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CONTENTS 1. Introduction to Business Laws 2. Indian Contract Act, 1872 3. Patent Act, 1970 4. Trade & Merchandise Marks Act, 1958 5. Copyright Act, 1957 6. Consumer (Protection) Act, 1986 7. Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 8. Information Technology Act, 2000 9. Environment Protection Act 10.Competition Act, 2002
Module I. BUSINESS LAWS
What is law ?
1. A citizen may think of 'law' as a set of rules which he must obey. 2. A lawyer who practices ' law' may think of law as a vocation. 3. A legislator may look at 'law' as a something created by him. 4. A judge may think of 'law' as a guiding principles to be applied in making decisions.
includes all those rules and regulations which ►regulate our relations with other individuals and with the state.
Meaning of law
► Law
means a set of rules . ► It may be defined as the rules of conduct recognized and enforced by the state to control and regulate the conduct of people, to protect their property and contractual rights with a view to securing justice, peaceful living and social security.
► The
law is not rigid, it is flexible. ► Since the value system of society keeps on changing , the law also keeps changing according to the changing requirements of the society. ► There are several branches of law such as International law, constitutional law, criminal law, civil law etc.. ► Every branch of law regulates and controls a particular field of activity.
Why should one know law
► Because ► Ex
:1 If X is caught traveling in a train without ticket, cannot plead that he was not aware of the rule regarding the purchase of ticket and therefore, he may be excused. ► Ex : 2 If Y is caught driving scooter without driving license, he cannot plead that he was not aware of the traffic rule regarding the obtaining of a driving license and therefore, he may be excused.
ignorance of law is no excuse.
Definition of Law by Salmond
Law is ……………… …the body of principles recognized and applied by the State in the administration of the justice " .
Object of law
object of law is order, and the result of order is that men are enabled to look ahead with some sort of security as to the future.
Need for the knowledge of law
'Ignorantia juris non excusat' is a familiar maxim. This means ignorance of law is not excusable.
The law now a days is a matter of great intricacy. As such no sound business man would attempt to solve important legal questions affecting his business interest without expert legal advice.
.BUSINESS LAWS ► Business laws are those laws which regulate the conduct of the business.
Customs and Usages .The Statute Law ► 3.English Mercantile Law ► 2.Sources of Business Law ► 1.The Common Law (sometimes called as case law) ► 4.
1932. ► English Mercantile Law : English laws are the primary sources of Indian Mercantile Law. 1956. The Partnership Act. The Negotiable Instruments Act 1881. e. . 1872. The Companies Act.. ► The Statute Law : The various Acts passed by the Indian Legislature are the main sources of mercantile law in India. Indian Contract Act.1930. The Sale of Goods Acts.Continue………. English laws are based on customs and usages of merchants in England.g.
Thus. the common law is found in the collected cases of the various courts of law and is sometimes known as 'case law'. .Continue…………. ► The common law emphasizes precedents. ► The Common Law : This source consists of all those unwritten legal doctrines embodying customs and traditions developed over centuries by the English courts.
These customs and usages govern the merchants of a trade in their dealings both each other. .Continue……… ► Customs and usages : The customs and usages of a trade are also one of the sources of mercantile law in India. Some Acts passed by the Indian Legislature recognizes the importance of such customs and usages.
. 1872 OBJECT OF THE LAW OF CONTRACT ► The law of contract is that branch of law which determines the circumstances in which promises made by the parties to a contract shall be legally binding on them. the purpose of law of contract is to ensure the realization of reasonable expectation of the parties who enter in to contract. In simple words.Module: II Law of Contract The law of contract is regulated by Indian Contract Act.
OBJECT OF LAW OF CONTRACT ► According to Sir William Anson. 'what a man has been led to expect shall come to pass. . and that what has been promised to him shall be performed. The law of contract is intended to ensure that.
the right against particular persons. 'jus in rem ' and 'jus in personam '. ► 'Jus in rem ' means. . 'jus in personam ' means.'JUS IN REM' & 'JUS IN PERSONAM' Law of contract creates. right against the world at large.
Definition of Contract ► Section 2(h) of Indian Contract Act. a contract is an agreement made between two or more parties which the law will enforce.. 1872 defines a contract as ……. "An agreement enforceable by law ". . So.
. forming consideration for each other" [Sec2(e)]. Contract = Agreement + Enforceability Agreement = Offer + Acceptance An agreement is defined as. "every promise and set of promises.CONTRACT ► An agreement enforceable by law is a contract.
the proposal is said to be accepted. A proposal." [Section 2(b)]. when accepted.Definition of Promise ►A promise is defined thus: "When the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his assent there to. becomes a promise. An agreement is an accepted proposal. .
. There is no consensus ad idem consequently no contract. is selling horse Rajhans to B ..Consensus ad idem ► The essence of an agreement is meeting of the minds of the parties. ► Eg. be consensus ad idem . A . (owns two horses named Rajhans & Hansraj).There must in fact. B thinks he is purchasing Hansraj.
Agreement and its types ► Legal Agreement ► Social Agreement ► Domestic Agreement .
00.Obligation An agreement.The agreement gives rise to an obligation on the part of A to deliver the car to B on the part of B to pay Rs.1.000/-. This is a legal agreement .1. to become a contract. ► An obligation is a legal tie which imposes upon a definite person or persons the necessity of doing or abstaining from doing a definite act or acts. Ex. A agrees to sell his car to B for Rs.to A.000/. This agreement is a contract. must give rise to a legal obligation or duty.00. ► .
it is a social agreement . . ► If A invites B to a dinner and B accepts the invitation. ► An agreement is a wider term.Obligation ► An agreement which gives rise to social obligation is not a contract . ► An agreement may be a social agreement or a legal agreement.
100/. Later he refuses to pay. A father promises to pay his son Rs. It is only those agreements which are enforceable in a court of law which are contracts.every month as pocket allowance.Obligation ► ► ► A social agreement does not give rise to contractual obligations and is not enforceable in a Court of law. . The son cannot recover as it is a domestic agreement and there is no intention on the part of the parties to create legal relations.
but all agreements are not necessarily contracts ► ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT: Sec 2(h) & sec(10) 1. 9. Offer and Acceptance Intention to create legal relationship Lawful consideration Capacity of parties-Competency Free and genuine consent Lawful object Agreement not declared void Certainty and possibility of performance Legal formalities . 8. 7. 3. 4.All contracts are agreements. 2. 6. 5.
ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT: 1. one party making the offer and the other accepting it The terms of the offer must be definite and the acceptance of the offer must be absolute and unconditional.. .Offer and Acceptance: There must be two parties to an agreement. i.e. The acceptance must also be according to the mode prescribed.
A husband promised to pay his wife a house hold allowance of 30 pounds every month . E g.Later the parties separated and the husband failed to pay the amount.Balfour.ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT: 2. their intention must be to create legal relationship between them .1919 & s Carbolic smoke ball Co.Intention to create legal relationship: When two parties enter into an agreement. there is no contract between them.v s Carlill) . Held.If there is no intention on the part of the parties.. The wife sued for the allowance . the agreement such as these were outside the realm of contract altogether (Balfour vs.
ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT: 3.But it must be real and lawful ► . it means 'something in return '. getting nothing in return is usually not enforceable by law. Lawful consideration : An agreement to be enforceable by law must be supported by consideration . Consideration need not be in cash or kind . A promise to do something and. 'Consideration' means advantage or benefit moving from one party to the other. It may be an act or abstinence. In simple words. It may be past.present or future. It is the essence of a bargain.
ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT: ► 4.Capacity of parties-Competency: The parties to the agreement must be capable of entering in to a valid contract. Every person is competent to contract if he. lunacy. (a) is of the age of majority. drunkenness. etc. and (c) is not disqualified from contracting by any law to which he is subject. idiocy. The flaw in capacity to contract may arise from minority. (b) is of sound mind. .
Free and genuine consent: It is essential to the creation of every contract that there must be free and genuine consent of the parties to the agreement. . The parties are said to be of the same mind when they agree about the subject matter of the contract in the same sense and at the same time(Sec.ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT: ► 5.14).13). misrepresentation and mistake(Sec. There is absence of free consent if the agreement is induced by coercion. fraud. undue influence.
ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT: ► 6.23) If an agreement suffers from any legal flaw. In other words. it means that the object must not be (a) illegal. it would not be enforceable by law. or (c) opposed to public policy(Sec. . (b) immoral.Lawful object: The object of the agreement must be lawful.
agreement in restraint of marriage. agreement by way of wager have been expressly declared as void A void agreement is one which is not .1872 Under these provisions. agreement in restraint of legal proceedings. Agreement not declared void: The agreement must not have been expressly declared void by law in force in the country under the provisions of sections 24 to 30 of the Indian Contract Act.ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT: 7.
If it is vague and if it is not possible to ascertain it's meaning. it cannot be enforced. . 'A' agrees to sell to 'B' "a hundred tons of oil".29). The agreement is void.ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT: 8. Certainty and possibility of performance: The agreement must be certain and not vague or indefinite (Sec. There is nothing whatever to show what kind of oil was intended. Ex.
ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT: ► 9. there is no difference between a contract in writing and a contract made by word of mouth. besides being a written one. . has to be registered. It is however in the interest of the parties that the contract should be in writing. In some other cases. a contract. As regards the legal effects.Legal formalities: A contract may be made by words spoken or written.
Bilateral Contract . 1.Express Contract [9] 2 .Validity 2.Implied Contract [9] 3 . and 3.Unilateral Contract 4 .Executory Contract 3 .Performance VALIDITY 1 .Formation.Executed Contract 2 .Voidable Contract [2(i)] 2 .Void Contract [2(j)] 4 .Quasi Contract PERFORMANCE 1 .Illegal Agreement 5 .Void Agreement [2(g)] 3 .Unenforceable Contract FORMATION 1 .Classification of Contracts Contracts may be classified according to.
The party whose consent is not free may either rescind (avoid or repudiate) the contract. . A voidable contract continues to be valid till it is avoided by the party entitled to do so. if he so desires.1.Classification according to 'Validity ' ► i] Voidable contract: An agreement which is enforceable by law at the option of one party but not at the option of the other or others is a voidable contract [Sec.2(i)]. or elect to be bound by it.
► He . His consent is obtained by use of force. The contract is voidable at the option of A .Classification of Contract……… ► Example of Voidable Contract: A promises to sell his car to B for rs. 2000. may avoid the contract or elect to be bound by it.
00. he will have to return rs. If Y decides to avoid the contract. If Y does not exercise his option to repudiate the contract within a reasonable time and in the mean time.00. Z purchases that house from X for rs.000 which he had received from X. Y's consent has been obtained by coercion and hence this contract is voidable at the option of Y. 1.1.Continue………. Y sells his house to X and receives payment. Here. 1. .000 in good faith.000 to X. the aggrieved party. Y cannot repudiate the contract.00. ► ► ► ► Example 2: X threatens to kill Y if he does not sell his house for rs..
Such agreements are void-ab-initio which means that they are unenforceable right from the time they are made E. An agreement with a minor or a person of unsound mind is void-ab-initio because a minor or a person of unsound mind is incompetent to contract ► .Classification of Contract……… ► ii] Void Agreement: An agreement not enforceable by law is said to be void [Sec.2(g)].g..
. . A contract to import goods becomes void. ► iii] to be enforceable by law is a void contract. change of law or some other reason. Void Contract: A contract which ceases ► [2 (j)].g. when war breaks out between the countries.Cont'd….. ► E. A void contract is a contract which was valid when entered into but which subsequently became void due to impossibility of performance.
► iv] is one which is unlawful.e.. . void from the very beginning) Illegal Agreement : An illegal agreement ► E g :An agreement to import prohibited goods. illegal agreements are always voidab-initio( i. Thus. Such an agreement cannot be enforced by law.Cont'd…..
000. W cannot recover the money from X. the main agreement between X and Y is illegal and the agreement between X and W which is collateral to the main agreement is also void. Y cannot recover from X because the agreement between X and Y is illegal as its object is unlawful Effect on collateral agreements : In case of illegal agreements. ► Example: X agrees to pay Y rs..000 if Y kills Z and claims rs.1.Continue……….00.1. even the collateral agreements become void Example: If in the above example.00. .000 from W who is aware of the purpose of the loan. x borrows rs.00. Hence.1.
Illegal Agreement : ► An illegal agreement is not only void as between the parties but has this further effect that even the collateral transactions to it become tainted with illegality. . incidental or auxiliary to the principal or original contract. A collateral transaction is one which is subsidiary.Cont'd… ► ………….
The contract may be carried out by the parties concerned.Cont'd……. ► ► v] Unenforceable Contract : An unenforceable Contract is one which cannot be enforced in a Court of law because of some technical defect such as absence of writing or where the remedy has been barred by lapse of time. but in the event of breach or repudiation of such a contract.. . the aggrieved party will not be entitled to the legal remedies.
. or (b) inferred from the conduct of the parties or circumstances of the cases.2. (i) Express Contract. (ii) Implied Contract. These are the modes of formation of contract.Classification according to 'Formation ' ► A contract may be (a) made in writing or by word of mouth. ► On the basis of ' Formation' Contract can be classified as. & (iii) Quasi Contract.
1. (ii) IMPLIED CONTRACT : One which is inferred from the acts or conduct of the parties or course of dealings between them. 1.00. EXPRESS CONTRACT : If the terms and . the contract is said to be 'Express Contract '.000".Cont'd……. (i) conditions of contracts are expressly agreed upon (whether words spoken or written) at the time of formation of contract.00. An implied contract is one which is not an express contract.000?" Y says to X " I am ready to buy your car for rs. Ex: X says to Y "will you buy my car for rs.
there is an implied contract between the coolie and the passenger and the passenger is bound to pay for the services of the coolie . there is an implied contract and X is bound to pay the prescribed fare.Continue…… ► Ex: A transport company runs buses on different routes to carry passengers. This is an implied acceptance by X. In this case there is ay the coolie and an implied acceptance by the passenger. Now. Now. a coolie in uniform picks up the baggage of Y to do so and Y allows it from platform to the taxi without being asked by to do so and Y allows it. ► Ex: X.
It rests on the ground of equity that. .Contracts ………classified. A contract is intentionally entered in to by the parties. on the other hand is created by law. A quasi contract. (iii)QUASI CONTRACT : Strictly speaking Quasi Contract is not a contract at all. " a person shall not be allowed to enrich himself unjustly at the expense of another ".
► The Indian Contract Act 1872. it is his duty to restore them to the rightful owner. justice and good conscience. has described the obligations arising under these contracts as 'certain relations those created by contracts' . ► Ex: A finds some goods belonging to B.Continue……. These contracts are based on the principle of equity.
III. Classification according to 'Performance ' ► (i) Executed Contract (ii) Executory Contract -Unilateral or One-sided Contract -Bilateral Contract .
…. It is a contract where both the parties to the contract have still to perform their respective obligations.00. . X delivers the car to Y and Y pays rs.000. An executed contract is one in which both the parties have performed their respective obligations..000. Classification according to 'Performance ' (I) EXECUTED CONTRACT : 'Executed' means that which is done. 1. Y accepts x's offer.00. it is an executory contract. Ex: X offers to sell his car to Y for rs.1. 1. If the car has not yet been delivered by X and the price has not yet been paid by Y.000 to x. Ex: X offers to sell his car to Y for rs. It is an executed contract (ii) EXECUTORY CONTRACT : 'Executory' means that which remains to be carried in to effect.00. Y accepts X's offer.
Y accepts X's offer. X delivers the car to Y. Here. 1. the contract is executed as to X and executory as to Y. Ex.Continue…….000 on a credit of one month.00. X offers to sell his car to Y for rs. . © Partly Executed and partly Executory Contract: It is a contract where one of the parties to the contract has fulfilled his obligation and the other party has still to perform his obligation.
Performance of both the parties remains outstanding. BILATERAL CONTRACT. .► ► ONE-SIDED OR UNILATERAL CONTRACT Performance of only one party is outstanding.
A invites B for a dinner at his house on a Sunday.CASE 1. but A fails to perform his promise. Can B recover any damage …??? . B hires a taxi and reaches A 's house at the appointed time. ► Over a cup of tea in a restaurant.
. [Balfour V. Held .1919 ] ► A husband promised o pay his wife a household allowance of 30 sterling pounds every month. Balfour. agreement such as these were outside the realm of contract altogether. The wife sued for the allowance. ► No.VERDICT OF CASE 1. ► Later the parties separated and the husband failed to pay the amount.
B does the work. ► (d) A invites B for a card party . ► (b) A and B promise to marry each other.CASE 2. ► (a) A engages B for a certain work and promises to pay such remuneration as shall be fixed by C . ► (c) A takes a seat in public vehicle.
► (a) There is a contract between A and B and A is bound to pay the remuneration as shall be fixed by C . A is bound to pay a reasonable remuneration. ► (b) There is a contract between A and B ► (c) There is a contract between A and B ► (D) There is no contract . If C does not fix . or refuses to fix the remuneration.VERDICT OF CASE 2.
►A forced B to enter in to a contract at the point of pistol. If he (B ) does not want to be bound by the contract ..?? .CASE 3. What remedy is available to B .
VERDICT OF CASE 3. . ► He (B) can repudiate the contract as his consent is not free.
L watches M do the work but does not attempt to stop him. ►M mows L 's lawn without being asked by L to do so.CASE 4. Is 'L ' bound to pay any charges to 'M ' ? .
► Yes. L is bound to pay M a reasonable remuneration.VERDICT OF CASE 4. .
Is the agreement between 'C ' and 'A '. ► A agreed and tested the car. Rs 50 for testing a used car which C was about to purchase from D .void.??? (b) executed or executory. …??? (c) Valid. voidable or unenforceable…??? .CASE 5.. C paid A Rs 50 in cash for his services.…. an auto mechanic. ►C orally offered to pay A . (a) express or implied.
The agreement is. .VERDICT OF CASE 5. ► (a) express. and ► (c) valid. ► (b)executed.
500.. B beats C . ►A promises to pay B Rs. ??? . but A refuses to pay. Can B recover the amount.CASE 6. if he(B ) beats C .
► No as the agreement is illegal.VERDICT OF CASE 6. .
► The entry sent by D won a prize 750 sterling pounds.CASE 7. ►D lived as a paying boarder with a family. He agreed with the members of the family to share prize money of a newspaper competition. ► Can the members of the family recover their share ……. He refused to share the amount won.??? .
VERDICT OF CASE 7. 'as there was mutuality in the agreement between the parties' and the parties had intended to be bound. . ► Yes.
.OFFER & ACCEPTANCE ►An offer is a proposal by one party to another to enter in to a legally binding agreement with him.
"signifies to another his willingness to do or to abstain from doing anything with a view to obtaining the assent of that other. to such act or abstinence" [Sec. he.2(a)] . …….Offer [Proposal] A person is said to have made a proposal. when.
In other words. there can be no proposal by a person to himself ex: X says to Y that he wants to sell his car to himself for rs. It must be made by one person to another person . ELEMENTS REQUIRED FOR A VALID OFFER .► 1. 1 lakh. There is no proposal because there can be no proposal by a person to himself.
e.Continued……… ► 2. a positive act) or to abstain from doing something (i. It must be an expression of readiness or willingness to do (i.. a negative act) ex: X offers to sell his car to Y for rs.00.e. 1. It is a positive act on the part of X ex: X offers not to file a suit against Y if Y pays X the outstanding amount of rs. It is a negative act on the part of X ..000 . 1 lakh.
. It must be made with a view to obtain the consent of that other person to proposed act or abstinence. In this case.Continued……. knowingly that X is not serious in making the offer. says " I accept your offer".1000". ex: X just for fun says to Y "I am ready to sell my car for rs. Y. ► 3. X's offer was not the real offer as he did not make it with a view to obtain the consent of Y.
proposer or promisor. offeror. When the offeree accepts the offer.PROMISOR-PROMISEE ► The person making the offer is known as the . . he is called the acceptor or promisee [Sec. offeree or proposee.2(c)]. and the person to whom it is made is called the.
How an offer is made ►E.. "will you purchase my house at Meerut for Rs. This is known as Express offer . When A says to B .g. An offer may be made by express words.000" ? .00.5. spoken or written.
E.When a transport company runs a bus on a particular route.……How an offer is made ► An offer may be inferred from the conduct of the parties or the circumstances. . there is an implied offer by the transport company to carry passengers for a certain fare. This is known as Implied Offer .g ..
1.g. When an offer is made to a particular person.g. E.[1893].. it is called general offer. A offers to sell car to B [only] for Rs. When an offer is made to the world at large. E. Carbolic Smoke Ball Co. . A general offer can be accepted by any person by fulfilling the terms of offer.. it is called specific offer.00. Mrs Carlill v.'Specific ' and 'General ' Offer ….000.
► She filed a suit for the reward.Carlil uses the smoke ball according to the printed directions but subsequently she contracted influenza.MRS.1000 to anyone who contracts influenza after using the smoke ball of the company according to the printed instructions. ► It was held that she was entitled to recover the reward because she had accepted the offer by fulfilling the terms of the offer. CARLIL V. ► Carbolic Smoke Ball Co.CARBOLIC SMOKE BALL CO. ► Mrs. advertised in the newspaper that it would pay rs. .
The offer must show an obvious intention on the part of the offeror to be bound by it. . Thus.What constitutes an offer …. if A jokingly offers B Rs 10 for his typewriter and B knowing that A is not serious. A 's proposal does not constitute an offer. says "I accept ". … ► 1.
The offeror must make the offer with a view to obtaining the assent of the offeree to such act or abstinence.…What constitutes an offer ► 2. . ► 3.It must be communicated to the offeree. ► 4.The offer must be definite.
No term the Non-compliance of which amounts to Acceptance .Intention to create legal relationship ► 2.A statement of price is not an offer ► 7.Communication ► 6.LEGAL RULES FOR A VALID OFFER ► 1.Certain and unambiguous terms ► 3.Different from a mere declaration of intention ► 4.Different from an invitation to offer ► 5.
LEGAL RULES AS TO OFFER ► 1. ► ex: .Offer must be such in law is capable of being accepted and giving rise to legal relationship.
Crompton Brothers ► Ex: Rose & Frank Company was appointed as selling agents in North America by Crompton Brothers by an agreement. One of the clauses in the agreement provided" this agreement is not entered into formal or legal agreement and shall not be subject to legal jurisdiction in the law courts".Rose & Frank Company v. ► It was held that this agreement was not a legally binding contract because there was no intention to create legal relations. .
.Certain and Unambiguous Terms ► The terms of the offer must be certain and unambiguous and not vague. no contract can be entered into because it is not clear as to what exactly the parties intended to do.2. ► If the terms of the offer are vague.
the offer is certain . it is clear that he wants to sell coconut oil. ► But if X is a dealer in coconut oil only. . his offer is not certain because it is not clear that he wants to sell coconut oil or mustard oil. ► If X is a dealer in coconut oil or mustard oil. Hence.Continued……. ► Ex 1: X offers to sell to Y " a 100 tons of oil".
(ii) An invitation to make an offer or to do business.An offer must be distinguished from .……LEGAL RULES AS TO OFFER ► 3. .: The offer must be distinguished from a mere declaration of intention . (i) A declaration of intention and an announcement. Such statement or declaration merely indicates that an offer will be made or invited in future.
A mere declaration of intention ► Ex 1: A father wrote to his would be son-inlaw that his daughter would have a share of what he left after the death of his wife. that the letter was a mere statement of intention and not an offer. ► It was held. (Farine v. Fickar) .
( Spencer v. It was held that the letter was a mere statement of intention and not an offer. a broker of Bombay wrote to Y a merchant of Ghaziabad stating the terms on which he is willing to do business. Harding) .Continued……… ► Ex 2: X. Shriram) Ex 3: A notice that the goods stated in the notice will be sold by tender does not amount to an offer to sell. (Devidatt v.
► Ex 4: An auctioneer advertised in a newspaper that a sale of office furniture will be held on a particular day. ► It was held that Mr X cannot file a suit against the auctioneer for his loss of time and expenses because the advertisement was merely a declaration of intention to hold auction and not an offer to sell.Nickerson) .Continued……. ► Mr. X with the intention on buy to furniture came from a distant place for the auction but the auction was cancelled.. (Harris v. N.
the person making an invitation invites others to make an offer to him. In case of an invitation to offer.Invitation to offer ► An offer must be distinguished from an invitation to offer. .
Boots Cash Chemists Ltd. (Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain v.Continued………… ► Ex 1: Goods were displayed in the shop for sale with price tags attached on each article and self service system was there.) . ► It was held that the display of goods was only an intention to offer and the selection of the goods was an offer by the customer to buy and the contract was made when the cashier accepted the offer to buy and received the price. One customer selected the goods.
Continued………. ► Ex 2: A prospectus issued by a company for subscription to its shares and debentures is only an invitation to general public to make an offer to buy the shares/debentures which may or may not be accepted by the company. .
……LEGAL RULES AS TO OFFER ►4. An offer is complete only when it is communicated to the offeree.Offer must be communicated: An offer must be communicated to the person to whom it is made. One can accept the offer only when he knows about it .
( Fitch v.1868) ► . an offer accepted without its knowledge does not confer any legal rights on the acceptor. It was held 'F' was not entitled to the reward because F cannot be said to have accepted the offer which he did not know. ► Ex 1: 'S' offered a reward to anyone who traces his lost dog.Continued…… Thus .Snedaker. 'F' brought the dog without any knowledge of the offer of reward.
500 to anyone who traces the missing boy. .Gauri Dutt ► 'G' sent his servant 'L' to trace his lost nephew. G announced a reward of Rs. When the servant had left. ► It was held that 'L' was not entitled to reward because he did not know about the reward when he found the missing boy. he filed a suit against 'G' to recover the reward. When 'L' came to know about the reward. 'L' found the boy and brought him home.Lalman Shukla v.
" [Harvey to Facey] 2. "Will you sell your Bumper Hall Pen ? Telegraph lowest cash price-answer paid.. HARVEY Vs. FACEY.Legal rules as to offer……. Three telegrams were exchanged between Harvey and Facey .g..[1893] E. 1. ► 6.A ► statement of price is not an offer . " [Facey to Harvey] . "Lowest price for Bumper Hall Pen 900 pounds.
there was no concluded contract between Harvey and Facey The first telegram asked two questions. "We agree to buy Bumper Hall Pen for the sum of 900 pounds asked by you " [Harvey to Facey ] Held. and (ii) the lowest price. Facey replied only to the second question and gave his lowest price.…………. . FACEY.A statement HARVEY Vs. he supplied mere information and no offer had been made by him to sell. i. of price is not an offer ..[1893] 3.. (i) the willingness of Facey to sell.6. There could be contract only if he had accepted Harvey 's last telegram.e.
► If the special terms of the offer are not communicated.Special Terms of Contract The special terms of the offer must also be communicated along with the offer. ► . the offeree will not be bound by those terms.
railways. .Continued……. dry cleaning companies. banking companies. shipping companies. ►Standard contracts are made with big companies such as insurance companies. ►The question of special terms arises generally in case of standard form of contracts. hotels..
Continued… ► Since such companies are in position to exploit the weakness of general public by including certain terms in the contract which may limit their liabilities. it is provided that the special terms of the offer must be brought to the notice of general public. .
Continued…… ► Ex 1: X purchased a ticket Dablin to White Haven and on the back of the ticket. injury or delay to the passengers or his luggage. . it was held that X was entitled to claim compensation for the loss of his luggage in spite of the exemption clause because there was no indication on the face of the ticket to draw his attention to the special terms printed on the back of the ticket. certain conditions were printed one of which excluded the liability of the company for loss. X never looked at the back of the ticket and there was nothing to draw his attention to the conditions printed on the back side. His luggage was lost due to the negligence of the servants of the shipping company.
. Olley v. Marlborough Court Ltd . [1949]. the notice was not effective as it came to the knowledge of the client only when the contract to take a room had already been entered in to.. . exempting the proprietor from liability for loss of client 's goods . Held.g. A hotel put up a notice in a bed room .……Special Terms of Contract E.
(1877) ] . 'P ' was bound by the conditions on the back of the ticket even if he had not read them [Parker Vs. S E Rail Co.50 pounds. as it's value. ► Held. limited the liability of the company for loss of a package to 10 pounds. One of the printed conditions. On the face of the ticket.Example of Special Terms of Contract ►A deposited a bag in the cloak room of a railway station. was written "see back". issued to him.The bag was lost and P claimed 24.
1940 ]. Barry Urban District Council. Example: C hired a deck chair from Municipal Council. He paid a hire of 2 $ for two sessions of 3 hours . but there are no words at all on the face of it to draw the attention of the person concerned to those conditions.He sat on the chair. ► . it broke and injured him.Council was liable [Chapleton Vs. he is not bound by them. Held .Example of Special Terms of Contract ► ► If conditions are printed on the back of a ticket.
but have made an agreement to agree in future. E. Held . there was no contract. An agreement to be finally settled must comprise all the terms which the parties intend to introduce in to the agreement.AGREEMENT TO AGREE IN FUTURE IS NOT A CONTRACT ► the contract. If the parties have not agreed upon the terms of .. there is no contract.g. she would be engaged at a salary to be mutually agreed upon.One of the terms of the agreement was that if the play was shown in London. An actress was engaged in a theatrical company for a certain period .
► According to sec 2(b) of the Indian Contract Act. A proposal when accepted becomes a promise". ► ." A proposal is said to have accepted when the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his assent thereto. ► It is an expression by the offeree of his willingness to be bound by the terms of the offer.Acceptance Acceptance means giving consent to the offer.1872.
Acceptance ► An acceptance may be express or implied. spoken or written or by doing some required act. ► It is implied when it is to be gathered from the surrounding circumstances of the cases or the conduct of the parties. ► It is express when it is communicated by words. .
The rule of law is clear that if you propose to make a contract with 'A'. there is no valid acceptance. it can only be accepted by him alone.Acceptance ► Who can accept offer ? Acceptance of a particular offer: Specific Offer When an offer is made to a particular person. 'B' cannot substitute himself for without your consent. . If it is accepted by any other person.
(1893)] .Carbolic Smokeball Co. any persons to whom the offer is made can accept it [Mrs.Carlill Vs.Acceptance of a general offer ►When an offer is made to world at large.
it must satisfy the following conditions: ► 1..It must be communicated to the offeror ► 3. ► 2.It must be given within a reasonable time .Legal Rules as to Acceptance ► The acceptance of an offer is the very essence of a contract.It must be absolute and unconditional i.It must be according to the mode prescribed or usual and reasonable mode. it must conform with the offer. ► 4.e. To be legally effective.
. ► 6. ► 9. ► 7.It cannot be implied from silence.It cannot precede an offer.….It must show an intention on the part of the acceptor to fulfill terms of the promise.Legal Rules as to Acceptance ► 5. ► 8.It must be given by the party or parties to whom the offer is made..It must be given before the offer lapses or before the offer is withdrawn.
It must be absolute and unconditional i.. in order to be binding. there was no contract. [ Rutledge Vs . it must conform with the offer. there is no contract. ► ► ► An acceptance. must be absolute and unqualified [Sec.Grant (1828)] . If the parties are not ad idem on all matters concerning the offer and acceptance. Held.7(1)] in respect of all terms of the offer.1. whether material or immaterial. Examples: a) 'A' made an offer to 'B' to purchase a house with possession from 25 th July. The offer was followed by an acceptance suggesting possession from 1st August.e. major or minor.
there was no contract between M and N . N accepted and enclosed 80 sterling pounds with a promise to pay the balance by monthly installments of 50 sterling pounds each.1.It must be absolute and unconditional i.……… . Merret (1930)].e. . as the acceptance was on condition. ► Examples : ► b) M offered to sell a piece of land to N at 280 sterling pounds. Held . [Neale Vs.. it must conform with the offer.
000".45. . I offer to sell my car for Rs. ► c) N offered to buy J 's horse if warranted quiet in harness.000".1838] d) A says to B .Norton. it must conform with the offer . I will purchase it for Rs.It must be absolute and unconditional i. there was no acceptance [Jordon Vs. Held..……….e. This is no acceptance and amounts to counter offer.B replies.1. J agreed to the price and warranted the horse in quiet double harness.50.
2. ► A mere resolve or mental determination on the part of the offeree to accept an offer. the acceptance must be communicated in some perceptible form.It must be communicated to the offeror ► To conclude a contract between the parties . is not sufficient. when there is no external manifestation of the intention of the intention to do so. [ Bhagwandas Kedia Vs. Giridharilal (1966)] .
But tells 'C ' 'nothing of his intention. Held . The manager wrote the word "approved" and put the draft in the drawer . Metropolitan Rail Co. There is no contract even if 'C' is willing to marry 'A' .2. there was no contract.It must be communicated to the offeror ► Examples: ► a) 'A' tells 'B' that. . [Brogden Vs. ► b) A draft agreement relating to supply of coal was sent to the manager of a railway company for his acceptance. (1877)]. he intends to marry 'C' .
his offer of 30 pounds not having been accepted [Felthouse Vs. . The nephew did not write to F at all. F had no right of action against the auctioneer as the horse had not been sold to F . Brindley (1862)]. Held. but he told his auctioneer who was selling his horses not to sell that particular horse because it had been sold to his uncle.2.It must be communicated to the offeror ►F offered to buy his nephew's horse for 30 sterling pounds saying: "If I hear no more about it I shall consider the horse is mine at 30 sterling pounds". The auctioneer inadvertently sold the horse.
If the Offeror has sought the communication of acceptance from offeree by telephone it cannot be given by post. ► In case.3. . the acceptance is made in a manner other than the mode prescribed but the offeror does not raise any objection within a reasonable time.It must be according to the mode prescribed or usual and reasonable mode. ► The communication must be according to the mode prescribed [ Sec.7(2)] ► Eg. the acceptance will be binding.
If it is not given within the reasonable time. Held . on 8 th June. ► In Ramsgate Victoria Hotel Ltd. the offer was lapsed by unreasonable delay. M refused to take shares. Vs. Montefiore(1886) M applied for the shares of R & Co. It must be given within a reasonable time ► If any time limit is specified . . But the Company did not intimate about allotment until November.4.the acceptance to an offer must be given within a reasonable time. the offer lapses.
It cannot precede an offer. . The allotment of shares previous to application is invalid. Subsequently when he applied for shares . ► In a company shares were allotted to a person who had not applied for them. he was unaware of the previous allotment.5.
.It must show an intention on the part of the acceptor to fulfill terms of the promise.6. ► If no such intention is present. the acceptance is invalid.
If acceptance is communicated by an unauthorized person.7. It must be given by the party or parties to whom the offer is made. . ► ► Acceptance must be communicated by the offeree himself or by a person who has the authority to accept. it will not give rise to legal relations.
The managing committee passed a resolution approving P to the post but this decision was not communicated to P. It was held that P's suit was not maintainable because there was no communication of acceptance as he was not informed about his appointment by . Subsequently. 'P' filed a suit for breach of contract. But one member of the managing committee in his individual capacity and without any authority informed P about the decision. ► Ex: 'P' applied for the post of a headmaster in a school.. the managing committee cancelled its resolution and appointed someone else..Continued.
00. After the receipt of telegram. if an acceptance is made after the lapse or withdrawal of the offer.8. it will not give rise to legal relations.It must be given before the offer lapses or before the offer is withdrawn. ► The acceptance must be given before the offer lapses or is withdrawn. In this case. ► Ex: X offered by a letter to sell his car for Rs. Y sent his acceptance to X. In other words. x withdrew his offer by a telegram which was duly received by Y. . Subsequently. the acceptance is invalid because it was made after the effective withdrawal of the offer.1.000.
unless the offeree has by his previous conduct indicated that his silence means that he accepts. ► The acceptance of an offer cannot be implied from the silence of the offeree or his failure to answer.000. B did not reply at all. A wrote to B. There is no contract.It cannot be implied from silence. If I don't hear from you in seven days . I offer you my car for Rs. I shall assume that you accept".. .10.9.
the rules contained in Secs. by letter or telegram.. Acceptance and Revocation ► An offer. it's acceptance and their revocation (withdrawal) to be completed must be communicated. i. . ► When the parties are at distance and the offer and acceptance and their revocation are made through post.Communication of Offer.e.3 to 5 apply.
and the switching off the machine amounts to revocation of the offer. Thus installation of a weighing machine at a public place is an offer . or by conducted. acceptance or revocation may be communicated by words spoken or written. its acceptance and their revocation respectively are deemed to be made by any (a) act. accepting or revoking.3) ► ► ► ► ► The communication of offer. of the party offering.Mode of communication (Sec. . In other words. offer. putting of a coin in the slot of the machine is the acceptance of the offer. or (b) omission.
. A proposes by a letter.g. 12 th July. to sell a house to B at a certain price. E. It reaches B on the 12 th July.e. The communication of offer is complete when B receives the letter i..When is communication complete [Sec. The letter is posted on 10 th July..4] ► Communication of offer : The communication of offer is complete when it comes to the knowledge of the person to whom it is made.
. as against 'B'. on 15th.g. i. when it is put in the course of transmission to him. E. when the letter is received by 'A'...When is communication complete[S. when the letter is posted. The letter reaches 'A' on 15th instant. 'B' accepts 'A' s proposal. i. on 13th. so as to be out of power of the acceptor . in the above case.4] Communication of Acceptance: Communication of acceptance is complete* as against the proposer. as against the 'A'.e.e. * as against the acceptor. by a letter sent by post on 13th instant. when it comes to the knowledge of the proposer. The communication of Acceptance is complete. ► .
-as against the person to whom it . when it is put in to the course of transmission to the person to whom it is made so as to be out of the power of the person who makes it . ► The communication of revocation is complete: ► Revocation means "taking back" "recalling" or "withdrawal". It may be revocation of offer or acceptance.When is communication complete….. The communication of a revocation is complete--as against the person who makes it.
by a letter. It is complete as against B when he receives . on 18th May.When is communication complete…… Ex. A revokes his offer by telegram on 18th May.. The revocation is complete as against A when the telegram is dispatched i.The letter is posted on 15th May. It reaches B on 19th May. The telegram reaches B on 20th May. A proposes.e. to sell his house to B at a certain price .
may revoke his acceptance at any time before the letter of acceptance reaches A .Time for Revocation of Offer and Acceptance (Sec. B accepts the proposal by a letter sent by post on the 4th. on 6th but not afterwards. but not afterwards.The letter reaches A on the 6th.. i.e.5) Time for Revocation of Proposal(Sec. A proposes by a letter sent by post to sell his house to B. . The letter is posted on the 1st of the month.5. Ex.para 1) A proposal may be revoked at any time before the communication of it's acceptance is complete as against the proposer..e. i. on 4th but not afterwards. A may revoke his offer at any time before B posts his letter of ► B acceptance.
CONTRACTS OVER TELEPHONE OR TELEX OR ORAL COMMUNICATION ►A contract by telephone or telex has the same effect as an oral agreement entered into between the parties when they are face to face. i. Dineshwara Chandra) ..e.heard and understood by the offeror (Kanhaiyalal v. ► But the offeree must make sure that his acceptance is properly received.
B shouts back accepting A's offer. he must wait till the aircraft is gone and then shout back his acceptance so that A can hear what B says. If B wishes to make a contract. . There is no contract at that moment.Example ►A makes an offer to B across a river or a courtyard. there is no contract. but A does not hear B's reply as it was drowned by an aircraft flying overhead. Until A hears B's reply.
By communication of notice of revocation by the offeror at any time before its acceptance is complete as against him Ex: At an auction sale. . He withdraws the bid before the fall of the hammer. A makes the highest bid for B's goods.WHEN DOES AN OFFER COME TO AN END? ► 1. The offer has been revoked before its acceptance.
He received a letter of acceptance on November 23. ► If no time is prescribed. M was entitled to refuse as his offer had lapsed as the reasonable period during which it could be accepted had elapsed (Ramsgate Victoria Hotel Co. Held. ► 2. By lapse of time: ► If it is not accepted within the prescribed time. He refused to take the shares.. it lapses by the expiry of a reasonable time. v. Montefiore) . then it ends in revocation of offer.Continued………. ► Ex: On June 8 M offered to take shares in R company.
agrees to sell certain goods subject to the condition that B. By non-fulfilment by the offeree of a condition precedent to acceptance: Ex: S. . If B fails to pay the price by that date.Continued……. a seller. the buyer. pays the agreed price before a certain date. ► 3. the offer stands revoked.
► 4. If an offer is not accepted according to the prescribed or usual mode: . If a counter-offer is made to it: ► 6. ► 5. By death or insanity of the offeror provided the offeree comes to know of it before acceptance.Continued……….
(c) An auctioneer displays a refrigerator before a gathering in an auction sale. . " (b) P says to Q "I will sell you a camera. (d) A advertises in The Statesman that he would pay Rs 200 to anyone who finds and returns his lost dog. " P owns three different types of cameras of different prices.Are the following offers valid ? (a) A garment store gave the following advertisement in a newspaper: "Special sale for tomorrow only.OFFER AND ACCEPTANCE:PRACTICAL PROBLEMS 1. Men 's night suits reduced from Rs200 to Rs100.
Snedaker] .Solution for Case. [Fitch vs.1 ►1.(a). ►In case of (d) there is a valid offer.(b) and (c) there is no offer. Any person can accept it by performing the act with knowledge of the reward.
B marries A 's daughter with A 's consent .Case 2. ►Is he entitled to recover the amount ? .000 to anyone who marries his daughter with his consent. ►A tells B in the course of a conversation with him that he will give Rs10.
2 ► No. as what A tells B is a statement of intention. .Solution for Case.
the real price of the book is Rs 50 and that it had been marked as Rs 15 by mistake." ► A enters the shop and puts Rs 15 on the counter and asks for the book. 15 ? . ► Is the bookseller bound to sell the book for Rs. ► It is labeled "First Edition Rs15.3 ►A sees a rare book displayed in a shop. ► seller does not agree to sell that book. says.Case.
Solution for Case. ► (Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain Vs. Boots Cash Chemists).3 ► No. .
Can A compel B to do so ? Is there a contract between A and B ?.000". A sent a second telegram to B . B there after refuses to sell. "will you sell your car? Quote lowest price.000". "I agree to buy your car for Rs 25. What is the name of the case related to this? .Case.4 ► ► ► ► ► (1) (2) (3) A sent a telegram to B ." B sent a reply " Lowest price Rs 25.
Facey) .4 ► (a) No (b) No.Solution for Case. (c) ( Harvey vs.
Case. What is B 's remedy. Meanwhile. (b) If B 's letter of acceptance is lost in the post. if any. B had accepted A 's offer by return of post. against A : (a) If A 's letter of revocation reaches B before B 's letter of acceptance reaches A .5 ► ► ► ► ► A sent a letter to B offering to sell his house to B . © If B 's letter of acceptance is posted an hour after posting of A 's letter of revocation ? . The next day. A wrote another letter revoking his offer.
5 ► In all three cases there is a concluded contract between A and B . .e. as soon as the letter of acceptance is posted by B. I..Solution for Case.
000. Is the revocation of acceptance valid ? Would it make any difference if both the letter of communicating acceptance and the telegram communicating revocation of acceptance.A accepted the offer by post. reach B at the same time? . On the next day.50.Case. A sent a telegram withdrawing the acceptance which reached B before the letter.6 ► (a) (b) B offered to sell his house to A for Rs.
revocation of acceptance is not possible as the contract has already been concluded. 6 ► (a) Yes. ► If he reopens the letter first and reads it. ► (b) If A opens the telegram first (and this would be normally so in case of rational person) and reads it. .Solution for Case. the acceptance stands revoked.
" [Thomas vs. .There are two leading cases which explain this point. Justice Patterson defines consideration in the following words: "Consideration means something which is of some value in the eye of law…It may be some benefit to the plaintiff or some detriment to the defendant.CONSIDERATION ► ► Consideration is one of the essential elements to support a contract. an agreement made without consideration is "nudum pactum" (a nude contract) and is void. Thomas(1842)]. Subject to certain exceptions.
Abdul Aziz vs. Held. and the secretary of the Committee to whom the promise was made. . suffered no detriment as nothing had been done to carry out the repairs. Hence the suit was dismissed.500 to the rebuilding of a mosque. Committee filed a suit to enforce a promise which the promisor had made to subscribe Rs. Masum Ali (1914) ► ► The secretary of a Mosque. "the promise was not enforceable because there was no consideration in the sense of benefit " . as "the person who made the promise gained nothing in return for the promise made".
however. but the secretary in this case incurred a liability on the strength of the promise.Kedarnath vs. became enforceable because on the faith of the promise the secretary had incurred a detriment (loss). Held. as the promise resulted in a sufficient detriment to the secretary . Gauri Mohammad Calcutta [1886] ► ► The facts of this case were almost similar to those of the previous case. The promise could. be enforced only to the extent of the liability (detriment-loss) incurred by the secretary. the promise. In this case. the amount could be recovered. . even though it was gratuitous.
[Section 2(d) of Indian Contract Act. promisee ." at the desire of the promisor. something.1872] ► "When Definition of Consideration or ► any other person has done or ► abstained from doing or ► does or ► abstains from doing. such act or abstinence or promise is called a consideration for the promise. or ► promises to do or ► to abstain from doing.
500. doing of something. . Here B 's promise to pay the sum of Rs.The abstinence of A is the consideration for B 's payment. and A 's promise to sell the horse is the consideration for B 's promise to pay the sum of Rs.000. In this sense consideration is in a negative form. i.000.. Example :A promises B not to file a suit against him if he pays him Rs.10. Here selling of goods by B to C is consideration for A 's promise. Example: A agrees to sell his horse to B for Rs 10.Analysis of Definition of Consideration ► (1) An act .10. (2) An abstinence or forbearance. abstaining or refraining from doing something. (3) A return promise .e..000 is the consideration for A 's promise to sell the horse.e. i. In this sense consideration is in an affirmative form. Example: A promises B to guarantee payment of price of the goods which B sells on credit to C .
It must be real and not illusory 7. abstinence or a return promise.It may move from the promisee or any other person.It must not be illegal. 5.Legal Rules as to Consideration ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► 1.It must be something which the promisor is not already bound to do. . present or future. 3.It may be an act.It may be past. 8. 2. 4. immoral or opposed to public policy (Sec.23).It must move at the desire of the promisor. 6.It need not be adequate.
A cannot demand payment for his services. . If it is done at the instance of a third party or without the desire of the promisor. it will not be a good consideration. Example:A saves B's goods from fire without being asked to do so. ► 1.It must move at the desire of the promisor: An act constituting consideration must have been done at the desire or request of the promisor.Legal Rules as to Consideration……….
even a stranger. But the stranger to consideration will be able to sue only if he is a party to the contract.It may move from the promisee or any other person..Legal Rules as to Consideration………. This means that as long as there is consideration for a promise it is immaterial who has furnished it. Consideration may move from promisee or any other person. i. ► 2.e. .
D refused to pay the amount on the plea that no consideration had moved from P to D. sister of P. Later. a certain sum of money annually. made over certain property to her daughter D. . P (sister of the old lady). under the direction that she should pay her aunt. ► 2. to the daughter. The same day D entered in an agreement with P to pay her the agreed amount. by a deed of gift. Held.Legal Rules as to Consideration………. P was entitled to maintain suit as consideration had moved from the old lady.It may move from the promisee or any other person Example: An old lady.
a.( The following are good consideration for a contract) (1)Forbearance to sue: If a person who could sue another for the enforcement of a right agrees not to pursue his claim. It may be an act. this constitutes a good consideration for the promise by the other person. as a result. B.Legal Rules as to Consideration………. does not file the suit. This forbearance on the part of B to file a suit is a sufficient consideration and B can enforce the . abstinence or a a return promise . This results in a benefit to the person not sued and a detriment to the person who could sue. ► 3.100 at 20 percent p. and fails to pay the amount. Example: A borrows from B Rs. When B is about to file a suit. A agrees to pay a higher rate of interest..
Legal Rules as to Consideration………. (2)Compromise of a disputed claim: Compromise is a kind of forbearance.It may be an act. the claim should be reasonable and the person claiming should honestly believe that it is a valid claim. He should also act bona fide (in good faith). Originally . abstinence or a return promise. (3) Composition with creditors: A debtor who is financially embarrassed may call a meeting of his creditors and request them to accept a lesser amount in satisfaction of their debt. the agreement is binding both upon the debtor and the creditors and this amounts to a compromise of the . 3. If the creditors agree to it.
Legal Rules as to Consideration………. After a month B promises to compensate A for services rendered to him. present or f uture. It is past consideration. ► 4.It may be past.. before the date of the promise. i.e. it is said to be past consideration. . (1)Past Consideration: When consideration by a party for a present promise was given in the past. A can recover promised amount. Example: A renders some service to B at latter's desire.
The money A receives which he promises to deliver certain goods to B. 50 in return for which he promises to deliver certain goods to B. present or future.Legal Rules as to Consideration……….e.It may be past. consideration is present or executed. In case sale. ► 4. (2) Present or Executed Consideration: When consideration is given simultaneously with promise. i. for example. .. at the time of promise. Example: A receives Rs. The money A receives is the present consideration for the promise he makes to deliver the goods. it is said to be present consideration.
The promise of D is supported by the promise of P. it is future or executory consideration. Example: D promises to deliver certain goods to P after a week. present or future. ► 4. P promises to pay the price after a fortnight. Consideration in this case is future or .Legal Rules as to Consideration……….It may be past. (3) Future or executory consideration: When consideration from one party to the other is to pass subsequently to the making of the contract.
It . provided it is of some value. need not be adequate. ► 5. means "something in return". So long as consideration exists. the Courts are not concerned as to it's adequacy.Legal Rules as to Consideration………. as already explained. This something in return need not necessarily be equal to "something given". Consideration. The law simply provides that a contract should be supported by consideration.
1. ► The inadequacy of the consideration is a fact which the Court should take into account in considering whether or not A's consent was freely given.10.000 for rs. ► A denies that his consent to the agreement was freely given.Continued……… ► Ex: ►A agrees to sell a horse worth rs. .
20 to C. Although consideration need not be adequate.500. it must be real. There is no real consideration in the following cases: (1) Physical Impossibility: A promises to put life in to B's dead wife and B should pay him Rs.It must be real. This is legally impossible because C .A's promise is physically impossible of performance. He promises to pay Rs. and not illusory. ► 6. competent and of some value in the eyes of the law. who in return promises to discharge A from the debt. (2) Legal Impossibility: A owes Rs 100 to B.Legal Rules as to Consideration………. the servant of B.
Held. and not illusory (3) Uncertain consideration: A engages B for doing a certain work and promises to pay a "reasonable" sum. The promise is unenforceable as consideration is uncertain.6.It must be real. (4) Illusory consideration: Two of the crew of a ship deserted it half way through a voyage.Legal Rules as to Consideration………. They were already under an obligation to bring the vessel home. …………. There is no recognized method of ascertaining the "reasonable" remuneration. they could not recover the amount as the consideration was illusory. The captain thereby promised to divide the salary of the deserters among the rest of the crew if they worked the vessel home. ► .
► 7.It must be something which the promisor is not already bound to do. since it adds nothing to the pre-existing legal or contractual obligation. A promise to do what is already bound to do. Likewise a promise to perform a public duty by a public servant is not a consideration. . either by general law or under an existing contract.Legal Rules as to Consideration………. is not a good consideration for a new promise.
► Ex: ► (1)
A promised to pay B, who had received summons to appear at a trial in a civil suit, a certain sum being a compensation for the loss of time during his attendance. ► Held, the promise was without consideration, for B was under a duty imposed by law to appear and give evidence. ► (Collins v. Godefroy,(1831))
► Ex: ► (2)
There was a promise to pay to a lawyer an additional sum if the suit was successful. Held, the promise was void for want of consideration. ► The lawyer was under a pre-existing contractual obligation to render the best of his services under the original contract. ► But where a person being already under a legal or contractual duty to do something undertakes to do something than he is bound to do under the original contract, this will be a good consideration for the promise.
Legal Rules as to Consideration……….
► 8. It
must not be illegal, immoral or opposed to public policy .
The consideration given for an agreement must not be unlawful. Where it is unlawful, the Court do not allow an action on the agreement.
STRANGER TO CONTRACT It is a general rule of law that only parties to a contract may sue and be sued on that contract. This rule is known as the "Doctrine of privity of contract. "
► Privity
of contract means relationship subsisting between the parties who have entered in to contractual obligations. ► It implies a mutuality of will and creates a legal bond or tie between the parties to
Two Consequences of the "Doctrine of Privity of Contract "
► (1)
A person who is not a party to a contract cannot sue upon it even though the contract is for his benefit and he provided consideration. ► (2) A contract cannot confer rights or impose obligation arising under it on any person other than the parties to it.
Thus, if there is a contract between A and B, C cannot enforce.
Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre Co.Ltd. Vs. Selfridge & Co.Ltd.,(1915)
bought tyres from the Dunlop Rubber Co. and sold them to P, a subdealer, who agreed with S not to sell below Dunlop's list price and to pay the Dunlop Co., 5 pounds as damages on every tyre P undersold. ► P sold two tyres at less than the list price and thereupon the Dunlop Co. sued him for the breach. ► Held, the Dunlop Co. could not maintain the suit as it was a stranger to the contract.
Exceptions to the rule "Stranger to a contract cannot sue. "
trust or charge: A person (called beneficiary) in whose favor a trust or other interest is created can enforce it even though he is not a party to the contract. Example: A agrees to transfer certain properties to be held by T in trust for the benefit of B. B can enforce the agreement (i.e., the trust) even though he is not a party to the agreement [M.K. Rapai vs. John(1965)]
Exceptions to the rule "stranger to a contract cannot sue. "
► 2.Marriage
settlement, partition or other family arrangements. Example: Two brothers, on a partition of joint properties, agreed to invest in equal shares a certain sum of money for the maintenance of their mother. Held, she was entitled to require her sons to make the investment.
[Shuppu Ammal vs. Subramaniam (1910) Madras High Court.]
Exceptions to the rule "stranger to a contract cannot sue. "
► 3. Acknowledgement
or estoppel : Where the promisor by his conduct, acknowledges or otherwise constitutes himself as an agent of a third party, a binding obligation is thereby incurred by him towards the third party.
Example: 'A ' receives some money from 'T ' to be paid over to 'P '. A admits of this receipt to 'P '. 'P ' can recover the amount from 'A ' who shall be regarded as the agent of 'P '.
Contracts entered in to through an agent : The principal can enforce the contracts entered in to by his agent provided the agent acts within the scope of his authority and in the name of the principal.g.Assignment of contract : Where a benefit under a contract has been assigned. " ► 4. . the assignee of an insurance policy. ► 5. the assignee can enforce the contract subject to all equities between the original parties to the contract ► e.Exceptions to the rule "stranger to a contract cannot sue.
Sec."A contract without consideration is void " -Exceptions ► The general rule is ex nudo pacto non oritur actio..25 and 185 dealt with the exceptions to this rule.e. These cases are--- . an agreement made without consideration is void. In such cases agreements are enforceable even though they are made without consideration. i.
1."A contract without consideration is void " -Exceptions………. and (iv) It is between parties standing in a near relation to each other. .25(1)]: Such agreement made without consideration is valid if: (i) It is expressed in writing (ii) It is registered under the law (iii) It is made on account of love and affection.Love and Affection [Sec.
for natural love and affection.F puts his promise to S in writing and registers it . R may discharge it and then sue V to recover the amount. By a registered agreement.Examples: (a) (b) F . Rs. (1903) . S. promises to discharge his debt to B. There is a contract. [Venkataswamy vs. promises to give his son. Ramaswamy. V on account of natural love and affection for his brother.1. R.000. If V does not discharge the debt.
A contract without consideration is void -Exceptions 2. is enforceable. even though without consideration. Examples: (a) A finds B 's purse and gives it to him.1. 50 . a promise to pay for a past voluntary service is binding.[ Sec.25(2)] A promise to compensate. " At the risk of your life you saved me from a serious accident. B promises to give rs. wholly or in part.000. In simple words."There is a contract between A and B .There is a contract. I promise to pay you Rs. a person who has already voluntarily done something for the promisor.Compensation for voluntary services. . ► (b) A says to B .
Y promised X to give Rs. ► (d) X. Afterwards . X has done that act which Y was legally bound to do. a neighbor helped putting down the fire in Y's house. . This is a valid contract. This is a valid contract even though the consideration did not move at the desire of the promisor. Y promised to pay X's expenses in so doing. Here.Continued……… ► (c) X.1000. supported Y's infant son.
and ► (3) It relates to a debt which could not be enforced by a creditor because of limitation. a debt which remains unpaid or unclaimed for a period of 3 years becomes a time barred debt which is legally not recoverable.A contract without consideration is void -Exceptions 3. Note: According to the Law of limitation. ► .Promise to pay a time barred debt : ► Such promise with out consideration is valid if: ► (1) It is made in writing ► (2) It is signed by the debtor or his agent.
This is a contract.1.000 but the debt is barred by the Limitation Act. D signs a written promise o pay C Rs. .A contract without consideration is void -Exceptions Example: D owes C Rs.500 on account of the debt.
X transferred some property to Y by a duly written and registered deed as a gift.. e.A contract without consideration is void -Exceptions 4.Completed Gift: The rule " No consideration.185] . 5.Agency [Sec.. This is a valid contract even though no consideration. no contract" does not apply to completed gifts.g.
changes his position to his detriment [Refer. i.e. Gauri Mohammad].Charitable Subscription: Where the promisee on the strength of the promise makes commitments. .. Kedarnath Vs.A contract without consideration is void -Exceptions ► 6.
Committee filed a suit to enforce a promise which the promisor had made to subscribe rs. Hence the suit was dismissed. suffered no detriment as nothing had been done to carry out the repairs. and the secretary of the Committee to whom the promise was made. V. Masum Ali: ► The secretary of a Mosque. "the promise was not enforceable because there was no consideration in the sense of benefit ".Important Cases Abdul Aziz.500 to the re-building of a mosque. ► . ► Held.
► . the amount could be recovered. ► In this case. the promise. ► Held. as the promise resulted in a sufficient detriment to the secretary. but the secretary in this case incurred a liability on the strength of the promise. even though it was gratuitous. became enforceable because on the faith of the promise the secretary had incurred a detriment. Gauri Mohamed: ► The facts of this case were almost similar to those of the previous case.Continued………… Kedar Nath v.
Is there any legal remedy against him? .Consideration: Practical Problems ► 1.000 to the National Defense Fund. A promises a subscription of Rs.10. He does not pay.
1 ► No.Answer: Case. (Abdul Aziz vs. Masum Ali) .
removes his coat and dives in to water and rescues B. . who is full of gratitude. promises to pay A Rs.200 but fails to do so.Case.2 ► Can A recover in the following cases? (a) B gets in to difficulties while swimming in the river Ganga and cries for help. B. A hears the cry.
1.2 ►(b) B writes to A.000.Case. I promise to pay you Rs." . you saved me from a serious motor accident. "At the risk of your own life.
B promises to pay A Rs. and his neighbor. A.Case. carries out the necessary repairs.2 ► (c) While B is away on holiday.200 for the work done and materials supplied. On his return. . a storm damages the roof of B's house.
100 . B promises A to give him Rs.Case.2 ►(d) A finds B's purse and gives it to him.
who is B's friend.Case.2 ► (e) A. seeks the help of a few persons in putting down a fire in B's house. B promises to give A Rs. . 100 for his timely help.
25(2)] . A can recover the amount from B in all the cases.Answers to case. [Sec.2 ►Yes.
1.Case. A gives a letter to B agreeing to pay him Rs 500 on account of the debt.Is this a valid agreement? .000 but the debt is barred by limitation.3 ►A owes B Rs.
3 ►Yes. [Sec.Answer to Case.25(3)] .
11.4 ► A.000 for Rs.000.72.Case. Afterwards A seeks to set aside the contract on the ground of inadequacy of consideration.1. being a dire need of money. sells his new car purchased two months ago at a cost of Rs. Will he succeed? .
Answer to Case.4 ► No. .
. he (A ) will give Rs.B .50 to C . and C enter in to a contract under which A promises both B and C that if B will dig A 's garden.Case. Can C compel A to pay the money on B 's digging A 's garden according to the terms of the contract? Give reasons.5 ► A .
Answer to Case. .5 ► Yes.
6 ► A' s Uncle in a sudden display of generosity promises him a watch as a gift on his next birthday. If the uncle fails to give the watch. can 'A' do anything about it legally? .Case.
6 ► No.Answer to Case. .
H gradually lowered his price until rs.000.Case. C refused to buy .4.000 to C for rs.7 ►H who was badly in need of money offered to sell his piano worth rs. claiming that the consideration was inadequate. and he refused to carry out the contract with C. Before the piano was delivered.1000 was reached. which C accepted. H received an offer of a larger sum from T.5. Is H liable to pay damages to C for failure to carry out his part of the contract? .
CAPACITY TO CONTRACT [COMPETENCY OF THE PARTIES] ► ► ► The parties who enter in to contract must have capacity to do so. Capacity here means competency of the parties to enter in to contract. Thus Section 11 declares the following persons to be incompetent to contract. (b) is of sound mind.11 every person is competent to enter in to contract who (a) is of the age of majority. According to Sec. 1.Persons of unsound mind 3.Minor 2. and (c) is not disqualified from contracting by any law to which he is subject.10 an agreement becomes a contract if it is entered in to between the parties who are competent to contract According to Sec.Persons disqualified by any law to which they are subject. .
In the following two cases .1890 or (2) Where the superintendence of a minor's property is assumed by a Court of Wards. he attains majority after 21 years of age. .1.Minors ► According to Indian Majority Act.1875. (1) Where a guardian of a minor's person or property has been appointed under the Guardians and Wards Act. a minor is a person who has not completed 18 years of age.
Further the money lender's request for the repayment of the amount advanced to the minor as part of the consideration for the mortgage was also not accepted. therefore.8000. Subsequently the minor sued for setting aside the mortgage. An agreement with or by a minor is void and inoperative ab initio. ► . Dharmodas Ghose.20. [Mohiribibi vs. stating that he was underage when he executed the mortgage.000 out of which the mortgagee (the money lender) paid the minor a sum of Rs. it was cancelled. Held.(1903) Calcutta High Court] ► In this case a minor mortgage his house in favor of a money lender to secure a loan of Rs. the mortgage was void and.Minor's Agreements ► 1.
5. if he likes. . S cannot avoid the contract. but not at the option of the other party. He paid Rs.He can be a promisee or a beneficiary: Incapacity of a minor to enter in to a contract means incapacity to bind himself by a contract. S told him that he had changed his mind and offered to return the advance. agreed to purchase a second-hand scooter for Rs. When he came with the money the next day.200 as advance and agreed to pay the balance the next day and collect the scooter.000 from S . though M may. Example: (a) M . [Sharafat Ali Vs. aged 17. Such contracts may be enforced at his option.Minor's Agreements ► 2 . There is nothing which debars from becoming a beneficiary. Noor Mohammed(1924)].
Minor's Agreements ► ► ► ► 3 .S. Jiwan Dass Thus consideration given during minority is no consideration. [S.His agreement cannot be ratified by him on attaining the age of majority. "Consideration which passed under the earlier contract cannot be implied in to the contract which the minor enters on attaining majority.K.Shanmugam Pillai vs.Pillai (1973)SC]." [Nazir Ahmed Vs. . If it is necessary a fresh contract may be entered in to by the minor on attaining majority provided it is supported by fresh consideration.
he cannot be asked to compensate or pay for it. Not only this. Example: M. obtains a loan by mortgaging his property. a minor. . He is not liable to refund the loan. ► Sec.Minor's Agreements ► 4 . even his mortgaged property cannot be made liable to pay the debt.If he has received any benefit under a void agreement .65 provides for restitution in case of agreements discovered to be void does not apply to a minor.
Minor's Agreements ► 5 . induced the other party to contract with him. it would be giving him an indirect means of enforcing the void agreement. by misrepresenting his age. he cannot be sued in contract for fraud because if the injured party were allowed to sue for fraud.if he has . .He can always plead minority: Even .
Shiell. But I think it is incorrect to say that he can be made to repay money which he has spent . the contract was void and S was not liable to repay the amount [Leslie vs. he will be made to restore to it's former owner. induced L to lend him 400 POUNDS.5 . He refused to repay it and L sued him for the money . Held. Minor 's Agreements . minor.He can always plead minority: Example: S. by fraudulently representing himself to be of full age.1914] Lawrence J observed that in this case " Wherever an infant is still in possession of any property in specie which he has obtained by his fraud. merely because he received it under a contract induced by fraud".
on equitable considerations." .He can always plead minority: Minor 's Agreements ► The Court may. where some loan or property is obtained by the minor by some fraudulent representation and the agreement is set aside . it does not give them liberty "to cheat men. direct him. Where as the law gives protection to the minors .5. to restore the money or property to the other party.
Minor's Agreements ► 6 .He cannot enter in to a contract of partnership. This is because he is incapable of contracting debts.He cannot be adjudged insolvent. ► 7 . But he may be admitted to the benefits of an already existing partnership with the consent of the other partners. .
► 9 . can be an agent.He .He is liable for the 'necessaries' supplied or necessary services rendered to him or anyone whom he is legally bound to support. A minor binds the principal by his acts without incurring any personal liability.Minor's Agreements ► 8 . An agent is merely a connecting link between his principal and third party. As soon as the principal and the third party are brought together. the agent drops out.
But where a tort arises out of contract a minor is not liable in tort as an indirect way of enforcing a invalid contract. .Minor's Agreements ► 10 .A minor is liable in tort (A civil wrong).
The claim arises not out of contract but out of what is known as 'quasi contracts'. it would be impossible for minors even to live. He is not personally liable.(Sec. . Again it is only the property of the minor that is liable for meeting the liability arising out of such contracts.Minor's Liability for Necessaries of Life. ► ► ► A minor is liable to pay out of his property for 'necessaries' supplied to him or to anyone whom he is legally bound to support.68). The law has provided this exception intentionally because if it were not so.
but they must be (I) suitable to the position and financial status of the minor. defines it in Sec. The English Sale of Goods Act 1893.2 as " goods suitable to the condition in life of such infant or other person. Such goods need not necessarily belong to a class of goods.1872.What are necessaries of life ? ► ► The term necessaries is not defined in. ICA. and to his actual requirement at the time of sale and delivery". and (ii) necessaries both at the time of sale and at the time of delivery .
. A person who is usually of unsound mind but occasionally of sound mind ..Sec.► One of the essential conditions of competency of parties to a contract is that they should be of sound mind. " EXAMPLES ………. he is capable of understanding it and of forming a rational judgment as to its effect upon his interests. but occasionally of unsound mind. for the purpose of making a contract if. It reads as follows: " A person is said to be of sound mind.Persons of Unsound Mind. at the time when he makes it. A person who is usually of sound mind .12 lays down a test of soundness of mind. 2. may make a contract when he is of sound mind. may not make a contract when he is of unsound mind.
► Examples: (a) (b) A patient in a lunatic asylum. or form a rational judgment as to it's effect on his interests.Persons of Unsound Mind. . who is at intervals of sound mind. cannot contract while such delirium or drunkenness lasts. or who is so drunk that he cannot understand the terms of a contract. may contract during those intervals. A sane man who is delirious from fever.
If a person relies on unsoundness of mind. and 2. If a person is incapable of both. he suffers from unsoundness of mind. he must prove it sufficiently to satisfy the Court.His ability to form a rational judgment as to it 's effect upon his interests .Persons of Unsound Mind Soundness of mind of a person depends upon two facts: 1. Whether a party to a contract is of sound mind or not is a question of fact to be decided by the Court. There is a presumption in favor of sanity.His capacity to understand the contents of the business concerned. .
An agreement of an idiot. A lunatic is a person who is mentally deranged due to some mental strain or other personal experience. like that of a minor. He suffers from intermittent intervals of sanity and insanity. is void . IDIOTS. An idiot is a person who has completely lost his mental powers. Idiocy is permanent where as lunacy denotes periodical insanity with lucid intervals. He can enter in to contract when he is of sound mind . He does not exhibit understanding of even ordinary matters. .Contracts of Persons of Unsound Mind ► ► LUNATICS.
at the time when he is so drunk or intoxicated that he is incapable of forming a rational judgment. i.e. A drunken or intoxicated person suffers from temporary incapacity to contract. persons of unsound mind are liable for necessaries supplied to them or to anyone whom they are legally bound to support . . However.Contracts of Persons of Unsound Mind ► DRUNKEN OR INTOXICATED PERSONS. .
Convicts ► 4. Alien Enemies ► 2. Insolvents . Foreign Sovereigns ► 3.PERSONS DISQUALIFIED BY LAW (other persons) ► 1.
3. He can do so only after he receives a license from the Central Government. and (b) contracts made before the war (a) During the continuance of the war. Other persons ALIEN ENEMIES. Contracts with alien enemy [an alien whose State is at war with the Republic of India] may be studied under two heads. ► . namely(a) contracts during the war. an alien enemy can neither contract with an Indian subject nor can he sue in an Indian Court.
► . For this purpose even an Indian who resides voluntarily in a hostile country.3. Other persons ALIEN ENEMIES. or who is carrying on business there would be treated as an alien enemy. They will be dissolved if they are against the public policy or if their performance would benefit the enemy. (b) Contracts made before the war may either be suspended or dissolved.
But an Indian has to obtain prior sanction of the Central government in order to sue them in our law Courts. . their diplomatic staff and accredited representatives of foreign states ► They have some special privileges and generally cannot be sued unless they of their own submit to the jurisdiction of our law Courts.Foreign sovereigns.
. whether expressly conferred on it or derived by reasonable implication from it's objects clause in the Memorandum. 1956.CORPORATIONS & COMPANY ► ► A corporation is an artificial person created by law. It may come in to existence by a special Act of Legislature registration under Companies Act.1956. the contract ultra vires and is void. If it exceeds it's powers. A contractual capacity of a company [corporation] is regulated by the terms of Memorandum of Association and the provisions of Companies Act. having a legal existence apart from it's members.
. CONVICTS: A convict when undergoing imprisonment is incapable of entering in to contract.INSOLVENTS & CONVICTS ► ► INSOLVENTS: When a debtor is adjudged insolvent is deprived of his power to deal in that property. It is only the official Receiver or Official Assignee who can enter in to contracts relating to his property. and sue and be sued on his behalf.
A minor fraudulently represented to a money lender that he was of full age and executed a mortgage deed for Rs.000.PRACTICAL PROBLEMS ► 1.10. Has the money lender any right of action against the minor for the money lent or for damages for fraudulent misrepresentation ? .
1 ► No. (Mohiri bibi v. Dharmodas Ghose) (Leslie vs.Answer to Case. Shiell) .
A minor is supplied with necessaries of life by a grocer. (b) against his estate.Case 2. He makes out a promissory note in favor of the grocer. . Is the grocer entitled to claim payment under the promissory note (a) from minor personally. ► 2.
Answer to Case.2 ► (a) No ► (b) Yes(Sec.68) .
M.3 ► 3. a minor aged 17. Does the physician have a valid claim for his services ? . broke his right arm in a hockey game.Case . He engaged a physician to set it.
but it is only M's estate which will be liable(sec.68).Answer to Case.3 ► Yes. .
" Is A right? .4 ► A.Case. You are a minor and cannot force me to pay. said to M. an adult. a minor: "I will not pay the commission I promised you for selling my magazines.
Answer to Case. A minor can be a beneficiary or a promisee. .4 ► No.
"Two or more persons are said to consent when they agree upon the same thing in the same sense". .Free Consent ► Meaning of "Consent " [Sec.13] Consent means acquiescence or an act of assenting to an offer.
or 2 .14] ► A consent is said to be free when it is not caused by 1 .What is Free Consent ? ► Meaning of "Free Consent "[Sec.or 4 .21 or Sec.Undue Influence in Sec.17.Coercion as defined in Sec15.22]. subject to the provisions of Sec.Mistake . .Fraud as defined in Sec.18 or 5 .20.Misrepresentation as defined n Sec.16 or 3 .
or threatening to detain. "coercion" is said to be employed.(Sec. any property.Examples are……. ► Coercion is the committing or threatening to commit.Coercion [Sec. any act forbidden by the Indian Penal Code.15). with the intention of any person to enter in to an agreement. .15] ► When a person is compelled to enter in to a contract by the use of force by the other party or under a threat. to the prejudice of any person whatever.1860 or unlawful detaining.
B releases A under the threat. B agrees to lend the amount to C. The release has been brought about by Coercion.000 to C.Examples of Coercion a. The threat amounts to coercion. Consent is said to be caused by coercion when it is obtained by: (1) Committing or threatening to commit any act forbidden by the Indian Penal Code.A threatens to kill B if he does not lend Rs. . b . A threatens to shoot B if he (B ) does not release him (A ) from a debt which A owes to B . The agreement entered in to under coercion.1.B lends the amount.1860. Example… A threatens to shoot B if he (B ) does not lend Rs 500.
Unlawful detaining or threatening to detain any property . ► An agent refused to hand over the account books of a business to the new agent unless the principal released him from all liabilities.Examples of ► Coercion 2.(1927)Madras High Court ] . [Muthia vs. Held.Muthu Karuppa. The principal had to give a release deed as demanded. the release deed was voidable at the option of the principal.
Effect of Coercion ► When consent to an agreement is caused by coercion.72. . or anything delivered by mistake or under coercion. a person to whom money has been paid. fraud or misrepresentation. the agreement is a contract voidable at the option of the party whose consent was so caused(Sec. must repay or return it. ► According to Sec.19).
. therefore. a person held out a threat of committing suicide to his wife and son if they did not execute a release in favor of his brother in respect of certain properties.Seshamma(1917)Madras HC. The wife and son executed the release deed under the threat. voidable".Chikham Amiraju vs. " the threat of suicide amounted to coercion within Sec 15 and the release deed was. ► In Threat to commit suicide-Does it amount to coercion? this case. ► Held.
" As such a threat to commit to suicide amounts to coercion.309 punishes an attempt to commit suicide. "one committing suicide places himself or herself beyond the reach of the law.306 of the Penal Code punishes abetment of suicide. and necessarily beyond the reach of any punishment too. Sec. Thus suicide as such is no crime. it cannot be. Basudev Mukherjee(1969)Calcutta] It was observed that. ► ► .► Threat to commit suicide-Does it amount to coercion? [Purabi Mukherjee vs. Sec. But its attempt is: its abetment too is. as indeed. it may very well be said that the Penal Code does forbid suicide. So. But it does not follow that suicide is not forbidden by the Penal Code.
" .Duress ► In the English Law. it is not duress. ► If the threat is with regard to the goods or property of the other party. parent. the near equivalent of the term "coercion" is "duress". Duress involves actual or threatened violence over the person of another (or his wife. or child) with a view to obtaining his consent to the agreement.
" .UNDUE INFLUENCE Section 16(1) ► Definition : "A contract is said to be induced by 'undue influence' (a) where the relations subsisting between the parties are such that one of the parties is in a position to dominate the will of other (b) and uses that position to obtain an unfair advantage over the other.
g.[Relation of trust and confidence] to the other. (b) Where he stands in a fiduciary relation. Sec 16(2) (a) Where he holds real or apparent authority over the other. E.g. and promoter and company.E.the relationship between master and servant. solicitor and client.A person is deemed to be in a position to dominate the will of another . illness or bodily distress. Between a medical attendant and his patient.. trustee and beneficiary. (c) Where he makes a contract with person whose mental capacity is temporarily or permanently affected by reason of age..g. doctor and patient.. . E. father and son.
No criminal act is involved. ► 1.Uses to obtain an unfair advantage over the other. 2. ► ► ► ► ► 4.Coercion is mainly of physical character. (Mental pressure) 3.Undue influence is of moral character.It involves criminal act.There must be an intention of causing any person to enter in to contract. (Violent force) 3. .Coercion and Undue Influence ► Difference Between 1.The consent is given by a person who is so situated in relation to another that the other person is in a position to dominate the will of the other.The consent is given under the threat of an offence (Forbidden by Indian Penal Code) 2. 4.
[Mannu Singh vs.Umadat Pandey (1890)] . the consent of the devotee was given under undue influence ► 1. Held.Examples of UNDUE INFLUENCE A spiritual guru induced his devotee to gift him the whole of his property in return of a promise of salvation of the devotee.
Held.Examples of UNDUE INFLUENCE ►2. the gift should be set aside on the ground of undue influence.Shaikh Allie Bin Omar(1929)] . [Inche Noriah vs.An illiterate elderly woman made a deed of gift of practically the whole of her property to her nephew who managed her affairs.
Discretion of Court : Any such contract may be set aside either absolutely or if the party who was entitled to avoid it has received any benefit thereunder.EFFECT OF UNDUE INFLUENCE When a consent to an agreement is caused by undue influence. the agreement is a contract voidable at the option of the party whose consent was so caused. . upon such terms and conditions as the court may seem just and equitable.
an agriculturist. B under threat of prosecuting A's son obtains a bond from A.100 to B. The Court may set aside. .100 with such interest as may seem to it just. ordering B to repay Rs. If B sues on this bond. advances Rs.200 with interest at 6 per cent per month. and by undue influence induces B to execute a bond for Rs. a money-lender. ► Ex 1: A's son forged B's name to a promissory note.. ► Ex 2: A.Continued……. for the amount of the forged note. the Court may set the bond aside.
RELATIONSHIP WHICH RAISE PRESUMPTION OF UNDUE INFLUENCE ► Parent and child ► Guardian and ward ► Trustee and beneficiary ► Religious adviser and disciple ► Doctor and patient ► Solicitor and client The presumption of undue influence applies whenever the relationship between the parties is such that one of them is . . by reason of confidence reposed in him by the other. able to take unfair advantage over the other.
.) In the above cases undue influence will have to be proved if any. (The wife should not be pardanashin otherwise the presumption will arise.NO PRESUMPTION OF UNDUE INFLUENCE IN THE RELATIONSHIP ► Landlord and tenant ► Creditor and debtor ► Husband and wife.
BURDEN OF PROOF When a contract is avoided on the ground of undue influence. The weaker party has to prove (a) That the other party was in a position to dominate the will (b) That the other party actually used his influence to obtain an unfair advantage (c) That the transaction is unconscionable (unreasonable) ► . the liabilities of dominant party and weaker party has to be proved.
the dominant party has to prove that such contract was not induced by undue influence. . ► Note: A transaction is said to be unconscionable if the dominant party makes an exorbitant profit of the other' s distress.Continued…… ► In case of unconscionable transaction.
A lender agreed to grant the loan at 30% because of stringency in the money market. However. This cannot be called as unconscionable transaction because of an unusual high rate of interest.Example of unconscionable transaction X was in great need of money. The market rate of interest prevailing at that time was 15% to 24%. if the lender agreed to grant the loan at a rate which is so high (say 75% or 100%) then the Court considers it unconscionable. and the transaction will be called unconscionable .
(b) that she understood the contracts and the implications of the contract. (c) that she was in receipt of competent independent advice before entering into the contract. Burden of Proof: The other party who enters into a contract with a pardanashin woman must prove —(a) that he made full disclosure of all the facts to her.e. who does not come in contact with people other than her family members) is called pardanashin woman.. . Legal Presumption: A contract with a pardanashin woman is presumed to have been induced by undue influence.CONTRACTS WITH PARDANASHIN WOMAN ► ► ► ► ► A woman who observes complete seclusion ( i.
either innocently or intentionally. . ► A representation when wrongly made. is a misrepresentation .Misrepresentation ►A statement of fact which one party makes in the course of negotiations with a view to inducing the other party to enter in to a contract is known as a representation. ► It may be expressed by words spoken or written or implied from the acts and conduct of the parties.
MISREPRESENTATION & FRAUD Misrepresentation may be(I) An innocent or unintentional misrepresentation. ► The former is called "MISREPRESENTATION" and the latter "FRAUD " . or (II) An intentional. deliberate or willful misrepresentation with an intent to deceive or defraud the other party.
without any intent to deceive the other party . .MISREPRESENTATION ►"Misrepresentation" is a misstatement of a material fact made innocently with an honest belief as to it's truth or nondisclosure of a material fact.
. Later on B finds the mare to be unsound. Misrepresentation A while selling his mare to B .Examples of ► 1. A genuinely believes the mare to be sound although he has no sufficient ground for the belief. The representation made by A is a misrepresentation. tells him that the mare is thoroughly sound.
the directors were guilty of misrepresentation and not of fraud.A Misrepresentation company's prospectus contained a representation that it had statutory powers to run it's tramways by steam provided the consent of a Government authority was obtained. The permission was refused .Examples of ► 2. The directors issued a prospectus stating there in that the permission for the use of steam power would be granted.Peek(1889)] .The company was then wound up. [Derry vs. Held.
Mere expression of opinion does not amount to misrepresentation even if it turns out to be wrong. 2. 3.It must be wrong but the person who made it honestly believed it to be true .It must be made with the intention that it should be acted upon by the person to whom it is addressed.It must be a representation of material fact. .It must actually have been acted upon and must have induced the contract. 4. 5.Requirements of MISREPRESENTATION ► ► ► ► ► 1.It must be made before the conclusion of the contract with a view to inducing the other party to enter in to contract.
g.It need not be made directly to the plaintiff. however. A wrong statement of facts made to a third party with the intention of communicating it to the plaintiff.Singh(1968)Patiala High Court] ► . [Babul vs. The daughter gave her consent to marry him believing the statement by her father. Held.Requirements of MISREPRESENTATION 6.. ► 7. A told his wife within the hearing of their daughter that the bridegroom proposed for her was a young man.It must be made without any intention to deceive the other party. was a over sixty years. E. also amounts to misrepresentation . the consent was vitiated by misrepresentation and fraud. The bridegroom.
not caring whether it is true or false . or (ii) with out belief in it 's truth . (2) there is a concealment of material fact. and (iv) the maker intended the other party to act upon it . (1) a false representation has been made (i) knowingly .FRAUD ► "Fraud " exists when it is shown that. . or (iii) recklessly.
………. ..FRAUD ►The intention of the party making fraudulent misrepresentation must be to deceive the other party to the contract or to induce him to enter in to a contract.
Any such act or omission as the law specially declares to be fraudulent. "fraud " means and includes any of the following acts committed by a party to a contract: 1.A promise made without any intention of performing it.Any other act fitted to deceive.17.………. 4. 5.The suggestion that a fact is true when it is not true and the person making the suggestion does not believe it to be true. 2. 3. ► ..FRAUD According to Sec.The active concealment of a fact by a person having knowledge or belief of the fact.
[Peek vs.g.There must be a representation and it must be false : E. non disclosure of information amounted to fraud and any one who purchased shares on the faith of this prospectus could avoid the contract. The prospectus of a company did not refer to the existence of a document disclosing liabilities .ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF FRAUD 1. If the existence of the document had been disclosed the impression would have been different.Gurney(1873)] ► . This gave the impression that the company was prosperous.. Held.
[This is a statement of opinion]. [This is a puffing statement]. (i) A sells some spoons to B and makes the following statements.The representation must relate to a material fact which exists now or existed in the past. ► …………ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF FRAUD .2. The spoons are as good as that of X. (ii) The spoons have as much silver in them as that of X [This is a statement of fact] (iii) The spoons are the best available in the market for the price.
…………ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF FRAUD ► 3. not caring whether it is true or false. ► 4. . The representation must have been made with a knowledge of it's falsity or without belief in it's truth or recklessly. The representation must have been made before the conclusion of the contract with the intention of inducing the other party to act upon it.
Chadwick(1884)] . A bought shares in a company on the faith of a prospectus which contained an untrue statement that one B was a director of the company.A mere falsehood is not enough to give a right of action . A had never heard of B and. Eg.The other party must have been induced to act upon the representation or assertion ..…………ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF FRAUD ► 5. [Smith vs. the statement was immaterial from his point of view .A's claim for damages in this was dismissed because the untrue statement had not induced A to buy the shares. therefore.
If representation does not come to the notice of a party.The other party must have relied upon the representation and must have been deceived. acting on the representation or assertion. ► 7. it cannot be said to have misled that party because it does not lead that party at all. .…………ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF FRAUD ► 6.The other party. must have subsequently suffered some loss.
A by misrepresentation.. E. the agreement is a contract voidable at the option of the party whose consent was so caused. .When consent to an agreement is caused by coercion. the contract is not voidable: ► 1.which show that only four hundred tonnes of indigo have been made. B examines the accounts of the factory. ► Contracts not necessarily voidable -Exceptions. fraud or misrepresentation.g. But in the following cases.Where the consent of a party to a contract was caused by misrepresentation or fraud and that party could discover the truth by ordinary diligence. leads B erroneously to believe that five hundred tonnes of indigo are made annually at his factory. The contract is not voidable on account of A's misrepresentation. After this B buys the factory.
or (2) Mistake of fact. (a) Mistake of law of the country (b) Mistake of law of foreign country (2) Mistake of fact: Mistake of fact may be. or (b) Unilateral Mistake. It may be a (1) Mistake of law. .MISTAKE ► ► ► Mistake is erroneous belief about something . (1)Mistake of law: It may be…. (a) Bilateral Mistake.
A and B enter in to contract on the erroneous belief that a particular debt is barred by Indian Law of Limitation.the contract may be avoided. if a person enters in to a contract by making a mistake of law through the inducement of another. . and the contract cannot be avoided.MISTAKE OF LAW Example of (1) Mistake of law of the country ► ► ► A party cannot be allowed to get any relief on the ground that it had done a particular act in ignorance of law.g . But. whether innocent or otherwise . This contract is not voidable. no excuse.A mistake of law is.. therefore. E.
21).MISTAKE OF LAW (2) Mistake of law of a foreign country ►Such a mistake is treated as mistake of fact and the agreement in such a case is void (Sec. .
or Legal impossibility . the agreement is void [Sec.or (b) Possibility of performance (a) Subject matter may relate to ………………. (b) Possibility of performance :It may relate to.MISTAKE Bilateral Mistake : Where both the parties to an agreement are under a mistake as to a matter of fact essential to the agreement. ► .20]. (i)Existence (ii)Price (iii)Quantity (iv) Quality (v) Identity or (vi) Title .It may be Bilateral or Unilateral Mistake ► Bilateral Mistake : It may relate to …… (a)Subject mater. (i) Physical .……………..
The mistake must be mutual : E. [Galloway vs.Bilateral Mistake The following two conditions have to be fulfilled .. the agreement was void as there was mutual mistake on a point of fact which was material to the existence of the agreement. mistakenly believing themselves lawfually married. 1. A agreed to purchase B's motor car which was lying down in B's garage. A man and woman entered in to a separation agreement under which a man agreed to pay a weekly allowance to the woman.g..g.The mistake must relate to a matter of fact essential to the agreement : E. ► .The agreement is void. the car and garage were completely destroyed by fire a day earlier.Held.Unknown to either party.Galloway(19141)]. 2.
There were two ships of that name sailing from Bombay. [Rafles vs.Mistake as to the Subject matter : (a)MISTAKE AS TO THE EXISTENCE OF THE SUBJECT MATTER.Bilateral Mistake : The various cases whish fall under Bilateral mistake are as follows.g.g. the latter. It turns out that the horse was dead at the time of the bargain.W meant the former ship and R. there was a mutual or bilateral mistake and there was no contract. 1. (b) MISTAKE AS TO THE IDENTITY OF THE SUBJECT MATTER: E. The agreement is void.Held. though the neither party was aware of the fact. E...One sailing in October and the other in December.Wichelhaus(1864)] ► . A agrees to buy a horse from B a certain horse. W agreed to buy from R a cargo of cotton "to arrive ex-peerless from Bombay".
[Nicholson &Venn vs.BILATERAL MISTAKE: (c) MISTAKE AS TO THE QUALITY OF THE SUBJECT MATER: E. There was a difference in value between the weight as it was and as it was supposed to be. A silver bar was sold under a mistake as to it's weight.g. [Cox vs.…. Held. Bilateral Mistake ► …………………………………………………1.Prentice(1815)] .. the agreement was void.Smith Mariott(1947)] (d) MISTAKE AS TO THE QUANTITY OF THE SUBJECT MATTER: E. Held the agreement was void as there was a mistake as to the quality of the subject matter. Table Napkins were sold at an auction by y description "with the crest of Charles 1 and the authentic property of that monarch".. In fact the napkins were Georgian.g.
C wrote to W offering to sell certain property for 1. BILATERAL MISTAKE: (e) MISTAKE AS TO THE TITLE OF THE SUBJECT MATTER: E.250 pounds was a mistake for 2. Bilateral Mistake ► …………………………………………………1. W knew perfectly well that that the offer was made by mistake and hence the contract could not be enforced.Cecil(1861)] . W Who knew that this offer of 1. A person took a lease of a fishery which.250 pounds.g.. E. [Webster vs. immediately accepted the offer.g. unknown to either party. Held.….Phibbs (1815)] (f)MISTAKE AS TO THE PRICE OF THE SUBJECT MATTER. [Cooper vs..250 pounds. the lease was void. Held. He had earlier declined an offer from W to buy the same property for 2000 pounds. already belonged to him.
two exceptions . (ii) Nature of contract. There are however.22).By mistake he makes an offer in writing for Rs.44. E.000. A offers to sell his house for Rs.He cannot plead mistake as a defense. . Regarding the (i) identity of the person contracted with..g.000. the contract is not voidable(Sec.…………….MISTAKE ► ► ► Unilateral Mistake : Where only one of the parties is under a mistake as to a matter of fact.40..
MISTAKE (I )Mistake at to the identity of the person contracted with : E. In such a case the contract is void. M. an old man of poor sight.If A intends to enter in to a contract with B . Held. . endorsed a bill of exchange thinking that it was a guarantee. ► (ii) Mistake as to the nature of the contract : Where a person is made to enter in to a contract through the inducement of another but through no fault.g. C cannot give himself any right in respect of the contract by accepting the offer. Mackinson (1869)] ► .……………. there was no contract on the ground that the mind of the signer did not accompany the signature [Foster vs.g.. E.
.10) ►Every agreement of which the object or consideration is unlawful is void.Legality of Object ►An agreement is a contract if it is made for a lawful consideration and with a lawful object (Sec.
if permitted it would defeat the provisions of any law. Ex: X borrowed Rs.00.► The consideration or object of an agreement is unlawful if(a) It is forbidden by law..000 from Y and agreed not to raise any objection as to the limitation and that Y may recover the amount even after the expiry of limitation period. This agreement is void as it defeats the provisions of the Law of Limitation Act. or Continued……. .1. or (b) If it is of such a nature that.
or (e)The Court regards it as immoral. or (d) It involves or implies injury to the person or property of another.Continued…. . or opposed to public policy. (c) It is fraudulent. ► No action is allowed on an illegal agreement.
11).(Sec.Agreement the meaning of which is uncertain ( Sec.25) 6.30) 11.56) .23) 4.28) 9.Agreements the consideration or object is unlawful (Sec.Agreement in restraint of trade (Sec. (Sec.Void Agreements ► ► A void agreement is one which is not enforceable by law . 2.Agreement to do impossible acts.24) 5.29) 10.Agreements the consideration or object is unlawful in part.2(g)] The following agreements are declared to be void.An agreement made by incompetent persons( Sec.Agreement by way of wager (Sec. [Sec.36) 12.Agreement contingent on impossible events(Sec.20) 3.27) 8. 1.Agreement made without consideration is void ( Sec.26) 7.Agreement in restraint of marriage (Sec.Agreement in restraint of legal proceedings (Sec.Agreement made under mutual mistake of fact (Sec.
by one person to another on the happening or nonhappening of a future uncertain event. Ex. .000 to X if it did not.1.000 to Y if it rains on a particular day.Wager or Wagering Agreement [Sec.30] ►A wager agreement is an agreement between two persons under which money or money's worth is payable. and Y promises to pay rs. Such agreement is a wagering agreement. X promises to pay rs.1.
A will lose but if it turns out the other way he will win". if the event turns out one way.30] ►"The essence of gambling and wagering is that one party is to win and the other to lose upon a future event. . [Thacker Vs.… Wager or Wagering Agreement [Sec. which at the time of the contract is of an uncertain nature. that is to say.
No other interest in the event .Promise to pay money or money's worth ► 2.Uncertain event ► 3.Essentials of a wagering Agreement ► 1.No control over the event ► 5. ► 4.Each party must stand to win or lose.
g.A subscription or contribution or an agreement to subscribe or contribute toward any event (a cup or other prize for a race or other contest). e.Games of skill.A contract of insurance. picture puzzles or athletic competitions 3.Share market transactions in which delivery of stocks and shares is intended to be given and taken.500 or above to be awarded to the winner or winners of a horse race (Exception to Sec. 5. .The following transactions however are. prize or sum of money of the value of Rs.30) 4. not wagers ► ► ► ► ► 1. A crossword competition involving a good measure of skill for it's successful solution 2..
1.1872 contingent agreements to do or not to do anything. if an impossible event happens are void whether the impossibility of the event is known or not to the parties to the agreement at the time when it is made.AGREEMENTS CONTINGENT ON IMPOSSIBLE EVENTS ► According to Section 36 of the Indian Contract Act. .000 if B marries C (a Hindu) who is already married to D . Ex: A agrees to pay Rs. This is a void agreement.
'An agreement to do an impossible act is void'.AGREEMENTS TO DO IMPOSSIBLE ACTS ► According to Section 56 of the ICA 1872. This agreement is void . Ex: A undertakes to put life to the dead wife of B.
► Ex 1: A . a singer contracts with B the manager of a theatre to sing at his theatre for two nights every week during the next two months and B agrees to pay her rs. On the sixth night.► Restitution RESTITUTION benefit".100 for each night's performance. A willfully absents herself from the theatre and B in consequence rescinds the contract. B must pay A for the five nights on which she had sung. means " return or restoration of .
. ► Ex 2: A contracts to sing for B on a specified day and receives an advance of Rs.1000 but is unable to sing due to serious illness on that day.000 to B. A must return Rs.1. Since the contract has become void.Continued…….
collateral to such contract. does or does not happen. 3. if some event. .Contingent Contracts ► Contingent contract is a contract to do something. 2.The uncertain future event must be collateral to the contract.It's performance depends upon the happening or non happening in future of some event. 1.The event must be uncertain. ► Characteristics of a contingent contract.
The event must be uncertain ► 3. (incidental to the contract) .Its performance depends upon the happening or non-happening in future of some event ► 2.THREE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF CONTIGENT CONTRACT ► 1.The event must be collateral.
A pleaded that the contract was a conditional one and as the goods had not arrived he had no obligation to give delivery. the contract was an absolute one and the obligation of A was not contingent upon the arrival of the goods ► Contracts of insurance. The goods were to be delivered when they arrived. indemnity and guarantee . A failed to give delivery and B sued for damages for breach. Held.Example of the event must be collateral ► There was a contract for the sale of American parachute cloth by A to B .
A wagering agreement is void where as a contingent contract is valid 4.A wagering agreement consists of reciprocal promises whereas a contingent contract may not be of a wagering nature 2.In a wagering agreement. the parties have no other interest in the subject-matter of the agreement except the winning or losing of the amount of the wager 5.A wagering agreement is essentially of a contingent nature whereas a contingent contract may not be of a wagering nature 3.In a wagering agreement the future event is the sole determining factor while in a contingent contract the future event is only collateral .WAGERING AND CONTINGENT CONTRACT ► ► ► ► ► 1.
Performance of Contract • The parties to a contract either perform or offer to perform their respective promises. • By whom the contract must be performed ? (a) By promisor himself (b) By agent (c) By legal representative (d) By Joint promisors (e) By Third Party .
(b) Joint Promisees: In case of joint promisees. any of the joint promisees can demand performance. Ex: X promises Y to pay Rs.000 on a specified day. who can demand performance.1000 to Z. Y's representative jointly with Z can demand the Who can demand performance ? (a) Promisee: It is only the promisee himself.1.the legal representatives of all the deceased persons can demand performance. In . When all promisees die . It is only Y who can demand performance and not Z. the legal representative. Ex: X promises Y and Z jointly to repay loan of Rs.case of his death.
Continued… • Performance from X on specified day. If Y and Z die before that specified day. the representatives of Y and Z jointly can demand the performance from X on specified day. • (c) Third Party: A third party can also demand the performance of the contract in some exceptional cases like beneficiary in case of trust. the person for whose benefit the provision is made in family .
Y dies before the specified day. The legal representatives of Y cannot demand performance of the promise from X because the contract is of personal nature.Continued……. Ex: X promises to marry Y on the specified day. his legal representative can demand performance unless a contrary intention appears from the contract or the contract is of a personal nature. . • (d) Legal representative: In case of death of the promisee.
Who must Perform • (a) Promisor: If it appears from the nature of the case that it was the intention of the parties to any contract that any promise contained in it should be performed by the promisor himself. X must perform the promise personally. such promise must be performed by the promisor. • Ex: X promises to marry Y. • Ex: X promises to paint a picture for Y. . X must perform this promise personally.
his representatives must perform the promise. or employ some proper person to do so. or by causing it to be paid to B by another. and if A dies before the time appointed for payment.• (b) Promisor's Agent: If it was not the intention of the parties that the promise should be performed by the promisor himself. Ex: A promises to pay B a sum of money. Continued……… . such contracts can be performed by the promisor himself or any competent person employed by him. A may perform this either by personally paying the money to B.
Ex: X promises to marry Y X dies.Continued…… • (c) Legal Representatives: In case of death of promisor. X's . legal representatives cannot perfom this promise. his legal representative can perform the contract unless a contrary intention appears or the contract is of personal nature. (d) Third Party .
Discharge by impossibility 4.Discharge by operation of law 6.Discharge by agreement or consent 3.Discharge by breach of contract.Discharge by performance 2.Discharge by lapse of time 5.D i s c h a r g e … of Contract A contract is said to be discharged when the obligations created by it come to an end . ► . The various modes of discharge of contract are as follows: 1.
DISCHARGE… OF CONTRACT ► 1. Discharge by agreement or consent : The contract rests on the agreement of the parties. ► 2. The parties may get discharged from the obligations of performance of contract by agreement or mutual consent. Discharge by performance : It takes place when the parties to a contract fulfill their obligations arising under the contract within the time and the manner prescribed. .
. ► (f) Merger: When an inferior right accruing to a party under a contract merges in to a superior right accruing to the same party under a new contract. ► (b) Rescission: When all or some of the terms of contract are cancelled. Discharge by agreement or consent : The discharge by consent may be express or implied. of Contract 2. ► (d) Remission: Acceptance of a lesser fulfillment of the promise made ► (e) Waiver: Intentional relinquishment or giving up of a right by a party entitled thereto under a contract. Discharge by consent – ► (a) Novation : When a new contract is substituted for an existing one.Discharge. ► (c) Alteration : When one or more terms of the contract is/are altered by the mutual consent of the parties to a contract. . either between the same parties or between the one of the parties and the third party.
The cases covered by of supervening impossibility include: (a) Destruction of the subject mater (b) Non-Existence or non-occurrence of a particular state of things (c) Death or incapacity for personal service (d) Change of law. ► . (2)Supervening impossibility : Impossibility which arises subsequent to the formation of contract (which could be performed at the time when the contract was entered in to) is called supervening impossibility.Discharge …of Contract 3. Discharge by impossibility : Impossibility of performance may be(1)Initial impossibility or (2) Supervening impossibility. (1)Initial impossibility : An agreement to do an impossible act in itself is void. & (e) Outbreak of war The contract is discharged in these cases.
lock outs and civil disturbances (e) Failure of one of the objects The contract is not.Discharge of Contract ► The following cases are not covered by supervening impossibility : (a) Difficulty of performance (b) Commercial impossibility (c) Failure of a third person on whose work the promisor relied (d) Strikes.discharged in these cases. .
5 .Discharge by lapse of time : If the contract is not performed within the period of limitation and if no action is taken by the promisee in a law court.Discharge by operation of law : This includes discharge by. (a) death (b) merger (c) insolvency (d) unauthorized alteration of the terms of a written agreement. and (e) rights and liabilities becoming vested in the same person. the contract is discharged.Discharge of Contract ► ► 4. .
(1)Actual breach of contract may occur. or (b) during the performance of the contract.Discharge by breach of contract: If a party breaks his obligation which the contract imposes. (2)Anticipatory breach of contract occurs when a party repudiates his liability or obligation under the contract before the time for performance arrives. there takes place breach of contract. (a) at the time when the performance is due.Discharge of Contract 6. ► . Breach of contract may be.(a) Actual or(b) Anticipatory breach.
He is also absolved of all the obligations under the contract. Baxandile . ► Remedies for . the injured party may sue to treat the contract as rescinded.Breach of Contract In case of breach of contract. the injured party has one or more of the following remedies: 1. The foundation for modern law of damages. is to be found in the case of Hadley vs.RESCISSION :When there is breach of a contract by a party . 2. both in India and England.DAMAGES :Damages are monetary compensation awarded to the injured party by Court for the loss or injury suffered by him.
Y was not liable for loss of profits during the period of delay as the circumstances communicated to Y did not show that a delay in the delivery of the shaft would entail loss of profits to the mill. a common carrier. He delivered the shaft to Y . Held .2. By some neglect on the part of Y the delivery of the shaft was delayed in transit beyond a reasonable time (so that the mill was idle for a longer period than otherwise would have been the case had there been no breach of the contract of carriage).Baxandile(1854) ► ► X 's mill was stopped by the breakdown of a shaft.Hadley vs. to be taken to a manufacturer to copy it and make a new one. . X did not make known to Y that delay would result in loss of profits.
Damages may be of four types: ► ► (1) Ordinary Damages : These are damages which actually arise in the usual course of things from the breach of a contract. . are known as special damages and may be recovered.2. (2) Special Damages : Damages which may reasonably be supposed to have been in the contemplation of both the parties at the time when they made the contract as the probable result of the breach of it.
.Damages may be of four types: ► 3.Nominal Damages : Where the injured party has not suffered any loss by reason of the breach of a contract.…. ► 4. the Court may award a very nominal sum as damages.Vindictive or Exemplary Damages :These damages are allowed in case of the breach of a contract to marry or dishonor of a cheque by a banker wrongfully. .
has become discharged by the breach of the contract by the other party. . QUANTUM MERUIT : [As much as earned] A right to sue on a quantum meruit (as much as earned) arises where a contract. This right is founded on the implied promise by the other party arising from the acceptance of a benefit by that party. partly performed by one party.3.
► 'Liquidated damages' represent a sum. which is a fair and genuine pre estimate of the probable loss that might ensue as a result of breach.A 'penalty' is a sum named in the contract at the time of it's formation. which is disproportionate to the damage likely to accrue as a result of breach the Courts in India allow only 'reasonable compensation'. fixed or ascertained by the parties in the contract.Liquidated Damages and penalty. .
.4.Specific Performance :In certain cases the Court may direct the party in terms of the contract to actually carry out the promise.Specific Performance ►4. exactly according to the terms of the contract.This is called "specific performance of the contract".
Injunction: It is a mode of securing the specific performance of the negative terms of a contract.Injunction ►5.5. .
III ► ► Intellectual property law awards to inventors. IPR s provide incentives to inventors to develop new knowledge and to authors and artists to create forms of artistic expression. Patents and copyrights have limited term.2005 . which minimizes the costs of market exclusivity.INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY LAWS: Patents Act. over time there are dynamic gains from the introduction of new products. they are only a second means of encouraging invention. Thus. because the market exclusively conferred by IPR s reduce current competition and may therefore lead to a static distortion in the allocation of resources.3 The World Bank. Source: Intellectual Property and Development: Pp. But from the perspective of efficiency. distribute and license goods and technologies. information and creative activities.1970 ► Module. artists and institutions certain exclusive rights to produce. copy.
. To a scientist 'property' means "identifiable characteristics or elements of matter". but to a lawyer it is equivalent to a "bundle of rights".III BACKGROUND: The term 'property ' poses different meaning to different people.1970 ► Module. to an economist it may mean "any means of production".INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY LAWS:Patents Act.
. human being understood the importance of 'stone' in the early monolithic age itself and started collecting stones to protect himself. Perhaps with this 'urge for belonging' heralded the birth of the concept of property.Understanding of the importance of STONE ► Perhaps as soon as the earliest human being just used a big stone to kill the enemy.
It possesses value ► 3.Uniqueness of uses SOURCE: Intellectual Property/MBL/NL SIU.Bangalore .Availability through acquisition or possession ► 4.It is scarce [limited] ► 2.Attributes of 'Property' ► 1.Inherent quality of satisfying possessiveness ► 5.
gives him a proprietary right in it. . and the unauthorized use of it by other persons is violation of his ownership .and considered not less than theft.Introduction to Intellectual Property ► The immaterial product of a man's brains may be valuable as his land or his goods. therefore. ► The law.
Intellectual Property [I. It finally came within the domain of legislation in 1624. Britain obviously was the first country to search for a legal regime to protect intellectual property .P. SOURCES OF I.P. Patent system had it's origin in the royal grants under it's prerogative. l regime: Paris Convention.1883 [b] National Statutes [c] Judicial Decisions .] Laws NEED FOR IP PROTECTION: No one can deny the importance of individual's intellectual ability to positively contribute to the wealth and human happiness . LAWS: I.P. laws are comparatively new in origin. [a] Attempts to globalize the I.P.
ECONOMICS OF IPR : All IPR s create monopoly and the result would be. 2. as a monopolist can determine the quantity he has to produce in order to maximize his profit . ► .NATURE OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHT : Intellectual property right is a right exclusively designed in law to own. sale. Bangalore ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION 1.SOURCE: Intellectual Property/MBL/NLSIU. (a) the inventor can use the economies of scale to maximize his return so that he gets back the amount invested in R&D by way of maximum return . can himself regulate the market in different ways like reducing production to charge more. (b) the inventor. produce. reproduce. © the inventor having the monopoly power. possess. give license or otherwise dispose of. creating shortage in supply or take a long term policy decision in favor of expanding investment on regional consideration to create an artificial scarcity in certain regions to exploit the market conditions.
The Trade and Trade Marks Act. Products. formulae.Indian [Process. Apparatus .1957.1911.1970 regulating patents. periodicals ]. [ Marks used to distinguish goods-words.The [Musical Copy Right Act.Statutory Framework ► 1. Patents Act. techniques. ► 2. ► 3.. or compilations of information that provide one 's business with a competitive advantage]. signs or combinations . .The Designs Act. Literary work. methods. Artistic work. programs. e. patterns.g. work.Capable of Industrial application ] .1958. books. [Shapes and Ornamentation ] ► 4.
there exist several other conventions on various areas like: (i) Patent and Trade Mark: Paris Convention.1971.1989 and also there is WIPO. (ii) Copyright: The Berne Convention. The Universal Copy-Right Convention (iii) Washington Treaty on Intellectual Property in respect of Integrated Circuits .1883 for Protection of Industrial Property.Global Influence ► ► The I. this legal philosophy has become largely globalize with the GATT Agreement in 1994 containing the TRIPS (Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights) Agreement. statutes reflect the legal philosophy of IPR protection. However. . Besides.P.
IMPORTANCE OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY ► A] Social Benefits : Recognition of intellectual property is important because an inventor or a creator of an idea may keep it secret either consciously or unconsciously. he also runs the danger of 'reverse engineering ' and consequential non-protection . If he consciously wants to maximize his advantage by keeping the trade secret. Consciously because he wants to exploit his idea fully through keeping the matter a trade secret. .
C] Role of Intellectual Property in Development : The rewards granted to the innovator/ creator of ideas are reflected by the benefits which the innovation/ creation confers on the consumer .…….IMPORTANCE OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY B] New Ideas and New Markets : New dimension and new ideas have as a rule opened up new markets for consumer and industrial goods.
the documents became known as 'letters patent' and later just 'patents'.The English Crown had the practice of addressing open letters to all it's subjects notifying them of the grant of monopoly rights or privileges to individuals in respect of inventions. i. As English slowly took over from Latin as official language. documents on which the royal seal were intended for public view..► ► The word patent originated from the Latin word 'patene ' which means 'to open ' . Open letters were intended for display and inspection by any interested party. The language of government in medieval England was Latin and Latin for open letter is litterate patente. The rights and privileges by means of 'open letters'.e. HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PATENT PROTECTION .
(i) It encourages research (ii) It induces an investor to disclose his or her discoveries (iii) It rewards investment for inventions up to the stage at which they are commercially practicable (iv) It provides an inducement to invest capital in new lines of production .HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PATENT PROTECTION ► (i) (ii) ► Justification for the Patent System: Patents as an instrument of justice to the inventor Patents as aiding industrial growth Aiding Industrial Growth: Swan Committee(England.1946) identified four benefits from exclusive rights in an invention.
Patent as an asset
► Patent
= Property E.g., House Property) ► Use = Live ► Sell = Sell ► License = Rent ► Mortgage = Mortgage ► Abandon = Abandon
► In
all countries except U.S.A the first to file is entitled to a patent; who first invented is not the criteria. ► A consideration in U.S.A-first to invent is entitled to a patent, who first filed is not a criteria. ► Proper maintenance of records in chronological order in an accepted format is essential to establish patent-ship.
Who can apply for patents ?
► First
and true inventor of the invention. ► An assignee of the first and true inventor ► Legal representative of any deceased person who was entitled to make such an application before his death. ► The true and first inventor can have others as joint applicants.
► Patents
are granted to individuals and organizations who can lay claim to a new product or manufacturing process , or to an existing product or process which was not previously known. ► The granting of patent gives the 'patentee ' a monopoly to make , use, or sell the invention for a fixed period of time .
In technical language, it is an official document conferring an exclusive right or privilege on the inventor of a new thing or process of manufacture for a term of years to use or sell his invention . After the expiry of the term of the patent, it becomes public juris (of public right) i.e., any member of the public can manufacture that thing or article. The law relating to patents in India is contained in the Patents Act,1970 which is based on the English Patents Act of 1949. The Act extends to the whole of India (Sec.1)
What is patent ?
patent is an exclusive right granted for an invention, which is a product or a process that provides, in general, a new way of doing something , or offers a new technical solution to a problem. In order to be paten-table, the invention must fulfill certain conditions".
(WIPO) -World Intellectual Property Organization
What does a patent do ?
patent provides protection for the invention to the owner of the patent. The protection is granted for a limited period, generally 14 years.
How to keep patents alive ?
► ► ► ► ►
To keep patents in force, a yearly fee has to be paid . The fee goes up with the age of the patent Failure to pay fees within the prescribed time leads to lapse of the patent . Patents cannot be renewed at the end of their lifetime when they lapse. The patent then becomes open to all and be used by anyone without the fear of infringement .
Advantages of obtaining a patent
► ► ►
1.The patentee gets exclusive right to use his invention. 2.The patentee can bring a suit for infringement of his patent . 3.If the patentee does not have the means or is not himself in a position to work the invention patented commercially, he can sell his patent and grant licenses to others to exploit, and thereby earn money . 4.The holder of an exclusive license would have the rights of the patentee. He would also be able to enforce such rights.
. 6.…Advantages of Obtaining a Patent ► ► 5.The grant of a patent enables the inventor to obtain an official record of his inventor-ship from the Government.The patentee can make improvements in or modification in an invention described or disclosed in the complete specification of the main invention and obtain the grant of a patent for the improvement or modification as a "patent of addition ". A patent of addition remains in force as long as the patent for the invention remains in force.
"Controller" means Controller-General of Patents." Executive license" shall be construed accordingly. .2(1)(f)]. Designs and Trade Marks.Important Definitions ► ► CONTROLLER [Sec. It means a license from a patentee (grantee or proprietor of patent) which confers on the license and persons authorized by him. any right in respect of the patented invention.2(1) (b)]. EXCLUSIVE LICENSE [Sec. The right of the licensee must be to the exclusion of all others (including the patentee himself) .
Important Definitions ► INVENTION [Sec. The three basic requirements of an invention are: manner of manufacture. Manufacturing primarily denotes the making of something out of some material.……. the process cannot be called a manufacture for the purpose of patent-ability. novelty and utility. If the starting material remains unaltered by the process and the product also remains the same as the starting material. by application of power in transformation of the material and art and skill in the process of that improves.2(1)(f). . restores or preserves a saleable product. It means a new product or process involving an inventive step and capable of industrial application.
► PATENTEE [Sec.…….Important Definitions ► ► PATENT [Sec(1) (m)]: It means a patent under the Patents Act.2(1) (o)]:They mean respectively an article or . 1970. PATENTED ARTICLE AND PATENTED PROCESS [Sec.2 (1)(p)]: "Patentee" means the person for the time being entered on the Register as the grantee or proprietor of the patent. process in respect of which a patent is in force.
2(1)(l)] includes(1)All medicines for internal or external use of human beings or animals. (2)All substances intended to be used for or in the diagnosis. mitigation or prevention of diseases in human beings or animals.……. ► . treatment.Important Definitions Medicine or drug [Sec. or the prevention or control of any epidemic disease among human beings or animals. (3) All substances intended to be used for in the maintenance of public health.
fungicides.Important Definitions Cont'd………….2(1)(l)] includes-] (4) Insecticides.[Medicine or drug [Sec. germicides. and all other substances intended to be used for the protection or preservation of plants. . (5)All chemical substances which are ordinarily used as intermediates in the preparation or manufacture of any of the medicines or substances referred to above.…….
……. or in promoting. research in the same field as that to which the invention relates. ► "Person" includes the "Person interested" includes a person engaged in. PERSON INTERESTED [Sec.2(1)(t)]: .2(1) (s)]: Government.Important Definitions ► PERSON [Sec.
4(1)(y)]: . TRUE AND FIRST INVENTOR [Sec. or a person to whom an invention is first communicated from outside India.……. It does not include either the first importer of an invention in to India.Important Definitions ► "True and first inventor" is a person who first made the invention and applied for the patent .
[TRUE AND FIRST INVENTOR [Sec. 4(1)(y)]: ► Cont'd…………. . 4(1)(y)]] If two persons have independently made the same invention and neither has used it or disclosed it to the world. the one who applies first for the patent is considered in law the true and first inventor .…………TRUE AND FIRST INVENTOR [Sec. although the other might have made it earlier in time.
INVENTIONS NOT PATENTABLE [Sec. or a method of agriculture or horticulture. ARE NOT INVENTIONS (SEC. e. discovery of a scientific principle.3) It is .3 to 5 of Indian Patent Act. or a process for the treatment of human beings. or an invention injurious to public health..1970] ► WHAT not in public interest to grant rights in respect of certain items. animals or plants.g.
an invention. the primary or intended use or commercial exploitation of which. i. an invention which is frivolous or which claims anything obviously contrary to wellestablished natural laws.e..[What is not PATENTABLE in India ? ] [Sec. (b) Invention prejudicial to public order or environment .3 to 5 of Indian Patent Act.. animal or plant life or health or to the environment.e. .Cont 'd …. could be contrary to public order or morality or which causes serious to human.1970] The following are therefore not inventions within the meaning of his Act and hence non patent-able:(a) Trifling invention : i.
it will be an invention.3 to 5 of Indian Patent Act.e. machine or apparatus. i. the mere discovery of a scientific principle or the formulation of an abstract theory.Cont 'd …. or discovery of any living thing or non-living substance occurring in nature.. If the known process results in a new product or employs at least one new reactant( a chemically reacting substance). .1970] (c) Scientific principle or abstract theory i. (d) Discovery of new property or use of a known substance . the discovery of any new property or new use for a known substance or of the mere use of a known process.[What is not PATENTABLE in India ? ] [Sec..e.
Cont 'd ….2002 or re-arrangement or duplication of known devices. i. each functioning independently of one another in a known way. i.1970] e) Admixture ..3 to 5 of Indian Patent Act.e. a substance obtained by a mere admixture( mixing with something) resulting only in the aggregation of the properties of the components thereof or a process for producing such substance.. (f) Arrangement . re-arrangement or duplication . the mere arrangement omitted by Amendment Act.[What is not PATENTABLE in India ? ] [Sec. .e.
2002 ► (h) A method of agriculture or horticulture ► (i) A process of treating human beings or animals .3 to 5 of Indian Patent Act. surgical. curative prophylactic (preventing of disease diagnostic.Cont 'd …. ..[What is not PATENTABLE in India ? ] [Sec. any process for the medicinal. or other treatment of human beings or any process for a similar treatment of animals to render them free of disease or to increase their economic value or that of their products. therapeutic. i.e.1970] ► (g) Omitted by Amendment Act .
e...1970] ► (j) Plants and animals .Cont 'd ….[What is not PATENTABLE in India ? ] [Sec.e. plants and animals in whole or any part thereof other than microorganisms but. ► (k) Mathematical program i. including seeds varieties and species and essentially biological process for production or propagation of plants and animals.3 to 5 of Indian Patent Act. a mathematical or business method or a computer program per se or algorithms . i.
1970] ► (l) Literary program i.Cont 'd …. ..3 to 5 of Indian Patent Act.e.[What is not PATENTABLE in India ? ] [Sec. ► (m) Mental act or method of playing game i. musical or artistic work or any other aesthetic creation whatsoever including cinematographic works and television productions.e. a literary. a mere scheme or rule or method of performing mental act or method of playing game. dramatic..
. an invention which in effect or traditional knowledge or which is an aggregation or duplication of known properties of traditionally known component or components. i.. ► (o) Topography of integrated circuits ► (p) Traditional knowledge .1970] ► (n) A presentation of information .Cont 'd ….e.3 to 5 of Indian Patent Act.[What is not PATENTABLE in India ? ] [Sec.
.Cont 'd ….3 to 5 of Indian Patent Act.4) No patent shall be granted in respect of an invention relating to atomic energy.1970] ► Inventions relating to atomic energy not patent-able(Sec.[What is not PATENTABLE in India ? ] [Sec.
1970.Process and Product Patent ► (1) that when a substance is invented or produced a patent is not granted to the substance itself but it is only the method or the process of manufacture of a substance that is granted a patent.Therefore Indian Patent Act. ► (2) Cases where only Process patent is available :It must be remembered that under the scheme of the Indian Patent Act.1970 provides only a process patent in particular cases. Meaning of Process Patent: Process patent means . Patent is granted not for the benefit of the Patentee but for the benefit of the public at large .
T. 1970 both product and process patents are available in India. India is under obligation to provide Product patents to all inventions .…. Therefore. patent is granted not to the method or process of manufacture of a substance but to the substance itself. it is the "product" that is covered by the patent.Process and Product Patent ► (3)Product Patent and Mandate under the G. Under the Patents Act. Now India is a signatory to the Agreement on Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).T : In product patents.A.
APPLICATION FOR PATENTS [Sec. that is to say1.6): An application for a patent for invention may be made by any of the following persons.By the legal representative of any diseased person who immediately before his death was entitled to make such an application.By the person being the assignee of the person claiming to be the true and first inventor in respect of the right to make such application.6 to 11] ► Application entitled to apply for patents (Sec. singly or jointly.By any person claiming to be the first and true inventor of the invention. 2. . 3.
► Application by assignee to be accompanied by proof of right to apply.6 to 11] Form of Application (Sec.APPLICATION FOR PATENTS [Sec. ► Applicant to be in possession of invention ► Specifications .7) ► Application for one invention only.
the amendments effected in the specifications. up to the date of the acceptance of his complete specification filed in India The Controller may also require the applicant to furnish details relating to the objections.6 to 11] Information and undertaking regarding foreign applications(Sec.APPLICATION FOR PATENTS [Sec. taken to the application filed in a foreign country on the ground that the invention is lacking in novelty or patent-ability. the claims allowed in respect thereof and such other particulars as he may require. . if any. he shall file along with his application► (1) A statement setting out detailed particulars ► (2)An undertaking that.8) Where an applicant for a patent under this Act is prosecuting an application for a patent in a foreign country in respect of the same or substantially the same invention.
a complete specifications within 12 months from the date of filing application.9) Time for filing specifications: Where an application for a patent is accompanied by a provisional specification. If the complete application is not so filed. .6 to 11] ► Provisional and complete specifications(Sec. the application shall be deemed to be abandoned.APPLICATION FOR PATENTS [Sec.
.10) Every specification whether provisional or complete Shall begin with a title sufficiently indicating the subject matter to which the invention relates.APPLICATION FOR PATENTS [Sec. Every complete specification shall(1)fully describe the invention and it's operation or use (2)disclose the best method of performing the invention which is known to the applicant (3)end with a claim or claims defining the scope of the invention for which protection is claimed.6 to 11] ► Contents of specifications(Sec.
APPLICATION FOR PATENTS [Sec.6 to 11] ► Section 11 deals with priority dates for each claim of complete specification. .
Examination of Application [Sec.12 to 24] ► Examination of application(Sec. the application and the specification relating there to shall be referred by the Controller to an examiner for making a report to him in respect of the following matters. namely(1) whether the application and the specification relating there to are in accordance with the requirements of this Act and of any rules made there under: .12) When the complete specification has been filed in respect of an application for a patent.
12 to 24] (2) whether there is any lawful ground of objection to the grant of the patent under this Act in pursuance of the application. fees to be paid) and substantive maters (patent-ability of invention and specifications).. ► (3)The result of investigations made for prior claim ► (4)any other matters which may be prescribed The examiner shall ordinarily make report to the Controller within a period of 18 months of such reference. ► . This will include an examination as to formal matters (like the prescribed form.…….Examination of Application [Sec.
the Controller may either. (a) Refuse to proceed with the application. ► .Refusal of application (Sec. If it appears to the Controller is not an invention. or (b) Refuse the application.15) Where the Controller is satisfied that the application or any specification filed in pursuance thereof does not comply with the requirements of this Act or any rules made there under. or non-patent-able then he shall refuse the application. specification or drawings to be amended to his satisfaction before he proceeds with the application.
In any suit for infringement of a patent. is different from the patented process. ► . ► Burden of Proof . the Court may direct the defendant to prove that the process used by him to obtain the product. it amounts to infringement. where the subject mater of a patent is a process for obtaining a product. If some other person violates these and encroaches upon their rights.104-117] This Act grants statutory right to patentee. identical to the product of the patented process.Infringement of Patents [Sec. his agents and licensees to work or exploit the invention.
.10.Penalties [Sec.000 ► Falsification of entries in Registry etcImprisonment up to 2 years or fine of Rs.000 or both.118-124] ► For unauthorized claim of patent rights-fine up to Rs.10.
is a registered trademark in several countries. ► ► ► Various features of the Gillette 's non-electric razor are protected by 17 patents. Globally.The IPR tools can help to preserve the rights of the innovator against wrongful use by others.Texas Instruments earned $1. patent related disputes and their settlement is on the rise. which are displayed on the pack. .'s Micro-wave Popcorn is protected by number of U.2 billion for licensing IPRs. Similarly.S-based Golden Valley Microwave Food Inc. Gillette . the U.S patents. A sum of $800 million was exchanged in 1994 by way of licensing fees compared to $300 million in 1991. as a name.
1958] Introduction : When a person sells his goods under a particular trade mark he acquires a kind of limited exclusive right to use the mark in relation to those goods. . ► Trade Mark as Intellectual Property : Trade Mark for long has been identified and grouped along with patent. ► Trade Marks have gained recognition as signifying property rights on the basis of that the owner of the trade mark acquired value in the mark by it 's constant use.LAW OF TRADEMARKS [Trade & Merchandise Marks Act. design and copy right as a form of intellectual property.
The purchaser simply would make his purchase on the implicit faith of the mark being genuine and that it possesses a quality equal that previously found with same trade mark.FUNCTIONS OF TRADE MARK ► It gives an indication to the purchaser about the identity of the manufacturer or the quality of the goods. . ► It gives the purchases a satisfactory assurance of the quality.
Nature of infringements and remedies. i.Where does the statute step in ? The statute. Trade and Merchandise Marks Act. ► ..Nature of rights a person can acquire in respect of TM 2.and provides various rights there in. the TMM provides for the following: 1.1958 (herein after TMM) codifies the law and provides for registration of trade marks already in use and even those proposed to be used. ► In broad terms.Mode of acquisition and method of transfer of rights 3.Hence the statute recognizes ownership of trade marks.e.
1958.Statutory Definitions ► 1. letter or numeral or any other combination thereof . word. label. "Trade Mark " means a registered trade mark or a mark used to in relation to goods for the purpose of indicating or so as to indicate a connection in the course of trade between the goods and some person having a right as proprietor to use the mark.Under Section 2(1)(j) "mark " includes a device. . ticket..A trade mark is defined under section 2(1)(v) as follows. name. a brand. heading. ► 2. signature.Trade Mark:Trade Mark in India is governed by the Trade and Merchandise Marks Act.
► 4. . "Goods " Goods are simply defined under TMM Act as "Anything which is the subject of trade or manufacture". "Name " A name includes any abbreviation of a name according to to Section 2(1)(b) of the TMM Act.…Statutory Definitions ► 3.
Some popular examples of letter marks as trade marks are IBM .…Statutory Definitions ► 4. . GM . ELBEE etc. 3M .3 Different Types of Trade Marks : 1.Letter Mark :Mark includes letter mark under Section2(1)(j) of the Act.The identity created out of letter forms have been very useful elements for designers to work with and develop successful mark.
…Statutory Definitions ► 4.The best example of popular logo as a trade mark are those of Daimler Benz . .Today logos are identified by consensus as symbols that belong to a particular company and as representing quality.Symbol: Symbols may take the shape of brands or logos.elegance etc.A logo is a visual depiction of a manufacturer or a company and gives an identity to it. BMW etc.3 Different Types of Trade Marks 2.
For example.…Statutory Definitions ► 4. . Cycle brand of Agarbathis or Camel Brand Safety Matches.Brand: Brands refer to those kinds of marks which are branded on goods themselves constituting the trade mark.3 Different Types of Trade Marks 3.
The exact distinction between label and ticket is not very clear.The label may contain . .3 Different Types of Trade Marks 4. A ticket may be said to be a label attached to goods by a string etc.…Statutory Definitions ► 4. words.apart from the trademark even matter which does not have the trade mark value. Label and Ticket:Label means a composite mark containing various features including devices. usually painted on paper and attached to the goods themselves.
Containers : In one of the cases.…Statutory Definitions ► 4.it is necessary for an applicant to show the mark in two dimensions.Color Combinations : Color schemes can also constitute marks within the definition of the Act.Therefore for registration of trade mark .3 Different Types of Trade Marks 5. a container would not fall within the definition of the mark. so that others may more readily know what they must not use in two dimensions. . it was pointed out that. 6.
from goods not so certified and registrable.2(1)(c):Certified .…Statutory Definitions ► Certified Trade Mark means a mark adopted to distinguish in the course of trade. goods certified by any person in respect of origin. accuracy. or other characteristics. quality. mode of manufacture. Trade Mark Sec. material.
*Right to use *Right to license *Right to sell *Right to sue (upon infringement).Rights conferred upon registration : ► Rights include. .
Therefore. .Unregistered Trade Mark ► The 1958 Act does not make marks compulsorily registrable. there is no ban on a person using the mark without being registered.
Section. "no person shall be entitled to institute any proceedings to prevent or recover damage for infringement of an unregistered trade mark ".27(1) provides that.Remedies for Infringement of Unregistered Mark ► If a MARK is unregistered under the 1958 Act then the civil remedies provided by the Act for infringement of trade marks cannot be availed by the person who has been using such unregistered mark. .
.Unregistered Trade Mark and Goodwill ► Trade mark is always considered as an inseparable part of goodwill of business. ► The 1958 Act has also incorporated the common law principle in Section38(1) which reads as follows. "An unregistered trade mark shall not be assignable or transmissible except along with the goodwill of the business concerned". as a part of which it is used.
Table of Prohibited Marks
Section.11(a) A mark, use of which is likely to deceive or cause confusion 11(b) A mark use of which would be contrary to any law for the time being in force. 11(c) A mark comprising or containing scandalous or obscene matter. 11(d) A mark comprising or containing any
matter likely to hurt the religious sentiments of any class or section of the citizens of India
Table of Prohibited Trademark
Section 11(e) 12(1) A mark disentitled to protection on a court of law A mark identical or deceptively similar to a trade mark actually registered in respect of the same description A word which is unaccepted name.
Ownership of Trademark and Rights of Owners
► Registration
is not a pre-condition to assume ownership of trade mark.The ownership in a mark can be acquired by it's use on specified goods or on registration under the Act in respect of particular goods or particular class of goods.
IPR Laws: Copyrights
► Introduction : General Meaning.
Copyright means an exclusive right given by law for certain period, to an author or composer of work conferring him the right to produce copies of work.
IPR Laws: Copyrights
► Object
of Copyright : Copyright deals with the protection of rights of various types of works, yielding from the intellectual labor of human being.Therefore it can be considered as a reward of labor.
IPR Laws: Copyrights
The object of copyright is to encourage authors, artists and composers to produce original works by rewarding them with exclusive rights for a limited period.
IPR Laws: Copyrights
► Relevance
Copyright protection is essential to encourage exploitation of copyrighted work for the benefit of the public by entrepreneurs, like publishers, film producers, or sound recorders.
of Copyright Law :
IPR Laws: Copyrights
► International
Implications of Copyright Law : Copyright has gained international dimension because being an intellectual property it is transferred more easily and quickly across national boundaries.The speed with which intellectual property can be copied today has led to large scale infringement of copyrights
IPR Laws: Copyrights
► Nature
of Copyright:Copyright-purely a statutory right. Negative and multiple nature of Copyright:
The copyright law essentially concerns itself with the negative right of preventing copying or multiplication of material covered under the copyright, so as to protect the writer, composer or artist from unlawful reproduction and exploitation.
. labor and judgment" or "selection. Judgment and Experience".IPR Laws: Copyrights ► What to be protect by Copyright: For a work to be protected under the copyright there must be sufficient "skill. Copy protects the skill and labor employed by the author.
It is necessary that the labor. skill and capital expended should be sufficient to import to the product some quality or character which the raw material did not possess and which differentiate the raw material from product". if one may use the expression. upon which the labor. is the product of labor.skill and capital of one man which must not be appropriated by another.Cooper(1924) pointed ► "it out that.skill and capital of the first have been expended to secure copyright for his product.Lord Atkinson in Macmillan vs. the raw materials. . not elements.
Copyrights ►Copyright idea. ►Work must be in a permanent form. protects form and not . ►Copyright must be distinguished from monopoly right.
It seeks to regulate in particular.Acquisition. and repatriation of foreign currency. 1973 The FERA came in to force on 1st January.Employment of foreign nationals.1974 It extends to the whole of India and to the branches and agencies of overseas Indian companies including Indian citizens.Holding immovable property outside India by Indians ► 3. ► 1.The assets held in India by non-residents ► 2. etc of business interest and immovable property in India . holding.FERA. and ► 5. ► Establishment or place of business in India.
To regulate employment of foreign national in India ► .To regulate holding of immovable property of Indians outside India 5. 1973 Objectives of FERA: 1.To conserve foreign exchange resources of the country 4. 6.To regulate acquisition.FERA. 3.etc. of immovable property by nonresidents in India. holding.To regulate imports and exports of currency and bullion. 2. as well as transactions indirectly affecting foreign exchange.To regulate dealings in foreign exchange and securities.
The Foreign Exchange Management Act. But it was soon realized that FERA had by and large outlived it's utility in the changed economic scenario and there fore was replaced by FEMA in 1999. 1999 replaces the FERA. . FERA aimed at having stringent controls to conserve India's foreign exchange.1973. as a result of introduction of economic reforms and liberalization of the Indian economy. FERA amended in 1993 to bring about certain changes. 1999 ► ► ► ► Introduction : FEMA.
To consolidate and amend the law relating to foreign exchange with the objective of facilitating external trade and payments and development & maintenance of FX market in India .To consolidate and amend the law regulating the(then existing) law relating foreign exchange and for the conservation of the FX resources of the country ► 1.FERA (1973) VS FEMA (1999) ► 1.
FEMA .All current account transactions are permissible by the law itself.Whereas.FERA (1973) VS FEMA (1999) ► 2. focused on management of foreign exchange ► 3. FERA almost prohibited almost all foreign exchange transactions unless there was general specific permission ► 2.FERA focused on control of foreign exchange ► 3.
however. the offence was of criminal nature.The contravention of provision under FEMA will be dealt with through civil procedure. ► 4.FERA (1973) VS FEMA (1999) ► 4.FEMA is a civil law unlike FERA. .Under FERA.
FERA (1973) VS FEMA (1999) ► 5. . Under FERA there was a presumption of existence of a guilty mind.The burden of proof under FEMA will be on the enforcement agency and not on the person implicated. ► 5. unless the accused proved otherwise.
FEMA prescribes an elaborate redressal machinery for total justice and fairness to the person implicated. ► 6.Offences FEMA are compoundable by paying penalty.Offences under FERA. under .FERA (1973) VS FEMA (1999) ► 6. were subjected to penalty as well as severe imprisonment.
off-shore banking unit or any other person for the time being authorized under the law to deal in foreign exchange or foreign securities.2] ► AUTHORIZED PERSON: It means an authorized dealer. .Definitions [Section. money changer.
Export Export means. ►(ii) 'Provision of services from India to any persons outside India'. . ►(I) 'taking out of India to a place outside India any goods'.
Import ► Import means bringing in to India any goods or services. .
money orders. letters of credit.RBI has notified 'debit cards' 'ATM' cards or any other instrument by whatever. .CURRENCY ► This expression includes all currency notes. credit cards or such other similar instrument may be notified by the Reserve Bank. name called that can be used to create a financial liability. postal orders. drafts. checks (cheques). bill of exchange and promissory notes. traveler (checks) cheques. postal notes. as 'currency'.
.CURRENCY NOTES ► It means and includes cash in the form of coins and bank notes.
letters of credit or bills of exchange drawn by banks. ► . but payable in Indian currency. (ii)drafts. institutions or persons outside India. travelers' cheques. (iii)drafts. letters of credit or bills of exchange expressed or drawn in Indian currency but payable in any foreign currency. travelers' cheques.Foreign Exchange It means foreign currency and include: (i)deposits credits and balances payable in any foreign currency.
(vii) any agency.(ii) a Hindu Undivided family. whether incorporated or not (vi) every artificial judicial person. . office. not falling within any of the preceding sub clauses. (iii) company (iv) a firm.Person ►A 'person' includes: (i) an individual. or branch owned or controlled by such persons.(v) an association of persons or body of individuals.
.Person Resident Outside India ► It means a person who is not resident in India.
debentures. bonds. . or any other instrument denominated or expressed in foreign currency and includes securities expressed in foreign currency.Foreign Security ► Any security in the form of shares.
.Duty to produce books accounts etc.To ensure compliance of FEMA provisions ► 4.To comply with RBI directions ► 2.Not to engage in unauthorized transactions ► 3.Duties of authorized person ► 1.
12(1) empowers RBI to cause an inspection to be made.Powers of RBI ► Sec. by an officer of the RBI specially authorized in writing by RBI of the business of any authorized person as may appear it ti be necessary. .
Powers of the Authorized Person
► 1.To
deal in or transfer any foreign exchange or foreign security ► 2. Receive any payment by order or on behalf of any person resident outside India in any name. ► 3.To open NRO,NRE,NRNR, NRSR and FCNR accounts. ► 4.To sell or purchase foreign exchange for current account transactions
Regulation and Management of Foreign Exchange
It prohibits any person other than an authorized person from ► (a) dealing in or transferring any foreign exchange or foreign security to any person or ► (b) by making any payment to or to the credit of any person resident outside India in any manner; or
…..Regulation and Management of Foreign Exchange
receive otherwise than through an authorized person any payment by order or on behalf of any person resident outside India in any manner, ► (d) entering in to any financial transactions in India as consideration for or in association with acquisition or creation or transfer of a right to acquire, any asset outside India by any person.
Holding of Foreign Exchange
► Section.4
provides that except as otherwise provided in the Act; no person resident in India shall acquire, hold, own possess or transfer any foreign exchange, foreign security or any immovable property situated outside India.
Module .IX
Competition Act,2002
[Competition Law]
► In
pursuit of globalization, India has responded by opening of it's economy, by removing controls and resorting to liberalization. ► The natural corollary of this is that the Indian market should be geared to face competition from within the country and from outside. ► MRTP Act,1969 had become obsolete and hence replaced by Competition Act 2002.
The objectives of Competition Act,2002
► 1.To
prevent practices having adverse effect on competition; ► 2.To promote and sustain competition in market; ► 3.To protect the interest of consumers; ► 4.To ensure freedom of trade carried on by other participants in markets in India.
Under Competition Act, 2002
► Acquisition [Sec.2(a)].It
Important Definitions
means, directly or indirectly, acquiring or agreeing to acquire(i) shares, voting rights or assets of any enterprise (ii) control over management or control over assets of any enterprise.
Agreement [Sec.2(b)].It includes any arrangement or understanding or action in concertWhether or not, such arrangement, understanding or action is formal or in writing; or Whether or not such arrangement, understanding or action is intended to be enforceable by legal proceedings.
Consumer [Sec.2(f)]. "Consumer" means any person whoBuys any goods for a consideration.The consideration may have been paid or promised or partly paid and partly promised, or under any system of deferred payment. "Consumer" includes any user of the goods other than the person who buys them for consideration paid or promised to be paid in the above manner.When such use is made with the approval of the owner, it makes no difference whether the purchase of goods is for resale or for any commercial purpose or for personal use; Hires or avails of any services for a consideration. Consumer includes any beneficiary of services.
(ii) (iii)
or control of articles or goods. or (ii)provision of services of any kind. acquisition.distribution.supply.It means a person or a department of the Government. or in the business of acquiring.Definitions Enterprise [2(h)]. or has been or is proposed to be. underwriting or dealing with shares. holding. ► . engaged in any activity. either directly or through one or more of it's units or divisions or subsidiaries. relating to the(i)production. debentures or other securities of any other body corporate. or (iii)investment.storage. who or which is.
processed or mined. stocks and shares after allotment.1930 and includesProducts manufactured. "Goods" means goods as defined in the Sale of Goods Act. In relation to goods supplied. Debentures. goods imported in India.Definitions ► (A) (B) (C) Goods [2(i)]. . distributed or controlled in India.
.2(l)]. whether incorporated or not. in India or outside India.Definitions ► Person [Sec. (iii) a company (iv) a firm. (v) an association of persons or a body of individuals. (ii) a Hindu undivided family.] . "Person" includes- (i) an individual. [cont 'd.
1956. and (x) every artificial judicial person.617 of the Companies Act. (vii) any body corporate incorporated by or under the laws of a country outside of India. State or Provincial Act or a Government Company as defined in the Sec.Definitions [ being cont 'd. not falling within any of the preceding sub-clauses. (viii) a co-operative society registered under any law relating to co-operative societies.. (ix) local authority. .] ► (vi) any corporation ► ► ► ► established by or under any Central.
Definitions ► Price [Sec. includes every valuable consideration. or deferred. whether direct or indirect.2(o)]"Price" in relation to the sale of any goods or to the performance of any services. .It also includes any consideration which in effect relates to the sale of any goods or to the performance of any services although ostensibly relating to any other matter or things.
Definitions ► Relevant market which may be determined by the Competition Commission with reference to the relevant product market or the relevant geographic market or with reference to both the markets. Market [2(r)]:It means a .
Definitions ► Relevant means a market comprising the area in which the conditions of competition for supply of goods or provision of services or demand of goods or services are distinctly homogeneous and can be distinguished from the conditions prevailing in the neighboring areas . Geographic Market [Sec.2(s):It .
2(t)]: It . by reason of characteristics of the products or services. their prices and intended use. Product Market [Sec.Definitions ► Relevant means a market comprising all those products or services which are regarded as interchangeable or substitutable by the consumer.
chit funds. amusement. It includes the provision of services in connection with business of any industrial or commercial matters such as accounting. . real estate. transport. processing. banking. education.Definitions ► Services [Section2(u)]. construction.It means service of any description which is made available to potential users. repair. supply of electrical or other energy. conveying of news or information and advertising. storage. boarding.material treatment . entertainment. lodging. financing. insurance. communication.
.supply.It means any trade.storage or control of goods and includes the provision of any services. business industry.2(v)]. profession or occupation relating to the production.Definitions ► Shares [Sec. (ii) stock except where a distinction between stock and share is expressed or implied. Trade [Sec. It means shares in the capital of a company carrying voting rights and includes(i) any security which entitles the holder to receive shares with voting rights.distribution.2(x)].
Definitions ► Turnover [Sec.2(y)]. 1956 shall have the same meanings respectively assigned to them in that Act [Sec.2(z)]. It includes value of sale of goods or services. .Words and expressions used but defined in this Act and defined in the Companies Act.
SECTION. shall be construed as combination.Prohibition of certain agreements.6 provides that no person or enterprise shall enter in to combination which is likely to cause or causes an appreciable adverse effect on competition within the relevant market in India.3 provides for prohibition of entering in to anticompetitive agreements . 3 to 6] ► ► ► ► SECTION. abuse of dominant position and regulation of combinations [Chapter II-Sec.5 deals with combination of enterprises and persons : Acquisition of one or more enterprises by one or more persons or acquiring of control or merger or amalgamation of enterprises under certain circumstances specified. SECTION.4 prohibits abuse of dominant position by any enterprise. . SECTION.
supply.3) ► ► Sec. distribution.3(1)] Any agreement entered in to contravention of the provisions contained in Sec. which causes or likely to cause an appreciable adverse effect on competition within India . This rule applies to association of enterprises and association of persons while entering in to any such agreement[Sec.3(1) shall be void [Sec.Anti-Competitive Agreements (Sec.3(2)] .3 provides that no enterprise or person shall enter in to any agreement in respect of production. storage acquisition or control of goods or provision of services.
or decision taken by.3) ► ► Adverse effect on competition :Any agreement entered in to between enterprises or associations of enterprises or persons or association of persons or between any person and enterprise or practice carried on. any association of enterprises or association of persons.Anti-Competitive Agreements (Sec. . including cartels. which(a) directly or indirectly determines purchase or sale prices. engaged in identical or similar trade of goods or provision of services.
► © shares the market or source of production or provision of services by way of allocation of geographical area of market.Anti-Competitive Agreements (b) limits or controls production. technical development. or type of goods or services or number of customers in the market or any other similar way. ► . supply. Shall be presumed to have an appreciable adverse effect on competition. markets. investment or provision of services.………. ► (d) directly or indirectly results in bid rigging or collusive bidding.
or trade in goods or provision of services[Sec. traders or service providers who.3(3)]. distributors.3) ► ► "Bid rigging" means any agreement. which has the effect of eliminating or reducing competition forbids or adversely affecting or manipulating the process for forbidding. sellers. sale or price of. distribution. by agreement amongst themselves. control or attempt to control the production. limit. . between enterprises or persons referred to above engaged in identical or similar production or trading of goods or provision of services. "Cartel" includes an association or producers.Anti-Competitive Agreements (Sec.
3) ► (a) (b) An agreement which causes or is likely to cause an appreciable adverse effect on competition.in arrangement . restricting in any manner the purchaser in the course of his trade from acquiring or otherwise dealing in any goods other than those of the seller. . to purchase some other goods Exclusive supply agreement . requiring a purchaser of goods. includes the following agreements also: tie. as a condition of such purchase.Anti-Competitive Agreements (Sec.
[cont'd]………. restricts by any method the persons or classes of any persons to whom goods are sold or from whom goods are bought.An agreement which causes or is likely to cause an appreciable adverse effect on competition. includes the following agreements also.3(4)]. to limit. Exclusive supply agreement . (d) Refusal to deal . .restrict or withhold the output or supply of any goods or allocate any area or market for the disposal or sale of the goods. (e) Resale price maintenance : Any agreement to sell goods © on condition that the prices to be charged on the resale by the purchaser shall be the prices stipulated by the seller unless it is clearly stated that prices lower than those prices may be charged [Sec.
► Price Discrimination:Charging customers different prices that are not justified by cost differences of serving these customers.Horizontal Practices ► Horizontal merge ► Horizontal Price Fixing(Collusion):Explicit or implicit agreements in an industry to control prices. ► Predatory pricing: Selling at price below cost to drive out arch rival firms. merger: Two firms in the same industry .
Exclusive dealing :A manufacturer grants another firm an exclusive right to distribute a product. Retail Price Maintenance : A manufacturer sets a minimum price below which a retailer cannot sell. .Vertical Practices ► ► ► ► Refusal to deal : A manufacturer refuses to sell to distributor or retailer. Exclusive Territory :A manufacturer grants an exclusive territory to a seller and no other is permitted to sell in that territory.
2000 and Semi Conductor Integrated Circuits Layout Designs Act. the Trade and Merchandise Marks Act.1999.1957. or to impose reasonable conditions.The right of any person to restrain any infringement of. 1999.2000.[Non-application of Section.3] Section. as may be necessary for protecting any of his rights which have been conferred under the Copy rights Act. the Designs Act. the Geographical indications of Goods(Regulation and Protection) Act. .Patents Act. the Trade Marks Act.1970.3 does not apply to► 1. 1958.
Offices: The head office shall be at a place as the Central Govt. for the purposes of this Act. a Commission to be called the "Competition Commission of India". . may decide from time to time.7): With effect from such date as the Central Govt. may appoint. Corporate body:It shall be a body corporate. there shall be established.Competition Commission of India [CCI] Establishment of commission(Sec.
international trade. industry.integrity and standing. .8(3)).8(1)) Qualifications:The Chairperson and every member shall be he persons of ability. commerce. administration or in any other matter which. business. or qualified to be . law.8) ► ► ► (a) (b) (c) A chairperson and not less than two and not more than ten members to be appointed by the Central Govt. whoare. public affairs. in the opinion of the Central Government. and professional experience in. (Sec.Composition of Commission(Sec. Have special knowledge of. management. not less than 15 years. or have been. shall appoint the Chairperson and the members during the first year of operation. The Central Govt. finance. accountancy. be useful to the Commission(Sec. a Judge of a High Court.8(2)) The chairperson and other members shall be whole time members.(Sec. economics.
(Sec.10) Vacancy and Oath of Office Resignation.15) Appointment of Director General.14) Vacancy not to invalidate the proceedings of the Commission(Sec. etc. .12) Salary and Allowances(Sec.16) salary and appointment Registrar and officers and other employees of he Commission(Sec17).CCI ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► Selection of Chairperson and other Members(Sec.9) Term of office of Chairperson and other Members(Sec.11) Restriction on employment in certain cases (Sec. Removal and Suspension of Chairperson and other members(Sec.
. 3. Powers and Functions of Commission ► 1. in markets in India.18) To eliminate practices having adverse effect on competition To promote and sustain competition To protect the interest of the consumers Ensure of freedom of trade carried by other participants.Duties. 2. Duties(Sec. 4.
Consumer (Protection) Act. 2.PROTECTION OF RIGHTS OF CONSUMERS: IT SEEKS TO PROMOTE AND PROTECT THE RIGHTS OF CONSUMERS SUCH AS- a) Right to protection against marketing of goods or services which are hazardous to life and property. .BETTER PROTECTION OF INTERESTS OF CONSUMERS.1986. Act applies to all the goods and services. ► The objects of the Act are as follows: ► 1.1986 Law relating to consumer protection is contained in the Consumer Protection Act.
2. quantity. standard and price of goods or services so as to protect the consumers against unfair trade practices. c)Right to be assured. . d) Right to be heard and to be assured that consumers' interest will receive due consideration at appropriate forums.IT SEEKS TO PROMOTE AND PROTECT THE RIGHTS OF CONSUMERS SUCH AS[being Cont 'd ……] The objects of the Act are as follows: b)Right to be informed about the quality.PROTECTION OF RIGHTS OF CONSUMERS. purity. wherever possible. potency. access to goods and services at competitive prices.
compensation to consumer. . a) to give relief of a specific nature.Consumer Protection Councils. ► ► 3.The objects of the Act are as follows: e) Right to seek redressal against unfair trade practices or restrictive trade practices or unscrupulous exploitation of consumers. wherever appropriate. and f) Right to consumer education. and b) to award. 4.Quasi-judiciary machinery for speedy redressal of consumer disputes.
2(1)(d)] 5.2(1)] 2.Consumer[Sec.Complainant[Sec.2(1) (i)] 10.2(1)(e)] 6.Defect [Sec2(1) (f)] 7.District Forum[Sec.Deficiency[Sec.Complaint[Sec.Appropriate laboratory[Sec.Goods[Sec.2(1)(g)] 8.2(1) (b)] 3.Manufacturer[Sec(1)(j)] .2(1)(h)] 9.COPRA TERMS: Definitions ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► 1.2(1) ©] 4.Consumer Dispute[Sec.
2(1)(p)] ► 16. ► 15.Restrictive trade practice[Sec.Service[Sec2(1)(o)].2(1) ®] .State Commission[Sec.National Commission[Sec.Trader [Sec. Person[Sec.2(1)(m) ] ► 13.Unfair trade practice[Sec.2(1)(n)] ► 14.COPRA TERMS: Definitions ► 11.2(1) (q)] ► 17.2(1) (k)] ► 12.
5] Objects of the Central Council(Sec.Consumer Protection Council [Sec.6) ► The State Consumer Protection Council [Sec. ► .4] Membership Procedure for meeting of the Central Council [Sec.7 & 8] Establishment (Sec.7) Membership Meetings Time and place of meetings and procedure.4 to 6] The Central Consumer Protection Council Establishment [Sec.
.Consumer Disputes Redressal Agencies ► (a) a Consumer Disputes Redressal Forum (District) ► (b) a Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission(State) ► © a National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission (National).
The Model provides for equal legal treatment of users of electronic communication and paper based communication.2000 ► ► ► The modern age is the age of computers. new communication systems and digital technology. The United Nations Commission on International Trade Law(UNICITRAL) adopted the Model Law on Electronic Commerce in 1996. .The Information Technology Act. International trade through the medium of e-commerce has been growing rapidly in the fast few years and many countries have switched over from traditional paper based commerce to e-commerce.
2000 ►The IT Act. and it received the assent of the president on the 9th June. .It came in to force on 17 th October.The Act extends to the whole of India.The Information Technology Act.2000 was by both the houses of parliament.2000. 2000.
000 or with both.65) If any person knowingly or intentionally conceals. destroy or alter any computer source code used for a computer.Offences [Sec65-78] ► Tampering with computer source documents :(Sec. he shall be punishable with imprisonment up to 3 years.2.00. when the computer source code is required to be kept or maintained by law for the time being in force. . computer program. destroys or alters or intentionally or knowingly causes another to conceal. Computer system or computer network. or with fine which may extend to Rs.
00. commits hacking. or with fine which may extend up to Rs.2. ► . or with fine which shall be punished with imprisonment up to 3 years.66).Offences Hacking with computer system(Sec.000 or with both.Whoever commits hacking shall be punished with imprisonment up to 3 years. Who ever intent to cause or knowing that he is likely to cause wrongful loss or damage to public or any person destroys or deletes or alters any information residing in a computer resource or diminishes it's value or utility or affects it injuriously by any means.
67).1.which may extent to Rs.In the event of a second or subsequent conviction he shall be convicted with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to 10 years and also with fine which may extend Rs.00.000.lewd) or appeals to the prurient(exciting to lasciviousness) interest or if it's effect is such as to tend to deprave and corrupt persons who are likely. shall be punished.On first conviction he shall be punishable with imprisonment of either c and with fine. . any material which is luscious(lustful. to read.00. see or hear the matter contained or embodied in it.000.2. having regard to all relevant circumstances. ► Who ever publishes or transmits or causes to be published in the electronic form.Publishing of information which is obscene in electronic form(Sec.
rules or any regulations made thereunder.00.68) Power of Controller to give directions(Sec.Power of Controller to give directions (Sec. direct a certifying Authority or any employee of such authority to take such measures or cease carrying on such activities as specified in the order if those are necessary to ensure compliance with the provisions of this Act. by order. The controller may.000 or to both. ► .2.68).Any person who fails to comply with any such order shall be guilty of an offence and shall be liable on conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3 years or to a fine not exceeding Rs.