectic than systematic. his theology of celibacy lacks breadth. Second. Finally. the writers exhibit a serious lack of awareness of each other's work. Grenz. Protestants do not reflect sufficiently on the historical development of the theology of celibacy from the first to the present century. Barth. are partial exceptions to these four weaknesses. He intersperses comments on celibacy throughout his comments on marriage and often only hints at ideas that need fuller explanation. yet his treatment lacks thoroughness and unity. and thus this framework is seldom available for critique. the divinely given role of the church in the world. none of their writings openly reflect dependence on the broader church's work on celibacy. too often the Protestant authors simply reword biblical statements without joining these statements to larger biblical or theological themes such as the nature of vocation. Thurian. Nonetheless. each of them has significant individual weaknesses.
much less competing Protestant theologies of celibacy. there is no fully developed Protestant theology of celibacy. well. . even though he was not ordained as a Catholic priest until some thirty years later.70 Thurian's work has many strengths yet it is hard to categorize. He seems to have been on his way from the Anglican Church and towards Catholicism when he wrote Marriage and Celibacy. or at least the Anglo-Catholic. In conclusion. it becomes apparent that his reflections could be placed in a separate category due to the Roman Catholic perspectives that appear in them—for example. In evaluating Thurian's place among contemporary Protestant theologies of celibacy. Therefore. The work of producing such a theology remains yet to be done. Thurian's work often seems broadest and most developed at those very points where he is drinking from the Roman Catholic. there is room for the evaluation and even the partial appropriation of the thorough theology of celibacy of John Paul II for Protestant thought and life in the twenty-first century. his focus on celibate communities.
An Evaluation of the Possibility of Constructing a Christian Ethic on the Basis of the System of Max 71 . and philosophical convictions. Only a tiny part of his output specifically addresses his theology of celibacy. His prodigious output sprang from deep and hard-won theological. integrated pattern of thought. especially in the light of John Paul II's book. the chapter will review two of his major works: Love and Responsibility. Pope John Paul II wrote thousands of pages and spoke to many audiences around the world. The Theology of the Body contains the text of 129 weekly general audiences given at the Vatican by John Paul II between September 1979 and November 1984 that contain the premiere expression of his theology of celibacy. his home and country background in addition to his formal and informal education will be examined. Thus.CHAPTER FOUR Foundations of John Paul II's Theology of Human Sexuality During his lifetime. yet that part is a thread in a complex. and The Acting Person. Finally. those who acquaint themselves with his pattern of thought will more readily see the richness of his theology of celibacy. First. This chapter will look into John Paul II's life through three important windows that reveal the development of his thinking on celibacy. One may easily misunderstand John Paul II. pastoral. In order to understand him. Second. one must understand something of his larger conceptual framework. the chapter will analyze his relationship to Max Scheler.
Nine years later. After his mother's death when he was eight and the death of his only sibling. His parents' strong relationship and their faithful practice of Catholicism nurtured him. Biblioteca De Autores Cristianos (Madrid: Editorial Católica. Gonzalo Haya. community. Chap. 2 1 Weigel. Witness to Hope: The Biography of Pope John Paul II (New York: Harper Collins Publishers. German. 1 passim. 1982). the views about life and sexuality that had been given him in his home corresponded to a broader network that included school. The edition cited in this dissertation is Karol Wojtyla. friends. Six years later.72 Scheler. and nation with Roman Catholicism at the heart of it all. Max Scheler Y La Ética Cristiana. In 1939. his father died. Karol Wojtyla was born in 1920 into an environment that was ready to receive and train him deeply in all that it is to be a Roman Catholic Christian. an older brother. his formal education. Witness to Hope. when Karol was eleven. Polish independence ended due to the invasion by Nazi Germany. His Home and Country John Paul II's context is the Roman Catholicism of Poland blended with Polish national and cultural identity. trans.1 Each window is important if one is to understand John Paul II's theological personalism as applied to human sexuality in general and to virginity in particular. Influences on John Paul II's Thought The thinking of John Paul II typically draws from the confluence of three streams of his life: his context. but not into English. and his experience of life. the Red Army pushed out the Germans and stayed in power until 1989. and Wojtyla left alone. and Italian. See footnote 26 on page 876 in George Weigel. 1999). . Life under totalitarian rule taught Wojtyla much about the need to affirm the This work has been translated into Spanish. he both prayed and played with his father.2 Nonetheless.
It is available in English as: Karol Wojtyla. 46. trans. Thomas and St. without any Wojtyla's interest in poetry and drama continued through many years." George Huntston Williams. The Mind of John Paul II: Origins of His Thought and Action (New York: The Seabury Press. later he briefly studied drama at the Jagiellonian University of Krakow prior to its closure during the Nazi occupation. The same year he published Love and Responsibility he published The Jeweler's Shop. trans. and philosophy. 1981). that is the relation of the dogmatic and the mystical.4 Wojtyla joins the attempt of Garrigou-Lagrange and others to properly understand the relation of St. His Formal Education Wojtyla's formal education was in drama. Joannem a Cruce. a play in which three couples explore their marriage relationships in light of their relationship to God. the experience of God in this life is made possible by faith. John of the Cross. During high school he was tutored in both Polish dramatic literature and the art of acting. In his dissertation. God is experienced as a person "in a bare way.3 During the occupation. Karol Wojtyla: The Thought of the Man Who Became Pope John Paul II. Thomas Aquinas (also known as the Angelicum) under the renowned Thomist. 5 4 3 . The Doctrine of Faith According to St. Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange . John of the Cross. Michigan: William B. Jordan Aumann (San Francisco: Ignatius Press. Paolo Guietti and Francesca Murphy (Grand Rapids. theology.5 For St. 162. Rocco Buttiglione. George Huntston Williams says Wojtyla wrote The Jeweler's Shop "in order to make his points [made in Love and Responsibility] in the modality of the living word. John of the Cross. Wojtyla's formal theological training began when he became a student for the priesthood in a clandestine seminary. Throughout his teenage years he had a great interest in drama. Eerdmans. Faith According to St. and the importance of social solidarity. 1997).73 dignity and freedom of persons. the resilience of Roman Catholicism. from 1946-1948 he traveled to Rome and studied Thomistic theology at the Pontifical Athenaeum of St. The original text bears the title. Later. John of the Cross. Doctrina de fide apud S. 1981).
Teólogo. 36. and in particular. the first among which is the intellect. 1999). ed. Rocco Buttiglione notes that in Love and Responsibility. vii. McCool. McDermott (Rome: Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana. Thomas S. human persons are essentially subjects. 10 9 . ed. 264." Buttiglione. knowledge of God and knowledge of a human person occur in an encounter that can be phenomenologically analyzed. 83. That is. Wojtyla." in The Thought of Pope John Paul II: A Collection of Essays and Studies. an immaterial power. the good of existence. 23." in Karol Wojtyla: Filósofo. John of the Cross are more traditionally Thomistic than Wojtyla's later writing upon his return from Rome when he sought to integrate his theology more firmly with concrete human experience. Karol Wojtyla.74 emotional content. John M. it is founded on Aquinas but modified by John Paul II's own deep examination of the embodied person. Faith According to St. At the Angelicum Wojtyla also deepened his understanding of the possibilities in Aquinas's thought for connecting this subjective knowledge with an ontology of the human person. Thomas Aquinas on Human Nature (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. "La Penseé De Karol Wojtyla Sur La Relation Homme-Femme.9 According to Aquinas.. Wojtyla develops this 6 7 8 Ibid. Jean-Guy Page notes that John Paul II's understanding of the human body/soul is specifically an addition to the Thomistic anthropology."6 and without intellectual content even though faith is "the union of the soul (that is the intellect) with God. 1993). and must not be treated as objects. Poeta. Gerald McCool notes that categories used by Wojtyla in Faith According to St. 48." Gerald A. especially in the Theology of the Body. Pietro Rossano (Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. John of the Cross. the human mind exhibits some qualities essentially unrelated to matter. Hibbs. The change would be toward "a metaphysics whose starting point was man as a unique free subject. A subjectcentered phenomenology appears as an undercurrent in this dissertation. 1984).8 Like God. Furthermore.10 The intellect expresses the rational nature and functions with the will in seeking its proper end: the good. Jean-Guy Page. "The Theology of John Paul II. Wojtyla intended to "create an organic synthesis of ontology and phenomenology." 7 Wojtyla sought to understand what exactly John of the Cross meant when he spoke of experiencing God though faith.
" Revista de Filosofía 18. John Conley notes that in his 1981 apostolic exhortation. ed. McDermott (Rome: Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana. could no longer meet the needs of modern man because they could not do full justice to these vital elements of human experience. but rather includes in his system the roots of ethics in human experience. if need be.12 For example. writing his Habilitationsschrift on An Evaluation of the Possibility of Constructing a Christian Ethic on the Basis of the System of Max Adrian J. "The Thomistic Personalism of Karol Wojtyla (Pope John Paul II). 1991). the emphasis of Aquinas is external and objective. through the selfgiving love made possible by that dignity. he refuses to focus simply on nature and the teleological ethical arguments.75 ontology by amplifying it in light of contemporary Continental philosophical concerns." 53. 365. he adds a deep exploration of human experience and consciousness. Conley." 38. he studied philosophy for a second doctorate. 1993)." McCool. John M. Studi Tomistici. Philippe Jobert. Ibid. as based on the internal contradiction and denial of the whole truth of the body. McCool. no.13 Gerald McCool even makes the following claim: "Wojtyla's later Thomism had become a philosophy centered upon the dignity of the conscious self-determining agent and."14 Later when Wojtyla again attended the Jagiellonian University." Theological Studies 41 (1980): 685. "The Theology of John Paul II. John J.11 that is. John Paul II opposes contraception not so much based specifically on natural law. as Wojtyla saw it. is the internal and subjective. 14 13 . Philippe Jobert prefers to say that John Paul II is not a Thomist. "The Moral Philosophy of Pope John Paul II. "Iniciación a La Filosofía De Juan Pablo II. on the community formed by man's participation in the lives of other persons." in Atti Del Ix Congresso Tomistico Internazionale. 12 11 Ronald Modras. The striking emphasis of John Paul II. Reimers. For John Paul II this truth of the body stems from human experience as well as revelation. 27. 45 (Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. "The Philosophical Foundations of the Thought of John Paul II: A Response. says Jobert." in The Thought of Pope John Paul II: A Collection of Essays and Studies. McCool also notes that "Wojtyla can be numbered among the late twentieth century Thomists who . Familiaris Consortio. . . revise Thomistic metaphysics by centering it on the knowledge of the individual conscious subject derived from philosophical reflection on interpersonal activity. 6.: 686. The older Thomisms. 230. For example. 53 (1985): 223. have made it their aim to expand and. "The Theology of John Paul II.
and is both free and responsible.17 What springs from Wojtyla's mixture of St. the word "person" plays a key role. Kant defines morality only in terms of going beyond the categorical imperative. "They are: that the person is an objective reality in the world.18 The richness of full human experience. is open to phenomenological analysis. Williams gives a helpful analysis of the various Polish terms relating to person and their meanings. Peter Simpson lauds the philosophical and ethical foundation on which Wojtyla stands. Max Scheler. Williams. Thomas. 2001). 21 20 19 . Williams speaks of the "Transcendental Thomist Personalism of the Catholic University of Lublin." Peter Simpson. ranging from faith to shame. 54. this work is not translated into English The Spanish translation used in this dissertation is Wojtyla. "John Paul II's Vision of Sexuality and Marriage: The Mystery of "Fair Love". On Karol Wojtyla (Belmont. California: Wadsworth. Geoffrey Gneuhs (New York: The Crossroad Publishing Company. "At all events at the core of the book [Love and Responsibility] is a principle of ethics that has a virtually unlimited application. Mind of John Paul II. Simpson's twenty page analysis of Love and Responsibility is insightful.76 Scheler. Wojtyla believes natural law exists and that it implies objective moral values. ed. Crosby. that he possesses the power of free self-determination. The Acting Person. 19 a person20 who is the imago dei and therefore should never be turned into an object. "The person is the kind of good which does not admit of use and cannot be treated as an object of use and as such the means to an end. 49. St. the human person is designed for self-giving in love. 151." in The Legacy of Pope John Paul II: His Contribution to Catholic Thought. 22 John F. Mind of John Paul II. Simpson summarizes the claims about the person that underlie Wojtyla's thought." Williams. and Scheler is a Christian existential personalism.15 Scheler added to Wojtyla's understanding of the human person that is a prominent theme throughout Wojtyla's twenty-two years as professor of ethics at the Lublin University. In Love and Responsibility. that he has a unique interior life that revolves around truth and goodness."21 By God's design.22 Furthermore. On Karol Wojtyla. These experiences are all integrated into an ontological reality. 2000). the person exists for his or her own sake. 153. 47. The Acting Person. John of the Cross." Ibid. 17 18 16 15 Wojtyla. Simpson. this As mentioned above.16 providing the foundation of his 1969 philosophical treatise.
This contact and his other parish responsibilities encouraged him to form significant relationships with a group of couples. 41. "Vision of Sexuality.25 The members of this group shared their lives intimately with him over many years. Weigel notes that this hard to translate Polish word means something like "environment" or "milieu. families. 26 . In addition. and he gained knowledge of the sexual lives of his parishioners through times of spiritual counsel. the communist state seemed intent on promoting sexual experimentation and encouraging the growing 23 24 25 Wojtyla. as well as the challenges faced by fellow celibates. Love and Responsibility." Weigel. Crosby notes that "as archbishop of Krakow. in part." Crosby.77 too reflects the image of God. Over time as the members of the group married and had children. Also. The positive statement of the norm is similar: "the person is a good towards which the only proper and adequate attitude is love." 53. to be a response to the popular idea that traditional Roman Catholicism denigrated sexual love. John Paul II continued to be involved with this group of around 200 throughout his papacy."23 His Informal Education Wojtyla's informal education also significantly affected his thought. Wojtyla began writing about human sexuality as a result of the challenges faced by his Srodowisko. as he did later in Rome in the first years of his pontificate. Witness to Hope. 98.26 The sexual revolution that took place in Poland in the years following World War II seemed. a special group of university friends formed around Wojtyla. his own challenges in being commited to celibacy. Wojtyla served as confessor for many young people and married couples. Wojtyla was given privileged access to the intimate joys and struggles of their lives as sexual beings. he set up an institute for marriage and family. and unmarried persons24 that he called his Srodowisko. As a priest for a university oriented parish.
A Christian Humanism: Karol Wojtyla's Existential Personalism (New Britaiin. His task was "not only to command or forbid but to justify. 73-80. Williams seems to accuse Wojtyla of shoddy scholarship in a number of philosophical areas treated in Love and Responsibility. to interpret. 58. and Max Scheler dead some twenty- 27 28 29 Weigel." Buttiglione. Edmund Husserl had been dead some fifteen years. Mind of John Paul II. Woznicki. to explain. Thus for him. Wojtyla. . 27 In such a context.78 divide in people's minds between sexual activity and procreation. 31 30 Buttiglione. Woznicki upholds Wojtyla as a scholar. rather he must thoroughly validate these rules. 87. Andrew N. The 127 item bibliography of Wojtyla's work prior to 1978 also demonstrates his written output. 140-141. Ct. Karol Wojtyla. That is. but Wojtyla insists that actions also manifest the nature of the person. 16. that Wojtyla's purpose in the book seems more popular than scholarly. Karol Wojtyla."28 Scheler and Husserl Max Scheler was an important influence on Wojtyla's philosophy of ethics and the person.: Mariel Publications. Witness to Hope. Andrew N. Love and Responsibility. As Buttiglione states. Williams. Scheler deepened Wojtyla's application of phenomenology. 157.30 Scheler limits ethical knowledge to events in which a person encounters an object with either attraction or avoidance. Wojtyla knew that he must not simply lay down rules for his parishioners. 1980).29 enabling him to use it as a method while rejecting it as a system. Wojtyla "wants to begin from man rather than from dead objectivity. when Karol Wojtyla presented his doctoral dissertation on the ethic of Max Scheler. In 1953. the phenomenological description of the ethical experience is the same for Scheler and Wojtyla. a person is a "place where values are made manifest. It is noteworthy."31 Wojtyla accepts this aspect of Scheler's understanding of the person but adds to it the ontological consistency that comes from his Thomistic understanding of the character of the person. however.
the need of a philosophy that—in contrast to the secondary productivity of renaissance philosophies—seeks by radically clarifying the sense and the motifs of philosophical problems to penetrate to that primal ground on whose basis those problems must find whatever solution is genuinely scientific. Husserl understood himself to be in rebellion against all previous philosophy. 1981). he examines with great rigor the experience of phenomena which show up in consciousness. it is still far from dead. . and . 33 32 Paul Gorner. Peter McCormick and Frederick A. 34 Edmund Husserl. Nonetheless."33 No small part of its continuing influence comes from its impact on the thought of John Paul II. . 2000). Rather than pursuing this examination either with a traditional philosophy distorted sometimes by its naturalism and other times by its skepticism. and bracketing all questions about the existence of the external world (or even the existence of the observer). "the need for an utterly original philosophy has re-emerged. 16. The phenomenology Wojtyla discovered in Max Scheler was an expansion of Husserl's narrower. Even from today's perspective."34 Husserl's suggested a philosophy that amounted to a "science of consciousness. phenomenology32 was one of the most prominent philosophies in Europe. or tainted by psychology with its necessary ontology of For a valuable and accessible overview of phenomenology see: Robert Sokolowski. Elliston (Notre Dame. ." in Husserl. Its Method and Its Field of Investigation. ed. 10. Introduction to Phenomenology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Shorter Works. "of the major philosophical movements of the twentieth century phenomenology has been one of the most influential. "Pure Phenomenology. IN: University of Notre Dame Press. 2000). Twentieth-Century German Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press." Assuming the validity of logic. purer phenomenology." he confessed. "Most recently. spiritual leader of one-sixth of the world's population.79 five years.
like an ethical version of the law of non-contradiction. 49-50. Frings and Roger L. in Scheler's thought pure logic stands alongside pure values. Manfred S. Scheler noted the prominent role values play in the thoughts and actions of persons. one will be able to see mankind draw this reality into its inner existence. feeling. therefore. and just as reason appeals to axioms of logic. PA: Duquesne University Press. 37 Max Scheler. trans. one will be able to see mankind. beginning to take possession. the values that manifest themselves in human emotions are ubiquitous in humanity both in the past and present. phenomenology can look for an intelligible order in the variety of human values. and action. may assume the interconnection of a grandiose painting.80 subjects in relation to an external world. 1965)." that when seen from a correct distance and with proper understanding. Quentin Lauer (New York: Harper & Row Publishers. 36 So. 296. Consequently. "Philosophy as Rigorous Science. Manfred S. Frings. Formalism in Ethics and Non-Formal Ethics of Values. furthermore. 14. Funk (Evanston. Furthermore.37 And just as there are primary Edmund Husserl. of a reality that is independent both of mankind and of its own manifestations. so emotional perception appeals to axioms of ethics. IL: Northwestern University Press. ed. Max Scheler: A Concise Introduction in the World of a Great Thinker (Pittsburgh. or at least of the fragments of one. through love. In this painting. 1965). a New Attempt toward the Foundation of an Ethical Personalism." in Phenomenology and the Crisis of Philosophy. What appears as a result is like a "palette daubed with paint. 1973). 36 35 .35 Scheler added a significant feature to phenomenology: the validity of values. Husserl proposes a "phenomenological reduction" capable of providing indubitable reports of consciousness. mixed as it is. one can value the same thing both positively and negatively only if different aspects of the thing are in consideration.
42 Wojtyla." in The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Scheler and Wojtyla's analysis of human persons would coincide in several features: 1) Humans are communal. If Sokolowski describes typical phenomenology today. Waltraud Herbstrith. Introduction to Phenomenology. then. ed."39 In fact. however." Sokolowski. For us the basic relationship between man and the Ground of Being consists in the fact that his Ground comprehends and realizes itself directly in man. trans. values are "objective. by hearing Max Scheler speak on religion and phenomenology. Edith Stein was moved towards her own conversion. For him. said Scheler. Witness to Hope. Edith Stein: A Biography. and objects of emotions and feelings rather than reason. and human solidarity. 42 41 40 39 38 .38 It is not hard to see why some Catholics were taken with Scheler's ethical system. It stands back from our rational involvement with things and marvels at the fact that there is disclosure. is but a partial mode of the eternal spirit and drive. Weigel. 185. 46-49. and that we in our life of thinking serve as datives for the manifestation of things. Man's Place in Nature. who. unchanging. 92. was in good company in adapting certain aspects of Schelerian phenomenology to complement his realism. in part. 17-18. for a time. 1974). 1961). He says. "Max Scheler." Max Scheler. is love. The greatest among them. trans.81 colors so are there primary values: love. 3) love is a deep spiritual act which takes persons furthest from the animal and deepest into spirit. J. non-formal. and the concept of person must involve community.41 She also joined Scheler and Roman Ingarden in resisting Husserl's turn away from realism. and 4) conscience Alfons Deeken. although of "partly Jewish origins. that the world can be understood. that things do appear. Process and Permanence in Ethics: Max Scheler's Moral Philosophy (New York: Paulist Press. Hans Meyerhoff (Boston: Beacon Press. he later lapsed." Scheler became a professing Catholic. Ted Honderich (Oxford: Oxford University Press. M. then this turn away from realism was largely defeated. 126. Inwood. "Phenomenology is the science that studies truth. As it would turn out. 1995). Bernard Bonowitz (San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 2) there is an absolute order of values. community.40 As a young philosopher. Near the end of his life Scheler made the following comments regarding Western monotheism: "We reject all these conceptions on philosophical grounds. We must do so for the simple reason that we deny the basic presupposition of theism: a spiritual. a priori. See. personal God omnipotent in his spirituality. both as spirit and as life. 1985).
48 Chapter One: The Person and the Sexual Urge The sexual urge and using others as a means. Love and Responsibility. Wojtyla begins Love and Responsibility by defining the verb "to use" in order to demonstrate its relationship to John H. 154. and especially in human love. . Mind of John Paul II.45 Published in 1960. Wojtyla would adopt much of Scheler's positive evaluation of the role of shame in the life of love. Nota.43 Finally." 47 48 46 Buttiglione. V 60 (Washington: American Catholic Philosophical Association. Love and Responsibility Wojtyla's first major book. Crosby notes that Wojtyla's ability to show theological and philosophical initiative has continued throughout his papacy.46 Three Polish editions were published between 1960-1965. Crosby. A French edition with a foreword by Henri de Lubac appeared in 1965. Wojtyla further contributed to the Catholic dialogue regarding the human person through his participation in Vatican II and especially in the production of two of its documents: Dignitatis Humanae and Gaudium et Spes. this work was recognized as important long before Wojtyla became pope. 44 45 43 Wojtyla.47 During the years immediately following the writing of Love and Responsibility. The intended audience for the book seems to be Catholic young people and young married couples. John F. 83." in Existential Personalism. Karol Wojtyla. 1986). "Max Scheler and Karol Wojtyla. An English translation was published in 1981. Love and Responsibility. The work draws from all of the above-mentioned streams to present a detailed understanding of it. "Vision of Sexuality. Proceedings of the American Catholic Philosophical Assoc. although he is quite thorough in dealing with many secular views. this is a rare trait for a pope. Wojtyla does not openly engage other Christian ethical systems of sexuality. Witness to Hope. Weigel. 164-169. followed by Spanish and Italian editions in 1969.82 must involve authority.44 expressed his life-long interest in the human person. Williams.
When love is present. two persons join in seeking a common aim. he says. utilitarianism eventually reduces to egoism. Love requires a personalist principle: Wojtyla." Seeking maximum pleasure for the maximum number of people is utilitarianism's motto. In footnote 6 he notes his revision of Kant. The English edition includes notes produced after the initial publication of the book. inevitably leads to simple egoism. if both were seeking enjoyment? Utilitarianism responds. For Wojtyla. 50 51 49 Ibid.." Would it not be legitimate to seek pleasure for oneself and others. but his obvious indebtedness to many others goes without specific mention." he says. To "use. Ibid. Aquinas. Love and Responsibility. rather than one person seeing another as a means to an end. argues Wojtyla."50 Using a person instrumentally is to commit an act of violence against the person.51 Wojtyla notes that many people believe that the verb "to use" can have a more positive meaning of "to enjoy. 26. On occasion. "Yes. This motto. Love subordinates itself to the good that the other person represents and to the end they both seek. . In this work. Love.. 25. His frequent citation of Latin terms also carries within it implict reference to the Church's development of these ideas. a common good. means to employ something for an end and thus to subordinate it to an agent. but it is clear. he refers to Aristotle. loving a person is the opposite of using a person.49 Humans make use of many things in the world. Augustine. says Wojtyla. this is obvious from the frequent references to The Acting Person published in 1969. love eliminates utilitarian motives. Wojtyla seldom cites the underlying sources of his ideas. and a few others in the text or in the notes. 31. they will do so only as long as such self-limitation gives them pleasure. Even if a principle of the "harmonization of egoisms" is applied. that is. For if men and women limit their own pleasure so that more people can have more pleasure.83 persons and the sexual urge. cannot stand on such a weak foundation. that "a person must not be merely the means to an end for another person.
"the person is a good towards which the only proper and adequate attitude is love."52 The New Testament command to love others corresponds to this love between persons; thus the personalist principle and the command to love interpenetrate each other. Combined, they can affirm the need for a justice that concedes "to each human being that which he or she can rightfully claim by virtue of being a person."53 It is in this context that sexual ethics must be constructed. Interpretation of the sexual urge. The human sexual urge is universal;54 human sexual expression is particular. Unlike animals, notes Wojtyla, men and women can control their actions related to their sexual urge. The urge occurs involuntarily, but the actions are voluntary. Both psychological and physiological differences exist between men and women so as to form a complementary relationship and an attraction. One possible manifestation of the sexual urge occurs when two self-determining, responsible individuals choose to love each other and then to join bodily in expression of that love. The move towards such love is a natural tendency formed from the material of the sexual urge. Wojtyla places great emphasis on the purpose of the sexual urge. Its obvious largest purpose, he argues, is the continued existence of the species. "Now, existence is the first and basic good for every creature."55 Thus, the basis of the sexual urge goes beyond the realm of biology to that of philosophy. If then "the sexual urge has an
52 53 54
Ibid., 41. Ibid., 43-44. He notes here the Augustine's distinction between uti and frui.
Wojtyla does not intend to deny that persons exist who have no sexual urge. Rather, he means that the sexual urge is the rule, not the exception, and that it readily influences all the varieties of relationships between men and women.
Wojtyla, Love and Responsibility, 51.
existential character, if it is bound up with the very existence of the human person—that first and most basic good—then it must be subject to the principles which are binding in respect to the person."56 This love between men and women flows through the sexual urge, and procreation is central to that urge. For Wojtyla, the biological explanation of the sexual urge gives way to the philosophical, which in turn gives way to the theological. God's work of creation is continual. A person has no power either to bring about or to sustain his or her own existence; consequently, procreation by humans is a collaborative work with God. Bodily procreation alone could not give existence to the "spiritual and immortal soul"57 of a person. In fact, Wojtyla asserts, in every case of conception, "the love of the Creator decided that a new person would come into existence in the mother's womb."58 Philosophically, procreation is an existential act foundational to the continuance of the human race; theologically, procreation is co-creation with God. Nonetheless, it would be just as wrong to take a puritanical posture that sees the duty of procreation as having the regrettable side effect of sensual pleasure, as it would be to react to the puritanical posture with a "libidinistic" posture that understands the sexual urge as solely a drive for pleasure. Similarly, says Wojtyla, it would be incorrect to allow the problems of overpopulation to push to one side the procreative nature of the sexual urge. Puritanical, libidinistic, and demographic approaches to sexuality all end up as utilitarianism—using a person as a means to an end. They do not solve the main problem: "how to use
56 57 58
Ibid., 52. Ibid., 55. Ibid., 56.
sex[uality] without treating the person as an object for use."59 Thus, for Wojtyla, two understandings are necessary. First, the single, united aim of the marital union involves a three-level hierarchy. The primary end of conjugal relations is procreatio, the secondary end is mutuum adiutorium, and the tertiary end is remedium concupiscentiae.60 Second, each level of this hierarchy functions within the personalist principle and its corollary, the command of love. Love rules the three ends of marriage. In the next chapter, he describes his understanding of the nature of this love. Chapter Two: The Person and Love Metaphysical analysis of love. Love, notes Wojtyla, means a great variety of things. Love can even be considered in its cosmic aspect as a telos at work in nature. Wojtyla, however, undertakes a metaphysical analysis of love between a man and a woman to reveal several important aspects of love. Love is an attraction. When one person attracts another it means that one regards another as a good. This is what a man usually means when, for instance, he says he likes a woman. Love as attraction involves cognitive, emotional, and voluntary reactions. The process is something like this: based on the sexual urge the woman (for instance) learns some details about a certain man, begins to feel emotionally drawn to him, and wills to become involved in his life. In this process, several dangers present themselves. Some individuals focus on sensual attraction and ignore the person and the spiritual nature of
Ibid., 60-61. Here, again, he notes that he is calling on Augustine's distinction between uti and
frui. That is, "first of all the means of continuing existence, secondly a conjugal life for man and woman, and thirdly a legitimate orientation for desire." Ibid., 66-67. Sexual pleasure, mentioned specifically in the Catechism of the Catholic Church as established by the Creator as a part of the generative function, receives almost no attention in Love and Responsibility. Catechism of the Catholic Church, (Liguori, MO: Liguori Publications, 1994), 567.
the attraction. Others too readily give themselves to the emotional aspect of attraction without due concern for the truthfulness of the objective basis they claim for the attraction. Truth about the person is essential for attraction to be valid. Furthermore, "the attraction on which this love is based must originate not just in a reaction to visible and physical beauty, but also in a full and deep appreciation of the beauty of the person."61 Love is also a desire. Because humans are limited, they have need of others. For Wojtyla, the complementarity of the sexes involves men and women in a search for wholeness in relationship. Love as attraction occurs when one is attracted to a good that is seen in another; love as desire sees a good which it lacks and wants. Desire, of course, can be separated from love. Jesus refers to this in Matthew 5:28 when he says, "Whosoever looketh upon a woman to lust after her hath committed adultery with her already in his heart."62 Love transforms desire because love respects the person. Simple desire seeks satisfaction, love as desire seeks a person.63 As Wojtyla sees it, the risk of utilitarianism is high when dealing with attraction and desire because of the ease with which they may be experienced apart from love. Nonetheless, both attraction and desire form part of the essence of love between men and women. Love is goodwill. The selflessness and benevolence of goodwill enrich both love as attraction and love as desire. Goodwill, argues Wojtyla, has the power to perfect both its subject and its object. "It is this that makes married life so extraordinarily rich."64
61 62
Wojtyla, Love and Responsibility, 80.
Most often, in mentioning the Bible as quoted by Wojtyla, I have preferred to retain the wording used by Wojtyla so as to reflect as much of his tone as possible.
63 64
Wojtyla, Love and Responsibility, 81-82. Ibid., 84.
"this orientation of sensuality is a matter of spontaneous 65 Ibid. When reciprocity characterizes the couple's love."65 It is in the context of betrothed love alone that sexual giving of oneself relates properly to the personalist norm: "the person is a good towards which the only proper and adequate attitude is love. and desire find completion only when they exist between two persons. A thing can be possessed. Wojtyla argues that emotions which reflect values accompany sense impressions. Betrothed love is the capstone of love between men and women. and since that urge seeks complementary completion in the opposite sex. encounters with individuals of the opposite sex can carry an intense emotional charge called sensuality. Unrequited love can be very painful. What love desires most of all is the return of love from the beloved.. Memories. thoughts. . emotion reveals a value found in a sensed object. and it is doomed to stagnation and death." The psychological analysis of love. Since it is the nature of men and women to have a sexual urge. Yet what is naturally and physically impossible is morally possible. attraction. and the imagination can also reveal values through the emotions attached to them. the most uncompromising form of love consists precisely in selfgiving [sic]. 97.88 Reciprocity is very important in this regard. there is peace and joy rather than jealousy. Goodwill. At the heart of betrothed love is a paradox: the giving of oneself as a possession even though one person cannot possess another. "The fullest. That is. in making one's inalienable and nontransferable 'I' someone else's property. a person cannot. For Wojtyla. and it has a character quite distinct from those aspects of love discussed above.
Love and Responsibility. while sensuality focuses on desire for the body. however. 111. 106. . but love must integrate truth and freedom. The first step toward a valid solution to this problem is also.67 When the entire person is in view rather than just the person's body. and exclusive access. disillusionment and even hatred replace sentiment."68 A problem with sentiment is its tendency to exaggerate the value of the other. intimacy.89 reflexes. then. is still likely to make itself felt in a couple's sentimental relationship. sentiment focuses on affection for the person. Love is the fullest answer to this difficulty. like sensuality. and yet persons are also characterized by thought (truth) and volition (freedom). Often when the reality overtakes the ideal."66 The problem arises when sensuality causes one person to view another simply as a means to a valued end—sexual gratification. it is called sentiment. "Sensuality is more readily awakened in the man. says Wojtyla. As truth is sacrificed sentiment becomes focused on its own idealized creation rather than on the real subject.. In this form it is not primarily an evil thing but a natural thing. For Wojtyla. is adequate only as a first step in the relationship between a man and a woman." Wojtyla. sentiment seems to mean something like "being in love. Females. a powerful affection often arises between a man and a woman. Sentiment. natural to humans. tend to cling more tenaciously to sentiment at the same time that their male friends are recognizing that sentiment is often a cover for sensuality. more readily crystallizes in his consciousness and in this attitude. The affection of sentiment expresses itself in a desire for proximity. According to Wojtyla. Sensuality. These latter 66 67 68 Ibid. The sweeping forces of sensuality and sentiment occur in persons.
Love unites the value of the person with his or her sexual values in the person while recognizing the priority of the personalist norm."69 Truth in relationships is both experiential (sensual and sentimental) and objective. . will discover the truth of the nature of the beloved. According to Wojtyla.. In addition to his metaphysical and psychological analyses of love. Situationism forgets that "love in the psychological sense must be subordinated in man to love in the ethical sense. by self-examination. Wojtyla examines love's ethics. then love as a virtue (and thus as ethical) is primary. Thus the subject. He begins by lamenting that contemporary ethics is inclined towards "situationism" in which each individual experience has priority over both virtue and the obligation to seek the true good. by introspection. Only such objective evaluation. 116. and sentiment. Sensual and sentimental values springing from the sexual urge must be subject to the value of the person qua person. Ibid. Love as a virtue distinguishes between the "value of the person as such" and the "particular values present in a person.. sensuality."70 However."71 Sexual values found in a person must always rate below the value of the person. 122. if Christian morality is the starting point. 120.. "The process of integrating love relies on the primary elements of the human spirit—freedom and truth. with the will to love one can control the urges of sensuality and emotionalism as well as exert the power of choice regarding a life's companion. 69 70 71 Ibid. Ibid.90 characteristics enable men and women to integrate love. can discover the truth of love no less than emotional commitment. The ethical analysis of love.
choice plays a central role. he or she must be ready to live in "mutual interpenetration. love and responsibility go together. not its content. The will aspires to the good. Love's self-limiting act is that for which human freedom exists. Love and Responsibility. Love commits freedom and imbues it with that to which the will is naturally attracted—goodness. the person must be the priority. and sexual intercourse is an expression of the belonging. the focus is on the person—the person as both giving and receiving. says Wojtyla. In betrothal. A difficulty arises in the tension between the sensual and emotional on the one hand.91 As Wojtyla mentioned previously. A person is by nature free to choose. in betrothed love a person wills to become the property of another. woman's desire is for the desire of the man. . "If freedom is not used. 125. If the priority is placed on sexuality.. then disillusionment will occur when the sexual urge fades in the midst of the life's tests.73 Rather. This is what 72 73 Ibid. Note Madame de Staël's famous aphorism: "Man's desire is for the woman."74 The magnitude and complexity of the choice is apparent. 131. Wojtyla argues that when a man or woman considers becoming the possession of another. and thus to repudiate autonomy. because it is by way of love that human beings share most fully in the good. hence freedom exists for the sake of love. and freedom belongs to the will. which enables each to live in and by the other. and the need to be a person choosing a person on the other. each belongs to the other. is not taken advantage of by love it becomes a negative thing and gives human beings a feeling of emptiness and unfulfilment." 74 Wojtyla. Sexuality is the context of betrothal. and in betrothal. Choice is a responsibility. In this situation."72 True betrothed love is strikingly different from the idea that marriage simply involves a woman submitting sexually to a man. "Love proceeds by way of renunciation.
92 gives freedom its real entitlement to one of the highest places in the moral order.. Acedia is often translated "sloth" and is one of the seven capital sins. and as such is opposed to charity. It can also be distress or disgust at all one must do to nourish friendship with God. 1913.v. This process can result in a carnal desire that attempts to move the will to act. Chastity suffers at the hands of acedia. Thomas defined as "a sadness arising from the fact that the good is difficult. The virtue of chastity. True chastity. As a result."75 Sexual values tend to impose themselves. the virtue of chastity serves as a reminder that a person must be treated as a person.76 which. the concept of chastity prompts either resentment or rationalization. that is. Chastity reminds one of the importance of the integration of love with bodily attraction. and that sexual enjoyment of another person is only permissible in the context of self-giving love. 146. Chapter Three: The Person and Chastity The rehabilitation of chastity. Erotic sensations tend to deprive love of its call to affirm the worth of the person. 143. St. but the will enables freedom to choose love. says Wojtyla. is a protector of the person. The Catholic Encyclopedia. acedia is the context of the other vices. According to Wojtyla.. 75 76 Ibid. is sexually attracted to a woman. there is a tendency to either minimize it or consider it evil. as he notes. to choose the person. "sloth. Ibid. . needs rehabilitation in the modern world. Love and Responsibility. for example." 77 78 Wojtyla. Rather than being a specific vice.78 When a man. rather than being a hindrance to love (a common accusation). however. s. 135."77 Because chastity is often difficult. an interest is aroused which is often accompanied by a tendency toward utilitarian use of the woman as a sexual object. Chastity can resist this erotic tendency.
"the dividing line is drawn by acts of will. Love."79 Not only so. notes Wojtyla. Ibid. there is need for objective. .93 "Physical intimacy (sexual intercourse) which grows out of concupiscence and nothing more is a negation of the love of persons. and carnal desire are not sinful in themselves. subjectivism—the granting of absolute authority to one's emotions—often challenges chastity. subjectivism. Concupiscence and carnal desire. breeding egoism. 162. and it suggests that an action is good because it is accompanied by "authentic" or "true" emotions. hides the objective value of the person. From Wojtyla's perspective. At what point does sin enter these processes? Sensuality. Ibid. egoism is incapable of going beyond the singular ego. sentiment. subjectivism diverts the mind from that truth. which involves the tendency to call "good" anything that is 79 80 81 Ibid. by contrast.. Subjectivism.80 Subjectivism. and yet they are not themselves sinful. creates a self-giving in which a man and a woman form a "common I". then. 151. but the raw material of sensuality is squandered when it is separated from love. concupiscence. personal. has two dangerous tendencies: it ignores the requirement of self-giving love in sexuality. truth. Chastity preserves the raw material of sexual attraction and desire for their proper use in the context for love. When there is carnal desire. The process men and women go through to rationalize sexual incontinence (whether mental or physical) often involves their appeal to the strong emotions involved. as tendencies toward evil (the evil of using another person for an end)."81 For example.. by conscious and voluntary assent of the will.. For Wojtyla. are a consequence of original sin. 154. Sensuality and sentiment (emotion) are simply the raw materials for love.
pleasant, is likewise not sinful in itself, but it becomes sinful when acted upon in such a way as to violate the nature of the person. "For the will can and must prevent the 'disintegration' of love."82 Men and women need chastity. It is the virtue that moves one to act in light of the true person. St. Thomas, notes Wojtyla, studies chastity under the cardinal virtue of moderation. Thus, chastity is an expression of the moderation or efficient subordination of the sexual appetites to reason. For Wojtyla, however, the virtue of chastity relates more expressly to love because chastity functions to "free love from utilitarian attitudes," raising sex to the higher level of love.83 As related to moderation, chastity restrains certain human impulses; as related to love, chastity frees love, even conjugal love, for its full purpose. For Wojtyla, the personalistic norm—"thou shalt love," and "thou shalt not use"—is definitive for chastity. The metaphysics of shame. "The phenomenon of shame arises when something which of its very nature or in view of its purpose ought to be private passes the bounds of a person's privacy and somehow becomes public."84 Sexual shame, like chastity, performs a positive function in the relationship of love and sexual desire. Wojtyla believes that shame is the manifestation of a reticence to treat another as a sexual object or be treated as a sexual object. For example, a man may feel shame if he thinks he has accidentally been the cause of a woman being tempted to view him as only a sexual object and not as a person; a man may also feel shame at his thoughts if he is tempted to consider a particular woman as only a sexual object. Thus this fundamental human
82 83 84
Ibid., 166. Ibid., 169-170. Ibid., 174.
experience of shame carries ethical import; "the moral order is bound up with the existential order."85 The goal of shame seems to be to inspire love and to affirm true values. "Sexual modesty is as it were a defensive reflex, which protects that status and so protects the value of the person."86 Love absorbs shame; love does not destroy shame. For Wojtyla, when love enters and the person is treated according to the personalistic norm, shame's purpose has been served. Love honors shame's intent. Subjectivism or sentiment can shatter shame and create shamelessness, but only love can absorb shame. Shame expresses itself in "a tendency, uniquely characteristic of the human person, to conceal sexual values sufficiently to prevent them from obscuring the value of person as such."87 This concealment must not be so complete as to remove the raw material for love; concealment must protect the true nature and purpose of the sexual. Cultural patterns of modesty of dress, for example, are important. "What is truly immodest in dress is that which frankly contributes to the deliberate displacement of the true value of the person by sexual values."88 This does not mean, however, that nakedness in itself is shameful. "The human body is not in itself shameful, nor for the same reasons are sensual reactions and human sensuality in general." Always, however, the norm is the person, which is never to be used and ever to receive self-giving love. The problems of continence. Attempts at self-control isolated from right thinking are an inadequate basis for chastity. The simple imperative to exercise self-control is of
85 86 87 88
Ibid., 179. Ibid. Ibid., 187. Ibid., 190.
little avail. Rather than a blind self-restraint, clear-sighted objectivity is needed which "'sees' the real truth about the values and puts the value of the person, and love above the values of sex and above the enjoyment associated with them."89 The value of the person must overcome mere sexual values. This objectifying process, being gradual, is tied to a parallel process of sublimation. The human energy in sensuality and sentiment can be sublimated, or channeled, to give a warm richness to the value of the person. "Indeed, every man must effectively deploy the energies latent in his sensuality and his sentiments, so that they become allies in his striving for authentic love."90 Wojtyla states that sentiment can also express itself non-sexually in tenderness that empathizes with the condition and feelings of others. This deep understanding of others finds physical expression. Clearly, there is a risk that sensuality—the desire for enjoyment—rather than true tenderness, will be expressed. "For tenderness demands vigilance against the danger that its manifestations may acquire a different significance and become merely forms of sensual and sexual gratification."91 Tenderness may only be practiced in a context of continence. Nonetheless, the weak, the sick, children, and others may have a right to tenderness, and thus there may be a responsibility to express it. Chapter Four: Justice Towards the Creator Marriage. For Wojtyla, the force of this discussion leads to a declaration of the monogamous and indissoluble nature of marriage. A sexual relationship that takes into account the personalistic norm can only find its proper context in marriage. The New
89 90
Ibid., 197.
Ibid., 200. He notes here that this concept has roots in the thought of Aristotle and Aquinas who taught that appropriate tactics must be used in the practice of virtue.
Ibid., 203.
Testament, says Wojtyla, affirms the monogamous and indissoluble nature of marriage. Christ opposed the dissolution of marriage. His basis was Genesis 1:27 and 2:24 and the fact that concerning divorce, "in the beginning it was not so."92 Christ, who reestablished monogamy and the permanence of marriage, overturned the Old Testament practice of polygamy and Moses' permission for the letter of repudiation. Betrothed love finds a home in marriage. Society's legal recognition of marriage is tied to the fact that "the family is the primary institution at the base of our existence as human beings."93 The rights and duties of marriage must be recognized by the legal framework of the institution of marriage in society. This framework must give recognition to the twofold reason for the existence of marriage: "the creation of a lasting personal union between a man and a woman based on love," and the preservation of "the existence of the species."94 Love demands societal recognition of its right to a sexual relationship. As Wojtyla states it, "without the institution of matrimonium the person is necessarily degraded in the sexual relationship to the status of an object of pleasure for another person."95 This degradation is an injustice both in society and in the eyes of God, since they both seek justice. God has a special interest in both justice toward persons and justice between persons because he is the Creator of every person. In marriage, two persons give themselves to each other because they have the capacity and privilege to do so as persons. God, however, must also give these persons to each other because they are also his possessions. In this manner, sexual relations between them are justified.
92 93 94 95
Mat 19:8. Wojtyla, Love and Responsibility, 217. Ibid., 218. Ibid., 222.
. 226."99 Furthermore. For Wojtyla. Ibid." Thus. limiting sexual intercourse to attempts at procreation would move towards a utilitarian understanding of the marital act. ."97 Because love between a man and a women originates in the sexual/procreative purpose of nature passed through the "gates of consciousness and the will. there 96 97 98 99 Ibid. . According to Wojtyla. In particular." 96 Marital relations have their full value where there is an acceptance of the possibility of becoming a father or mother. the character of the relationship between the partners automatically changes.. this is the heart of the personalistic principle. "we cannot separate the two orders. bilateral."98 it is clear that a fertile couple's marital act without the possibility of procreation is essentially incomplete. Taken in its fullest sense . 228. Ibid. Ibid. The change is away from unification in love and in the direction of mutual. says Wojtyla. justice only occurs when the two realms involved in the sexual act. In fact. 'If the possibility of parenthood is deliberately excluded from marital relations.. Nothing remains except "utilization for pleasure. the order of nature aims at 'procreation' by means of the sexual act. the order of nature and the personal order are rightly combined. 228. 226. for each depends upon the other. 'enjoyment'.. to accept the possibility of parenthood is to be pro-person. . . . the correct attitude to procreation is a condition of the realization of love. Conscious acceptance of the possibility of parenthood is not the same as the intent to procreate.. the sexual urge is raw material for self-giving love. In the personal order.98 Justice towards the Creator further requires that justice be done in every marital sexual act. or rather. "The order of nature is above all that of existence and procreation .
I may become a mother. "But deliberate prevention of procreation by human beings acting contrary to the order and the laws of nature is quite a different matter. 235. If a husband and wife wish for a time to avoid having a child and at the same time are willing to say of the marital act.99 is a need for planned maternity based on an understanding of the cycles of fertility that corresponds to the order of nature. reject. "I may become a father. and destroy part of what is true about the nature of the human person. periodic continence differs from artificial methods of contraception in a crucial way. periodic continence achieves justice toward the Creator only when used as a method of regulating conception. not when used to avoid having a family altogether. Ibid.101 According to Wojtyla. Vocation. For Wojtyla. The personalist norm demands that the full truth of the reproductive other be honored.. Ibid. 241. infertility results from the natural operation of the laws of fertility. 246. periodic continence is an expression of continence as mature virtue.102 Second. in the second it is imposed in defiance of nature. ."103 Non-rational creatures 100 101 102 103 Ibid. 228."100 Married couples can use periodic continence in such a way as to allow family planning while observing both the order of nature and the personal order." then periodic continence observing the cycles of fertility is appropriate. Artificial methods are designed to cut off. the fullest justification and ultimate origin of the personalistic norm is the "relationship between God and man. Nonetheless. Ibid. Human persons exist as reproductive beings.. Periodic continence honors that fundamental truth about men and women.. "In the first case.. yet beings that are not always fertile.
When the natural condition of physical virginity combines with an act of the person's free will in love for God.100 follow the laws of nature automatically and without fail.. In this act. 247. Paul (I Corinthians 7) makes it clear that virginity is superior to marriage. . although sexology's role is subordinate to the role of sexual ethics.. It is a matter of vocation. must understand and rationally accept the demands of God's nature. they are "participants in the thought of God. Ibid.."107 Wojtyla concludes that while the St. Ibid.. Men and women respond to God as persons. there is a fulfillment of the true nature of God as a person and man as a person. Ibid. are vocations. says Wojtyla. 253. The fundamental nature of the human relationship to God is surrender as an act of self-giving love. sexologists have 104 105 106 107 108 Ibid."104 This participation has two key elements: "obedience to the order of nature and emphasis on the value of the person. 251. on the other hand. "both virginity and marriage understood in an uncompromisingly personalistic way."108 Chapter Five: Sexology and Ethics Sexology provides insight into sexual health. it becomes clear that "the need to give oneself to another person has profounder origins than the sexual instinct. Human persons. In recent decades. Physical virginity can provide a context for the "total and exclusive gift of self to God"106 which becomes mystical virginity."105 Men and women can fulfill this fundamental relationship to God and justice with God either through the self-giving of marriage or through a consecrated self-giving to God through virginity. Ibid. 257. in fact.
Evaluation What has Wojtyla accomplished in Love and Responsibility? First. in fact. continence. biblical prohibitions of divorce. egoism. Violation of the ethical norms of the person and the order of nature can cause problems of sexual health. and self-centeredness can hinder the achievement of sexual orgasm by both partners. he has drawn together themes from his education and experience into a coherent expression of the nature of human sexuality and its expression in marriage. 279.. Each of these factors is addressed in the context of betrothed love based on the personalistic norm. Scheler's analysis of shame. Sexology and sexual ethics are not disjunctive. at times even a couple's healthy understanding that they have "responsibility for every conception"109 can create the fear of pregnancy that can hinder sexual satisfaction. Ibid. . the human experience 109 110 Ibid. and sexual fulfillment are joined. a guilty conscience. Sexual health.101 discovered a great deal about the changes of puberty." and second. is a good and thus is to be sought. "readiness to practice continence which derives from virtue. as limited by sexual ethics. Marriage. For example. Then again. "readiness during intercourse to accept parenthood. the nature of sexual arousal. This fear can be alleviated by the cultivation of two key elements of marriage: first. 281. creates a "culture of marital relations" where love. and the realization of sexual fulfillment. factors such as insecurity in the relationship. the Kantian categorical imperative. He brings into a single channel streams such as Aquinas's metaphysics of the person.. continence can be a source of energy and health."110 Whether in virginity or in the marriage.
The 600 page book is a guide for priests that delineates in detail the proper evaluation of specific sinful behaviors. as well as other insights. and Spanish. Maryland: The Newman Press. 15th ed. Italian. Portuguese. The Acting Person Karol Wojtyla's The Acting Person is his most important philosophical work. The monograph enabled Wojtyla to participate in the larger philosophical discussion of Max Scheler's phenomenological personalism.112 it is important to consider because it exposes the philosophical agenda of John Paul II. Heribert Jone. in the handful of pages on celibacy in Love and Responsibility one finds various seeds that will grow into the more thorough treatment of the subject in The Theology of the Body. trans. Third. (Westminster. French. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka. he makes available a detailed defense of traditional Roman Catholic marriage values. Dutch. Finally. this work was available in German.102 of love and sensuality. English. 112 111 Williams notes that it is "very difficult to read in any language. Though the book is difficult and dense. and the philosophy According to the flyleaf of the version here cited. Second. the work rests within the arms of the intense philosophical analysis that Wojtyla was then making of the nature of the human person and that he would clarify in The Acting Person. His book is not simply an expansion of the section on marriage found in a work such as Heribert Jone's Moral Theology. Mind of John Paul II. he describes in detail both his understanding of human experience and his personalism. Moral Theology. became available to the Englishspeaking public in 1974 as The Acting Person. Urban Adelman.111 Rather. Osoba i Czyn." Williams. Roman Ingarden. 1963). 186. it was a reasoned defense for the thoughtful Catholic Christian considering marriage. published in Krakow in 1969. In it. . the English was a translation of the 18th German edition. Polish.
of anthropology. The Acting Person. he concludes that by means of action the human person manifests. 31. 1st ed.115 In these reflective functions. consciousness reflects actions in two ways: it provides awareness that action is occurring and it provides awareness that I am the one doing the acting. Consciousness. exhibits two essential functions: it is reflective and it is reflexive. In chapter one. Furthermore. Furthermore.103 department at the Catholic University of Lublin promoted The Acting Person and demonstrated its importance for the personalist project. Gilson as personalists and notes that "personalism in virtually all its forms has been integrally connected with theism." in The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Maritain and E. 114 115 113 Wojtyla. consciousness is passive. and becomes who he or she is. This concern and conclusion come directly from Wojtyla's methodical phenomenological analysis of human psychical and somatic functions as they are placed within the backdrop of Thomist personalist ontology. for example. above all in Scheler's interpretation.113 In The Acting Person. he analyses the relationship between consciousness and human action in order to demonstrate that the experience of acting and self-knowledge are dependent on consciousness. Wojtyla's book contains seven chapters.. . is The article on "Personalism" in The Encyclopedia of Philosophy mentions J. Wojtyla utilizes two distinct tools: "The author of the present study owes everything to the systems of metaphysics. "Personalism. and through Scheler's critique also to Kant. xiv. The act of cognition. and to phenomenology. on the other hand. Ibid. Lavely."114 The central concern of The Acting Person is freedom and responsibility as manifested in the acting person. realizes. Consciousness reflects (like a mirror) both internal states and actions. and of Aristotelian-Thomistic ethics on the one hand." John H. says Wojtyla.
the person is both subject (reflexive) and object (reflective): "it is one thing to be the subject. A person is the source of efficacious conscious 116 117 Ibid. no. Wojtyla. however. and that this self is an autonomous real being. Ibid. . or Erlebnis. "The Phenomenology of Karol Wojtyla: On the Problem of the Phenomenological Foundation of Anthropology. of the person. another to be cognized (that is objectivized) as the subject. The second chapter evaluates human action by distinguishing between active efficacy and passive subjectiveness.. Wojtyla and others of the Lublin school believed Husserl had finally concluded that consciousness alone had real being..104 not performed but reported by consciousness. 118 Hans Kochler. but not as an ontology. Consciousness provides the awareness that my actions stem from my own self.116 The reflexive function of consciousness takes the reflective process one step further by revealing "one's self as the subject of one's own acts and experiences. Wojtyla avoids the transcendental phenomenology of the later Husserl118 and establishes the parameters for the use of phenomenology as a method. 44. believes consciousness reflects an ontologically real self that exists objectively no less than subjectively. 32. and a still different thing to experience one's self as the subject of one's own acts and experiences." That is. this awareness is necessary to knowing oneself as morally responsible." Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 42."117 It is the last of these three that concern the reflexive function of consciousness. By describing consciousness in this way. 3 (1982). Thomist metaphysics supplied Wojtyla with an ontology of the person while phenomenology supplied him with a tool for scientific analysis of the conscious lived-experience.
but they join and unite together in the metaphysical field. most complete. "The two structures. "self-possession finds its manifestation and its confirmation in action. Ibid. the person's freedom resulting from the will.119 Wojtyla says the person is also the source of all that goes on within her. 66. "The freedom appropriate to the human being. cut across the phenomenological field of experience. The union of efficacy and subjectivity occurs in the person. "Only the one who has possession of himself and is simultaneously his own sole and exclusive possession can be a person. Ibid.. with that experiential.. and out of them springs the will. and fundamental organ of man's autonomous being. that in which man acts and that in which something happens in man. Wojtyla approaches his most central concern: the transcendence of the person in action and the structure of the will.105 action in which the will participates. free will. that is.. of what happens in her passively."121 Furthermore."123 This structure of human will is the source of human transcendence of the simple instinctual activations of nature. she is the actor and creator of action. Thus. 105. in her efficacy. Ibid.. Foundational to human transcendence is self-possession of the ego. one can see the significance of the title of this work: The Acting Person. The Acting Person. . 106. that is."120 In the third chapter. 74. In this subjective passivity she is raw material who observes the activation of potentialities within her. exhibits itself as identical with selfdetermination. 115. Human freedom and transcendence mean that a human "depends chiefly on himself for the dynamization of 119 120 121 122 123 Wojtyla. Ibid."122 From this foundation come self-governance and self-determination.
or unconscious.. Wojtyla is committed to soul/body duality integrated such that a "person-action 124 125 126 127 128 Ibid..106 his own subject. human action is responsible in its inevitable choice of good or evil objects in light of an internal knowledge of the "truth about good. nonfulfillment. and intentional. 120. Chapters five and six detail the nature of the human integration of psyche and soma. while moral evil leads or amounts to. and from self-fulfillment comes felicity. . Ibid. Ibid. through selfknowledge reflected in consciousness."124 True human action is free. Self-fulfillment relies on both the conscience and truthfulness. a person knows his responsibility. so to speak. All this is accomplished in the integrated unity that constitutes a human person.. it is not spontaneous. self-determined. Ibid. a person knows his efficacy and selfdetermination." "In the opposition between the good and the bad which direct moral conduct there is presupposed that in human acting the willing of any object occurs according to the principle of truth about the good represented by the objects."126 The fourth chapter identifies the sort of human actions that bring personal fulfillment. 153. 125. Ibid. but "fulfillment is reached only through the good."127 The person experiences fulfillment when the truth about good and the resulting duty unite in conscious action. Every human action leaves its own internal moral trace.125 Most importantly. instinctual.128 In summary.. 139. Through knowledge of the truth of good and his capacity to act. Through consciously acting a person fulfills his entire personhood and thus achieves felicity.
206. Wojtyla notes that "sensuous-emotive excitability appears to be particularly well rooted in the soil of human instincts.107 unity has precedence over the psychosomatic complexity. good.. 253. 196."132 All feelings are first directed to values and are then integrated in the consciousness with truthfulness. Human cooperation depends on and has its value in persons acting."130 This results in an ontologically complex human as evinced by the instinctual reactions of the body on the one hand and selfdetermination on the other hand."129 Nonetheless he also states that "the body is not a member of the subjective ego in the way of being identical with the ego. this is the context of authentic choices and actions. he only has it. 227.. man is not the body. Ibid.133 The seventh and final chapter of The Acting Person analyzes intersubjectivity. 252. It is the acts of persons qua persons 129 130 131 132 133 Ibid. and beauty with the accompanying faculty of self-determination—stimulates a very deep emotive resonance in the human being. Thus. The conflict—closely related to emotion—between the spontaneity of nature and self-determination is authentically resolved in the person by the proficiencies called virtues. A man or woman carries the moral value of his or her actions into community."131 while at the same time "all that determines and constitutes the spiritual transcendence of the person—his attitude toward truth. the values that accompany the joint actions of men and women together are determined by the values that accompany the actions of each man and woman.. . An important medium for both psyche and soma is emotion. Ibid.. Ibid. Ibid..
270. and other features of human sexuality. this is the "personalistic" value. This is the word used in the English text. he ponders the issues surrounding sexuality with a constant eye on certain realities of the sexual life.. Two systems that stifle the authentic action of persons are individualism and "totalism. love. acting in a personalistic manner is an ethical obligation not only for persons but also for communities which enable such personal action. 280. Ibid. lust. it is a theology that arises from his experience and education. his commitment to the confessional."135 Authentic participation with others requires the action of persons in the fullest sense of the word. Second.134 Acting with others is the primary means by which one realizes "the authentically personalistic value—the performance of the action and the fulfillment of [oneself] in the action. Wojtyla. Synthesis John Paul II's theology of human sexuality can be summarized by way of four claims. By means of his close relationship with his Srodowisko. In true community "man chooses what others choose and indeed often because others choose it."137 Valid communities foster authentic attitudes such as solidarity and love while resisting "nonauthentic" attitudes such as conformism and noninvolvement. Furthermore. His training in phenomenology provided Wojtyla the scientific analysis for describing the nature of faith. and his own celibacy. it is a theology elaborated within a philosophical and 134 135 136 137 Ibid."136 Each system lacks a proper view of both the person and the community.108 that are of value. It seems to mean totalitarianism. shame. The Acting Person. 264. First. .. but even then he chooses it as his own good and as the end of his own striving.
human responsibility. sexual. Love fulfills the nature of personal interaction. that is. . specifically. never to be an object simply utilized by a subject. He speaks of human dignity. the gift of self. John Paul II writes as though defending a posture that is under attack. his theology of sexuality exalts the role of love. that is. that is. that is. They enable him to demonstrate that the human person—his recurring theme—is inviolable. He seldom names his opponents. These features of John Paul II's thought—as we shall see in the following chapter—are evident in The Theology of the Body and. his is an apologetic theology. and the nature of love from a complex integration of philosophical and theological sources. and sensual. capable. in his theology of celibacy. thus only finding fullness in self-giving and community. yet he appears to defend a proper understanding of sexuality that is threatened. existing in the complementary forms of male and female. Third. able both to recognize and to perform good or evil acts. Fourth. love enables chastity.109 theological framework. love seeks truth in conjugal relations. replete with sexual urges existing innocently yet sadly inclined in both men and women toward the utilitarian use of others.
The Theology of Marriage & Celibacy: Catechesis on Marriage and Celibacy in the Light of the Resurrection of the Body (Boston: St. Original Unity of Man and Woman: Catechesis on the Book of Genesis (Boston: St. and thus became more widely available. 1986). to celibacy. Paul Editions. John Paul II. and then translated and published them in the English edition. and other writings addressed primarily to religious and priests. Even so. he identifies the new way. From 1979 to 1984. 1983). He presented these addresses in Italian as weekly. Paul Editions. Paul Editions.1 There. both sources will be examined. John Paul II. opened by Jesus. John Paul II. 110 3 . however. The Theology of the Body.CHAPTER FIVE John Paul II's Theology of Celibacy John Paul II offers his most extended treatment of celibacy in The Theology of the Body. 1984). letters. the weekly Osservatore Romano published them in the Italian edition. Even though St. the addresses appeared in the single volume. Paul (Boston: St. In 1997.3 they received little attention. Paul Editions. Theology of the Body. The Theology of the Body From 1979-1984. Pope John Paul II gave a series of 129 addresses on human sexuality. 1981). Blessed Are the Pure of Heart: Catechesis on the Sermon on the Mount and Writings of St. Paul Editions also published them in four small books from 1981-1986. exploration of The Theology of the Body 1 2 John Paul II. in the midst of his treatment of the nature of human sexual embodiment and marriage. general audiences and the Osservatore Romano2 published them. Reflecitons on Humanae Vitae: Conjugal Morality and Spirituality (Boston: St. In this chapter. John Paul II. Another source of John Paul II's ideas regarding celibacy is the variety of his exhortations.
"Pope John Paul II's Theology of the Body. 1-2 (2000). John Paul II combines important elements of his previous writings and uses biblical exegesis as a framework to describe his understanding of sexuality as it relates to marriage. Theology of the Body Explained: A Commentary on John Paul II's "Gospel of the Body" (Boston: Pauline Books & Media. Michael Novak. perhaps in the twenty-first century. "When that happens. McCormick (New York: Paulist Press.111 needs and continues to grow." Josephinum Journal of Theology 7." 18-21. Sister M. no. "John Paul II: Theologian of the Body of the Acting Person. celibacy. "Mariage Et Célibat Consacré a Partir Des Catéchèses Du Mercredi De Jean Paul II" (Pontificiae Universitatis Gregorianae. Charles E. before Catholic theology has fully assimilated the contents of these 130 general audience addresses. ed. 2003). Witness to Hope. The titles for the individual addresses vary greatly between the English. 1991). George Weigel makes strong claims for it: "The Church and the world will be well into the twenty-first century. "Mariage Et Célibat". "The Embodied Self. Of particular interest is the fact that he places Christian celibacy within the framework of biblical teaching on human sexuality and marriage. Curran and Richard A. but in the history of modern thought. sexual temptation. "John Paul II's Theology of the Body. Also see. 2 (2001). Vincent M. 343. and perhaps far beyond. 1 (1999). "The Embodied Self. 1998). the French and the Italian editions. Witness to Hope. Novak. Ronald Modras. Weigel. For a list of Italian introductions." First Things 130 (2003)." Catholic Dossier 5. see Ramaroson.4 Serious engagement with its entire thought is lacking. Nonetheless the division of the addresses into seven The following directly indicates a variety of works that address the Theology of the Body. PA: Key of David Publications. 1996). 342. Benedict M. "A Disembodied 'Theology of the Body': John Paul II on Love. Walsh. no. the Theology of the Body may well be seen as a critical moment not only in Catholic theology. no. MI: Eerdman's."5 Then Weigel adds. Sex & Pleasure. If taken with the seriousness it deserves. 9. Christopher West." in John Paul II and Moral Theology. Ashley. Pope John Paul II the Theology of the Body (Human Love in the Divine Plan): A Simplified Version (Merion. Mary Shivanandan. 5 6 4 Weigel. . and the use of contraception. Timothy Prokes. John Paul's Theology of the Body may prove to be the decisive moment in exorcising the Manichaean demon and its deprecation of human sexuality from Catholic moral theology. Benjamin Marc Balthason Ramaroson."6 In The Theology of the Body." Commonweal 128. Toward a Theology of the Body (Grand Rapids. Luke Timothy Johnson. 2002).
second. Mariage Et Célibat: L'évangile De La Rédemption De Corps (Paris: Les Éditions du Cerf. CT: New Hope Publications." and "Blessed Are the Pure of Heart: Catechesis on the Sermon on the Mount. Uomo E Donna Lo Creò (Rome: Città Nuova Editrice. The Splendor of Love: John Paul II's Vision for Marriage and Family (Hartford. third. addresses 24-50 on the nature of sexual temptation. The Theology of the Body. addresses 73-86 on the theology of celibacy.7 The Pauline Books and Media printing of John Paul II's addresses. 1985). Résurrection. fifth. Walter Schu rightly indicates that the first four sections establish the foundation of the theology of the body." This heading is subdivided into five subheadings: 1) "St. 2003). Paul's Teaching on the Human Body. Walter Schu. 117. 9 8 7 . addresses 87-113 on the sacramentality of marriage. A French edition tactfully notes that the style is "souvent fort dense. and seventh. addresses 1 through 23 on the nature of human sexuality as understood from Genesis one and two. Part one contains two major headings." 3) "Virginity for the Sake of the Kingdom. fourth. and third to family planning." The number of addresses included in each of the seven sections is as follows: first.112 groupings is relatively uniform." Part two contains a single major heading: "Life according to the Spirit." 2) "The Resurrection of the Body. addresses 64-72 on the resurrection of the body. addresses 5163 on Paul's teaching on the human body."9 The initial addresses should be read with special The Italian edition by Città Nuova Editrice divides the addresses into six cycles. is divided into two untitled parts. 1985)." and 5) "Reflections on Humanae Vitae. John Paul II. John Paul II." 4) The Sacramentality of Marriage. sixth. and the last three sections make applications: first to virginity. each with a subtitle: "Original Unity of Man and Woman: Catechesis on the Book of Genesis.8 The collection of addresses is difficult to read. addresses 114-129 on "Humanae Vitae" with a focus on the nature of the conjugal act. 7. second to marriage.
I made only limited use of the Italian. Gen 4 in one audience. 2. in the remaining audiences of this section. Gen 2 is discussed in seventeen audiences. nonetheless. Jesus. One suspects that reading the Italian would occasionally help one better understand John Paul II's thought. 26. . One must keep in mind. John Paul II describes the theology of human sexuality found in the early chapters of Genesis. John Paul II identifies certain fundamental features of human sexual existence. 11 12 10 Perry Miller. cannot be simplified. like Dante or Milton. 10 In addition. he ties Jesus' teaching in Mat 19:1-12 to Gen 1. Thus. Jonathan Edwards (New York: The World Publishing Company. Theology of the Body. comparison of the two sometimes clarifies ideas. says John Paul II. bases his arguments in Mat 19 regarding marriage on the creation passages of Genesis rather than "getting caught up in the juridico-casuistical controversies"12 of his time."11 Original Unity of Man and Woman: Catechesis on the Book of Genesis In this first of the seven major sections of The Theology of the Body. and 4 by means of Jesus' words: "in the beginning it was not so" (Mat 19:8). The English and French translations were made for the Osservatore Romano and reflect the high quality of that important periodical. ii. John Paul II. it is often crucial for the reader to understand the pope's philosophical and theological presuppositions. Reading English and French translations of addresses given in Italian by a Polish pope may easily create difficulty. that what Perry Miller said of Jonathan Edwards. is true of John Paul II: he "is a writer who. attempts to reflect John Paul II's order and development of ideas. however. The following overview of The Theology of the Body. because I do not read Italian.113 care in order to understand the specialized vocabulary found throughout. To begin. and the final audience of this section is a summary. 1959). Genesis 1 is treated in one audience.
an embodied anthropology that has human experience. then." Original solitude has a twofold character. as a primary source. therefore. says John Paul II. men and women created in God's image are viewed from three perspectives: cosmologically. Theology of the Body. Original human solitude. by mentioning the "beginning" sought. On the following page. "It is not good for the man to be alone. and metaphysically. he says. especially original human experience.. as part of the created order.13 comes to understand John Paul II notes that Adam is not called "male" that is ish until Gen 2:23. Jesus. not as male but simply as human. It is the problem exemplified in the statement in Gen 2:18. as not simply reducible to the created order. The instruction to be fruitful and multiply highlights this good. shifts to a subjective anthropology. in part. The two aspects of human experience John Paul II finds emphasized in Gen 2 are these: original human solitude and original human innocence as they relate to the original unity of man and woman. 43. Ibid. "The fact that man is a 'body' belongs to the structure of the personal subject more deeply than that fact that in his somatic constitution he is also male or female. First. but the human solitude as a creature in the world as well as the solitude of either sex without the other." John Paul II. that is. as possessing a certain good—existence. says John Paul II. "We conclude that the man ('adam) falls into that 'sleep' in order to wake up 13 . John Paul II intends to persuade his listeners that male-bodied and female-bodied persons come to a theology of the body via both their embodied experience and the Scriptures. 35. the human. In this anthropology of Gen 1. Adam.114 While stating that Gen 1 is an Elohist passage and thus of later origin than the Yahwist second chapter. Procreation. to challenge his interlocutors with this objective anthropology. is an existential good integrally related to the objective anthropology of Gen 1. From this John Paul II concludes that the original solitude of 'man' is not the male incompleteness without the female. theologically. Genesis 2. he deals with it first because it establishes an objective anthropology. Original human solitude is feature of human existence that stems from a problem.
that is. with free will. men and women both experience this unity and come to expect that it will create community in which one person exists alongside another and for another. Original solitude that cries. Although his genus is animality.. Human solitude is answered by the creation of the woman. as a self-conscious person. He stands above the animals as the worker of the garden.115 and define himself in finding that he has no counterpart in the animal world. 39. Ibid. The 'male' and 'female. his difference lies in his reasoning and ruling as a subjectivity.. 39. 38. that is.17 This helper is a second 'self'. we come across the distinction 'is – 'issah for the first time. They share an "identity of nature.14 This personhood is further confirmed by God's command... Adam. Thus Adam "discovers the meaning of his own corporality. notes John Paul II. 14 15 16 17 18 John Paul II. 44.15 He finds himself bodily alone as a self-conscious and self-determined person under God's covenant (commandment) as well as also being dependent on God. "There is no other being like me!" is answered by the unity of the first two human beings. made in God's image. Adam is a being endowed with choice and self-determination. Ibid.' In Genesis 2:23. Theology of the Body. Ibid. Thus. has great reason to rejoice when "a helper fit for him" appears. The man and the woman share a "somatic homogeneity" that is essential to their relationship."16 The second feature of human solitude relates to the relationship between the first two humans. knowing his bodily solitude." It is because the language of Gen 1 and 2 is mythological that it can yield these meanings. man and woman are bone of bone and flesh of flesh. Ibid. the namer of the animals. He is alone. ."18 Thus. 45. and the one who has dominion. that is.
" that is." Ibid."20 Embodied males and females reveal humanity. 22 21 Ibid. 47. Adam's knowledge of male and female bodily difference combines with his knowledge that. "is endowed with a deep unity between what is. female in him. John Paul II explains the nature of the image of God in humanity by referring to this solitude and reciprocity. Human bodily difference from the animals as well as human rule over them identifies the solitary human as a person. but that humans. one male and one female. an image of the Trinity. equally humanly and though the body.. whether male or female. and essentially." and together these two known things combine to identify what humanity is. and self-awareness of embodiment experienced by a human being encounters reciprocity in the other.21 in addition to its implied community and fecundity. unlike the animals. They are "two ways of 'being a body' and at the same time a man. Ibid. but also. identifies humanity as made in the image of the Trinity.. A man or a woman "is not only an image in which the solitude of a person who rules the world is reflected. Thus. He does not here intend to say that both genders contain elements of their opposites.116 solitude.19 "Man. male in him and what is. the single metaphysical solitude has two "incarnations"."22 19 20 Ibid.. which complete each other. and that establishes an inalienable norm for the understanding of man on the theological plane. . this other is "bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh. The bodily male/female duality. an image of an inscrutable divine communion of persons. are deeply united in their humanity." as John Paul II states it. is this somatic structure "presented right from the beginning with a deep consciousness of human corporality and sexuality. 46. humanly and through the body. self-determination. 48. For John Paul II.
the act of two self-determined subjectivities. It is."23 The conjugal act is not simply an instinctual fulfillment of corporality. "bone of my bone and flesh of my flesh. Woman came from man's rib. a man and a woman return to that unity and "discover their own humanity.. Ibid. The unity of humanity is seen in Adam's declaration.24 These original experiences—original solitude. primal. and in the duality of a mysterious mutual attraction.117 The words of Gen 2:24 that speak of a man and a woman becoming one flesh indicate that the conjugal act functions as a reminder of the essential nature of humanity. original unity. not so much as chronological human prehistory but as the original. John Paul II emphasizes that the experience of human embodiment is a rich source of theological anthropology. makes the connection between original human innocence and historical human sinfulness explicit when he contrasts "the beginning" with the current practice of divorce (Mat 19:3-6). and by the return to union as one flesh. flesh from his flesh. both in its original unity." In conjugal relations. therefore. the blessing of procreation brings about the creation again of life that is flesh of their flesh. Again. 51. and it reenacts the created origin of humanity in creation. 49. and basic human experience of men and women of all times. 23 24 Ibid. Christ. This act is also the result of the choice made by a self-determining man or woman to leave father and mother and cleave to a wife or husband in marriage. Genesis 2 is a description of original human experience. . a person's bodily femininity or masculinity designed for sexual intercourse leads to the conclusion that women and men are designed for community and unity. and original innocence—are the backdrop of the historical human experience of sin described in Gen 3..
the change from innocence in Gen 2-3 is a change in the meaning of the human body. The pre-fall innocence of men and women found in particular in the nudity without shame of Gen 2:25. their nakedness without shame reflected their communion as "personsubjects.118 Furthermore. Original human innocence in nakedness without shame was not. the man."25 Nonetheless. bodily innocence— exemplified in nudity without shame—is a catalyst within the historical human experience of bodily sinfulness and produces the longing for bodily redemption. Adam.. This revealed. 55. for John Paul II. Ibid. In the nakedness of man in the presence of a woman. it was not lack of experience. Thus. but rather a fullness of understanding. not their inexperience. These contrasting human experiences—knowledge of an original innocence and at the same time experience of historical culpability. forms a contrast with the fallen." "The body expresses the personal human 'self' which derives its exterior perception from within. have led to a human longing for redemption of the body. came to know his own humanity as a duality. a reflection of incompleteness or immaturity. It is thus in real persons as manifested in their nakedness that there was 25 26 Ibid. beyond the level of physical sight. shamed condition of historical humanity in Gen 3. . Rom 8:23 evinces the internal groaning characteristic of historical humanity and the human desire for the redemption of the body. especially the meaning of the male-female relationship. What he physically saw led him to the "fullness of consciousness of the meaning of the body."26 The body manifests human persons and enables their communication. original. The innocence of the original pair reflects their maturity. says John Paul II. Original human innocence.
recognition of personhood provides respect both for self and other as subjects existing for their own sake. God's image is manifested in men and women as they. Only free persons can give this gift.. For John Paul II. There exists neither an internal compulsion nor an external demand that the gift be given. "they were not ashamed. and it is good." means that they deeply affirmed the inherent maleness and femaleness of the other. bestow gifts. "it is capable of expressing the love with which the man-person becomes a gift.27 When the man and woman were naked together. The communio personarum willed by God expressed itself in a female person in the presence of a male person. while recognizing that the body they beheld was the manifestation of a person. The primary gift they grant to each other is the gift of the entire bodied self to the other—the nuptial gift. the visible world was created 'for him. and we are a mutual gift. the one for the other.119 no shame. we are complementary. The phrase.. Humankind is the recipient of this gift. Self-mastery provides control over instinctual constraints arising within the body. The nuptial character of the body means. "I and the other are good. he calls it the "nuptial" gift." In this understanding. Ibid. 59. "In the whole work of creation. it can be said only of him that a gift was conferred on him. but humans are a gift to the world. man and woman being a gift for each other is crucial. like the Creator. In the act of creating.. they also saw each other's goodness.. 29 Ibid. 58. The physical sight of the other led to spiritual conclusions. 56." Ibid.'"29 Not only so. God grants the radical gift of existence to the world. thus fulfilling the deep meaning of his being and his existence. 125. there was no shame. .28 This gift stems from the human likeness to God. In this context of 27 28 Ibid.
in his holiness. The revelation and discovery made by the man and the woman is also beatifying. God communicates grace to them. love gives and good comes to be. The truth about the nature of their embodiment becomes apparent in their capacity for self-donation and immunity to shame. Ibid. Furthermore. The meaning of the body. in turn. historical men and women know this Ibid. Being naked without shame requires the affirmation of the sexual body in addition to the affirmation of the personhood of self and other. a man or woman stands ready to give the gift of his or her embodied self to the other. therefore. results from the knowledge of bodily innocence and from the possibility of self-giving. Ibid.. who then give the nuptial gift to each other without shame."32 God gave the world to men and women. Love joined thus with grace in the man and the woman to make them participants "in the interior life of God himself. and original immunity to shame.33 thus instilling God's holiness in them. granting them original innocence.. 65. 69. original happiness. "This is now bone of my bone. both the man and the women "exist from the beginning in the mutual relationship of the disinterested gift of oneself. creative love in their bodily experience.120 freedom. The man and the woman emerge from God's love and. This original freedom in original innocence led to the original happiness of Adam's proclamation. John Paul II reminds his readers that both of these theological features appear in the Gaudium et spes where it is affirmed that God willed human beings for themselves. they radiate self-giving." (GS 24) 31 32 33 30 Ibid. 2:23)30 Love is the motivation of creation. . and that a man or woman "cannot fully find himself except through a sincere gift of himself. 68. John Paul II's theology of the body insists on both the complementarity of male and female bodies as well as respect for the person."31 As a result." (Gen.. 67..
to have done otherwise would have introduced shame. 72.. The woman in giving herself to the man "rediscovers herself" within the acceptance she found in the man. Each viewed the other as a person. She is enriched by the full possession of herself. Her "humanity and femininity" are affirmed as her true embodied self and her sexuality are both received as a gift. Likewise. however. his full humanity to her. By viewing each other as persons. their internal forces and this body-soul relationship altered. then. but he also reveals his true masculinity in giving of his full self. Yet another dreadful possibility was also present: "if the man and woman cease to be a disinterested gift for each other. of the original man and the woman was one of innocence. "following the trail of the historical a posteriori—and above all. then they recognize that 'they are naked' (cf.121 meaning in part by the contrast of their bodily shame with the revelation of the original innocence. The inner condition. Gn 3). The inner disposition of men and women changed." man and woman experienced the innocent disposition of the body and the potential of self-giving in marriage and procreation."34 Loss of original unity. following the trail of human hearts—we can reproduce and. In human "theological prehistory. not an object for consumption. Sadly. their mutual giving becomes a mutual enriching. as it were. reconstruct that mutual exchange of the gift of the person. the original innocence. Then the shame of that 34 Ibid. as they were in the mystery of creation. . justice. Their will and their intention was both innocent and righteous. the man not only receives her. When the woman accepts the man and his self-giving then both mutual giving and mutual receiving occur. and holiness was lost. Hence the pope's conviction that.
they became a sign of God's communication of life.122 nakedness.. Ibid. Ibid. as well as the need to remember what has been lost. John Paul 2 notes that the knowledge is reciprocal. In conjugal intercourse. The original man and woman were a "primordial sacrament. Mary. For each it was knowledge of a 35 36 37 Ibid. 78. mother of Jesus replies to the angel. 76.37 This knowledge had numerous facets. holiness entered the visible world. For Adam it was knowledge of a particular woman and for Eve it was knowledge of a particular man. says John Paul II. "How shall this be."36 One means of this remembering is procreation." The loss." The holiness of God became visible in their masculinity and femininity. The nuptial meaning of their bodies remains as a "distant echo" in spite of the loss of the "the grace of original innocence. who they should be. the primordial woman and man experienced the meaning of their own bodies and of each other's bodies. since I know not man?" (Luke 1:34). and how they should act. which they had not felt in the state of original innocence. Via the mutual self-revelation and self-giving of becoming one flesh. they came to know experientially the nature of the body. 74. Adam knew Eve and she conceived a child."35 It follows that the theology of the body from Gen 2 must now teach women and men who they are.. In Gen 4:1 the experience of becoming one flesh is called "knowing. woman and man existing in sexuality yet without shame in the world were a sacramental sign of God's holiness. will spring up in their hearts. "Together with man. this was more than knowledge of abstract humanity. The world is a sacrament indicating divine creativeness. remains great." That is. Nonetheless. .. Men and women are to remember the "first feast of humanity" described in Gen 2:23-25.
"40 Self-determinant. In this way." a person. "In spite of the inevitable prospect of death. man always continues to put knowledge at the beginning of generation. and femininity that of motherhood. All that she is by God's act of creating her comes to fruition in the creation of another person in the image of God.. and what the woman and the man know of themselves as sexual persons standing naked together without shame.. death came to them.. Historical man continues to combine knowledge and conception. comes to an even fuller self-knowledge in the conjugal union. "Masculinity conceals within it the meaning of fatherhood.123 "unique and unrepeatable subject. and humanity. When the man and woman broke the covenant with God. For Eve and Adam. notes John Paul II. 79." (Gen 4:1) The theology of the body informs Eve's declaration. 81. What the man learned of himself in naming the animals and in accepting the gift of the woman.38 Thus. Ibid. knowledge and generation entwine—the body has a generative meaning. yet they still affirmed life—Adam named Eve "the mother of all the living" and he knew her and she gave birth to life acknowledging the Lord's help. found in the other. Eve said. Ibid. 80.. 85. the other. . does the conjugal union become another step in the process of rediscovering the true nature of the body. "With the help of the Lord I have brought forth a man. free persons actively engage in knowing themselves. the man and the woman become father and mother (Gen 4:1). "Knowledge conditions begetting. and thus sexual union becomes an affirmation of life in the face of death. Ibid."41 A human life results from Adam knowing Eve.39 In the midst of this knowledge. he seems to participate in that first 'vision' of God himself: God the Creator 38 39 40 41 Ibid.
"43 It is especially necessary in order to understand the redemption of the body. to Gen 2. Here Jesus goes beyond the commandments—"you shall not commit adultery" and "You shall not covet your neighbors wife"—to a "superabounding of justice. by pointing them to the beginning." John Paul II looks to this passage as a second major source of the theology of the body. Jesus replied. "You have heard that it was said. In Mat 5:27-28 Jesus declares. 86. "How indispensable is a thorough knowledge of the meaning of the body. He pointed his interlocutors to a full theology of the body. is necessary. 89. it was very good. of its generating meaning. 'Do not commit adultery. a theological anthropology.124 'saw . which gave them both a calling and a reliable basis for conducting their lives. Blessed Are the Pure of Heart: Catechesis on the Sermon on the Mount Jesus pointed back to the original man and women but he also spoke of the historical man and woman with their loss of innocence. and behold." This fecund justice comes from joining the biblical commands to the life-experience morality that 42 43 Ibid.' He confirms the truth of these words ever anew. . Ibid. in its masculinity and femininity. .. full vision of humanity and sexuality. ..' But I tell you that anyone who looks at a woman lustfully has already committed adultery with her in his heart. Jesus wanted them to find there an integrated."42 When certain Pharisees tested Jesus by asking him whether it was lawful for a man to divorce his wife. along the way of this vocation! A precise awareness of the nuptial meaning of the body.
Ibid. by the man toward a woman who is not his wife. the antithesis of "naked without shame" appeared—"they knew they were naked." The nakedness is not solely literal. Jesus' injunction is against committing adultery in the heart. therefore. . Adultery. is for historical men and women who are called to find and fulfill their entire humanity through understanding the meaning and truth of the body." This action involves "a desire directed. in order to unite with her as if she were his wife. 1 John 2:16-17.. can unite so closely as to be 'one flesh' (Gn 2:24). Lust is fruit of the world: not the world given to humanity by the creative act of the Father. Ibid. so I hid. 105. 111. is "a breach of the unity by means of which man and woman." Shame is not of the Father. in this case."46 Immediately. When previously they had stood without shame. Shame merged with fear.44 Jesus' instruction.. but the world left over after the man and woman expelled God from their hearts. says John Paul II. and I was afraid because I was naked. speaking from within a Johannine theology. because they questioned "love as the specific motive of the creation and of the original covenant. only as husband and wife. 107. The role of shame and lust. "I heard you in the garden."45 What gives Jesus' statement of Mat 5:27-28 universal importance is that it manifests a fundamental human characteristic of historical human persons. the man and the woman had accepted their sexual bodies and all that was true 44 45 46 Ibid. indicates the origin of human lust: it is not of the Father but of the world. notes John Paul II. The covenant with God was broken.125 encompasses all that a man or woman is.. as though Adam would have been perfectly at ease if he had worn trousers. but comes from a Fatherless world.
Ibid. this communion of 47 48 49 50 Ibid. after the fall... Because of this new role of the body. there exists "a fundamental disquiet in all human existence" which expresses itself in shame." Self-control is now difficult. they were free to give and receive in mutual donation. 116. A man or woman "is ashamed of his body because of lust."49 Thus.. communion of persons existed because of sexual complementarity. 114. Now they are afraid and hiding. they understood that they were to have dominion over the world and subdue it."50 Prior to the fall. Now much is altered: they lack certainty about "the image of God. they knew they were persons transcending the realm of animals. they no longer clearly see their relationship to God's vision of the world. men and women find their bodies are in discord with their minds." they are defenseless. the lusting man and woman no longer feel "above the world of living beings or animalia. .126 about those bodies. comes the "shame of my own sexuality" and my own misguided sexual desire in the presence of another. but I see another law at work in the members of my body. Ibid. mastery of the body is no longer easy and natural. In fact. "In my inner being I delight in God's law. Ibid. he is ashamed not so much of his body as precisely of lust. Shame and lust keep pace with each other in the human heart. and their bodies are now endangered by a hostile uncooperative world. Jesus speaks of the adulterous desire a man may have for a woman when he looks at her.47 John Paul II notes that due to these calamitous events. 113. expressed in the body".48 In the experience of shame. their bodies have lost their power as a "sign of the person in the visible world. A radical change had occurred in relation to their bodies. waging war against the law of my mind. As Paul said. "Cosmic shame" overtook them.
Ibid. 124. Unity and mutual respect give way to the husband's rule over the wife. and the "relationship of 51 52 53 Ibid. Gen 3:16 expresses the woman's situation: "I will greatly increase your pains in childbearing. Lust is "a limitation. 121.127 persons must exist in spite of sexual duality. Gn 2:24). 119. The problem. domination. Nonetheless. . that is."53 Shame measures the desires of the heart against the echo of Gen 2:25 and finds the heart to be lacking. Sexual difference becomes confrontation and shame must intervene to protect the self and the other. that shame was manifested with the imbalance of the original meaning of corporeal unity. Shame attempts to maintain the unity of persons in the diversity of their sexuality and to preserve such unity from lust. willed by the Creator (cf. with pain you will give birth to children. "This opposition does not destroy or exclude conjugal union." Darkness now accompanies the conjugal relationship and its fruit. is not the body or its nuptial meaning. however. "Encroaching upon the manwoman relationship in its totality. infraction or even distortion of the nuptial meaning of the body. the insatiable desire of lust. or its procreative effects. and he will rule over you. Your desire will be for your husband.. of the body as the peculiar 'substratum' of the communion of persons. Identification with one's own body becomes difficult.. which will be that of the man of lust. the lust of the eyes." Simple sexual sensation replaces masculinity and femininity. and the pride of life (1 John 2:16). Shame reflects not a body gone awry but a heart filled with lust.. But it confers on the realization of this union another direction.51 Genesis 3 describes dire results of this new situation. Ibid."52 Rejection of the Father leaves the man and the woman with bitter fruit from the world: the lust of the flesh.
128 possession of the other as the object of one's own desire. Ibid. but rather marked by an objectivism."58 Nevertheless.. then. 134."57 This understanding was reinforced by Mosaic legislation "regarding the body and sex [that] is not so much 'negative' or severe. Love.. Jesus addresses an unhealthy interpretation of the sixth commandment: You shall not commit adultery. Ibid. that Jesus addresses in Mat 5:27-28? First. 137. says John Paul II." now form a fallen cycle of marital relationships. Their understanding of adultery was filtered through centuries of development. this is the loss of freedom. The reciprocal donation of the self spoken of in Gen 2:25 is corrupted into the lust to own and utilize for enjoyment. Because of concupiscence. What was the concern. motivated by a desire to put this area of life in order. the focus of the freely given nuptial gift.. but to fulfill it (Mat 5:17). Jesus' teaching mirrors Gen 3:16. Although Jesus ultimately addresses his instruction regarding adultery to every man and women. With the "abandonment of monogamy"56 and the rise of polygamy. his immediate audience was the Jews of his day.. Israelites had come to understand adultery "above all (and perhaps exclusively) as the violation of man's right of possession regarding each woman who may be his own legal wife. Ibid."54 Loss of mutual donation. 135. the central issue in both is the desire to possess and to use another person. 129. In its essence. must now struggle with lust. . yet Jesus rejects aspects of this development. 127. "the relationship of the gift is changed into the relationship of appropriation. 54 55 56 57 58 Ibid. not with the intent to abolish the law.. Ibid.55 Second. beginning with the patriarchs.
. among other things. 140. Ibid."62 The man's experience of finding the woman attractive or the woman's experience of finding the man attractive should bring with it a set of rich. 144-145. Ibid. changed that. however. Ibid. their admonitions to avoid looking lustfully on a woman were designed to help men stay away from adultery as a sin of the body."61 "Lust is a deception of the human heart in the perennial call of man and woman. as had the author of Pro 6:25.60 John Paul II. Nonetheless. Jesus.. reduces this set to the simple desire to consume by. 147. humanizing values. however. a sacrament. Thus. . that is. 23:17-22). erasing the "matrimonial significance" of the body as well as erasing the body's function as a sign. adultery is understood as a sin of the body. For the Old Testament prophet. 151. "when lust has gained possession of the will" and "is dominant over the subjectivity of the person. the understanding of marriage as a personal covenant. notes that for Jesus the look that is adultery consists of a legitimate experience of the value of a human body accompanied by an illegitimate separation of that value from the person.. Sirach had said something similar (Sir 9:8-9. however."59 Therefore. in large part. adultery is "a sin because it constitutes the breakdown of the personal covenant between the man and the woman. for him.63 59 60 61 62 63 Ibid.129 the concept of the nuptial gift is almost entirely absent. adultery was a sin of the heart." an internal act is performed that is adultery.. Yet. throughout the law and the prophets. adultery of the heart is "an interior separation from the nuptial meaning of the body. That is. Lust. the prophets in their condemnation of the Israel's spiritual adultery revive.. 148. Ibid.
The Manichean view of the body as "anti-value" and a source of evil is a profound impoverishment of the body as described in the biblical theology of the body. 156. John Paul II describes the relationship of the person to the body as follows: "Man . Christ's call is to a profound self-understanding that weighs the inner longings and values of the heart such that a spontaneous valuing of full masculinity and femininity characterizers every 64 65 66 Ibid.. Part of the call of the gospel of Christ—including Mat 5:27-28—is to "reactivate that deeper heritage and give it real power in human life. The call to evaluate the nature of lust is given "both for those who are not united in marriage. expresses himself through that body and in this sense is.'" The body is a sacramental sign." Ibid. .66 Neither the body nor sex is deprecated in his teaching. With this expansion comes a new definition of adultery: "It reduces the riches of the perennial call to the communion of person. but more significantly he expands the concept of adultery to include a look and an act of the heart. an affirmation of the femininity and masculinity of the human being. to mere satisfaction of the sexual need of the body. ."65 These reflections on Mat 5:27-28." Jesus indirectly affirms the evil of the act of adultery. . "The words of Christ according to Matthew 5:27-28 must lead to ."64 By this definition Jesus not only extended adultery to the heart but also to marriage as well. 157. and—perhaps even more—for those who are husband and wife.."67 Far from being a rejection of sexuality. I would say. 203. make it clear that the dualism of Manichaeism is contrary to the teaching of Jesus. that body.. Ibid. . .. 168. as the personal dimension of 'being a body.130 For John Paul II it is obvious that a significant change has occurred in the meaning of the word "adultery. the riches of the deep attractiveness of masculinity and femininity. 67 Ibid. says John Paul II.
Ibid.. Ibid. Paul places this conflict between the desires of the Spirit and the desire of the flesh "in the context of the Pauline doctrine on justification by means of faith. 192. 175-176. 195. Theology of the Body. so that you do not do what you want.74 and Jesus' instructions regarding impurities from the heart in Mat 15:2-20. Ibid. St. . 71 Negatively. .70 that for Paul. corresponds to the three lusts described in 1 John 2:15. "a sin of the flesh . that is by the power of Christ himself operating within man by the Holy Spirit.. 173. and the Spirit what is contrary to the sinful nature."72 This "life of the flesh. Paul's Teaching on the Human Body Body and Spirit. but according to St. . Paul's teachings on the human body play a key part in the thought of John Paul II..73 the issues of the heart that Jesus mentioned in Mat 5:21-48. the body is the means of expression or actualization of the internal life. 196. 195. who notes.75 Positively. 191. 191.68 Women and men are to practice the "fullness of justice" of the "new man" as they ally themselves with the ethos of the redemption of the body. "justification by faith is not just a dimension of the divine plan for our salvation and sanctification." notes John Paul II. "For the sinful nature desires what is contrary to the Spirit..131 encounter with another. is one of the symptoms . in both Gal 5 and Rom 8:5-10. Ibid. Ibid. They are in conflict with each other.."76 Thus. of the life of the flesh. Paul is a real power that operates in man 68 69 70 Ibid.69 St.. either negatively or positively. .. Ibid. . in light of verses such as Gal 5:17." 71 72 73 74 75 76 John Paul II.
the children of God are set free by Christ to realize the works of the Spirit through their bodies. purity and selfcontrol.78 When this occurs. spontaneous attraction occurs between a man and a woman. and the primary work of the free man is love. 193. Christians should subordinate freedom to love. the work of the sinful nature is." On the other hand. and that they should use that freedom to love and serve each other. the life of the Spirit causes each to honor the body and person of the other. Paul declares that God calls Christians to freedom. and thus to abstention from the passion of lust. 200. after listing the works of the flesh. . and keeps each from 77 78 79 Ibid. Thus. "Those who do such things shall not inherit the kingdom of God. that each one of you know how to control his own body in holiness and honor."77 Thus. "This is the will of God.. among other things. not to give a false opportunity to the flesh.. and indirectly also that of others. Paul says in 1 Thess 4:3-5. among other things. license and impurity. In Gal 5:13-14. When the God-designed." John Paul II comments that "the task of purity which the author of the letter seems to stress above all."79 This capability works in tandem with the life of the Spirit. not in the passion of lust like heathens who do not know God. Ibid. In the words of Gal 5. then the concupicible flesh is put to death and the body is set free. Paul declares. the fruit of the Spirit is. But at the same time.132 and is revealed and asserts itself in his actions.. Ibid. Abstention and control are important potentialities arising from the presence of Christ in the life of all believers. your sanctification: that you abstain from unchastity. it is the control of one's own body in holiness and honor. is not only (and not so much) abstention from unchastity and from what leads to it. on the one hand. 198.
which our more presentable parts do not require. with its depiction of the reality and truth about the sexual body. but that the members may have the same care for one another" (1 Cor 12:22-25).. Honoring the body means honoring the sexuality of the body." In order to produce harmony in the body. "The parts of the body which seem to be weaker are indispensable. that there may be no discord in the body." Shame and the propensity for lustful passion make special care necessary. so that the body will 80 Ibid. 202. and our unpresentable parts are treated with greater modesty. is then combined with the reality of historical. male and female. Honoring sexuality. and "from shame springs respect for one's own body. But God has so composed the body. Paul is succinct. special honor must be given to its sexual parts. As John Paul II notes. sinful men and women. He also reveals several important features of a proper theology of the body.133 merely utilizing the other in the passion of lust. and those parts of the body which we think less honorable we invest with the greater honor. "The man of original innocence. This backdrop.80 Paul says. your sanctification" (1 Thess 4:3). that shame dimly reflects original innocence. did not even feel that discord in the body. The fact that some parts of the body are weak and unpresentable reflects the shame that followed original sin. Paul draws an analogy of the human body and the body of Christ in order to describe the nature of the church. In 1 Cor 12:18-25. . John Paul II notes that the backdrop for Paul's comments is the creation and redemption of the body. giving the greater honor to the inferior part. "This is the will of God.
83 Paul says frankly." For Paul. because it is the body of a person. notes John Paul II. purity is a virtue closely related to temperance and is a capacity to respect persons as persons in their sexuality and to respect the dignity of the body more generally. 207. and because it is joined to Christ himself (1 Cor 6:15). It is also the capacity to turn away from lust. says John Paul II. Again. and the Lord for the body" (1 Cor 6:13). but for the Lord.. The Spirit's indwelling is fruit of the redemptive work of Christ. After describing sexual sins as being against one's own body. enabling them to experience the fullness of their bodily humanity and the embodied sexuality of others. 206-207. Charismatically. 206. . can be summarized under a single heading: the "doctrine of purity. the fruit of this process is purity.84 Furthermore. "Do you not know that our body is the temple of the Holy Spirit. purity has both a "moral" and a "charismatic" dimension. especially purity working itself out as a moral commitment to control the body and a commitment to those acts that will themselves further purity. "from purity springs that extraordinary beauty which 81 82 83 84 Ibid." 81 These Pauline passages.134 be harmonious and controlled "in holiness and honor" (1 Thess 4:4). Ibid. and the Spirit sanctifies believers. purity is fruit of the presence of the Holy Spirit.. Paul pointedly asks in 1 Cor 6:19. whom you have received from God?" The body of the Christian deserves respect. "the body is not meant for immorality..82 Morally. because it is the dwelling place of the Spirit. Ibid. 204.. who is in you. Paul encourages a transformation and a "gradual victory over that discord in the body. Ibid.
First. They take this story to show that there is no resurrection from the dead. including their masculinity and femininity. marriage is for this age only.135 permeates every sphere of men's common life and makes it possible to express in it simplicity and depth. 233. whose wife she would be in the resurrection.. and then when he died she married one of the brothers. and Mat 22:23-33 (cf. . and in this way she successively married each of the seven brothers. that you know neither the Scriptures nor the power of God? For when they rise from the dead. In fact. John Paul II sees a number of implications in this passage. but are like angels in heaven" (Mark 12:24-25). those who are resurrected will be "psychosomatic" beings retaining their humanity."85 The Resurrection of the Body John Paul II observes that Christ gave a "triptych of words" crucial for developing a theology of the body: Mat 19:3-9. but also a completely new state of human life itself. The resurrection will bring "not only the recovery of corporeity and the re-establishment of human life in its integrity by means of the union of the body with the soul. Luke 20:27-40).86 In the last of these. Jesus says they will 85 86 87 Ibid. Ibid. who also died. Jesus response to them includes the following: "Is not this why you are wrong. and finally she died. Ibid."87 Nonetheless. they neither marry nor are given in marriage. These Sadducees wanted to know.. Mat 5:27-32. 209.. Mark 12:18-27. he responded to a quandary raised by the Sadducees. They asked Jesus what would happen if a woman married a man who had seven brothers." Not so in the age to come. 238. cordiality and the unrepeatable authenticity of personal trust. Luke 20:34 is specific: "The children of this age marry and are given in marriage.
this reality signifies the real and definitive 88 89 90 91 Ibid. As a result. God will communicate his very divinity to his children. because of the beatific vision that is the "inexhaustible source of perpetual virginity."91 the resurrected will give themselves in their entirety to God and their nuptial gift will find its fullest expression in virginity. Ibid.. Rather." yet the very fact that he affirms a resurrection indicates that they will not be purely spiritual. but are also sons of God. In the perfect spiritualization of the person at the resurrection. 240. this divinization is "incomparably superior" to that which can be attained in this life. what will occur is a "spiritualization of the somatic nature" by means of a distinct "system of forces" within the resurrected whereby there is a "new submission of the body to the spirit. the spirit will "fully permeate" the body." Again.. "In this way. in the resurrection there will be a perfect integration. Although mature Christians can in part achieve this state in this present age. 241."88 In this resurrection. "the body will return to perfect unity and harmony with the spirit. the 'sons of the resurrection' are not only equal to angels. Ibid. by which "I see in my members another law at war with the law of my mind" (Rom 7:23)."89 All the opposition that arose from the fall. is erased. Full self-discovery will result in fully giving oneself to God.136 be "like the angels. Furthermore.90 This involves both human divinization and spiritualization. Ibid. "As we read in Luke 20:36. 254. resulting in deep harmony that manifests itself in perfect spontaneity. . yet they will retain their "authentic subjectivity" and God will perfect them. the resurrected will experience the beatific vision..
94 These two perspectives. and on this basis. as seen directly above. Thus. by reason of the body. "The original and fundamental significance of being a body as well as being. Marriage and procreation merely give a concrete reality to that meaning in the dimensions of history. . the definitive fulfillment of the nuptial meaning of the body. inform the current historical situation of fallen men and women. Later. the unmarried state of the resurrected is both old and new. 247. the creational and the eschatological. argues John Paul II. does not change. Ibid. male and female."93 The nuptial meaning of the body is forever personal and communitarian.. male and female—that is precisely that nuptial significance—is united with the fact that man is created as a person and called to a life in communione personarum. 245. 233."92 The body is revealed both in its original potentiality and in its redeemed transformation." The true meaning of the body. Ibid. Virginity for the Sake of the Kingdom In The Theology of the Body. he indicates the importance of the resurrection—a state in which men and women do not marry. Marriage and procreation in itself do not determine definitively the original and fundamental meaning of being a body or of being.137 fulfillment of human subjectivity.. What began in the creation of humanity and continues in the procreative union of one flesh will come to full expression in a resurrection in which they "neither marry nor are given in marriage. as a body. that John Paul II uses this threefold framework of creation. therefore. It is not surprising. historical humanity. and resurrection to describe the 92 93 94 Ibid. John Paul II begins by showing the importance of the phrase "in the beginning" (Mat 19:8)..
Jesus then says to them. The vocation. and future nature of human sexual embodiment--John Paul II explores in detail the character of celibacy and those men and women who choose celibacy for the kingdom of heaven on the basis of their "particular sensitivity of the human spirit" that results in their "exclusive donation of self to God in virginity. only those to whom it was given. and there are eunuchs who have made themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. commits adultery" (Mat 19:9). but only those to whom it is given.. "whoever divorces his wife. in attempting to reflect John Paul II's thought. Jesus' disciples react strongly to this restriction of divorce and suggest that it is expedient not to marry. and there are eunuchs who have been made eunuchs by men. The Pharisees then questioned Jesus regarding why Moses had allowed divorce. 262. and his reply pointed them to "the beginning" and Gen 2:24. Having presented the basic features of a theology of the body—the original." The foundational biblical passage for his study is Mat 19:3-12. "Not all men can receive the precept. historical. Those that receive this gift are enabled to make a choice oriented Again." Ibid. except in the case of concubinage. 95 . I have used his translation. Jesus stated that Moses made this allowance because of their hard hearts. He who is able to receive this. For there are eunuchs who have been so from birth. Some men and women today receive a vocation to voluntary celibacy. let him receive it" (Mat 19:11-12). "concubinage" of the word πορνείᾳ that is more often translated "fornication.95 and marries another. But Christ indicated that not everyone could accept this vocation. In it some Pharisees asked Jesus whether divorce is lawful.138 nature of virginity for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. and then Jesus declared.
with its concomitant procreation. and 4) religiously. Because it is a counsel. was a status of religious privilege because covenant with Abraham promised that he would "father a multitude of nations" (Gen 17:4) and because the Messiah would be a son of David. by disregarding the traditional and current practice of his day. they have a gift of the Holy Spirit. Ibid. 2) psychologically. They have a "charismatic orientation" toward this state. 3) ethically. by establishing a 96 97 98 Compare Ibid.139 toward the virginal eschatological human state. Jeremiah's celibacy was a sign of the coming judgment by God during which a spouse or children would be solely a cause of sorrow (Jer 16:1-2). 263. John Paul II points out that the cultural and religious context of the Old Testament had no place for honoring celibacy. but a counsel to some—is further evidence that celibacy is not for all.. it is a "charismatic choice" made as a response to a gift and call given by the Holy Spirit. 206. celibacy will be universal. Celibacy was associated with physical incapability. by denying that personal wholeness requires marriage and children. for historical humanity today.98 Jesus and Old Testament ideas about virginity.. .. "Those able "to receive it' are those 'to whom it has been given. by declaring that it is morally acceptable to not marry. The virginity of Jephthah's daughter was a cause of lamentation (Judg 11:37). Marriage. John Paul II points out that Jesus broke with this Old Testament tradition in four ways: 1) historically. celibacy for the sake of the kingdom of heaven is an exception to the rule of the current state stage of humanity: marriage.'" 97 In the eschatological state. that is. 264. However.96 The kind of instruction given by Jesus—he did not give a command to all. Ibid.
is exemplified most clearly in Mary. Ibid."101 Virginity is a charismatic sign for a second reason as well: because the Spirit works supernatural fruitfulness into it.. virgins for the sake of the kingdom are a charismatic and eschatological sign. the mother of Jesus. 266. They point to the resurrection.. Ibid. when he freely chooses continence in 99 Ibid.100 Virginity as a sign. the virginal destiny of humanity. 267. freely chooses continence for the kingdom of heaven. the theology of the book of Revelation (Rev 14:4). says John Paul II. the full nuptial significance of the body. but by the fertility of the Spirit working in her virgin body. This unusual fruit. This is because God will be 'everything to everyone' (1 Cor 15:28). "Mary's divine maternity is also. and in the understanding of many in the early church. and the import of eternal face-to-face communion with God. which is the other world of the resurrection. This change took root in the life of the church and early on it bore fruit in the life of Paul (1 Cor 7:25-40). From being a sign of physical defect. the nature of the glorified man and woman. 100 101 . It was not by physical fecundity that she bore Jesus.140 spiritual basis for celibacy outside of God's manifest procreative purposes for the children of Abraham. male and female. indicates that in that kingdom. in the earthly situation where people usually marry (Luke 20:34). In the new order. it became a sign of voluntary commitment to the kingdom of heaven. in a certain sense. who. people will no longer marry (Mark 12:25).99 Jesus inaugurated a radical change in the understanding of celibacy. "The human being. a superabundant revelation of that fruitfulness in the Holy Spirit to which man submits his spirit. the dynamics of the redeemed body.
so the commitment itself embraces all of life. The efficacy of celibacy is a byproduct. one understands the significance of the kingdom of heaven and experiences the motivation to choose celibacy. namely. of its "supernatural finality.. Ibid.104 Comparison of marriage and virginity..105 This requires a renunciation of marriage and an acceptance of an "even fuller form of intersubjective communion with others" for the kingdom of heaven—the expression of the Trinitarian communion. continence for the kingdom of heaven. 268-269.. in part. The initial sacrifice." Continence for the kingdom of heaven requires a deep. just as the object of this commitment. final commitment to that kingdom. even though continence is "especially efficacious and important for the kingdom of heaven. Ibid. The call to marriage is "universal and ordinary." but the call to virginity is "particular and exceptional." God grants "the gift. 271." The marriage of Joseph and Mary displayed the perfect communion and fruitfulness of a continent "conjugal pact" for the kingdom.141 the body. . One should not choose celibacy from the utilitarian measurement of its potential fruitfulness. Celibacy offers the potential of superabundant spiritual fruitfulness. Nonetheless.102 Furthermore. 102 103 104 105 Ibid."103 it is not to be chosen simply from expediency. that is. 272. the kingdom of heaven. 270. Ibid. Such a life is not for all. As John Paul II points out. Jesus pointed them to the proper motive: the kingdom of heaven. Rather. Jesus' own fruitful and virginal life teaches the same lesson. Jesus does not confirm the disciples' evaluation that because marriage is indissoluble it is better to avoid it. the grace" and. renouncing marriage.. is all encompassing. as a result.
Neither does poverty. . and in that the former is "especially important and necessary to the kingdom of heaven.142 precedes the continual sacrifices of living the celibate life. has agreed. while they also deal with the "threefold concupiscence" (1 John 2:25) resulting from the fall.. and participation in marriage and family—are renounced for another good. in the married "perfect conjugal love must be marked by that fidelity and that donation to the only Spouse . he says. the kingdom of heaven. procreation. . Jesus recommended that the rich young man sell all and give to the poor "if [he] would be perfect" (Mat 19:21). the continent exemplify the letter of that which the married may display the spirit. the married in the world may observe the "spirit of those counsels. The measure of perfection is charity. Ibid. John Paul II states that celibacy is superior to marriage in that the former is exceptional while the latter is universal. They participate in the original solitude and the communion of masculine and feminine bodies.. All authentic church tradition. chastity. sexual union. In addition. 275." The continent and the married thus speak to each other. The goods renounced in marriage—giving oneself as a gift to another. marriage and celibacy are complementary. and charity can be achieved both in the religious institute and in the world. Nothing in the physical sexual relationship of husband and wife makes marriage inferior. 274. on which religious profession and priestly 106 107 Ibid. a celibate person is not by reason of celibacy superior to a married person."107 This in no way disparages marriage. Similarly. Thus. and obedience make one who lives in a religious institute superior in perfection. . Yet Paul will say that the married do well and the celibate do better (1 Cor 7:38).106 Women and men remain essentially the same whether married or celibate. Nonetheless.
.. and follows Christ.111 it is a particular response of love for the "Spouse of souls. says John Paul II. Celibacy is giving the nuptial gift in love for the kingdom of heaven.. Marriage is giving the nuptial gift in love to another. The renunciation of marital 108 109 110 111 112 Ibid. that is. Christ."112 Furthermore. through education and nurture. 277-278. 282. a nuptial giving of oneself for the purpose of reciprocating in a particular way the nuptial love of the Redeemer. human masculinity and femininity are best understood in the context of human personhood that includes the freedom of selfgiving in love—the nuptial gift. is measured by the value of that which is sacrificed. is central to celibacy for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. Ibid.143 celibacy are founded. The greatness of the sacrifice made by celibates. "has acquired the significance of an act of nuptial love. 282. Ibid. 279. notes John Paul II. celibacy. every man and woman is free to bestow that gift or not to bestow it. then. far from subtly denouncing marriage. Rather. In addition. 283-284." Furthermore.. and family. Continence. Ibid. takes up his cross. Ibid. Designed for total self-giving.109 The celibate is driven by the single value of the kingdom. love for this value is inseparable from love for the "divine Spouse" of the church. the married physically reproduce children and spiritually reproduce Christians. .."110 The sexual bodily design of men and women is not best understood in the modern terminology of sexual instinct. affirms the value of marriage. who both rules and animates the kingdom. It is out of love for the present and future kingdom that the celibate renounces marriage. while the celibate spiritually reproduce through the special fruitfulness of the Spirit.108 Love.
113 In fact. "This observation about the perishability of human existence and the transience of the temporal world. celibacy is a counsel. 286. in the teaching of Paul. Christ. that the love of a celibate. and the selfrealization that comes in giving the gift. not a command. According to John Paul II. It is not surprise therefore. Jesus' mention of the three categories of eunuchs implies that a sacrifice of a good has occurred in each of the three cases. Paul clearly tells his readers that although he would advise them to choose celibacy (1 Cor 7:7. 36). for the church. Ibid. the kingdom of heaven. spousal love. He emphasizes that "the time is already short" and "the form of this world is passing away" (1 Cor 7:29. celibacy turns from genuine goods such as family. 9.144 commitment and relations affirms the value of both. the probable central question answered by Paul in this chapter is whether it is sin to marry. 28. 289.114 Paul's advice: choose celibacy. celibacy clarifies the meaning of what it is to marry: to give the gift of the total self in freedom. Thus. this question would stem from "dualist pro-gnostic currents. in a 113 114 115 Ibid. the value of marriage becomes clearer when celibacy highlights the underlying nuptial gift. is the model of spousal love (Eph 5:22-23). 8. the freedom to give it. marriage. they do not sin if they marry (1 Cor 7:7. 31).. That is. as in the teaching of Jesus.."115 Nonetheless. In this way. 285. is sacrificed for something else good. thus identifying the existence of the gift. Paul encourages celibacy. Something good. as a renunciation. 27-28). and sexual intimacy. which later became encratism and Manichaeism. The virgin takes the nuptial gift and gives it to Christ. . Ibid..
"celibacy for the sake of the kingdom of heaven" (Mat 19:12). God gives the gift of grace to both the married and the celibate. Both celibacy and marriage are "full answer[s]" to the question of the theology of the body. the married have "troubles in the flesh" (1 Cor 7:28). Ibid. 2) as a response to the gift of grace for marriage. the married person is divided: loving both a spouse and the Lord. Paul recognizes three valid reasons for marriage: 1) as a remedy for concupiscence. This occupation of the unmarried with "the affairs of the Lord" directly corresponds to Jesus' phrase. Furthermore.. with how to "please the Lord" (1 Cor 7:32-34). 291. the married are occupied "with the things of the world. Nonetheless. First. First.. 290. By contrast the celibate is "characterized by an interior integration" that allows for complete dedication to the kingdom. that is. God enables both types to experience the body as the temple of the Holy Spirit." that is."117 Second. 295. because marriage is "tied in with the form of this world which is passing away. those who choose identification with 116 117 118 Ibid." while the unmarried are occupied "with the affairs of the Lord.145 certain sense about the accidental nature of all that is created. marriage is often fraught with difficulties simply because it is so difficult to express "true conjugal love.. that is. Nonetheless. .118 John Paul II concludes his comments on celibacy with two observations." it is better to choose virginity even though marriage is good. John Paul II observes that Paul also counsels celibacy because of two important features of marriage."116 leads to the conclusion—"Do not seek a wife" (1 Cor 7:27). Ibid. and 3) as a sacramental state.
the theology of the body is best understood under three rubrics: the beginning. John Paul II's Comments on Celibacy outside of the Theology of the Body Various Manifestations of Celibacy When John Paul II spoke of celibacy elsewhere than in the Theology of the Body. they are not discussed here. and second. Ibid. he most often included it as part of the trilogy of evangelical counsels—chastity. they do not address celibacy.. and future humanity. as subjective persons. find fullness in the nuptial meaning of the body given in its entirety to God. historical.119 Second.. The last of the three is the focus of Paul's comments in Rom 8:18-25. 301. that is. and the resurrection. In themselves. the nature of concupiscence. therefore. to the true nature of the conjugal act. 298-299. There the "redemption of the body" appears in the center of the cosmological liberation of creation from its bondage. and obedience. In these two sections. . poverty.120 The Sacramentality of Marriage and Reflections on 'Humanae Vitae' The final two sections of the Theology of the Body are two further applications of the theology of the body. In this full redemption. original. men and women. John Paul II applies the theology of the body developed earlier in the addresses first to marriage as a sacrament.146 the celibate nature of the future kingdom do better. Only in the Theology of the Body does he develop in any detail the 119 120 Ibid. What appeared in original humanity and fell in historical humanity undergoes transformation and fulfillment in future humanity and the redemption of the body.
124 thus. These are the same aspects that he emphasizes regarding religious celibacy. Therefore. whenever he speaks about the consecrated life he speaks. without neglecting their duties toward their children. female celibacy includes the meaning of the "gift of self as sister. and The three evangelical counsels are chastity. for example. and the theology of celibacy—are. nonetheless. Nonetheless. 1988). This consecration is lived by men (ordained or not) and women who take these vows upon entering a particular community—i. he occasionally distinguishes motives for celibacy specific to one group or another.." John Paul II. primarily. Letters to My Brother Priests. John Paul II. "Vita Consecrata. 123 124 125 122 121 Ibid. Those who vow to practice these are said to be living the consecrated life. as freeing the heart for service. Ibid. Religious celibacy has.147 theology of celibacy apart from direct consideration of either the evangelical counsels or priestly celibacy. and as leading to spiritual fatherhood. 55. an eschatological meaning. In all rites of the Roman Catholic Church. priestly celibacy. John Paul II. priestly celibacy has a social meaning." He does not consider these married ones to be "consecrated" even though he favors their commitment.e. so the consecrated life requires a total giving of oneself to God." in The Church and the Consecrated Life. Fleming and Elizabeth McDonough (St. John Paul II mentions that among the new forms of "consecration" today are associations where married couples commit to the "chastity proper to the married state and. A woman may take simply the vow of chastity and remain in the world as a consecrated Virgin. John Paul II's comments on priestly celibacy. The "promise of celibacy" is not the "vow of chastity" (although it entails the same behavior) and therefore does not make the clergy part of consecrated life (unless they happen also to have taken vows as a member of an Institute of Consecrated Life). unless mentioned otherwise. at least in part. For priestly celibacy. ed. closely related. Also. Interestingly. John Paul II. In the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church. he emphasizes celibacy as a gift of the spirit.. 14. he says.121 These three—the evangelical counsels. The numbers appearing in the citations of this document refer to the standard sections of the document. in the observations that follow. The numbers appearing in the citations of this document refer to the standard sections of the document. the motives and meanings he assigns to the various forms of celibacy are identical. either a Religious Institute or a Secular Institute—or who live these vows alone as hermits or anchorites.125 the consecrated life. once a man is ordained he may not enter into marriage. unmarried men entering the diaconate take a promise to remain celibate. David L. poverty.122 A significant tie between them lies in the concept of "the choice of total self giving in Christ. even those allowing a married man to seek ordination to the diaconate or priesthood. 18. Typically. about celibacy. 18. 2. The Lay Members of Christ's Faithful People: Christifideles Laici (Boston: Pauline Books & Media. Louis. 62. MO: Review for Religious. the "first and essential" is celibacy. profess poverty and obedience. . Letters to My Brother Priests: Holy Thursday (1979-2001) (Princeton: Scepter Publishers. Among the three counsels."123 Just as John Paul II spoke of the nuptial gift of self in relation to celibacy. 1996). 2001). and obedience. 219.
129 "His way of living in chastity. 2000). A Las Religiosas Y Religiosos. for example.127 Christ offers this relationship of closely following him to some and not to all."126 Reasons to Choose Celibacy Following Christ. Visible Signs of the Gospel: Messages of John Paul II on Consecrated Life (Boston: St. Paul Editions. Christ was celibate. tradition. 200." 14. Beyer. 1983). 128 129 127 126 John Paul II. and those who choose celibacy for Christ's sake. follow his example in a way that others do not. 1 Cor. 201. chastity. and this self-giving is remembered in the Eucharist. 44.. the seeds of consecration manifest specific features. and obedience in response to God's special invitation. poverty and obedience appears as the most radical way of living the Gospel on this earth. The fertile soils for celibacy mentioned by John Paul II are the gospel. 210. God John Paul II.128 The consecrated follow Christ in his complete submission to the Father. poverty. for it was embraced by him. in order to praise and serve God in greater freedom of heart (cf. 112. received this special vocation with its accompanying gift from the Spirit. "Vita Consecrata. John Paul II summarizes as follows: "This is the essence of religious consecration: to profess within and for the benefit of the Church. 7:34-35) and to have one's life more closely conformed to Christ in the manner of life chosen by Him and His Blessed Mother. John Paul II." 1. . he gave himself totally to his Father. says John Paul II. Juan Pablo II a Las Religiosas Y Religiosos (Barcelona: Herder. a way which may be called divine. and the Church's magisterium. Growing in this soil.148 secular institutes will be combined somewhat indiscriminately to discover his overall approach to the theology of celibacy. Ibid. "Vita Consecrata. Jean Beyer. Some of his disciples.
but it has also called you to greater service of the People of God. John Paul II. poor. 46." entrusted John.135 Mary cares for the consecrated in an especially tender way." These words are at the heart of consecration. and you share more fully in His mission for the salvation of the world. Letters to My Brother Priests. A Las Religiosas Y Religiosos. Visible Signs of the Gospel. like John. ."130 Jesus—virgin."134 Those committed to virginity can turn to Mary in order to discover how to live their life in faithfulness to the Spouse of the Church. John Paul II. In addition. 17. . John Paul II. 160. 201. John Paul II exalts Mary. "Vita Consecrata. and celibate—is the example followed in the consecrated life. The numbers appearing in the citations of this document refer to the standard sections of the document. Jesus' words to John. in a special way. Beyer. "Vita Consecrata. You are united more closely to the Person of Christ. Letters to My Brother Priests. The Gift of Redemption: Apostolic Exhortation Redemptionis Donum (Washington. all men and women. 147. and in particular the consecrated. 208-209. Beyer. D. . the Ever-Virgin mother of Jesus. "may it be to me as you have said. Ibid.. . they are the "prototype of every religious profession." 18." she declared. "Here is your mother."133 "I am the Lord's servant. 147.131 "Your religious consecration. Visible Signs of the Gospel.136 130 131 132 133 John Paul II. into their home as they follow her example of radical consecration.149 and man ."132 Example of Mary. 134 135 136 John Paul II. John Paul II. into the loving tenderness of Mary's care. 1984)." says John Paul II to a group of religious. A Las Religiosas Y Religiosos. C. 114. the consecrated welcome Mary. John Paul II. as the "perfect example of the consecrated life." 28.: Office of Publishing Services United States Catholic Conference. "has not only deepened your baptismal gift of union with the Trinity.
in the consecrated life. John Paul II uses the word "consecrated" for a specific category of persons who are following the threefold evangelical counsels. 13. the consecrated life testifies to the world that the love of God can fill the human heart to the brim. 88. 138 139 137 Beyer. On the Family: Apostolic Exhortation Familiaris Consortio (Washington. 46. Experiencing Christ's spousal love is not exclusive to the consecrated.141 "Yes. A Las Religiosas Y Religiosos. 104."142 Thus.150 Love for God. Redemptionis Donum. 1981). 11." John Paul II. "Vita Consecrata. . 3. D. All the baptized have been placed in "spousal covenant with Christ. Celibacy is Again. love of the Church. says John Paul II."143 Consecration is loving God above all else. John Paul II. John Paul II. that one can devote to him one's whole life and not merely certain actions or occasional moments or activities. C. "Those who have been given the priceless gift of following the Lord Jesus more closely consider it obvious that he can and must be loved with an undivided heart. "Vita Consecrata. at times.. 14. Ibid. only the spousal love139 of God can fill the heart because only it embraces the whole person. chastity for the kingdom of heaven can thrive in the midst of a hedonistic world. Ibid. love of the kingdom of heaven—are the central driving force in the life of consecration and celibacy. 140 141 142 143 John Paul II. Love for God expresses itself. The numbers appearing in the citations of this document refer to the standard sections of the document. putting him above every other love. in Christ it is possible to love God with all one's heart." The consecrated are "captivated in the depths of their heart by the beauty and goodness of the Lord" and have been "admitted in a unique way to the knowledge of the Son and to a sharing of his divine mission in the world.137 Similarly.." 34. Christ is alone worthy of all the love a man or woman can offer.138 More pointedly.: Office of Publishing Services United States Catholic Conference." 16.140 Love for God and its corollaries—love of Christ.
1. Beyer. "Celibacy is precisely a 'gift of the Spirit. John Paul II. John Paul II. 7. Visible Signs of the Gospel. 144 145 John Paul II. Letters to My Brother Priests. were elected in Christ Jesus "before the foundation of the world" to receive a "precious pearl"—the "grace of the vocation." John Paul II. baptism is the first consecration experienced by every Christian. Avec Vous." 31.150 The consecrated respond to the call that comes from the heart of the gospel and receive the religious vocation as a new "burial in the death of Christ" (Rom 6:3-11).146 The Spirit of God gives the gifts and ignites the calls through the Church. A Las Religiosas Y Religiosos. Pierre Raffin (Paris: Les Éditions Du Cerf.: Office for Publishing and Promotion Services United States Catholic Conference. A Las Religiosas Y Religiosos. John Paul II. 56. 201. considering what I have in me. 11. . Redemptionis Donum. 106. 18. 36. Every Christian. A Las Religiosas Y Religiosos. "Vita Consecrata. comes as one understands both what one has inside himself or herself.149 Those called by God to obey the evangelical counsels. 1992). Redemptionis Donum. "'What is my vocation' means 'in what direction should my personality develop. and what others—other people and God—expect of me?'"148 Furthermore. C. be it to celibacy or to marriage. 1986). ed. 109. The numbers appearing in the citations of this document refer to the standard sections of the document. John Paul II says specifically. hard' way" (Mat 7:14). I Will Give You Shepherds: Pastores Dabo Vobis (Washington.' A similar gift is contained in the vocation to true and faithful married love. Beyer. 7. 144 The soul of celibacy is love.151 not simply the renunciation of marriage. Christifideles Laici. 134. 257. what I have to offer. John Paul II. has a charism and a vocation. Love and Responsibility. . Redemptionis Donum. yet for some a second consecration deepens the first." They "[follow] Christ along the 'narrow and . . it is also the affirmation of spousal love for Christ.145 A vocation from God.151 The initiative for this further consecration does not lie with the celibate. Je Suis Prêtre: Homélies Et Exhortations (1978-1986). notes John Paul II. John Paul II. 148 149 150 151 Wojtyla. and what God expects. John Paul II. 109. 146 147 John Paul II. 286. Beyer.147 The vocation. D.
"Vita Consecrata. Je Suis Prêtre. Mat 19:21. 5. Although poverty too has an eschatological aspect in that selling of all and giving to the poor provides treasure in heaven." 26. Redemptionis Donum. 35. for example "decides upon a life of celibacy only after he has reached a firm conviction that Christ is giving him this 'gift' for the good of the Church and the service of others. 19."152 Nonetheless."156 The consecrated invite the faithful to look forward to the fullness of salvation through Christ the bridegroom in the last day.155 Virgins. celibacy is actually the beginning of the new 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 John Paul II. John Paul II. men and women can either give or withhold the gift of self. John Paul II sees celibacy as a sign to the world and the Church of the nature of the future life."158 Furthermore.152 The Father initiates. Redemptionis Donum. "Vita Consecrata. Mat 19:21. Pastores Dabo Vobis. "Vita Consecrata. the privilege of response pertains to the person. 157. . Celibacy has an eschatological meaning. John Paul II. John Paul II. asking only some of the baptized to exhibit this total commitment and thus to "respond with complete and exclusive devotion. life in union with God himself through the beatific vision and the love which contains in itself and completely pervades all the other loves of the human heart. Avec Vous. Mat 22:30.157 it is celibacy that most clearly "foretells the resurrected state. 285-286. John Paul II. John Paul II. he says." 7. "bring into the midst of this passing world the announcement of the future resurrection and of eternal life. in addition to being the sign of the future."154 As an eschatological sign. As persons. John Paul II." 17. Visible Signs of the Gospel.153 The priest. John Paul II. 11. Letters to My Brother Priests. Choosing celibacy is giving one's total gift to the Lord. John Paul II.
" 12."159 Spiritual and ministerial fulfillment. "Vita Consecrata. says John Paul II. 202. Being celibate appropriately focuses life. the old. 10. John Paul II. 9. John Paul II.163 John Paul II cites 1 Cor 7:34 to show that celibacy enables one to live in undivided loyalty to Christ. The evangelical counsels open up a "wide space for the 'new creation' that emerges in [the] human 'I' precisely from the economy of the Redemption. 8. "Vita Consecrata."166 Finally. you embrace Him in the many people you serve: in the sick. 11. The perfection that most closely corresponds to the image of God is the perfection of the evangelical counsels. the handicapped people 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 John Paul II. 210. "Vita Consecrata."162 flourishes where there is undivided love for God and nonexclusive love for others. Familiaris Consortio. Visible Signs of the Gospel." 15. Beyer. A Las Religiosas Y Religiosos. Visible Signs of the Gospel. the cripples.165 John Paul II asserts that "the faithful practice of the evangelical counsels accentuates . Ibid.164 Following the evangelical counsels provides unprecedented opportunity for contemplation of the beauty of God and results in a special understanding of God.167 To a group of sisters he says: "Embracing with faith. Familiaris Consortio. hope and charity your divine Spouse. John Paul II. 16. .. undivided focus on Christ results in the unprecedented capacity for ministry. John Paul II. "the fundamental and innate vocation of every human being.160 The distortion of the person that manifests itself as the "three lusts" is best corrected by the corresponding three counsels. 21. John Paul II. John Paul II. Redemptionis Donum. John Paul II. . 202. liberates the human heart and causes [the] spirit to burn with undivided love for Christ and for His brothers and sisters in the world." 1. human dignity.153 creation. . 20.161 Perfect charity. 104. 140.. Ibid. 4.
168 169 John Paul II. 159.172 Hermits. that man does not live by bread alone.171 the integration of life and message deepens the celibate's influence.154 whom nobody is capable of taking care of but you because this demands a truly heroic sacrifice. "Vita Consecrata. Beyer. John Paul II."168 Results of Choosing Celibacy Benefits for the Church. John Paul II. "Vita Consecrata. By contemplating the gift of the consecrated life. The Church allows the lives of the consecrated to question her.169 In addition. the Church remembers that it belongs to Christ alone and that it longs to be without blemish. 112. The consecration and holiness of the few calls the many to further consecration and holiness. The consecrated testify to the Church that God can fill the human heart. . celibate. Ibid. witness to several things: the passing nature of the present age. Beyer. the example of the celibate speaks more persuasively of the adequacy of Christ than does mere teaching on celibacy. Consecrated persons function as witnesses to the Church. the "reasonable detachment from material possessions... A Las Religiosas Y Religiosos. by virtue of the consecration of their baptism are to practice the chastity appropriate to their state. and obedient—is made present to the Church. for example." 85. and that the supreme vocation is to always be with the Lord.174 In addition to functioning as a witness to the Church." 30." and obedience to God and the Church. 73. "Vita Consecrata. All the baptized.173 The radical nature of the commitment of the consecrated is a prophetic voice witnessing to the presence of God in the world. A Las Religiosas Y Religiosos. Visible Signs of the Gospel. 85. 113. 44-47. John Paul II. the life of Christ—poor." 29.170 Thus. 7. 160. Ibid. Visible Signs of the Gospel. 170 171 172 173 174 John Paul II.
is chosen in every person whom the Lord selects from the midst of this people. He makes two categories of statements. the entire church. 8. in Christ it is possible to love God with all one's heart. In this section.155 the consecrated provide direct service to the church by their many gifts and ministries within the Church. As John Paul II exclaims: "Yes. nonexclusive love comes from this gift. 14." 3.. those following the evangelical counsels play a special role in the evangelization of and ministry to the world. Ibid. Finally. "in the love that Christ receives from consecrated persons. Some statements 175 176 177 178 179 John Paul II.178 Radical. "The whole messianic People. the consecrated serve as chosen representatives of the entire Church.. putting him above every other love. Ibid. The radical gift of self to Christ is a gift to every member of the human race as contained in Christ. and thus to love every creature with the freedom of God!"179 The Superiority of Celibacy Is celibacy superior to marriage? John Paul II believes it is. the love of the entire Body is directed in a special and exceptional way towards the Spouse. John Paul II includes the chastity appropriate to the married state as a way of loving god above every other love. Visible Signs of the Gospel. 88. "Vita Consecrata. in every person who is consecrated for everyone to God as his exclusive possession. John Paul II."175 That is. Similarly. The world needs and waits to see the generosity of hearts consecrated fully to God. Redemptionis Donum."176 Benefits for the world. the world receives benefits from the lives of the celibate. yet he carefully describes what he means. John Paul II.177 Thus. 159. who at the same time is the head of this Body. .
. John Paul II.. 202. Other statements laud celibacy indicating its character and benefits without necessarily implying its superiority to marriage—which he also lauds in other contexts. which mirrors Christ's own way of life. those who have chosen that life which most closely resembles the final union (that is. John Paul II. Love and Responsibility. 147. "We freely renounce marriage and establishing our own family in order to be better able to serve God and neighbor."184 Furthermore.183 Speaking to his fellow priests. 32. "Vita Consecrata. Wojtyla.. follow him wholly with all of their lives. 21. it is to be recognized that the consecrated life. 72.156 indicate that he believes celibacy is better than or superior to marriage. and are "totally free for the service of the Gospel. John Paul II. and he calls them "complementary paths. he notes that the evangelical counsels provide "particularly favourable conditions" for perfection. and because every person's ultimate fulfillment lies in final union with God. he notes: "As a way of showing forth the church's holiness. the celibate's life) have a unique role as signs to all persons about the essential nature of human fulfillment. John Paul II says. In the same passage. Precisely for this reason." 1.182 In the second category."180 Celibacy is superior because the consecrated follow Christ more closely. 256. Letters to My Brother Priests. has objective superiority. which is the sanctification of humanity. he extols the merits of the vocation to marriage. In the first category. Visible Signs of the Gospel." 181 182 183 184 180 Ibid. it is an especially rich manifestation of Gospel values and a more complete expression of the church's purpose. 210. because every person is designed for selfgiving that springs from our spiritual nature."181 The consecrated have opportunity to give undivided loyalty to Christ. Thus can be seen the "exceptionally important part which virginity plays in realizing the kingdom of God on Ibid.
. a confessor. . is here of secondary importance. 255. John Paul II. John Paul II. however. a theologian. 258. celibate. Love and Responsibility. 189 Summation It is evident that John Paul II ponders celibacy from several perspectives: as a philosopher. Such varied perspectives provide a unique mixture. the one to the other. that John Paul II also speaks highly of the place of marriage in the Church."188 The married are required to give themselves in love entirely. they are a sacramental sign. Thus. A married person outside the 'state of perfection' of the evangelical counsels may be more perfect than the celibate because the standard of perfection is love." because the kingdom of God is realized precisely as "particular people gradually prepare and perfect themselves for eternal union with God. . John Paul II. . Letters to My Brother Priests. Ibid. 3-4. a priest. Familiaris Consortio."185 One must not forget. Familiaris Consortio. or even virgin . 18.157 earth. "Spouses are therefore the permanent reminder to the church of what happened on the cross". a celibate. Thus. in spite of the fact that his discussion of celibacy in The Theology of the Body is relatively 185 186 187 188 189 Wojtyla. and as the pope. "whether the person is married. 13.187 Conjugal love "represents the mystery of Christ's incarnation and the mystery of his covenant. Ibid. a mystic. and by their love they participate in the love of Christ manifested in the cross. a unique vision of celibacy. for the married are also living out God's plan for them."186 Marriage is a vocation from God and a gift of the Spirit. including physically.
158 brief. . and his comments outside of it are somewhat miscellaneous. his understanding of celibacy is quite well developed.
This chapter seeks to facilitate that process. is John Paul II's theology of celibacy? From the complex of books. his integration of celibacy into a theology of marriage. Summary of John Paul II's Theology of Celibacy What. The first draws together his understanding of the person and embodiment. his personal experience of celibacy and extensive contact with celibates. The second draws together his thoughts on love for the kingdom of heaven. and the incorporation of his theology of celibacy within a philosophical understanding of the human person and human sexuality. 159 . addresses. and finally. If Protestants are to benefit from the work of John Paul II on celibacy. and encyclicals we have examined. audiences. they must grasp its basic features. then. Both play a major role in his understanding of celibacy. the relationship of marriage and celibacy. move towards a Protestant theology of celibacy by comparing his thought with theirs and by recognizing the tasks that lie before them. observe the internal Roman Catholic criticisms of his thought on human sexuality.CHAPTER SIX Toward a Protestant Theology of Celibacy Protestants may benefit from several aspects of John Paul II's theology of celibacy: his contact with Church Tradition. it is possible to summarize the major features of John Paul II's theology of celibacy under two headings: philosophical/theological aspects and the biblical/theological aspects. and celibacy as an eschatological sign.
Ibid.1 We are designed in the image of the self-giving God who gave existence to his creation and redemption to his children.160 Philosophical/Theological Aspects The nature and responsibility of the person. and it is this communion that the celibate chooses as his or her exclusive commitment.. God designed the human person both to give and receive love. The choice of celibacy. Theology of the Body. 65. 262. . the giving is not compulsory. At the heart of self-giving is love. This is the Spanish translation of Wojtyla's The Acting Person. 1982). 46. For example. 3 4 5 6 John Paul II."3 Celibacy also corresponds to the natural intersubjectivity of persons. 251. 283. A person can properly relate to another only in a relationship 1 2 John Paul II. It is an interaction between a man or woman and the divine Person.4 A human person reflects the image of the members of the Trinity.6 This communion with God is the primary communion for which all men and women are designed. This design expresses itself in a need to give oneself. 64.5 each of whom eternally communes with the others. at the same time. 32. John Paul II. Theology of the Body. Celibacy is not an interaction between two human persons. Karol Wojtyla. springs from the very nature of the human being.2 Celibacy. a man or a woman chooses to give or chooses not to give.. Biblioteca De Autores Cristianos (Madrid: Editorial Católica. trans. Ibid. celibacy corresponds to the self-giving nature that is central to human personhood. Love and Responsibility. As a person. Ibid. is "exclusive donation of self to God in virginity. Persona Y Acción. then. Wojtyla. Theology of the Body. Jesús Fernández Zulaica. being compelled neither by internal nor external factors. says John Paul II.
is not compulsory.9 One feature of love is the human capacity to recognize value. The celibate person offers complete self-giving love to the highest of all objects of value. On the contrary. sexual expression. and because he made men and women in his image. the celibate receives what comes from pursuing this highest good—personal fulfillment. John Paul II. 82-83. This perception of and response to value. 280. they are able to perceive objects as either good or evil.. even when it is stimulated by Christ's invitation. one freely and exclusively chooses to love God8 with the highest of human loves. and yet of being agents responsible for determining their choices. God himself.. Ibid. as 7 8 9 Ibid.161 characterized by love. Men and women are conscious both of being moved internally by instinctual and somatic impulses. 257. the celibate is especially sensitive to the value of intimate communion with God. spousal love. and the other goods involved in the decision. Wojtyla.10 They choose undivided dedication to God even while they are aware of internal impulses toward marriage.. Ibid. John Paul II believes that there should be no simply utilitarian calculus of the benefits of celibacy. 251. To follow either this vocation or the vocation to marriage requires a sustained act of love of which only persons are capable. Theology of the Body. A central feature of human persons is their ability and responsibility to choose by an act of the will.11 nor should there be any denial of values or of truth in choosing and living celibacy. Persona Y Acción.7 In responding to the vocation of celibacy. 43. John Paul II notes that because God created and sustains the world. Because of his or her vocational call and charism. 10 11 . the truth about goods. In return.
men and women find in themselves misleads them. 282. the sexual urge is a fundamental raw material for men and women. First.162 well as the acceptance of some goods and the renunciation of others. .14 Second.12 Thus. They love Christ as their divine spouse with their nuptial gift. Regarding the second aim. He designed them for communion through the nuptial gift. and shame protects them from the effects of lust. it is from this raw material that human love forms. 47.. Bodies manifest persons and a central feature of human bodies is that they are either male or female. the choice of celibacy draws on essential features of the human person. rather it states the obvious about the vast majority of persons. In part. they love both God and their neighbor. a central purpose of the sexual urge is the continuance of the human species. 12 13 Ibid.16 Shame is an indicator of the tendency of historical fallen men and women to use another person simply for sexual satisfaction and to deny the truth of the personhood of the other. See Wojtyla's comment at Wojtyla. just as it protects the married. the gift of the self.13 From this fact John Paul II draws three implications related to celibacy. As stated earlier. God did not design human persons for isolation. 284. then. including their neighbor of the opposite sex. Theology of the Body. Ibid. Third.. 273. Concerning the first purpose. 178. Ibid. like the married person. must clearly come within the purview of the person considering celibacy. Love and Responsibility. Love and Responsibility. Celibate men and women fulfill each one of these three aims of human sexual embodiment. 284. Nonetheless.. they seek undivided communion with God as well as non-exclusive communion with others. 14 15 16 John Paul II. 117. the lust which historical. The nature of embodiment. this does not deny the existence of hermaphrodites. The celibate. Wojtyla.15 They love those of the opposite sex. fallen.
21 After a time of introspection and prayer they may respond by confirming their vocation to celibacy. John Paul II believes that some. Furthermore. by the 17 18 19 20 21 22 Wojtyla. 263. 301. . John Paul II. Beyer. Christ's redeeming work sets the celibate free. they are spiritually fruitful. "continence for the kingdom of heaven is a charismatic orientation toward that eschatological state in which men 'neither marry nor are given in marriage. 302. 198. John Paul II. although celibate men and women do not contribute to the propagation of the species. John Paul II states that every baptized person receives a vocation and charism. Christ's invitation to a religious consecration.20 celibacy.163 benefits from shame by seeking to live in a proper personal relationship with all others in the practice of chastity. they are signs of the ultimate destiny of the human species. "finds an echo" within their soul.17 In addition.18 Concerning the third aim. 262. Thus. Ibid. John Paul II. Christ indicates that not everyone could receive this calling. 167.'"22 In Mat 19:12. 109. Theology of the Body. Love and Responsibility. the three aims of human embodiment each receives an alternate expression in the lives of celibate men and women. 56. 275. Thus. enabling him or her to subordinate freedom to love.19 For some of the baptized. A Las Religiosas Y Religiosos. Theology of the Body.. Christifideles Laici. The vocational call. Biblical/Theological Aspects In addition to the significant philosophical/theological aspects of John Paul II's theology of celibacy. there are important biblical/theological aspects.
263. give their whole love to God. Ibid. 291. says John Paul II. . Under the old covenant celibacy was rare and marriage was the privileged state of the blessing of God.25 Love for God and his kingdom. . For the celibate woman or man. Nonetheless. In this way. 251. With Christ came a change. as Paul observes. not a command.24 Receiving this vocation.. Ibid. their virginity then becomes "conjugal love pledged to God Himself. a kingdom that is both present and future. and transient things will pass away."29 and they are "captivated . Celibates.. Now celibacy became a sign of a particular sort of love for the kingdom of heaven. is a one-time.. irrevocable. . 263. by the beauty and goodness of the 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Ibid. Ibid.23 Thus. Ibid. Ibid.26 Celibates live for the kingdom and point to the kingdom in which the resurrected will no longer marry. is love for God.. 131.27 Love for the kingdom expresses itself in several related motives that stimulate the celibate in his or her commitment. this love that embraces the whole person is a manifestation of two goals: to be known by God and to know God. the time is short. Wojtyla. Betrothed or spousal love28 is the giving of the nuptial gift in its fullness to another. and gift of the Spirit that provides the grace necessary to choose and live out celibacy. cf.164 election of God. with this vocation comes the charism. First. In fact. 253. Love and Responsibility. the presence. commitment. 278.. 206. lifelong. both in Mat 19 and in 1 Cor 7 celibacy is a counsel. in the fullness and responsibility of personhood.. 295. have a "charismatic orientation" toward the state of celibacy.
Thus. the celibate chooses God to love with a love that excels every other love. Ibid. in her complete dedication to God 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 John Paul II. Christians remember his total sacrifice of himself. Ibid. Celibacy is chosen. "Vita Consecrata. For John Paul II." 18. See. 281.. The perpetual virginity of Mary was the spiritually fecund ground from which the incarnation grew. Christ is the gift of God for the redemption of men and women..165 Lord. 282. John Paul II." 104.. "Vita Consecrata. and obedient—showed his disciples the radical way of life for the kingdom of God. Ibid. unlike the married.31 The celibate man or woman is entirely focused on God and thus also committed to his kingdom and his world.34 Celibates follow Jesus more closely than others follow him by imitating him in the specific profound act of celibacy. was abundant.36 A third love-motivation for celibacy is the imitation of Mary. because Christ was celibate. in part."30 Paul makes it clear that celibates.. poor. 1 Cor 7:32. can live in undivided devotion to God. Theology of the Body. 269. John Paul II. In this way.. 292.35 Thus. 268. John Paul II. and in the Eucharist. that is. this is the essence not only of celibacy but of each of the evangelical counsels. the celibate shares in the redeeming work of Christ. Ibid. the celibate focuses on "how to please the Lord. by the Spirit. They also follow Christ in his self-giving. 291. 293. the celibate imitates Christ by sacrificing himself or herself through renouncing goods such as marriage.33 Christ—celibate. A second love-motivation that stimulates the celibate is imitation of Christ. 270.37 Mary's fruitfulness. Ibid."32 Captured by the beauty and goodness of God. . Theology of the Body.
40 Marriage is the common vocation granted by God. about the significance of masculinity and femininity. 43 44 Wojtyla. Celibacy. the question about the significance of 'being a body. and in particular.' that is. 299. 278. Theology of the Body. the imitation of Christ. Both require the self-sacrificial giving of the nuptial gift and both result in the fruitfulness of co-creation with God. Visible Signs of the Gospel. Love and Responsibility. and as such it involves renunciation. "Both furnish a full answer to one of man's fundamental questions. John Paul II..44 Instead. 125. the resurrection state.. Similarly. celibacy is the exception. John Paul II. John Paul II does not believe there is anything evil in 38 39 40 41 42 Ibid. declare the great value of that which they renounce. Ibid. the greater is the worth of the renunciation. John Paul II. does not denigrate marriage. its indissolubility.42 Celibacy is an act of love. One should not choose celibacy because of a perceived negative value in marriage—for example. but the celibate renounce marriage itself for their Spouse. Theology of the Body. She is their example39 and helper in fulfilling the demands of the consecrated life. 270.43 The married renounce all others except their spouse. 208-209. the higher the value of that which is renounced. 263.. Furthermore. and the eventual redemption of the body are life long. of being 'in the body' a man or a woman."41 Both are life long commitments. Celibacy as a complement to marriage. celibates. 273.166 she became the perfect example for all those who choose spiritually-fruitful38 celibacy. by recognizing what they are renouncing to be a good and that such a renunciation is an enormous sacrifice. the kingdom of God. being a physical eunuch. says John Paul II. Ibid. the nuptial gift. the life of virginity. Celibacy is life long just as marriage. .
whereas the married must also be concerned about pleasing their spouse.. Marriage clarifies the meaning of the spousal love that the celibate is to have for the divine Spouse. or more perfect than.167 conjugal relations that should motivate the celibate to reject marriage. 273-274.51 7) 45 46 47 Ibid. 275..47 Nonetheless. Ibid. For example. and the individual married person may readily surpass the individual celibate in charity.46 Celibacy clarifies the meaning of the nuptial gift of self that is necessary in marriage.. Ibid. 275. a married person might practice a modest standard of living as opposed to full poverty.. Nonetheless. 293. mean to imply that a celibate person is superior to..48 3) the celibate more exactly imitates the physical and interpersonal life of Jesus. Ibid. however. Ibid."49 5) the celibate discovers the fuller form of intersubjective communion and self-fulfillment. 277. especially if the married person practices a form of the evangelical counsels appropriate to his or her state.. .50 6) celibacy is governed by a superior motive—it is for the kingdom of heaven. celibacy is superior for several reasons: 1) marriage is common.. Ibid. 292. the kingdom of heaven. 276. 4) celibacy is "especially important and necessary to the kingdom of heaven. John Paul II makes it clear that celibacy is superior to marriage. celibacy is exceptional. He does not. a life of voluntary submission to spiritual counsel as opposed to a vow of obedience. a married person. celibates choose a single good. Finally.45 Rather. 279. 2) celibates are able to live in undivided service to the Lord and his Church. over the various goods of marriage. 48 49 50 51 Ibid. Every person's perfection is measured by charity. marriage and celibacy clarify the meaning the one of the other. and periodic continence as opposed to celibacy.
.. John Paul II notes that Paul is quite specific about certain disadvantages of marriage. Celibacy "clears a path" for the great hope of full redemption of the body in the kingdom of God. Today. Ibid. 254. 264. all human persons will someday be celibate. With marriage come "troubles in the flesh. . In the resurrection. "True conjugal love .52 In addition. 267.. Jesus taught that those who are resurrected from the dead will not marry.56 The practice of celibacy in this life. 296... the Church and the world see the celibate and are reminded of the truth about human nature and ultimate human fulfillment. enabling them to be filled with him as their all sufficient love. 240. whereas celibacy reflects the resurrected state and thus also reflects the full redemption of the body. Ibid. therefore.."53 Celibacy as an eschatological sign. therefore. 301. is passing away. 296. then.168 marriage. Christ will bring to completion the redemption of the body including a return to original innocence54 and "a new submission of the body to the spirit. Ibid.. . as a human state. 241.58 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 Ibid."55 This new state will correspond to the essential nature of men and women. .57 This role of God in the lives of men and women corresponds in every detail to their makeup physically and spiritually. Ibid. God will provide fullness to all those in the kingdom of heaven." thus those considering marriage should be sober-minded regarding expectations of continual marital bliss. is also a difficult love. 290. is a sign to the Church and the world of the future of humanity. Ibid. Ibid.
Daryl J. The Theology of the Body is berated as a work in which John Paul II "only asserts and never demonstrates. "The Biblical Foundations of the Thought of John Paul II on Human Sexuality. "a time bomb in the Church that is not likely to go off until about twenty years from now. Geoffrey Gneuhs (New York: Crossroad Publishing Company. Michael Novak calls the Theology of Body. 229. Alain Mattheeuws." 12." 18. Glick.169 Roman Catholic59 Evaluations of John Paul II's Theology of Sexuality General Evaluations John Paul II's writings on human sexuality elicit strong responses. Novak." Josephinum Journal of Theology 7. Koterski. 1999). Union Et Procréation: Développement De La Doctrine Des Fins De Mariage (Paris: Cerf. "Recovering Morality: Personalism and Theology of the Body of John Paul II. "The Embodied Self. Echoing George Weigel's comments mentioned earlier. Joseph W. 1 (1986): 7."60 Milder praise of John Paul II's understanding of sexuality is common. but rather theologians that consider themselves Roman Catholic." 18. describing the Theology It is essential to note that several of the critics of John Paul II cited in this section are in fundamental disagreement with Roman Catholic moral teaching on issues such as abortion and contraception." and in which "no real sense of human love as actually experienced" is present.61 A significant form of tribute to the Theology of the Body comes from authors who attempt to summarize and popularize it extensively. DC: Catholic University of America Press." Faith and Reason 12. Michel Séguin. no. West. no. Geoffrey Gneuhs (New York: Crossroad Publishing Company. Walsh. Mary Shivanandan. Smith." in The Legacy of Pope John Paul II: His Contribution to Catholic Thought. ed. William B. "Vision of Sexuality.62 Yet. 63 62 Johnson.63 Ronald Modras speaks of John Paul II's near "obsession" with sexuality. Ashley. 1-2 (2000): 43. Crosby. Splendor of Love. 2000). . other writers seem loath to praise him. A Simplified Version. Crossing the Threshold of Love: A New Vision of Marriage in the Light of John Paul II's Anthropology (Washington. 2000). 60 61 59 Novak. Benedict M. "John Paul II's Seminal Contributions to Moral Theology: Foundational Issues. and as a result they are not Roman Catholic theologians. 36." in The Legacy of Pope John Paul II: His Contribution to Catholic Thought. 49. "An Introduction to the Thought of Pope John Paul II. while some authors seem loath to criticize the pope. Schu. 21." 69. ed. Those who praise John Paul II's theology of human sexuality often do so in the highest terms. "Disembodied. "John Paul II: Theologian on the Body of the Acting Person. "The Embodied Self." Communio 20 (1993): 288-289. 1989). Theology of the Body Explained.
like Laurent Boisvert. "The Moral Philosophy of Pope John Paul II. Séguin." 693. "Pope John Paul II's Theology of the Body. seem to ignore John Paul II.69 Richard Grecco regrets several aspects of John Paul II's 64 65 Modras. the pope's method is "heteronomous. resulting in a "theory of morality that is marked by traits of intellectual vigor and originality."67 Later." Modras is thus grateful for the pope's "pioneering efforts in metaphysics. Charles Curran. Williams." 148." 39. Kant. based not on reason but the willful prescriptions of authority. Johnson."66 Nonetheless. Ibid. and Scheler creatively and critically." 11. states that the pope's moral theology is too black and white and that it demonizes the opposition. McCormick. "Evangelium Vitae and Its Broader Context. Mind of John Paul II. C. Ashley." 267. In writing 130 pages on celibacy. other authors both agree and disagree with John Paul II on this matter. 152. "Disembodied. Modras. he believes John Paul II's method is problematic because it attempts to draw values from authoritatively pronounced norms.: 695.: Georgetown University Press. John Paul II's philosophy is a work of "intricate subtlety" in which he interacts with Aquinas. ed. apparently finding little to appreciate in it. 696. 150. 1990). Charles E. 2005)." in John Paul II and Moral Theology. Curran. Charles E. L. 66 67 68 Modras. although willing on occasion to express appreciation of John Paul II. Curran. 176-178. Charles E. The Moral Theology of Pope John Paul II (Washington.64 Some authors mix criticism with moderate appreciation of John Paul II. he cites John Paul II once and never mentions the Theology of the Body. in his comments in 1980. Le Célibat Religieux (Paris: Cerf.68 In addition. 69 . 123. Weigel. Various authors comment on the difficulty of his material in general and the Theology of the Body in particular. 343. Boisvert. "John Paul II. 156. "Pope John Paul II's Theology of the Body. Modras becomes more thoroughly negative towards the pope's ethical system. Witness to Hope. Curran and Richard A." 155. 152.170 of the Body as "neo-Thomistic natural law ethic" in new clothes complete with the view that the sexual urges are dirty. Some. that is. 1998).65 Modras. mentions both positive and negative aspects of the pope's moral philosophy. Readings in Moral Theology (New York: Paulist Press. in 1998. "Biblical Foundations. D.
Place. "Disembodied. 1998). for example. critics mention other themes as more central to John Paul II's understanding of human sexuality (including his Theology of the Body): 1) truth regarding the human person." in John Paul II and Moral Theology. ed. 6) human self-determination. Charles E." 14. Readings in Moral Theology (New York: Paulist Press. Richard Grecco. 7) the communion of persons implied in being made in God's image. McCormick. Readings in Moral Theology (New York: Paulist Press." that is. 72 71 70 Johnson. "Recent Ecclesiastical Teaching." in John Paul II and Moral Theology. Johnson.171 writings: his inattention to the social sciences. rather than simply rational. his use of an experiential ethics. 4) human freedom. 16-17. Charles E. McCormick. On the other hand. Place accuses John Paul II of inconsistency in the application of the newer understandings of ethical theory common among Christian ethicists. believes the pope's central theme in the Theology of the Body is "the transmission of life.72 More commonly. 5) human subjectivity. "Familiaris Consortio: A Review of Its Theology. his elitism due to the fact that few people are capable of the level of moral reasoning he seems to demand. . 203-204. Curran and Richard A. Michael D. 3) the dignity of the human person. 2) Christ as redeemer in light of the creation and fall."71 Various authors also disagree about John Paul II's principal themes and purposes in the Theology of the Body. and his overly structured view of human consciousness. Grecco admires some aspects John Paul II's thought: his penchant for offering theological understanding and not just rules. and not just an ethic based on natural law. ed. though Place does not venture to explain why "such apparently common presuppositions can render such different conclusions. 186.70 Michael D. epistemology. 145-147. 1998). the justification of Paul VI's Humanae Vitae. Place says John Paul II's method appears modern but his conclusions are classicist. his promotion of a personalist ethic. and his tendency toward a more relational. Curran and Richard A.
"Mariage Et Célibat". Janet E. Johnson. with his primary starting point being Scripture. and a special place being given to Vatican II and some of the writings of Paul VI. however. as might be expected. Ramaroson. 324." 42. and the Magisterium of the Church.78 Ashley suggestively proposes that John Paul II's hermeneutic is a form of narrative theology." in John Paul II and Moral Theology. 75 76 77 78 74 73 Modras. "Recovering Morality. Smith. "John Paul II. Charles E. Union Et Procréation. Mattheeuws.79 Curran. Smith. C. "A Theology of the Body." 42. Mind of John Paul II. "Thought of Pope John Paul II. Curran and Richard A. "Pope John Paul II's Theology of the Body. "John Paul II. 9. draws his norms from Scripture. 79 Ashley. "Mariage Et Célibat". "John Paul II's Seminal Contributions to Moral Theology: Foundational Issues. Ramaroson. Williams.172 8) eschatology and the human person. "Natural Law and Personalism in Veritatis Splendor. Caffarra.75 while Johnson criticizes John Paul II for drawing an ontology from "selected ancient narrative texts. 320-321.73 Other respondents have noted that John Paul II. 9) the human body as the expression of the human person. 12." 14. Tradition."76 Curran is concerned that John Paul II relies too heavily on Scripture and that he does not recognize that his interpretations are value-laden. Ashley. appreciate his use of Scripture in light of his catechetical and pastoral purpose to delineate an anthropology adequate for today's men and women. 177-178. 325-326. Hogan. however.77 Others. 229. Modras criticizes what he understands to be John Paul II's view of Adam as a literal first human. 3 (1982): 232." Esprit et Vie 17 (1984): 241-242. 152.74 His use of Scripture in the Theology of the Body. 229. The Moral Theology of Pope John Paul II. Mattheeuws. "Vérité Et Éthos De L'amour Conjugal: Réflxion Philosophico-Théologique Sur La Première Série Des Catéchèses Hebdomadaires De Jean-Paul II 19791983. Curran. no. . McCormick. Readings in Moral Theology (New York: Paulist Press. "Disembodied." 41. 1998). Koterski. has drawn some criticism." 13. and 10) the gift of the person via the male and female body. ed." 153. Richard M. 84. The Moral Theology of Pope John Paul II." 31. Union Et Procréation. Glick. "Mariage Et Célibat"." International Review of Natural Family Planning 6. Ramaroson.
including natural law.81 Similarly. "Disembodied. "The Moral Philosophy of Pope John Paul II. arbitrary authority. Because a consequentialist ethic depends on weighing the goods in specific actions. "Pope John Paul II's Theology of the Body."82 Curran repeats this concern. The consequentialist ethicists tend to develop their ethical system by listening to the opinions of the world and certain blocks within the church's laity. of human or divine law. experience plays a role in his ethical system. the Tradition. Also see the provocative comments in Johnson. John Paul II's primary sources of values are the Scriptures. The experiences of men and women are examined phenomenologically in order to discover how the values found in these primary sources show up in human life." 695."80 Or. "Disembodied. particularly the experience of sexual pleasure. and the Magisterium. John Paul II is out of touch with lived human experience. Nonetheless. ." 155. believing that John Paul II's approach lacks awareness of the Church's need to learn from the laity and the 80 81 Modras. Ronald Modras put his finger on the debate when he noted that in John Paul's method of moral reasoning "human dignity and freedom is capable of being impinged upon by some outside." 12-16. Modras. The ideas and experiences of men and women provide the means for weighing competing values. based not on reason but the willful prescriptions of authority." 17. it tends to view humanity as the primary source of ethical wisdom. Johnson suggests that the pope needs to have a "theology that takes the self-disclosure of God in human experience with the same seriousness as it does God's revelation in Scripture. lays itself open to the charge of begin heteronomous.173 Evaluations of John Paul II's Moral Reasoning The most significant criticism of John Paul II concerns his preference for a deontological ethic over a consequentialist ethic. 82 Johnson. as Modras says later. Such a view of norms.
Veritatis Splendor (Boston: St. 25. The Moral Theology of Pope John Paul II." 123. 2) the goods inevitably conflict. 1993). (The number at the end of the citations of this work refer to the standard section numbering. "Evangelium Vitae.174 world." Place says John Paul II acknowledges the new perspective and yet explicitly rejects it. however."84 Sister M. The real debate. 93. The new perspective. Love and Responsibility.. John Paul II specifically addresses and rejects certain aspects of some current expressions of teleology. in part four of Veritatis Splendor. in Love and Responsibility88 and The Theology of the 83 84 85 86 Curran. Timothy Proakes notes that the battle taking place is one in which John Paul II specifically rejects consequentialist moral theories. John Paul II views some acts as intrinsically evil. must be faithfully kept and continually put into practice in the various different cultures throughout the course of history.) 87 88 Ibid. and 3) men and women must weigh goods and thus can do in "good faith" what is not "in complete conformity with certain Christian ideals. Wojtyla. 71-81. Pope John Paul II."86 In fact. Prokes. "Familiaris Consortio: A Review of Its Theology. notes Place. Paul Books & Media. and she supports him in doing so and in affirming that some acts are intrinsically evil. Place notes that John Paul II primarily follows an "older" (Place constantly uses this term) perspective on the nature of moral evaluation. 34-39.87 In the same way. Place." 188-190. and which attained their perfection in the New and Eternal Covenant in the very person of the Son of God made man. "is in the area of moral norms and absolutes. 248. In Veritatis Splendor he states: "The moral prescriptions which God imparted in the Old Covenant.85 There is no doubt that John Paul II takes sides in the debate between the consequentialist and the deontological theories.83 Furthermore. . That is. Curran. holds to the following: 1) because humans are finite and sinful they are forced to choose among goods. Toward a Theology of the Body.
Modras. Ibid. What is less obvious is whether John Paul II should simply be categorized as a natural-law deontologist. Crossing the Threshold of Love: A New Vision of Marriage in the Light of John Paul II's Anthropology. 229. 57. and in his expansion (beyond Augustine) of the understanding of shame. Shivanandan.90 These criticisms center on John Paul II's refusal to draw his ethical norms directly from human experience. Glick. "Recovering Morality. that is." 8. his view of shame is "very much that of Augustine"." 52. Mattheeuws. and he approaches sexual issues from the outside.175 Body. 93 Crosby. . by contrast. he rejects utilitarianism and some of the implications of teleology. "Pope John Paul II's Theology of the Body. calling lust what the world calls love." 51. That is. and the Magisterium. as both masculine and feminine." 20-21. Modras combines three criticisms of the pope: he "still maintains the old Platonic dualism". passim. That much is obvious.93 Weigel summarizes his contribution: 89 90 91 92 John Paul II. 54-57. Mary Shivanandan believes that John Paul II makes a new contribution to Catholic ethical discussion in his emphasis on self-possession and self-donation.. 153. Modras. the Tradition.91 The primary counterargument to the charge that John Paul II's ethic is but rehashed natural law comes from the recognition of the role that personalism plays in his system. Union Et Procréation." 150. Theology of the Body. 150. "Vision of Sexuality. "John Paul II's Seminal Contributions to Moral Theology: Foundational Issues. 148-150.92 Others also consider his embodied personalism. Novak.89 he rejects any use of another person that denies the fundamental dignity of the person. transcultural norms found in the Scriptures. his belief in revealed. "The Embodied Self. to be a significant new contribution. Smith. views the pope's contributions as little more than simply "neo-Thomistic natural law ethic" in new clothes.
"The Moral Philosophy of Pope John Paul II. not simply based on "natural law". LeVoir. Grecco expresses appreciation for his ethical reasoning: it offers theological understanding. and both bring a theological acumen capable of interaction with the large themes that pervade the writings of John Paul II." 146. 'Human sexuality is far greater than you imagine." in John Paul II and Moral Theology. 342.96 too. . For example. Hogan and John M.99 Controversy and agendas regarding homosexuality." 145. and it uses a less rationalistic and more relational epistemology. They are a valuable pair of works in part because Curran is generally critical of John Paul II.176 Few moral theologians have taken our embodiedness as male and female as seriously as John Paul II.'94 Early in the pope's tenure. Both authors capably handle the large quantity of his writings. Glick. "the pope has definitely made a positive contribution that has never been found before in papal teaching. Few have dared say so forthrightly to the world. 168. "Recovering Morality. abortion. Few have dared push the Catholic sacramental intuition—the invisible manifest through the visible. not just rules. The other is Shivanandan's Crossing the Threshold of Love."95 Curran.' Few have shown more persuasively how recovering the dramatic structure of the moral life revitalizes the ethics of virtue and takes us far beyond the rule-obsessed morality of 'progressives' and 'conservatives.98 Evaluations of John Paul II's Theology of Celibacy Specific assessments of John Paul II's theology of celibacy are rare. even Modras expressed admiration for John Paul II's "pioneering efforts in metaethics. "The Family and Sexuality. "Recent Ecclesiastical Teaching. and Shivanandan is supportive. Richard M. it is experiential." 696."97 Before listing several criticisms of John Paul II. divorce. it promotes a personalist ethical theory. Curran's The Moral Theology of Pope John Paul II is one of the two more thorough evaluations of the pope's theology of human sexuality. The Moral Theology of Pope John Paul II. the extraordinary that lies on the far side of the ordinary—quite as far as John Paul does in teaching that the selfgiving love of sexual communion is an icon of the interior life of God." 20. says concerning the concept of the nuptial gift. in spite of his many reservations. Witness to Hope. "Recent Ecclesiastical Teaching. Modras. Most works commenting more generally on the Theology of the Body give only a few lines to celibacy. Grecco. and 94 95 96 Weigel. Grecco. 97 98 99 Curran.
290. does not directly address any of these controversial topics and thus lies outside the driving interests of many Roman Catholic commentators.102 Curran. 1998)."100 Nonetheless. 181. Place." 195. Williams. Williams. The Moral Theology of Pope John Paul II. "Familiaris Consortio: A Review of Its Theology.101 Yet. McCormick. The Moral Theology of Pope John Paul II. More specifically. 168. 214. "Familiaris Consortio: A Review of Its Theology. 294. unlike Place. The Moral Theology of Pope John Paul II. Curran and Richard A. "Mariage Et Célibat". Ramaroson and George Williams note the passion John Paul II displays for priestly celibacy as a heroic gift to the Church. 186. of course.177 contraception drive much of the Catholic comment on John Paul II's moral reasoning. Charles E." 195. Mind of John Paul II. Mattheeuws. Curran. . that "the pope's teaching on virginity closely follows the recent Catholic approach. it is also noted that he says little about the place in the church for singles who are not necessarily consecrated to celibacy. and regarding the possibility of noncelibates exceeding celibates in charity.104 ed. some observations have been made.103 positively comments on what he considers to be John Paul II's understanding of celibacy's superiority to marriage. his conclusions regarding celibacy are not controversial in Catholic circles. Perhaps. Mind of John Paul II. Readings in Moral Theology (New York: Paulist Press. His theology of celibacy. 100 101 102 Curran. the case is simply. 103 104 Place. Curran. Ramaroson. 186. as Curran observes. Union Et Procréation. the true measure of spirituality. Curran believes the pope has made some careful distinctions regarding celibacy as superior due to its place in the evangelical counsels. 323.
What John Paul II. Theology of the Body. Furthermore. Therefore. Likewise. Protestant theology on the subject. 4. to be spotty: several good ideas show up in one author but not in another. Protestants and John Paul II share major concerns within a theology of celibacy. in both the Protestant writings and those of John Paul II. Unless mentioned otherwise. Church Dogmatics. III. John Paul II provides a complex philosophical foundation absent from Protestant theologies of celibacy. however.178 Toward a Protestant Theology of Celibacy Comparing John Paul II's and Contemporary Protestant Theologies of Celibacy Considering the literature reviewed. First. the discussion that follows addresses only contemporary Protestant theology. . both systems affirm that the triune God designed those creatures made in his image for communion. tends. and perhaps what Roman Catholic thought generally offers.106 Male persons and female persons seek communion similar to the way the distinct persons of the Trinity enjoy communion. is a theology of celibacy replete with all its primary features in a single author. as a reflection of the eternal communion of the persons of the Trinity. 47. how does the contemporary105 Protestant understanding of celibacy compare to that of John Paul II? As might be expected. in part. male/female complementarity reflects Yahweh as Israel's husband and Christ as the bridegroom of the church. 106 105 Barth. Three features merit special note for the central way in which they bind the two systems together. Features in Common. John Paul II. one understands the nature of humanity and God's nature by understanding the import of the complementarity of male and female persons. as will be seen in the brief comparison below. they are quite similar. 117.
51. 57.109 Those Protestants who 107 108 109 Barth. coworkers. Celibacy is both a reminder of and the practice of a fundamental feature of the human person—God designed men and women for himself. but with the coming of Christ a new way. In the beginning. 197. 4. Barth. Thurian. celibate women and men are still involved with each other in complementary fashion as mothers. 273-274. . In addition. Theology of the Body. 4. fathers. Marriage and Celibacy. nonetheless. John Paul II always speaks of celibacy as permanent. this way will become the way of all men and women. Marriage and Celibacy. In the resurrection. III. God blessed the marital union. bridal. one can choose celibacy in anticipation of the resurrection state and as a sign of that coming state. so that they might find their fullness in him. Sexual Ethics. Although Roman Catholic priests are required to promise lifelong celibacy. Because marriage is temporal. sisters. Grenz. although Barth and Grenz leave room for temporary celibacy.108 Another related theme present in both the Protestants and John Paul II is the ability of undivided. 296. III. 165.179 Celibacy then. not as those seeking consecration through a vow of chastity. A third common theme is the permanent nature of the commitment to celibacy. 144. Grenz. Barth. received God's blessing. Church Dogmatics. and Thurian also speak of the general permanence of celibacy. Church Dogmatics.107 A second common theme is the temporal nature of marriage. John Paul II. and so forth. Thurian. is an expression of this communal relationship in that Christ is the celibate's spouse. John Paul II. but in connection to the office of priest that has celibacy as a requirement. celibate love for God to fulfill the entire person. Theology of the Body. brothers. the way of celibacy.
the same intuition fulfills itself in his focus on the consecrated life. Hsu. Single Women: Challenge to the Church? 110. III. must not isolate themselves from those of the opposite sex. Two examples will suffice. 82. Grenz. Aune. Singles at the Crossroads. Celibates. understands men and women to be God's covenant partners. yet a counterpart does appear. "Vita Consecrata. 144. 111 112 Barth. 165-168. John Paul II. Sexual Ethics. John Paul II. Poirier. The numbers appearing in the citations of this document refer to the standard sections of the document. monasticism. Theology of the Body. Church Dogmatics. He believes that this implies that men and women are to exist in "fellow-humanity" with each other. 7:5-7." 88. .110 Uniquely Protestant contributions. for instance. and the non-exclusive love of which the celibate is capable. 36. 58. and religious institutes. Roman Catholics most often 110 See. Church Dogmatics. echoes of these Protestant ideas do show up. therefore. Some Protestant writers also speak of celibacy in ways not specifically found in the writings of John Paul II. III. John Paul II speaks of such things as a fundamental divine-human relationship." 7. 195. collaborating with God in procreation. 113 Barth. Grenz and Barth speak of a move away from the focus on biological family and towards the church as community.111 Barth's specific emphasis on a covenantal agreement between God and human persons does not appear in John Paul II. for example. "Celibacy and Charism in 1 Cor. 4.113 In the writings of John Paul II. yet as will be seen. is the emphasis on the local Christian community as the celibate's new family. Protestants often understand that celibates will remain in the local Christian communities and live among the married. Barth.180 reject the concept of celibacy as a vocation also see celibacy as a choice that may readily be temporary.112 Another example of a unique Protestant contribution that nonetheless appears in a similar form in John Paul II. 4.
the celibate is able to give himself nonexclusively. provide crucial pieces of John Paul II's theology of celibacy. No Protestant author does this. Barth places the revelation of Christ as his foundation. he places at center stage a philosophical understanding of the human person. That is. Aquinas and Scheler. Existential personalism informs his understanding of the inviolability of the person and the person's freedom to give or not give the nuptial gift. to other men and women because of the nature of the human person. Barth. The critic might be inclined to note that such a posture is in itself philosophical. The bottom layer of Barth's system of thought is more exclusively theological and biblical than that of John Paul II. consciously refuses to integrate philosophical principles into his theological prolegomena. Yet both base their understanding.181 understand that celibates will join a community of fellow celibates. For example. Nonetheless. The second major aspect of John Paul II's theology of celibacy absent from Protestant thought is his emphasis on the Virgin Mary. on the communitarian nature of the human person. The thought of John Paul II contributes two major features not found in Protestant theologies of celibacy. in part. Scheler's extensive treatment of shame as adapted by John Paul II is a significant logical basis of his understanding of original innocence and historical lust. as is well known. with Aristotle and Kant in the background. John Paul II understands that the role of shame in the struggle with lust logically precedes the concept of marriage as a remedy for concupiscence. in purity. Similarly. First. He spoke of her as the highest example of celibate life and of the spiritual fruitfulness that can accompany virginity in . John Paul II consciously weaves philosophical considerations into the deepest levels of his system of thought. Contributions unique to John Paul II. in the thought of John Paul II.
As with the writings of Barth. Grenz exhausts his thoughts on singleness as well as celibacy in some 20 pages of his Sexual Ethics. Both Barth and John Paul II wrote treatises that often require meditation rather than mere reading. and the mention of Jesus' brothers (Mat 12:46.115 The Protestant authors are unlikely to speak of Mary in relation to celibacy. Theology of the Body. "until" (Mat 1:25) and "firstborn" (Luke 2:7). there is good reason for Protestants to seek to integrate the carefully—often. the reader must mine and process his words in order to extract the richness present in them. meticulously—phrased theology of John Paul II. assumed normal married life: use of words such as "before" (Mat 1:18).116 Areas Needing Further Study The elements of a theology of celibacy are readily available. "Example of Mary. but are nowhere near as fecund as the work of Barth. a carefully 114 115 John Paul II. See the section in chapter four entitled. he often spoke of her example. yet he uses categories more familiar to Roman Catholics. Among Protestants. He frequently quotes Barth. The writings of Barth on marriage and celibacy contain a great deal of subtle import and are of particular merit. in particular. In the section entitled "Virginity for the Sake of the Kingdom" in The Theology of the Body. . etc. John Paul II's writings reflect. due to the common Protestant belief that Mary enjoyed normal married life after the birth of Jesus.114 Yet when he directly addressed celibates.).182 the person of a disciple. however. Thurian partially bridges the gap between Roman Catholics and Protestants. John 7:3. there is a need to consolidate the gains. Beyond their own writings. His work could readily serve as an integration point for Protestant thought on celibacy. They are valuable. though a virgin at the time of Jesus birth." 116 Protestants mention a number of evidences that may indicate that Mary. John Paul II writes of her in only one address. 268. In addition. Hsu's work adds many small pieces to the mix of ideas. four deep pools: the church fathers.
14:1-5). Jesus and Paul were almost certainly celibate. a prophetess. Random references to celibacy appear throughout the Bible. Four virgin women. especially verses 1-2. Jepthah's daughter.000 who "did not defile themselves with women" briefly appear in the Apocalypse (Rev 7:4-8. at the very least. Three passages do nearly all the work: Mat 19:3-12. Such biblical references to single persons can only serve as secondary support for a theology of celibacy. "Le Célibat Dans Le Nouveau Testament D'après L'exégèse Récente. and 1 Cor 7. did not marry (Jud 11:38). likely lived as a widow for sixty years (Luke 2:36-37). If Protestants attempt to integrate the work of John Paul II into a Protestant or ecumenical theology of celibacy. 25-38. Thaddée Matura. Because of God's command. and his own theological insight. Adequate scriptural basis. The enigmatic 144. Isaiah encourages the eunuchs with the hope of something better than posterity (Isa 56:3-5)." Nouvelle Revue Theologique 97. several key areas will need study and clarification.183 developed philosophical system. and others. . however.117 John Paul II interprets each of these three passages 117 Matura limits the principle texts to Mat 19:10-12 and 1 Cor 7:25-35. The theology of celibacy rests on relatively little Scriptural support. although the New Testament does not specifically affirm the celibacy of any but Paul. prophesied in the early church (Acts 21:9). no. daughters of Philip. 6 (1975): 482. Jeremiah did not marry (Jer 16:2). such as John the Baptist likely were. Anna. 1 Tim 5 indicates that some widows made pledges to remain unmarried. 7-9. Mat 22:23-30. a quintessential distillation of traditional Roman Catholic thought on celibacy.
Eerdmans Publishing Company. 1959). in Mat 22 Jesus teaches that in the resurrection no one will be married. Luther. 561. yet it suffers the fatal flaws of ignoring both Christ's penchant for hyperbole and his own example. 487. "Commentary on 1 Corinthians. Quentin Quesnell. celibacy120 for the sake of the kingdom of heaven is better.122 They say that in Mat 19:12 Jesus elaborates on his comment in 19:9 "I tell you that anyone who divorces his wife. A.8. For those to whom it has been given.3-12 Et Parallèles (Bruges: Desclée de Brouwer. Mat 19:3-12 is widely interpreted in the traditional manner. 4. Duke University." 491. nonetheless. Matura notes the divide among major commentators on Matthew between the traditional interpretation and that of Dupont and Quesnell.118 He believes the following: in Mat 19 Jesus recommends celibacy for the kingdom to whoever is enabled to accept it. The Gospel According to Matthew. 53. although Calvin appears not to comment on the "no marriage" feature of Mat 22. Gary Robert Bower.12). 3 (1968). 121 120 119 118 . Paul considers celibacy the preferable state (again for whoever is enabled to accept it) because it has certain advantages.184 in a more or less traditional way. Current exegesis of each of these passages tends to verify the basic legitimacy of these traditional interpretations. Matura.119 Jesus emphasizes the indissolubility of marriage and.42-43..D diss. Carson. MI: William B. Institutes. 1992). Carmen Bernabe. Calvin. there are significant alternative understandings of each passage. Van Vleck. 51. More recently. "'Made Themselves Eunuchs for the Kingdom of Heaven' (Mt 19. This interpretation appears on occasion throughout the history of the church. as can be expected. no." 16.17. 52. "Le Célibat Dans Le Nouveau Testament. Jesus then highlights something true in what they have said. no. "Of Eunuchs and Predators: Matthew 19:1-12 in a Cultural Context. that is.13. 122 Jacques Dupont. D. except for marital Both Calvin and Luther hold to these traditional interpretations.121 Jacques Dupont put forward a major alternate interpretation that Quentin Quesnell later clarified and deepened. "Ambivalent Bodies: Making Christian Eunuchs" (Ph. "Le Célibat Dans Le Nouveau Testament. Matura. 2. all will be celibate. The Pillar New Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids. "The Chaste Heart". Leon Morris. as a result." Catholic Biblical Quarterly 30. ed." Biblical Theology Bulletin 33. 4 (2003).". Gary Bower has attempted to defend the posture that Mat 19:12 refers to voluntary physical castration for the kingdom of heaven. Carmen Bernabe has suggested that being eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven is a sort of "social or symbolic castration" experienced by those who live their marriages in light of kingdom values rather then traditional values. 1996). the disciples comment that it is better not to marry. Mariage Et Divorce Dans L'évangile: Matthieu 19. and in 1 Cor 7.
Bruce. on all accounts. MI: William B. The Gosple of Matthew.124 Thus. Donald Senior. Matthew. Gene M. 1978). Yet. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Keener. First. 470.185 unfaithfulness (porneia). F. Jesus' analogy of eunuchs implies a permanent inability to marry. 355. Dupont and Quesnell's view makes the apostles' comment." irrelevant. Matura notes that Dupont and Quesnell must make the entire teaching regarding eunuchs refer to the exception clause. 125 124 123 . Several commentaries mention rightly that Jesus' saying predicts that neither procreation nor marriage will be As Keener notes. The New International Greek Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids. ed. The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids. Norval Geldenhuys. 737-741. Senior believes the eunuch clause applies to both those who remain unmarried after divorce and those who never marry. the death of a spouse frees one to remarry. for the sake of the kingdom. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Interpreting Biblical Texts (Nashville: Abingdon Press. that is.125 What some debate. B. 1963). The Pelican New Testament Commentaries (New York: Penguin Books. The Gospel of Saint Matthew. J. Second. is in what way this unmarried state parallels the celibate. Fenton. The strength of this interpretation is that it retains the focus on the greatness and sanctity of marriage found in the verses 3-9. however.123 which as Matura notes. MI: William B. they cannot marry. The weakness in their argument is twofold. C. Craig S. The Gospel of Luke: A Commentary on the Greek Text. Keener. ed. Cousar. Tucker and Charles B. 1997). Jesus notes that those who separate from a wife because of porneia must. Howard Marshall. In Mat 22:23-33 and its parallels in Mark 12:18-27 and Luke 20:27-40. 147. and marries another woman commits adultery. MI: Wm. 1999). Commentary on the Gospel of Luke. insertion. Eerdmans Publishing Company. 1951). the traditional interpretation of the passage. live thenceforward like eunuchs. A Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew (Grand Rapids. is still a viable option that may readily and legitimately serve as a significant aspect of John Paul II's theology of celibacy. I." After the disciples register their shock. though challenged. John Paul II finds evidence that the future of humanity is celibate. F. 528. One aspect of this view is not controversial: Jesus taught that the resurrected will not marry. "it is better not to marry. many understand to be a Matthean. 511.
263. "The evangelist is adamant that in the new age the righteous will become angels. Thus. currently involves both renunciation and sacrifice that seem inappropriate to the resurrected state. men and women. The eschatological absence of marriage will be a state. however. Theology of the Body. He notes. in their glorified bodies. 267. God and Marriage.127 Celibacy. however. that is. there is a disjoint between sacrificial celibacy in this age and non-marriage in the next. men and women. 58. Sim. 128 129 127 126 Ibid. on the other hand. This. the proper and fundamental mode of existence of human beings. yet in regard to celibacy. . Apocalyptic Eschatology in the Gospel of Matthew (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. For example see Bromiley. Sim asserts. John Paul II also mentions the fullness of "intersubjective communion" that will be experienced in the resurrected."128 Regardless of the exact relationship of celibacy to the future life. 142." David C. redeemed body and will "unite all who participate in the other world. While the various readings of 1Cor 7 affect its Contrary to many other commentators. 1 Cor 7 is a complex passage. in the mystery of the communion of saints.. does nothing to diminish John Paul II's use of the passage. Thus. the resurrected state is an enrichment beyond marriage.186 necessary in the resurrection126 and that his saying implies that interpersonal relationships will be enriched beyond marriage. 1996).129 For example. 262. certain basic interpretations are nearly universally accepted. John Paul II's basic understanding of this passage is justified. not a deprivation. and that Paul pointed out several advantages that come to the celibate. almost all agree that Paul promoted celibacy for those who have the gift." John Paul II. "There is an essential difference between man's state in the resurrection of the body and voluntary choice of continence for the kingdom of heaven in the earthly life and in the historical state of man fallen and redeemed.
however. Horsley. Gordon Fee suggests that ascetical pressure existed within the Corinthian church to dissolve marriages. 1987). "Historically there have been at least four ways to understand 1 Cor 7:36-38. what exact question had been asked by the Corinthians. (2) Paul is Craig notes. Conflict and Community in Corinth: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 1 and 2 Corinthians (Grand Rapids. ed. Garland. ed. (1) Paul is writing about a young man and his fiancée. 1998). 1 Corinthians. does not significantly affect the application of the passage in regard to its basic themes. The First Epistle to the Coriinthians. Concerning the overriding theme of the 1 Cor 7. Gordon D. . George Arthur Buttrick (New York: Abingdon Press. Stein. 109-114. He notes that inferences and judgments are necessary to interpret the passage and that a number of plausible options have appeared. MI: Baker Academic." Ben Witherington III. Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids. exclude conjugal rights. MI: William B.132 The background of 1 Cor 7 as described by Fee. male nor female. Eerdmans. 1953). 76. slave nor free. 1 Corinthians (Nashville: Abdingdon Press. 2003). . 1995). Fee. MI: William B. the traditional reading given by John Paul II is based on typically non-controversial interpretations.134 A final portion of the chapter. and demand celibacy. is especially controversial. except perhaps to create a parallel between the Corinthian context and the prominence of sexual issues in the life of the church today. Yarbrough and Robert H. 134 133 . Eerdmans Publishing Company. for you are all one in Christ Jesus." Ben Witherington is among those that note the importance of Paul's repeated idea: "remain as you are. . 6:1-20) and a misunderstanding of the newfound freedom of women131 expressed in passages like Gal 3:28. Robert W. 132 131 130 "There is neither Jew nor Greek. verses 36-38. 266-270. for instance. 246." in The Interpreter's Bible.187 application130 in different ways. that Paul's eschatological emphasis causes him to take little notice of the children and future generations. The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapid. motivations in Corinth for or against celibacy or divorce. This pressure related to the problems of sexual morality in Corinth (1 Cor 5:1-13. David E. Clarence Tucker Craig. Richard A. 173. and so forth. "The First Epistle to the Corinthians.133 David Garland introduces 1 Cor 7 with a litany of things we cannot know about the chapter: how these issues arose.
the Roman Catholics say yes. and this state bears some similarity to the unmarried state of the resurrected. and (4) Paul is describing 'spiritual marriage. from Roman Catholics such as John Paul II. 2 (2002): 212. although few in number. some men and women receive a calling to live in this state. are two questions. Barth. this state has some advantages. Theology of the Body.188 writing about a father and his virgin daughter. 124. "Spiritual Marriage in Early Christianity: 1 Cor 7:25-38 in Modern Exegesis and the Earliest Church. (3) Paul is discussing a levirate marriage. III. Church Dogmatics. the basic use made of it by John Paul II derives from commonly accepted interpretations of specific features of the passage. The superiority of celibacy. These passages." Trinity Journal 23. Barth opines that "the whole sphere of the malefemale relationship. however. The non-controversial features of the passages affirm several ideas: the unmarried state can be lived with a special dedication to the kingdom of God."136 Thus. is limited and in some sense menaced by the theory of the higher perfection of the celibate life of monks and priests.'"135 John Paul II also notes alternative interpretations of the passage. no. 289. 'he does well. and he then rightly concludes that. Is celibacy superior to marriage? Should a vow to God accompany celibacy? The Protestants say no to both questions. 4. regardless of the view of verses 36-38.' are completely univocal."137 John Paul II Greg Peters. including marriage. "the expressions. What separates many Protestants such as Luther and Barth. are an adequate starting point for an ecumenical and biblical theology of celibacy. 136 137 135 John Paul II.' 'he does better. . while the interpretation of 1 Cor 7 is complex and various features are disputed.
celibates are capable of a fuller form of "intersubjective communion with others. it is essential to note that the premier motivation for celibacy is imitation of Christ.140 Second. This debate is not new to the church. Hunter. higher education for the kingdom. Many Protestants. desire to avoid a two-tier ranking of Christians that they find implicit in talk of the superiority of celibacy. Theology of the Body.138 Nonetheless. 268-271. For example. those in religious institutes (the consecrated) as inherently superior to other Christians. Christ's own fruitfulness related supernaturally to his celibacy.. 140 141 Ibid. First. Furthermore.141 Following his discussion of these two closely 138 139 Hunter. superior to marriage. in some sense. The premier example of such fruitfulness by the Holy Spirit is the Virgin Mary. the resistance to the idea of the superiority of celibacy is a major obstacle to any revival of interest in it. Based on the pertinent information in the previous sections of this dissertation. at the same time. The motivation for choosing celibacy is precisely this understanding of its significance for the kingdom of heaven. 274. rather than.189 does not hesitate to affirm a common Roman Catholic conviction that celibacy is. "Resistance to the Virginal Ideal. he often speaks of the celibate's undivided loyalty to Christ. This paragraph. celibacy is especially effective in the work of the kingdom because God grants unique supernatural fruitfulness to celibates." The celibate becomes "a true gift to others" and thus by means of celibacy more fully fulfills him or her self. Similarly. 277. John Paul II describes four ways in which celibacy is superior139 to marriage. however. he affirms the value of the evangelical counsels for growth in charity." John Paul II rejects any tendency to see those in a "state of perfection. John Paul II. Jerome and Jovinian debated it in the late fourth century." that is. Marriage in the Early Church. This effectiveness is one of the things that give celibacy its value and it is part of the reason that Jesus specifies the choice of celibacy for the kingdom. 20.. . deals with those aspects of celibacy that John Paul II specifies as superior to marriage. he says. Ibid. however. let us say.
"142 When John Paul II turns to Paul's first letter to the Corinthians. but he who does not marry her does better. Celibacy is not now the "fundamental mode of human existence. . "those who have wives should live as if they had none. 275. Paul says. For example. Theology of the Body. that marriage is part of the transient current age about which Paul advises: "those who use the things of the world [should live] as if not engrossed in them. because a similar list could be made regarding features of the spiritual life that are unique to the married. while we do not find any basis whatever for any disparagement of matrimony which. For this world is passing away. "He who marries the virgin does right.190 related advantages of celibacy the pope says. he notes that the celibate is better able to concentrate on "pleasing the Lord. however. the celibate has a "particular sensitiveness" or "charismatic orientation" to the non-married destiny of humanity." In the transformation of the resurrection. he indicates the third and fourth ways in which he believes celibacy is superior.." Thus. because the celibate is free from "the necessity of being locked into this transiency. in Paul's terminology. John Paul II also lauds features of the spiritual life that are somewhat unique to celibates."143 How is celibacy better? Again following Paul. 296. "In Christ's words recorded in Matthew (Mt 19:11-12) we find a solid basis for admitting only this superiority. 1 Cor 7:38 1 Cor 7:32 John Paul II."145 As mentioned in the previous chapter. it will become the fundamental mode."144 and second. but which imply no superiority of celibacy. Celibates exhibit a certain sensitivity to this coming existence and identify themselves "in a special way with the truth and reality of that 142 143 144 145 Ibid." Moreover. could have been present in the recognition of that superiority. John Paul II understands celibacy to be better.
. He also states that marriage and celibacy are complementary vocations. so the celibate comes to fuller understanding of himself in giving his exclusive nuptial gift to God. Clearly. 286. two comments are in order. Nevertheless. Barth's. This is a particular. cite advantages of celibacy without implying its superiority.. .191 kingdom" by choosing "a special participation in the mystery of the redemption (of the body). grateful response to the love given by the Redeemer.146 For another example. the most abundant fruits ever produced by the Holy Spirit in a human subject are the incarnation that took place in the Virgin Mary. quoted above. 281-284. 263. Positively. Celibacy. Similarly to the way a wife gives herself for her husband. like marriage. 271. Several observations are in order. The celibate chooses to give the entire sexual. Ibid. however. First. and just as the husband comes to fully understand himself by means of giving himself to his wife. The theology of the body understands that men and women are designed to give their full masculinity or femininity to another. embodied self as an exclusive nuptial gift to God. John Paul II's conviction that special spiritual fruitfulness accompanies celibacy appears unjustified. both involve the calling. the pope clearly states that the measure of perfection is charity. 262. and grace of God.147 These statements and many others by John Paul II. and the work of salvation that took place in the 146 147 Ibid. the celibate renounces marriage in order to give exclusively of him or her self to Christ. is in harmony with the interior meaning of the body. concern. remains: exalting the perfection of celibacy implies the imperfection of marriage. blessing. the celibate gives herself for the kingdom of Christ. and that a Christian can excel in charity regardless of his or her vocation. the divine Spouse. Negatively.
In this. in the writings examined for this dissertation. What cannot be determined. 149 148 . Rather. There is no Scriptural backing for the idea. however.149 As Paul exams the Corinthian situation and delights in his own calling. 25. Thus. he gives pastoral advice and comment. Also unwarranted is his belief that the celibate experiences a fuller form of "intersubjective communion with others"148 than the married. However. He says. John Paul II appeals to the preposition "for" in Jesus' phrase "eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven. To draw such a conclusion gives the appearance of committing the logical fallacy of "questionable cause" that is. At least it cannot be deduced that. not of command" and gives his "opinion" (1 Cor 7:7. Norris. but the Lord" gives instructions (1 Cor 7:10). it is not an essential feature of celibacy making it superior to marriage." He believes Jesus here indicates that something about celibacy—its greater spiritual fecundity—lends itself to the service of the kingdom in a way that marriage does not. John Paul II's interpretation of the Pauline concepts in 1 Cor 7 seems to overemphasize the "magisterial" as opposed to the "pastoral" nature of the passage. celibacy is superior. The specific passages where Paul comments on the advantages of celibacy are best Note Kathleen Norris's fascinating personal and historical evidence in this regard. "The tone of the whole statement is without doubt a magisterial one. ergo propter hoc. it may indicate an advantage that sometimes accompanies celibacy just as there are advantages to marriage. 288. is the causal role played by virginity in each case. he concludes.192 celibate Jesus Christ. post hoc. at other times he specifies that "not I." John Paul II. Cloister Walk. the tone as well as the language is also pastoral. 40). He speaks at times "by way of concession. celibacy tends to spiritual fruitfulness that is superior to that of marriage. 116-123. based on these two cases. John Paul II failed to justify that conclusion. A second negative comment merits consideration. Theology of the Body. 297-304. and although it may often be the case.
and one must also look around to see the most practical way to serve God in one's context. it is marriage. "the one who is married is concerned about the things of the world" he identifies what is generally true in Corinth and elsewhere. Some marriages allow much time for "pleasing the Lord" while. among other things. For some. not essential. "those who have wives should be as though they had none. Paul wants the Corinthians to be as free from transient concerns as possible. in his opinion." That is. The teaching Paul specifically gives in this regard is not that men and women should choose celibacy. but everything to do with what is usually the case: most often celibates are freer than the married to concentrate on how they may "please the Lord. these observations need further investigation. he is not describing the nature of all marriages. John Paul II draws too much from Paul's teaching that because the time is short.193 understood as sound pastoral advice regarding the persons and circumstances of Corinth. celibacy provides that opportunity. Thus. all men and women must live with only one eye on the temporal. Clearly. the superiority of celibacy in this case has nothing to do with moral or essential superiority. but that. and he goes on to state that. This is good pastoral advice for the situation at Corinth and other places. Thus when he notes. the Corinthians should avoid wholesale integration with a transient world. and those who weep as though they did not weep." Thus. what these paragraphs suggest is that the barrier of celibate superiority may be extricable from John . Nonetheless. the situations of some celibates keep them embroiled in the "the things of the world. on the other hand. for others it is celibacy. but the basis for the preference given to celibacy is pragmatic." Similarly. Paul would agree that in deciding for marriage or for celibacy one must both look within to discover the gift and calling of God.
Removing superiority would enable Protestants to enter the rich Roman Catholic teaching and experience and exalt celibacy to its proper place alongside of marriage."150 Hsu insists that the gift of celibacy does not exist. Theology of the Body. Pirot and A.194 Paul II's theology of celibacy. Several perspectives of the vocation and gift of celibacy appear in Protestant writings. Clamer. He cites Chrysostom from L. 252. that "God does not refuse it to anyone who asks him for it with fervour . Thurian quotes John Chrysostom. Singles at the Crossroads. IX (Paris: Letouzey et Ané. 58. This gift is granted to all those who wish for it and who ask for it. whose resolution lies beyond the scope of this paper. a second issue. 151 152 150 Hsu. . The question of the vow of celibacy relates closely to the issue of vocation. John Paul II holds to a fourth view closely related to the first: that self-discovery will lead one to recognize one's calling and that with the acceptance of the calling. Vol. Protestants need not retain the concept of superiority in order to draw from him. 1946). grace will be given to fulfill it: "Those able 'to receive it' are those 'to whom it has been given. La sainte Bible. . 263. . Marriage and Celibacy. Yet he Thurian. Before the Protestant retrieval of the pope's theology of celibacy can begin in earnest. .151 Other Protestants believe that Christians receive spiritual gifts from God at the time of their salvation. 68-72. John Paul II. deserves mention: the vocation to celibacy. they must examine themselves in order to discover the divinely implanted predisposition toward the gift. and as a result. The vocation and vow of celibacy. Paul practices celibacy without giving evidence of either a public or a private vow. It is obvious that there is significant incompatibility among these views. Although the superiority of celibacy is basic to his position.''"152 Christ does not extend the call to all. but only to those able to receive it.
Marriage. Ibid. Max Thurian. it is. In this way.153 Commentators debate whether these passages allow divorce. 271. 272. Both Mat 19 and 1 Cor 7 affirm the indissolubility of marriage.. it is a life-long. yet much evidence of a calling and a recognized gift. addressed in 19:10-12. is also permanent. but it is obvious that marriage is meant to be a life-long joining of a man and a woman. 1 Tim 5:12 states that some widows "bring judgment on themselves because they have broken their John Paul II indicates that marriage. however. Being a eunuch is permanent. as I am." Upon reading these words. In 1 Cor 7. John Paul II says it is not true celibacy. celibacy is specifically non-binding. no sin. celibacy differs significantly from marriage. in itself. 154 153 Without finality. Ibid. Paul is at pains to say that if anyone marries. though at that time he was a Protestant." For this man. talked about in Mat 19:3-9.. "The man who has settled the matter in his own mind. celibacy is a settled matter. [the widow] is happier if she stays as she is—and I think that I too have the Spirit of God. Here we have no evidence of a vow. and who has made up his mind not to marry the virgin—this man also does the right thing. one expects that Paul will remain single all his life.195 does not seem likely to marry." "In my judgment. he appeals to the imagery used by Christ in Mat 19. First." "I would like you to be free from concern. He knows himself and he knows that celibacy is his calling. 266. ably defends the promise of Christian celibacy. . "I wish that all men were as I am. the counterpart to celibacy in Mat 19. Third. But each man has his own gift from God. An unmarried man is concerned about the Lord's affairs." "To the unmarried and the widows I say: It is good for them to stay unmarried. binding relationship.154 Second. he quotes Paul's words to the unmarried man in 1 Cor 7:37. who is under no compulsion but has control over his will. helps us understand celibacy.
but should not be prohibited. 2. he quotes Rom 11:29. The decision is permanent. notes Calvin. One can rarely know. is rash. Fourth. Celibacy requires the continuance of the grace to remain chaste. Luther and Calvin agree that celibacy is a gift and can be a permanent calling. the orientation cannot change. A clear understanding of the vocation to celibacy will require careful answers to numerous questions. Fifth." Finally. On one side is the primarily late twentieth century Protestant literature on spiritual gifts and on the other is the voluminous Roman Catholic and 155 Calvin. Institutes. however. "God's gifts and his call are irrevocable. How does one recognize a vocation? Can one be certain of a vocation? What is the nature of the spiritual gifts described in the New Testament? Are both celibacy and marriage spiritual gifts? In what sense is celibacy a counsel? Is a positive response to the vocation of celibacy irrevocable? The bodies of literature available to answer these questions are immense. A vow of celibacy is inadvisable. says Thurian.196 first pledge. They believe a vow. "Judgment on Monastic Vows. the overall advice to the widows in 1 Tim 5:9. 14 appears to be that they marry unless they are over age 60. Thus.7. Until that return. Thurian states that choosing celibacy requires that one orient him or her self toward the return of Christ. they insist. he points out that "giving up a wife" is among the things some disciples have had to sacrifice (Luke 18:28-30).155 Thus. 4. that this grace is a permanent possession." . Once given up. 1 Tim 5 indicates that some widows pledged themselves to "the state of perpetual celibacy.13." Nonetheless.8. the questions of the nature of vows and vocations intermix." Thurian notes that this implies a pledge by some to remain single. 18. Luther. these things cannot be taken back.42-43.
for example. That is. Some men and women. they are neither married nor avowedly celibate.197 classical literature on the evangelical counsels. John Paul II emphasizes that God designed every person to give the nuptial gift of self to another. 11. Either one is. Apostolicam Actuositatem. Nonetheless. Familiaris Consortio. there is a third group made up of the unmarried of marriageable age. bound by vows. 156 . In Familiaris Consortio. they are clergy. lesser issues. John Paul II. The numbers appearing in the citations of this document refer to the standard sections of the document. John Paul II cites the Vatican II document."156 Yet this does not fully address Roman Catholic reality. spend decades of their lives hoping to marry. that is. The two issues above are perhaps the most important because of their potential to block broad Protestant acceptance of any thorough theology of celibacy. The two proper objects of this gift are God or a spouse. For example. John Paul II says. to love: marriage and virginity or celibacy. and so forth. Those who give the gift to God are celibate and almost universally. A large group exists within the Roman Catholic Church. a question arises regarding a sort of third category of person that is neither married nor committed to celibacy: the single. In Chrisifideles Laici. an actuation of the most profound truth of man. in John Paul II's thought. the widowed. the call to the consecrated life. or are members of secular institutes. however. the call to the priesthood. Additional issues. they must also investigate some other. in its own proper form. and the divorced who either are hoping to marry or are uncertain about a call to celibacy. men or women religious. before Protestants can regain a theology of celibacy. "Christian revelation recognizes two specific ways of realizing the vocation of the human person in its entirety. that is neither strictly celibate nor married. of his being "created in the image of God.
The same reality. 196-199. and then speaks specifically of the celibate. and postmarriage singleness including the widowed and divorced. and widowhood. that is. Single Women: Challenge to the Church? 110. Barth. 158 159 160 157 Grenz. the celibate.158 Barth also mentions both the simply single and the dedicated celibate.198 4. of course. Thus. Some authors specifically address all three groups.160 Yet.. celibacy. Aune takes a different tack. confronts Protestants. he first speaks generally of the unmarried. unchosen singleness. waiting to marry.159 Both Barth and Grenz seem to recognize that if a specific vocation to celibacy for the sake of the kingdom exists. In his treatment of singleness. ed. The only other category is marriage. regarding the possible lay states of life: married. 4. family life. Jesus' words in Mat 19:12 require a distinction between the unmarried person seeking a spouse and a person who has made himself or herself a eunuch for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. he says little to address those in this third category—neither married nor permanently celibate. . and the rest. III. and Orthodox Authorities (New York: Guild Press. in those writings of John Paul II examined for this study. then there appear to be three major categories of adults: the married. Christifideles Laici. 1966). While in Christifideled Laici the word "celibacy" appears. Church Dogmatics. 56." Walter M. 494. willed celibate singleness. John Paul II.157 Nonetheless. She states that to be single is by definition to be celibate. not only must one not separate the theology of celibacy from the theology of marriage. In response to this tension. but also these theologies must include a sort of theology of the simply unmarried. in Abbot's edition. 144-145. Grenz listed the varieties singleness: youth/early adult singleness. Sexual Ethics. Abbott. Aune. Protestant. The Documents of Vatican II: With Notes and Comments by Catholic. the word is "unmarried.
Several practical and psychological—that is. while Protestants often prefer egalitarianism? What are the roots of this difference? Finally. Protestants. make in churches centered on adult conversion. or do they reflect a mix of medieval Roman Catholic and Reformational views? Must one accept the personalism that underlies John Paul II's understanding of human sexuality in order to draw legitimately from him for a theology of celibacy? Why do Roman Catholics readily accept hierarchy. and to a certain extent in Anglicanism. That is.199 Protestants also need to explore the answers to a variety of other theological and philosophical questions. does the adult decision to follow Christ express itself within Roman Catholicism through practices such as commitment to celibacy. correspond to the decision. in Roman Catholicism. including the superiority of celibacy. celibacy is usually contained within the three evangelical counsels. of those seeking baptism and joining the local church? What outwards offices exist to carry . including Baptists. Does this practice reflect an essential need for the existence of certain formal structures in order for celibacy to thrive? How has the modern Protestant exaltation of the principle of sola fide affected the demise of the Protestant practice of celibacy? When Luther's views of marriage and celibacy are compared with those of his fifteenth and sixteenth century contemporaries. less specifically theological— aspects of celibacy also require exploration. who practice believer's baptism. can the traditional prominence of the imitation of Christ in celibacy supply common ground to Protestants and Roman Catholics that may both resolve the question of superiority and serve as the organizing principle for the entire theology of celibacy. do the Reformer's views reflect modern Protestant views. For example. In the Tradition. may ask what impact the cultural/religious ethos of paedobaptism has on celibacy.
Yet. what relationship does the adult call to full-time ministry featured in some Protestant denominations have to the decision for celibacy common to Roman Catholicism? One could extend the list of such questions almost indefinitely. it is clear that much work remains to enable a Protestant theology of celibacy that incorporates the insights of John Paul II to appear and thrive.200 profound adult commitments to follow Christ? Similarly. .
albeit solely in a monastic context.CHAPTER SEVEN Conclusion The purpose of this research project is to provide a stimulus toward a more thorough Protestant theology of celibacy. modern Protestants. The means used to achieve this end has been the review of Protestant. in this 201 . especially contemporary Protestant. Discoveries In the course of producing this dissertation. there are several hopeful signs of development. suggests the full-fledged renewal of celibacy as a Protestant spiritual discipline. Nonetheless. systematic theology. I made two discoveries of particular significance for a Protestant theology of virginity. the Protestant monastic movement. Finally. In addition. This research resulted in some discoveries and caused me to make several suggestions. Karl Barth's thorough treatment of marriage and scattered treatment of virginity is seminal. have not thought deeply about the nature of virginity for the kingdom. This dissertation is intended as a tool by which contact with John Paul II may enrich Protestant thinking on celibacy. almost universally. Writers like Albert Hsu and Kristin Aune know the experience of celibacy from the inside out and offer many insights that await incorporation into a thorough. and adds significantly to Protestant theology. strongest among the Anglicans. As I had suspected. thought on celibacy and the analysis of the carefully nuanced theology of virginity found in John Paul II.
as I had suspected: the roots of John Paul II's somewhat commonplace (for Roman Catholics) conclusions on celibacy go very deep. we need to read more widely in Roman Catholic authors. whom I mentioned above. there are at least two Protestant authors that deserve study in detail: Barth. Furthermore. John Paul II is only one of many authors who can be read with benefit regarding such issues as the nature of celibacy as a spiritual discipline.202 monastic context. the temptations peculiar to the celibate. must take if we are to grow in understanding virginity from a theological perspective. I made a second discovery—again. the ecclesial value of the celibate to the non-celibate. Luther confronted a system of celibacy experiencing the corruptions to which it is prone. Thurian's work provides a bridge between institutional celibacy common in Roman Catholicism and Protestant celibacy. His philosophical and theological sophistication undergirds each point he makes. including myself. the psychological adjustments common to celibates. Evaluation of their theology of celibacy requires evaluation of its roots. Among the Protestants. and so forth. In order to evaluate the roots one must thoroughly understand a wide range of significant philosophical. theological. only Barth approaches such systematic thoroughness and integration of thought regarding celibacy. First. and Luther. Luther championed marriage. it seems certain forms of the doctrine of the superiority of celibacy easily lead to some of the abuses of the sixteenth century. Wise authors learn from him and write . Suggestions Beyond the recommendations made in chapter 6. For example. I suggest that there are several steps that Protestants. The literature is vast and rich. and ethical issues. Second.
Protestants need to resurrect the word celibate and use the word to mean those who have chosen the unmarried state for the sake of the kingdom. Fourth. but not formalized by vows to a group of celibates. Words like bachelor and old maid have been largely replaced by the word single. John Paul II. and older . Such a word would enable the Protestant church to recognize that such a state exists and that it is good. Barth. in addition to the rediscovery of monastic and religious celibacy. This creates an antagonistic environment for celibacy. Nonetheless. as young men and women face the decision whether to marry. yet the word single covers a broad category of persons most of whom hope to marry. Typically. Protestants are well suited theologically and culturally to promote a celibacy that consists of a commitment made to God and recognized by the church.203 about celibacy within the theological framework of marriage. Thurian. and Grenz all did so. Third. Thus. Protestantism will likely experience little practical change in its approach to celibacy until there is a cultural shift involving alterations in its speech habits and patterns of recognition. Protestants assume that every normal person wants to marry and Protestant speech reflects that prejudice. Protestants need to discover a form of celibate living that is relatively unheralded in Roman Catholicism: the celibate who lives in simple relation to the local church. Of course. many have been celibate for the kingdom who have taken no vow and joined no celibate association. Protestants would be unwise to disregard the wisdom of both the ancient church and current Roman Catholicism that recognizes the need one celibate has for encouragement from another. in both past and current practice. Then. it seems unwise for the church to reserve recognition of celibacy to those committed to institutes or bound by clerical vows.
five hundred years later. celibacy has yet to regain its rightful stature among the descendents of the Reformers. one can rarely point to a fellow member of the local church and say. . Christians held it high and thanked God for it. Today. because no model for celibacy exists in most Protestant churches. marriage. Jesus presented this gift personally to his church. Luther and other Reformers raised their voices in anger. clean it. and return it to a place of honor beside its sister. For fifteen hundred years. The Need Protestants have cast aside a gift from God." If Protestants thinkers become convinced that a theology of celibacy should accompany the theology of marriage. However. then Protestants churches will need to change their culture in conformity with their theology. they would recognize two clear options: marriage and celibacy. Protestants must recover the gift.204 men and women face the decision whether to remarry. "She is celibate. when they inordinately exalted it over marriage. However.
Vol. III.. no. Single Blessedness: Observations on the Single Status in Married Society." Josephinum Journal of Theology 7. Anglican Religious Communities Year Book 2002-2003. Some of the Principle Works of St. The Silent Rebellion: Anglican Religious Communities 1845-1900. 1955. Benedict M. ed. B. Ambrose. and Orthodox Authorities.Ambrose. 3 (1992): 403-415. 4. Torrance. Harrisburg. New York: Guild Press. Mackay and others. Elizabeth. GA: Paternoster Press. M. Barth. Edingurgh: T. PA: Morehouse Publishing. Florence Nightingale. W. Ashley.205 WORKS CITED Abbott. 14 vols. 1966. Clark. The Documents of Vatican II: With Notes and Comments by Catholic. Bromiley and T. Eerdmans Publishing Company. no. Walter M. 1st Scribner ed. & T. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. 10. III. Pt. 2002. . Ansaldi. St. A History of Celibacy: From Athena to Elizabeth I. Aune. A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicence Fathers of the Christian Church. Ghandi. and Cher. De Romestin. 1961. 1-2 (2000): 31-45. Edinburgh: T. Translated by H. Clark. Torrance. Bromiley and T. Leonardo Da Vinci. Concerning Virgins. Edited by G. Vol. 1961. New York: Scribner. Adams. Abbott. London: SCM Press Ltd. 1958. ———." Josephinum Journal of Theology 7. J. 4. "'Célibat Pour Christ' Et Sexualité. Translated by A. New York: Basic Books. W. F. 2002." Études Théologiques et Religieuses 67. Protestant. no. 1976. 2000. Second Series. T. F. "John Paul II: Theologian on the Body of the Acting Person. Kristin. Grand Rapids: Wm. Vol. ———. Single Women: Challenge to the Church? Waynesboro. A. & T. "John Paul II: Theologian of the Body of the Acting Person. Edited by G. Margaret. Church Dogmatics. ———. Karl. 1-2 (2000): 31-45. Church Dogmatics. Allchin.
2 vols. Geoffrey. John the Evangelist. ———. Bernabe." Biblical Theology Bulletin 33. Catechism of the Catholic Church. McNeill and Henry P." Ph. Barcelona: Herder. Institutes of the Christian Religion. Grand Rapids. Beyer. Liguori. 1997. Marriage and the English Reformation. Fraser. John T. Eric Josef. Michigan: William B. "Of Eunuchs and Predators: Matthew 19:1-12 in a Cultural Context. Grand Rapids. The Library of Christian Classics. no. L. 1990. 1994. Translated by John W.D diss. Carmen. 4 (2003). God and Marriage. C. 1927. Studies in Women and Religion. New York: Columbia University Press. Torrance and Thomas F. MO: Liguori Publications. Theology of the New Testament. Clark." Esprit et Vie 17 (1984): 241-253. Van Dusen. 2000. Instructions on the Religious Life.206 Benson. 1960. Elizabeth. 1951. 1996. B. Grand Rapids. 1988. Lewiston. Eerdmans Publishing Company. 1986. Bultmann. "Vérité Et Éthos De L'amour Conjugal: Réflxion Philosophico-Théologique Sur La Première Série Des Catéchèses Hebdomadaires De Jean-Paul II 19791983. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Buttiglione. Eerdmans. Richard Meux. Translated by Paolo Guietti and Francesca Murphy. Brown. London: Westminster John Knox Press. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Edited by David W. Juan Pablo II a Las Religiosas Y Religiosos. Bower. Le Célibat Religieux. Torrance. Boisvert. Karol Wojtyla: The Thought of the Man Who Became Pope John Paul II. Duke University. Peter. The Body and Society: Men. Paris: Cerf. Calvin's Commentaries. 1980. Brower. "Ambivalent Bodies: Making Chrsitian Eunuchs. Gary Robert. Translated by Ford Lewis Battles. Edited by John Baillie." PhD. Duke University. Rudolf. The First Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Corinthians. . 1987. Rocco. Carlson. 1996. Jean.. Oxford: Society of S. New York: The Edwin Mellen Press. John. Women and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity. MI: Eerdmans. "Ambivalent Bodies: Making Christian Eunuchs. Ascetic Piety and Women's Faith: Essays on Late Ancient Christianity. Calvin. Caffarra. Bromiley. 1960. MI: Wm. Gary Robert.
: Vine Books. The Moral Theology of Pope John Paul II. J. 1996. 3-264. M. Delaware: Michael Glazier." In The Legacy of Pope John Paul II: His Contribution to Catholic Thought. Early English Books Online. 1990. New York: The Crossroad Publishing Company. 2005. Bufford W. "Evangelium Vitae and Its Broader Context. Coppens. 1993. Curran and Richard A. 1972. . Duin. MI. Crouzel. Curran. edited by John M. Bruges: Desclée de Brouwer.3-12 Et Parallèles. Washington. Dupont. Jacques. John F. 2000. Cochini. John J. In. "The Philosophical Foundations of the Thought of John Paul II: A Response. 2003). Christian. Cruchon and A. Ann Arbor. De Bovis.edu/eebo/image17480. 52-70. Inc. 1983.com. Is Plainely Declared the Felicity of the Other. Message of the Fathers of the Church. Conley. A Discourse of the Married and Single Life Wherein. H." In Priesthood and Celibacy. 1988. 1978. "The First Epistle to the Corinthians. Clarence Tucker. Wilmington. G. Apostolic Origins of Priestly Celibacy. Translated by Nelly Marans. Coe. edited by A. "Erasmus and Celibacy. McCormick. Milano: Editrice Ancora. 1953. 23-28. edited by Charles E. Charles E. Deeken. Mariage Et Divorce Dans L'évangile: Matthieu 19. Craig. Process and Permanence in Ethics: Max Scheler's Moral Philosophy. 1959. Alfons. (accessed May. P. So You're Single! Wheaton. edited by Geoffrey Gneuhs. Charue. McDermott. London: Associated University Presses. Margaret." In The Interpreter's Bible. IL: Howard Shaw.: Georgetown University Press. 120133. New York: Paulist Press." In The Thought of Pope John Paul II: A Collection of Essays and Studies. Crosby. Clarkson. Chauchard. Women in the Early Church. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. New York: Paulist Press. C. "John Paul II's Vision of Sexuality and Marriage: The Mystery of "Fair Love".ezproxy. Julia. 599-622. Purity Makes the Heart Grow Stronger: Sexuality and the Single Christian. John Wesley and Marriage.207 ———. Rome: Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana.baylor.. by Discovering the Misery of the One." In John Paul II and Moral Theology. http://80-wwwlib. 1998. D. New York: Abingdon Press. 1621.umi. 1974. edited by George Arthur Buttrick. ———.
Stott. London: Hodder and Stoughton. edited by Vincent L. Translated by Douglas W. Gerstenberger. Eerdmans Publishing Company. "Ascetism and Anthropology: Enkrateia and 'Doubel Creation' in Early Christianity. 1987. Ferguson. Christianity and Society: The Social World of Early Christianity." Sixteenth Century Journal 34. Eerdmans. New York: Oxford University Press. Woman and Man. F. ———.. Revell. Nashville: Abingdon. Richard. 3 (1983): 351-362. Norval. Erhard S. C. Sex. J. 1974. Gordon D.208 Durnbaugh. 127-146. no." Church History 39. and Zola Levitt. Who Walk Alone: A Consideration of the Single Life. Giulia Sfameni. . New York: Garland Publishing. MI: Wm. 1951. ed. 1995. Edited by F. 1999. Fenton. 2 (2003): 319-345. 1981. and Wolfgang Schrage. Grand Rapids. For Singles Only. 1 Corinthians." In Ascetisicm. Gasparro. Garland. The New International Commentary on the New Testament. "Work and Hope: The Spirituality of the Radical Pietist Communitarians. Manfred S. Fudge. New York: Harper & Row. Biblical Encounter Series. 1978. and Power. Bruce. Donald F. Margaret. Fee. 1981. David E. MI: William B. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1963. ———. PA: Duquesne University Press. Religion and Sexuality: Three American Communal Experiments of the Nineteenth Century. Frings." Review and Expositor 80. MI: Baker Academic. Thomas A. Freedom of Simplicity. Grand Rapid. The New International Commentary on the New Testament. Max Scheler: A Concise Introduction in the World of a Great Thinker. Stein. New York: Penguin Books. Everett. Lawrence. Janet. The Gospel of Saint Matthew. Pittsburgh. "Incest and Lust in Luther's Marriage: Theology and Morality in Reformation Polemics. Grand Rapids. Inc. Commentary on the Gospel of Luke.. Evening. Foster. The Pelican New Testament Commentaries. Fix. Geldenhuys. "The Christian's Posture toward Marriage and Celibacy: 1 Corinthian 7. B. Edited by Robert W. Yarbrough and Robert H. 1 (1970): 72-90. no. Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. NJ: Fleming H. Money. 1985. 2003. 1965. 1981. The First Epistle to the Coriinthians. New York: Harper & Row. Old Tappan. Wimbush and Richard Valantasis. Foster. no.
" Theological Studies 51. KY: Westminster John Knox Press. 2nd ed. TX: Word Books. Clark. Sexual Ethics: An Evangelical Perspective. "Being Single in Today's World. ———." In It's O. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. "Recent Ecclesiastical Teaching. 2000. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company." In John Paul II and Moral Theology. Louisville. . no. Paul. 1981. edited by Charles E. Edward. Grenz. 1985. Hart. Daryl J. 1 (1986): 7-25. Stanley J. Heid. Twentieth-Century German Philosophy. J. KY: Westminster John Knox Press. Translated by Bernard Bonowitz. Philadelphia: The Dolphin Press. To Be Single. William Mcgarvey and the Open Pulpit: An Intimate History of a Celibate Movement in the Episcopal Church and of Its Collapse 1870-1908. 3 (1990): 450-478. Gorner. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. no. Mark Dorsey. Stefan.209 Glick. Celibacy in the Early Church: The Beginnings of a Discipline of Obligatory Continence for Clerics in East and West. Richard.K. Chicago: Moody Press. Allen. 1985. 2001. Hibbs. Waco. Hawks. McCormick. 1998. Thomas Aquinas on Human Nature. Edith Stein: A Biography. A Single Thought: God's Word on Singleness. Waltraud. Publisher. 1979. 1935. Hensley. Thomas S. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hadidian. The Social God and the Relational Self. "Reconciliation of Body and Soul: Gregory of Nyssa's Deeper Theology of Marriage. 137-148. Collins. Nashville." Faith and Reason 12. Grecco. "Recovering Morality: Personalism and Theology of the Body of John Paul II. New York: Paulist Press. Nancy. Hardesty. 1999. Good News for Today's Singles. Translated by Michael J. Herbstrith. Curran and Richard A. 1997. 11-21. Miller. edited by Gary R. 2000. TN: Convention Press. Louisville.
no. In. Jerome. ———. New Testament Theology: Part One. Its Method and Its Field of Investigation. edited by Ted Honderich. Thomas. 1997. Notre Dame. Marriage in the Early Church. "Philosophy as Rigorous Science. 2003). as for All Other Men. Early English Books Online. Curran and Richard A. Husserl. 3 (1999): 299-309. 2 (2000): 281-303." Missiology 27.210 Hodges. Richard A. Against Jovinianus." In John Paul II and Moral Theology." Theological Studies 48 (1987): 45-64. Hogan. "The Family and Sexuality. LeVoir. and the Church: Reading Psalm 45 in Ambrose. . Downers Grove. Joachim. 71-147. Isley. edited by Peter McCormick and Frederick A. "Max Scheler. http://80wwwlib. Priests and Deacons Are Not Commanded by God's Law Either to Vow the State of Single Life. and John M. 1673. Hunter. ———. New York: Harper & Row Publishers. edited by Quentin Lauer. Edmund. IN: University of Notre Dame Press. IL: InterVarsity Press. Jeremias. M. 1998. Richard M. the Bride." In Phenomenology and the Crisis of Philosophy. "Pure Phenomenology. edited by Charles E. 1965. Inwood. Shorter Works. the Proclamation of Jesus.baylor. 157-183. and Augustine. to Marry at Their Own Discretion. as They Shall Judge the Same to Serve Better to Godliness. 3 (1982): 227-252. Hsu.. Oxford: Oxford University Press.edu/eebo/image/45578. J. no. "A Theology of the Body. 10-17." International Review of Natural Family Planning 6. Bishops. Albert Y. Elliston. David G. New York: Paulist Press. A Treatise of Marriage with a Defence of the 32th Article of Religion of the Church of England: Viz. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. (accessed May. Hogan. ———. "A Spirituality for Missionaries. 1992." Church History 69. 1 Corinthians. London: SCM Press Ltd. no. "The Virgin. 1981. McCormick. Horsley.com." In Husserl. 1971. Richard M." In The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Nashville: Abdingdon Press.umi. 1998. Jerome. Singles at the Crossroads: A Fresh Perspective on Christian Singleness. St. "Resistance to the Virginal Ideal in Late-Fourth-Century Rome: The Case of Jovinian. 1995.ezproxy. or to Abstain from Marriage: Therefore It Is Lawful for Them. William L.
Original Unity of Man and Woman: Catechesis on the Book of Genesis. Reflecitons on Humanae Vitae: Conjugal Morality and Spirituality. The Gift of Redemption: Apostolic Exhortation Redemptionis Donum. ———. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. Grand Rapids. 1992. ———. B. 1992.: Office of Publishing Services United States Catholic Conference. 1981. John Paul II. Paris: Les Éditions Du Cerf. ———. Paul Editions. Boston: St. 1997. Boston: St. Translated by W. 1954. Mariage Et Célibat: L'évangile De La Rédemption De Corps. Paris: Les Éditions du Cerf. Résurrection. Jerome. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Second Series vols.211 ———. ———. 1984. ———. Letters to My Brother Priests: Holy Thursday (1979-2001). ———. Vol. Paul Editions. no. Blessed Are the Pure of Heart: Catechesis on the Sermon on the Mount and Writings of St. . The Jeweler's Shop: A Meditation on the Sacrament of Matrimony Passing on Occasion into a Drama. Jobert. I Will Give You Shepherds: Pastores Dabo Vobis. Fremantle. "Iniciación a La Filosofía De Juan Pablo II. Washington. C. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. The Lay Members of Christ's Faithful People: Christifideles Laici. Paul Editions. ———.: Office of Publishing Services United States Catholic Conference. 2001. 1984. ———. Boston: Pauline Books & Media. ———. Paul Editions. 14. 1985. D. The Theology of the Body: Human Love in the Divine Plan. 6. C. C. Je Suis Prêtre: Homélies Et Exhortations (1978-1986). A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church. The Principles Works of St. Translated by Boleslaw Taborski. On the Family: Apostolic Exhortation Familiaris Consortio. 1983. ———. D. ———. 1986. Paul. Boston: St. Boston: Pauline Books & Media. Michigan: Wm." Revista de Filosofía 18. Washington. 1988. 1986. Philippe. D. Edited by Pierre Raffin. 1981.: Office for Publishing and Promotion Services United States Catholic Conference. Washington. ———. Avec Vous. Boston: St. The Theology of Marriage & Celibacy: Catechesis on Marriage and Celibacy in the Light of the Resurrection of the Body. 53 (1985): 219-251. Princeton: Scepter Publishers. H.
no. Boston: St. Bill J. Luther on the Christian Home. 1996. Johnson.. Kenneth Scott. edited by Geoffrey Gneuhs." Foi et Vie 93. Rome: Città Nuova Editrice. Moral Theology. no. Westminster." In It's O. 1963. M." Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 42. 1983. Publisher. Fleming and Elizabeth McDonough. New York: Harper and Row. Craig S. Philadelphia: Muhlenberg Press. H. Translated by Urban Adelman. no. G. "The Church and the Unmarried. Waco. Joseph W. A History of Christianity. To Be Single: A Guidebook for Singles and the Church.212 ———. TX: Word Books. edited by David L. Grand Rapids. no. "Celibacy. 2000. 1960. Sex & Pleasure. Koterski. Lazareth. "A Disembodied 'Theology of the Body': John Paul II on Love. 2 vols. 442 (1957): 144-50. Collins. Grand Rapids. Visible Signs of the Gospel: Messages of John Paul II on Consecrated Life. 1979. 1999. Heribert. 1976. New York: Crossroad Publishing Company. 1985. Lee. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Keener. Single & Human. Life as a Single Adult: A Church Study Course Book for Use by Single Young Adults. Single Adult Passages: Uncharted Territories. 13-37. A Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew. ———. Vol. Uomo E Donna Lo Creò. IL: InterVarsity Press. Hans. . "The Phenomenology of Karol Wojtyla: On the Problem of the Phenomenological Foundation of Anthropology. Nashville: Convention Press. Knapp-Fisher. 3 (1982): 326-334. Paul Editions. MO: Review for Religious. Maryland: The Newman Press. Luke Timothy.K. Linda. Mark W. "Luther Et Le Monachisme. and Michael J. "Vita Consecrata. E. Downers Grove." Commonweal 128. Leonard. Louis. "An Introduction to the Thought of Pope John Paul II. Koons. 1976. "Celibacy as a Christian Lifestyle in the History of the Church. Ada. Lienhard. Kochler. 15th ed. 323-436. edited by Gary R. Lum. 1 (2001): 21-31. ———. no. Lawson. 2 (1994): 9-28." Theology 60. Anthony." Review and Expositor 74. 2. MI: William B. W. 2 (2001): 11-17. Carollyn A. 1991." In The Legacy of Pope John Paul II: His Contribution to Catholic Thought. Jone. MI: Baker Book House. Latourette. St." In The Church and the Consecrated Life. 1953.
Jonathan Edwards. edited by James Atkinson.Y. Don. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. Chappaqua. "Le Célibat Dans Le Nouveau Testament D'après L'exégèse Récente. Waco. McAllaster. and Andrea Wells Miller. Marshall. McDermott. MI: William B." In Luther's Works. Martin. McCool. Mattheeuws. 1981. 1966. London: Victory Press. 1973. 7-14. edited by James Atkinson. edited by James Atkinson. New York: The World Publishing Company. 250-400.213 Luther. ———. The New International Greek Testament Commentary. 6 (1975): 481-500. Lehmann. "Judgment of Martin Luther on Monastic Vows [1521]. Gerald A." In Luther's Works. 45. "The Theology of John Paul II. 1523. "A Sermon on the Estate of Marriage [1522]. 29-53. Luther's Works. 1978. Who Says Get Married? How to Be Happy and Single. Miller. Paris: Cerf. Thaddée. 1989." In Luther's Works. 1981. The Gospel of Luke: A Commentary on the Greek Text. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House. no. TX: Word Books. 1966. 1958." Nouvelle Revue Theologique 97. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. edited by Oswald C. Rome: Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana. I. Meredith. 1966. ———. N." In The Thought of Pope John Paul II: A Collection of Essays and Studies. Hilton. Edited by Hemut T. 3359. Mitting. Free to Be Single. ed. Keith. Miller." In Luther's Works. Howard. Perry. 3-56. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ———. 1993. Matura. Vol. Nashville: Thomas Nelson. ———. Grand Rapids. 1966. 1979. Philadelphia: Muhlenberg Press. 123-219. "To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation Concerning the Reform of the Christian Estate [1520]. Exhortation to the Knights of the Teutonic Order That They Lay Aside False Chastity and Assume the True Chastity of Wedlock. Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House." In Luther's Works. Elizabeth. "Commentary on 1 Corinthians 7 [1523]. Union Et Procréation: Développement De La Doctrine Des Fins De Mariage. Alain. . 1959. "Lectures on Genesis [1535]. edited by John M. Elva. The Single Woman: Comments from a Christian Perspective. ———.: Christian Herald Books. edited by Jaroslav Pelikan. The Single Experience.
Grand Rapids. Greg. edited by Charles E. Between Two Gardens: Reflections on Sexuality and Religious Experience. 1983." Trinity Journal 23. 1978. "Max Scheler and Karol Wojtyla. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Curran and Richard A. ———. James B. no. Edited by D. V. R. Ronald." In Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Pierard. "The Embodied Self. MI: William B. Morris." In John Paul II and Moral Theology. ———. Swanson. Carson. Singleness. Embodiment: An Approach to Sexuality and Christian Theology. Parish. Leon. "The Moral Philosophy of Pope John Paul II. Cloister Walk. 135-147. New York: Pilgrim Press. "Spiritual Marriage in Early Christianity: 1 Cor 7:25-38 in Modern Exegesis and the Earliest Church. Suffolk.214 Modras." In Karol Wojtyla: Filósofo. 1984. edited by Pietro Rossano. Burlington. Elwell. and Practice. Curran and Richard A. 1983. Nota." In Existential Personalism. 1998. 149-156. "Pope John Paul II's Theology of the Body. 1996. Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House. Grand Rapids. 1984. 263-288. A. John H. Aldershot. "'by This Mark You Shall Know Him': Clerical Celibacy and Antichrist in English Reformation Polemic. The Gospel According to Matthew. edited by Charles E. "Evangelicalism. 253-266. edited by R. Poeta. 184-210. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. McCormick. 2 (2002): 211-224. MI: Baker Book House. N. Philadelphia: Westminster Press. Novak. Kathleen. 1986. "La Penseé De Karol Wojtyla Sur La Relation Homme-Femme. New York: Riverhead Books. Michael. 1992. VT: Ashgate. The Pillar New Testament Commentary." First Things 130 (2003): 18-21. Nelson." In The Church Retrospective: Papers Read at the 1995 Summer Meeting and the 1996 Winter Meeting of the Ecclesiastical History Society. Washington: American Catholic Philosophical Association. 1997. edited by Walter A. Clerical Marriage and the English Reformation: Precedent. New York: Paulist Press. Policy. Woodbridge. Norris. McCormick. New York: Paulist Press." Theological Studies 41 (1980): 683-697. "Familiaris Consortio: A Review of Its Theology. Place. Teólogo. UK: The Boydell Press. Payne. ———. Helen L. Page. Jean-Guy. . Michael D. Dorothy. 2000. 1998. Peters." In John Paul II and Moral Theology.
Poirier, John C. "Celibacy and Charism in 1 Cor. 7:5-7." Harvard Theological Review 89 (1996): 1-18. Pope John Paul II. The Theology of the Body: Human Love in the Divine Plan. Boston: Pauline Books & Media, 1997. ———. Veritatis Splendor. Boston: St. Paul Books & Media, 1993. Prokes, Sister M. Timothy. Toward a Theology of the Body. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdman's, 1996. Quesnell, Quentin. "'Made Themselves Eunuchs for the Kingdom of Heaven' (Mt 19,12)." Catholic Biblical Quarterly 30, no. 3 (1968): 335-358. Ramaroson, Benjamin Marc Balthason. "Mariage Et Célibat Consacré a Partir Des Catéchèses Du Mercredi De Jean Paul II." Pontificiae Universitatis Gregorianae, 1991. Reimers, Adrian J. "The Thomistic Personalism of Karol Wojtyla (Pope John Paul II)." In Atti Del Ix Congresso Tomistico Internazionale, 6, 364-369. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1991. Rousselle, Aline. Porneia: On Desire and the Body in Antiquity. Translated by Felicia Pheasant. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1983. Schaff, Philip, and David S. Schaff, eds. The Creeds of Christendom with a History and Critical Notes. 6th ed. 3 vols. Vol. 3. New York: Harper and Row, 1931. Scheler, Max. Formalism in Ethics and Non-Formal Ethics of Values; a New Attempt toward the Foundation of an Ethical Personalism. Translated by Manfred S. Frings and Roger L. Funk. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1973. ———. Man's Place in Nature. Translated by Hans Meyerhoff. Boston: Beacon Press, 1961. Schild, Maurice E. "Marriage Matters in Erasmus and Luther." Reformed Theological Journal 39 (1980): 65-72. Schillebeeckx, E. Celibacy. Translated by C. A. L. Jarrott. New York: Sheed and Ward, 1968. ———. Marriage: Human Reality and Saving Mystery. Translated by N. D. Smith. New York: Sheed and Ward, 1965. Schlink, Basilea. My All for Him. Minneapolis: Bethany Fellowship, Inc., 1971. Schu, Walter. The Splendor of Love: John Paul II's Vision for Marriage and Family. Hartford, CT: New Hope Publications, 2003.
Seeman, Erik R. "It Is Better to Marry Than to Burn: Anglo-American Attitudes toward Celibacy, 1600-1800." Journal of Family History 24, no. 4 (2000): 397-419. Séguin, Michel. "The Biblical Foundations of the Thought of John Paul II on Human Sexuality." Communio 20 (1993): 266-289. Senior, Donald. The Gosple of Matthew. Edited by Gene M. Tucker and Charles B. Cousar, Interpreting Biblical Texts. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1997. Sharp, Robin. "Monasticism in Modern Protestantism." London Quarterly and Holborn Review 188 (1963): 281-287. Shivanandan, Mary. Crossing the Threshold of Love: A New Vision of Marriage in the Light of John Paul II's Anthropology. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1999. ———. "John Paul II's Theology of the Body." Catholic Dossier 5, no. 1 (1999): 1-7. Sim, David C. Apocalyptic Eschatology in the Gospel of Matthew. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Simpson, Peter. On Karol Wojtyla. Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 2001. Smith, Harold Ivan. Single and Feeling Good. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1987. Smith, Janet E. "Natural Law and Personalism in Veritatis Splendor." In John Paul II and Moral Theology, edited by Charles E. Curran and Richard A. McCormick, 67-84. New York: Paulist Press, 1998. Smith, William B. "John Paul II's Seminal Contributions to Moral Theology: Foundational Issues." In The Legacy of Pope John Paul II: His Contribution to Catholic Thought, edited by Geoffrey Gneuhs. New York: Crossroad Publishing Company, 2000. Sockman, Ralph W. "The Revival of the Conventual Life in the Church of England in the Nineteenth Century." Columbia University, 1917. Sokolowski, Robert. Introduction to Phenomenology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Sroka, Barbara. One Is a Whole Number. Wheaton, IL: Victor, 1978. Stafford, Tim. Sexual Chaos. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1993. Stagg, Frank. "Biblical Perspectives on the Single Person." Review and Expositor 74, no. 1 (1977): 33-42. Stedman, Rick. Pure Joy: The Positive Side of Single Sexuality. Chicago: Moody Press, 1993.
Swindoll, Luci. Wide My World: Narrow My Bed. Portland, OR: Multnomah Press, 1982. Taylor, Jeremy. "Married Life." In In God's Name: Examples of Preaching in England from the Act of Supremacy to the Act of Uniformity 1534-1662, edited by John Chandos, 506-514. Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1971. Testimonies of the Life, Character, Revelations and Doctrines of Mother Ann Lee, and the Elders with Her, through Whom the Word of Eternal Life Was Opened in This Day, of Christ's Second Appearing, Collected from Living Witnesses, in Union with the Church. 2nd ed. Albany, New York: Weed, Parsons & Co., Printers, 1888. Thatcher, Adrian. "Postmodernity and Chastity." In Sex These Days: Essays on Theology, Sexuality and Society, edited by Jon Davies and Gerard Loughlin, 122-40. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997. Thielicke, Helmut. The Ethics of Sex. Translated by John W. Doberstein. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1964. Thurian, Max. Marriage and Celibacy. Translated by Norma Emerton, Studies in Ministry and Worship. London: SCM Press, 1959. Towns, James E. One Is Not a Lonely Number. Dallas: Crescendo Press, 1977. ———. Singles Alive! Gretna, LA: Pelican Publishing Co., 1984. ———. Solo Flight. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House, 1980. Turner, William. The Huntyng & Fyndyng out of the Romishe Fox. Basle, 1543. Tyndale, William. An Answere Vnto Sir Thomas Mores Dialoge. Edited by Anne M. O'Donnell and Jared Wicks. Vol. 3, The Independent Works of William Tyndale. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 2000. Van Vleck, Philip C. "The Chaste Heart: Martin Luther and the Discourse on Marriage and Celibate Practice in Christian Theology, 1521-1559." PhD, Duke University, 1994. Vantassel, Stephen. "Celibacy: The Forgotten Gift of the Spirit." Journal of Biblical Counseling 12, no. 3 (1994): 20-23. Vivian, Tim. "Modern Monastic Spirituality." Anglican Theological Review 83, no. 2 (2001): 357-362. Walsh, Vincent M. Pope John Paul II the Theology of the Body (Human Love in the Divine Plan): A Simplified Version. Merion, PA: Key of David Publications, 2002.
Walters, Christine. "To the Circuits: The Methodist Diaconal Order." Epworth Review 23, no. 1 (1996): 6-9. Weckman, George. My Brothers' Place. Lawrenceville, Virginia: Brunswick Publishing Corporation, 1992. Weigel, George. Witness to Hope: The Biography of Pope John Paul II. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 1999. Weiser, Frederick S. "New Directions in Evangelical Communities." Una Sancta 23, no. 3 (1966): 113-121. Wesley, John. "Thoughts on a Single Life." In The Works of the Reverend John Wesley, A. M.: Sometime Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford, edited by John Emory, 539544. New York: B. Waugh and T. Manson, 1832. West, Christopher. Theology of the Body Explained: A Commentary on John Paul II's "Gospel of the Body". Boston: Pauline Books & Media, 2003. Williams, George Huntston. The Mind of John Paul II: Origins of His Thought and Action. New York: The Seabury Press, 1981. Witherington III, Ben. Conflict and Community in Corinth: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 1 and 2 Corinthians. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1995. Wojtyla, Karol. The Acting Person. Translated by Andrzej Potocki. Edited by AnnaTeresa Tymieniecka, Analecta Husserliana. Doredrecht, Holland: D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1979. ———. Faith According to St. John of the Cross. Translated by Jordan Aumann. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1981. ———. Love and Responsibility. Translated by H. T. Willetts. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, Inc., 1981. ———. Max Scheler Y La Ética Cristiana. Translated by Gonzalo Haya, Biblioteca De Autores Cristianos. Madrid: Editorial Católica, 1982. ———. Persona Y Acción. Translated by Jesús Fernández Zulaica, Biblioteca De Autores Cristianos. Madrid: Editorial Católica, 1982. Wood, Britton. Single Adults Want to Be the Church Too. Nashville: Broadman Press, 1977. Woznicki, Andrew N. A Christian Humanism: Karol Wojtyla's Existential Personalism. New Britaiin, Ct.: Mariel Publications, 1980.
no. "The Reformation Defense of Clerical Marriage in the Reigns of Henry Viii and Edward Vi. John K. 2 (1981): 152-165." Church History 50. .219 Yost.

subset: commoncrawl