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Aftermath of World War II
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The aftermath of World War II was the beginning of an era defined by the decline of the old great powers and the rise of two superpowers: the Soviet Union (USSR) and the United States of America (USA), creating a bipolar world. Allied during World War II, the USA and the USSR became competitors on the world stage and engaged in what became known as the Cold War, so called because it never boiled over into open war between the two powers but was focused on espionage, political subversion and proxy wars. Western Europe and Japan were rebuilt through the American Marshall Plan whereas Eastern Europe fell in the Soviet sphere of influence and rejected the plan. Europe was divided into a US-led Western Bloc and a Soviet-led Eastern Bloc. Internationally, alliances with the two blocs gradually shifted, with some nations trying to stay out of the Cold War through the Non-Aligned Movement. The Cold War also saw a nuclear arms race between the two superpowers; some argue part of the reason that the Cold War never became a "hot" war was that the Soviet Union and the United States had nuclear deterrents against each other, leading to a mutually assured destruction standoff.
As a consequence of the war, the Allies created the United Nations, a new global organization for international cooperation and diplomacy. Members of the United Nations agreed to outlaw wars of aggression in an attempt to avoid a third world war. The devastated great powers of Western Europe formed the European Coal and Steel Community, which later evolved into the European Common Market and ultimately into the current European Union. This effort primarily began as an attempt to avoid another war between Germany and France by economic cooperation and integration, and a common market for important natural resources.
The end of the war also increased the rate of decolonization from the great powers with independence being granted to India (from the United Kingdom), Indonesia (from the Netherlands), the Philippines (from the US) and a number of Arab nations, primarily from specific rights which had been granted to great powers from League of Nations Mandates in the post World War I-era but often having existed de facto well before this time. Also related to this was Israel gaining independence from its previous status as part of Mandatory Palestine in the years immediately following the war. Independence for the nations of Sub-Saharan Africa came more slowly.
The aftermath of World War II also saw the rise of the People's Republic of China, as the Chinese Communists emerged victorious from the Chinese Civil War in 1949.
Immediate effects[edit]
At the end of the war, millions of people were homeless, the European economy had collapsed, and much of the European industrial infrastructure had been destroyed. The Soviet Union, too, had been heavily affected. In response, in 1947, U.S. Secretary of State George Marshall devised the "European Recovery Program", which became known as the Marshall Plan. Under the plan, during 1948–1952 the United States government allocated US$13 billion (US$139 billion in 2016 dollars) for the reconstruction of Western Europe.
United Kingdom[edit]
By the end of the war, the economy of the United Kingdom was exhausted. More than a quarter of its national wealth had been spent. Until the introduction in 1941 of Lend-Lease aid from the US, the UK had been spending its assets to purchase American equipment including aircraft and ships—over £437 million on aircraft alone. Lend-lease came just before its reserves were exhausted. Britain put 55% of its total labor force into war production.[citation needed]
In spring 1945, the Labour Party withdrew from the wartime coalition government, forcing a general election. Following a landslide victory, Labour held more than 60% of the seats in the House of Commons and formed a new government on 26 July 1945 under Clement Attlee.
Britain's war debt was described by some in the American administration as a "millstone round the neck of the British economy". Although there were suggestions for an international conference to tackle the issue, in August 1945 the U.S. announced unexpectedly that the Lend-Lease programme was to end immediately.
The abrupt withdrawal of American Lend Lease support to Britain on 2 September 1945 dealt a severe blow to the plans of the new government. It was only with the completion of the Anglo-American loan by the United States to Great Britain on 15 July 1946 that some measure of economic stability was restored. However, the loan was made primarily to support British overseas expenditure in the immediate post-war years and not to implement the Labour government's policies for domestic welfare reforms and the nationalisation of key industries. Although the loan was agreed on reasonable terms, its conditions included what proved to be damaging fiscal conditions for Sterling. From 1946-1948, the UK introduced bread rationing which it never did during the war.[1][2][3][4]
Soviet Union[edit]
The Soviet Union suffered enormous losses in the war against Germany. The Soviet population decreased by about 40 million during the war; of these, 8.7 million were combat deaths. The 19 million non-combat deaths had a variety of causes: starvation in the siege of Leningrad; conditions in German prisons and concentration camps; mass shootings of civilians; harsh labour in German industry; famine and disease; conditions in Soviet camps; and service in German or German-controlled military units fighting the Soviet Union.[5] The population would not return to its pre-war level for 30 years.[6]
Soviet ex-POWs and civilians repatriated from abroad were suspected of having been Nazi collaborators, and 226,127 of them were sent to forced labour camps after scrutiny by Soviet intelligence, NKVD. Many ex-POWs and young civilians were also conscripted to serve in the Red Army. Others worked in labour battalions to rebuild infrastructure destroyed during the war.[7][8]
The economy had been devastated. Roughly a quarter of the Soviet Union's capital resources were destroyed, and industrial and agricultural output in 1945 fell far short of pre-war levels. To help rebuild the country, the Soviet government obtained limited credits from Britain and Sweden; it refused assistance offered by the United States under the Marshall Plan. Instead, the Soviet Union compelled Soviet-occupied Eastern Europe to supply machinery and raw materials. Germany and former Nazi satellites made reparations to the Soviet Union. The reconstruction programme emphasised heavy industry to the detriment of agriculture and consumer goods. By 1953, steel production was twice its 1940 level, but the production of many consumer goods and foodstuffs was lower than it had been in the late 1920s.[9]
The immediate post-war period in Europe was dominated by the Soviet Union annexing, or converting into Soviet Socialist Republics,[10][11][12] all the countries captured by the Red Army driving the German invaders out of central and eastern Europe. New Soviet satellite states rose in Poland, Bulgaria, Hungary,[13] Czechoslovakia,[14] Romania,[15][16] Albania,[17] and East Germany; the last of these was created from the Soviet zone of occupation in Germany.[18] Yugoslavia emerged as an independent Communist state allied but not aligned with the Soviet Union, owing to the independent nature of the military victory of the Partisans of Josip Broz Tito during World War II in Yugoslavia. The Allies established the Far Eastern Commission and Allied Council for Japan to administer their occupation of that country while the establishment Allied Control Council, administered occupied Germany. In accordance with the Potsdam Conference agreements, the Soviet Union occupied and subsequently annexed the strategic island of Sakhalin.
In the west, Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France. The Sudetenland reverted to Czechoslovakia following the European Advisory Commission's decision to delimit German territory to be the territory it held on 31 December 1937. Close to one quarter of pre-war (1937) Germany was de facto annexed by the Allies; roughly 10 million Germans were either expelled from this territory or not permitted to return to it if they had fled during the war. The remainder of Germany was partitioned into four zones of occupation, coordinated by the Allied Control Council. The Saar was detached and put in economic union with France in 1947. In 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany was created out of the Western zones. The Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic.
Germany paid reparations to the United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union, mainly in the form of dismantled factories, forced labour, and coal. German standard of living was to be reduced to its 1932 level.[19] Beginning immediately after the German surrender and continuing for the next two years, the US and Britain pursued an "intellectual reparations" programme to harvest all technological and scientific know-how as well as all patents in Germany. The value of these amounted to around US$10 billion[20] (US$123 billion in 2016 dollars). In accordance with the Paris Peace Treaties, 1947, reparations were also assessed from the countries of Italy, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Finland.
US policy in post-war Germany from April 1945 until July 1947 had been that no help should be given to the Germans in rebuilding their nation, save for the minimum required to mitigate starvation. The Allies' immediate post-war "industrial disarmament" plan for Germany had been to destroy Germany's capability to wage war by complete or partial de-industrialization. The first industrial plan for Germany, signed in 1946, required the destruction of 1,500 manufacturing plants to lower German heavy industry output to roughly 50% of its 1938 level. Dismantling of West German industry ended in 1951. By 1950, equipment had been removed from 706 manufacturing plants, and steel production capacity had been reduced by 6.7 million tons.[21] After lobbying by the Joint Chiefs of Staff and Generals Lucius D. Clay and George Marshall, the Truman administration accepted that economic recovery in Europe could not go forward without the reconstruction of the German industrial base on which it had previously been dependent.[22] In July 1947, President Truman rescinded on "national security grounds"[23] the directive that had ordered the US occupation forces to "take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany." A new directive recognised that "[a]n orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany."[24] From mid-1946 onwards Germany received US government aid through the GARIOA programme. From 1948 onwards West Germany also became a minor beneficiary of the Marshall Plan. Volunteer organisations had initially been forbidden to send food, but in early 1946 the Council of Relief Agencies Licensed to Operate in Germany was founded. The prohibition against sending CARE Packages to individuals in Germany was rescinded on 5 June 1946.
After the German surrender, the International Red Cross was prohibited from providing aid such as food or visiting POW camps for Germans inside Germany. However, after making approaches to the Allies in the autumn of 1945 it was allowed to investigate the camps in the UK and French occupation zones of Germany, as well as to provide relief to the prisoners held there. On 4 February 1946, the Red Cross was permitted to visit and assist prisoners also in the U.S. occupation zone of Germany, although only with very small quantities of food. The Red Cross petitioned successfully for improvements to be made in the living conditions of German POWs.[25]
The 1947 Treaty of Peace with Italy spelled the end of the Italian colonial empire, along with other border revisions. The 1947 Paris Peace Treaties compelled Italy to pay $360,000,000 (US dollars at 1938 prices) in war reparations: $125,000,000 to Yugoslavia, $105,000,000 to Greece, $100,000,000 to the Soviet Union, $25,000,000 to Ethiopia and $5,000,000 to Albania. In the 1946 Italian constitutional referendum the Italian monarchy was abolished, having been associated with the deprivations of the war and the Fascist rule.
Unlike in Germany and Japan, no war crimes tribunals were held against Italian military and political leaders, though the Italian resistance summarily executed some of them (such as Mussolini) at the end of the war.
The Federal State of Austria had been annexed by Germany in 1938 (Anschluss, this union was banned by the Treaty of Versailles). Austria (called Ostmark by the Germans) was separated from Germany and divided into four zones of occupation. With the Austrian State Treaty, these zones reunited in 1955 to become the Republic of Austria.
After the war, the Allies rescinded Japanese pre-war annexations such as Manchuria, and Korea became independent. The Philippines was returned to the United States. Burma, Malaya and Singapore were returned to Britain and French Indo-China back to France. The Dutch East Indies was to be handed back to the Dutch, but was resisted leading to the Indonesian war for independence. At the Yalta Conference, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt had secretly traded the Japanese Kurils and south Sakhalin to the Soviet Union in return for Soviet entry in the war with Japan.[neutrality is disputed][improper synthesis?][26][verification needed] The Soviet Union annexed the Kuril Islands, provoking the Kuril Islands dispute, which is ongoing, as Russia continues to occupy the islands.
Hundreds of thousands of Japanese were forced to relocate to the Japanese main islands. Okinawa became a main US staging point. The US covered large areas of it with military bases and continued to occupy it until 1972, years after the end of the occupation of the main islands. The bases still remain. To skirt the Geneva Convention, the Allies classified many Japanese soldiers as Japanese Surrendered Personnel instead of POWs and used them as forced labour until 1947.[citation needed] The UK, France, and the Netherlands conscripted some Japanese troops to fight colonial resistances elsewhere in Asia.[citation needed] General Douglas MacArthur established the International Military Tribunal for the Far East. The Allies collected reparations from Japan.
To further remove Japan as a potential future military threat, the Far Eastern Commission decided to de-industrialise Japan, with the goal of reducing Japanese standard of living to what prevailed between 1930 and 1934.[neutrality is disputed][27][not in citation given][28] In the end, the de-industrialisation programme in Japan was implemented to a lesser degree than the one in Germany.[27] Japan received emergency aid from GARIOA, as did Germany. In early 1946, the Licensed Agencies for Relief in Asia were formed and permitted to supply Japanese with food and clothes. In April 1948 the Johnston Committee Report recommended that the economy of Japan should be reconstructed due to the high cost to US taxpayers of continuous emergency aid.
Survivors of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, known as hibakusha (被爆者), were ostracized by Japanese society. Japan provided no special assistance to these people until 1952.[29] By the 65th anniversary of the bombings, total casualties from the initial attack and later deaths reached about 270,000 in Hiroshima[30] and 150,000 in Nagasaki.[31] About 230,000 hibakusha were still alive as of 2010[update],[30] and about 2,200 were suffering from radiation-caused illnesses as of 2007[update].[32]
In the Winter War of 1939–1940, the Soviet Union invaded neutral Finland and annexed some of its territory. From 1941 until 1944, Finland aligned itself with Nazi Germany in a failed effort to regain lost territories from the Soviets. Finland retained its independence following the war but remained subject to Soviet-imposed constraints in its domestic affairs.
The Baltic states[edit]
In 1940 the Soviet Union invaded and annexed the neutral Baltic states, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. In June 1941, the Soviet governments of the Baltic states carried out mass deportations of "enemies of the people"; as a result, many treated the invading Nazis as liberators when they invaded only a week later.
The Atlantic Charter promised self-determination to peoples deprived of it during the war. The British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, argued for a weaker interpretation of the Charter to permit the Soviet Union to continue to control the Baltic states.[33] In March 1944 the U.S. accepted Churchill's view that the Atlantic Charter did not apply to the Baltic states.[34]
With the return of Soviet troops at the end of the war, the Forest Brothers mounted a guerrilla war. This continued until the mid-1950s.
Population displacement[edit]
As a result of the new borders drawn by the victorious nations, large populations suddenly found themselves in hostile territory. The Soviet Union took over areas formerly controlled by Germany, Finland, Poland, and Japan. Poland lost the Kresy region (about half of its pre-War territory) and received most of Germany east of the Oder-Neisse line, including the industrial regions of Silesia. The German state of the Saar was temporarily a protectorate of France, but later returned to German administration. As set forth at Potsdam, approximately 12 million people were expelled from Germany, including seven million from Germany proper, and three million from the Sudetenland.
During the war, the United States government interned approximately 110,000 Japanese Americans and Japanese who lived along the Pacific coast of the United States in the wake of Imperial Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor.[35][36] Canada interned approximately 22,000 Japanese Canadians, 14,000 of whom were born in Canada. After the war, some internees chose to return to Japan, while most remained in North America.
The Soviet Union expelled at least 2 million Poles from east of the new border approximating the Curzon Line. This estimate is uncertain as both the Polish Communist government and the Soviet government did not keep track of the number of expelled. The number of Polish citizens inhabiting Polish borderlands (Kresy region) was about 13 million before World War II broke out according to official Polish statistics. Polish citizens killed in the war that originated from the Polish borderlands territory (killed by both German Nazi regime and the Soviet regime or expelled to distant parts of Siberia) were accounted as Russian, Ukrainian or Belorussian casualties of war in official Soviet historiography. This fact imposes additional difficulties in making the correct estimation of the number of Polish citizens forcibly transferred after the war.[37] The border change also reversed the results of the 1919-1920 Polish-Soviet War. Former Polish cities such as Lwów came under control of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. Additionally, the Soviet Union transferred more than two million people within their own borders; these included Germans, Finns, Crimean Tatars, and Chechens.
Rape during occupation[edit]
This section may lend undue weight to certain ideas, incidents, or controversies. (November 2010) |
In Europe[edit]
As Soviet troops marched across the Balkans, they committed rapes and robberies in Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.[38] The population of Bulgaria was largely spared this treatment, due possibly to a sense of ethnic kinship or to the leadership of Marshal Fyodor Tolbukhin.[38] The population of Germany was treated significantly worse.[39] Rape and murder of German civilians was as bad as, and sometimes worse than, Nazi propaganda had anticipated.[40][41] Political officers encouraged Soviet troops to seek revenge and terrorise the German population.[42] On "the basis of Hochrechnungen (projections or estimations)", "1.9 million German women altogether were raped at the end of the war by Red Army soldiers."[43][44][45] About one-third of all German women in Berlin were raped by Soviet forces.[43] A substantial minority was raped multiple times.[45][46] In Berlin, contemporary hospital records indicate between 95,000 and 130,000 women were raped by Soviet troops.[45] About 10,000 of these women died, mostly by suicide.[43][45] Over 4.5 million Germans fled towards the West.[47] The Soviets initially had no rules against their troops "fraternising" with German women, but by 1947 they started to isolate their troops from the German population in an attempt to stop rape and robbery by the troops.[48] Not all Soviet soldiers participated in these activities.[49]
Foreign reports of Soviet brutality were denounced as false.[50] Rape, robbery, and murder were blamed on German bandits impersonating Soviet soldiers.[51] Some justified Soviet brutality towards German civilians based on previous brutality of German troops toward Russian civilians.[52] Until the reunification of Germany, East German histories virtually ignored the actions of Soviet troops, and Russian histories still tend to do so.[53] Reports of mass rapes by Soviet troops were often dismissed as anti-Communist propaganda or the normal byproduct of war.[43]
Rapes also occurred under other occupation forces, though the majority were committed by Soviet troops.[46] French Moroccan troops matched the behaviour of Soviet troops when it came to rape, especially in the early occupations of Baden and Württemberg.[54] In a letter to the editor of TIME published in September 1945, an American army sergeant wrote, "Our own Army and the British Army along with ours have done their share of looting and raping ... This offensive attitude among our troops is not at all general, but the percentage is large enough to have given our Army a pretty black name, and we too are considered an army of rapists."[55] Robert Lilly's analysis of military records led him to conclude about 14,000 rapes occurred in Britain, France, and Germany at the hands of US soldiers between 1942 and 1945.[56] Lilly assumed that only 5% of rapes by American soldiers were reported, making 17,000 GI rapes a possibility, while analysts estimate that 50% of (ordinary peace-time) rapes are reported.[57] Supporting Lilly's lower figure is the "crucial difference" that for World War II military rapes "it was the commanding officer, not the victim, who brought charges".[57]
German soldiers left many war children behind in nations such as France and Denmark, which were occupied for an extended period. After the war, the children and their mothers often suffered recriminations. In Norway, the "Tyskerunger" (German-kids) suffered greatly.[58][59]
In Japan[edit]
In the first few weeks of the American military occupation of Japan, rape and other violent crime was widespread in naval ports like Yokohama and Yokosuka, but declined shortly afterward. There were 1,336 reported rapes during the first 10 days of the occupation of Kanagawa prefecture.[60] Historian Toshiyuki Tanaka relates that in Yokohama, the capital of the prefecture, there were 119 known rapes in September 1945.[61][page needed]
Historians Eiji Takemae and Robert Ricketts state that "When US paratroopers landed in Sapporo, an orgy of looting, sexual violence and drunken brawling ensued. Gang rapes and other sex atrocities were not infrequent" and some of the rape victims committed suicide.[62]
General Robert L. Eichelberger, the commander of the U.S. Eighth Army, recorded that in the one instance when the Japanese formed a self-help vigilante guard to protect women from off-duty GIs, the Eighth Army ordered armored vehicles in battle array into the streets and arrested the leaders, and the leaders received long prison terms.[62][63]
According to Takemae and Ricketts, members of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF) were also involved in rapes:
A former prostitute recalled that as soon as Australian troops arrived in Kure in early 1946, they "dragged young women into their jeeps, took them to the mountain, and then raped them. I heard them screaming for help nearly every night'. Such behavior was commonplace, but news of criminal activity by Occupation forces was quickly suppressed.[62]
Rape committed by U.S. soldiers occupying Okinawa was also a notable phenomenon. Okinawan historian Oshiro Masayasu (former director of the Okinawa Prefectural Historical Archives) writes:
Soon after the U.S. marines landed, all the women of a village on Motobu Peninsula fell into the hands of American soldiers. At the time, there were only women, children and old people in the village, as all the young men had been mobilized for the war. Soon after landing, the marines "mopped up" the entire village, but found no signs of Japanese forces. Taking advantage of the situation, they started "hunting for women" in broad daylight and those who were hiding in the village or nearby air raid shelters were dragged out one after another.[64]
According to Toshiyuki Tanaka, 76 cases of rape or rape-murder were reported during the first five years of the American occupation of Okinawa. However, he claims this is probably not the true figure, as most cases were unreported.[65]
Post-war tensions[edit]
The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union began to deteriorate even before the war was over,[66] when Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill exchanged a heated correspondence over whether the Polish government-in-exile, backed by Roosevelt and Churchill, or the Provisional Government, backed by Stalin, should be recognised. Stalin won.[67]
A number of allied leaders felt that war between the United States and the Soviet Union was likely. On 19 May 1945, American Under-Secretary of State Joseph Grew went so far as to say that it was inevitable.[68][69]
On 5 March 1946, in his "Sinews of Peace" (Iron Curtain) speech at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, Winston Churchill said "a shadow" had fallen over Europe. He described Stalin as having dropped an "Iron Curtain" between East and West. Stalin responded by charging that co-existence between Communist and capitalist systems was impossible.[70] In mid-1948 the Soviet Union imposed a blockade on the Western zone of occupation in Berlin.
Due to the rising tension in Europe and concerns over further Soviet expansion, American planners came up with a contingency plan code-named Operation Dropshot in 1949. It considered possible nuclear and conventional war with the Soviet Union and its allies in order to counter a Soviet takeover of Western Europe, the Near East and parts of Eastern Asia that they anticipated would begin around 1957. In response, the US would saturate the Soviet Union with atomic and high-explosive bombs, and then invade and occupy the country.[71] In later years, to reduce military expenditures while countering Soviet conventional strength, President Dwight Eisenhower would adopt a strategy of massive retaliation, relying on the threat of a US nuclear strike to prevent non-nuclear incursions by the Soviet Union in Europe and elsewhere. The approach entailed a major buildup of US nuclear forces and a corresponding reduction in America's non-nuclear ground and naval strength.[72][73] The Soviet Union viewed these developments as "atomic blackmail".[74]
In Greece, civil war broke out in 1946 between Anglo-American-supported royalist forces and communist-led forces, with the royalist forces emerging as the victors.[75] The US launched a massive programme of military and economic aid to Greece and to neighbouring Turkey, arising from a fear that the Soviet Union stood on the verge of breaking through the NATO defence line to the oil-rich Middle East. On 12 March 1947, to gain Congressional support for the aid, President Truman described the aid as promoting democracy in defence of the "free world", a principle that became known as the Truman Doctrine.[76]
The US sought to promote an economically strong and politically united Western Europe to counter the threat posed by the Soviet Union. This was done openly using tools such as the European Recovery Program, which encouraged European economic integration. The International Authority for the Ruhr, designed to keep German industry down and controlled, evolved into the European Coal and Steel Community, a founding pillar of the European Union. The United States also worked covertly to promote European integration, for example using the American Committee on United Europe to funnel funds to European federalist movements. In order to ensure that Western Europe could withstand the Soviet military threat, the Western European Union was founded in 1948 and NATO in 1949. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, famously stated the organisation's goal was "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down". However, without the manpower and industrial output of West Germany no conventional defence of Western Europe had any hope of succeeding. To remedy this, in 1950 the US sought to promote the European Defence Community, which would have included a rearmed West Germany. The attempt was dashed when the French Parliament rejected it. On 9 May 1955, West Germany was instead admitted to NATO; the immediate result was the creation of the Warsaw Pact five days later.
The Cold War also saw the creation of propaganda and espionage organisations such as Radio Free Europe, the Information Research Department, the Gehlen Organization, the Central Intelligence Agency, the Special Activities Division, and the Ministry for State Security.
In Asia, the surrender of Japanese forces was complicated by the split between East and West as well as by the movement toward national self-determination in European colonial territories.
As agreed at the Yalta Conference, the Soviet Union went to war against Japan three months after the defeat of Germany. The Soviet forces invaded Manchuria. This was the end of the Manchukuo puppet state and all Japanese settlers were forced to leave China. The Soviet Union dismantled the industrial base in Manchuria built up by the Japanese in the preceding years. Manchuria also became a base for the Communist Chinese forces because of the Soviet presence.
After the war, the Kuomintang (KMT) party (led by generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek) and the Communist Chinese forces resumed their civil war, which had been temporarily suspended when they fought together against Japan. The fight against the Japanese occupiers had strengthened popular support among the Chinese for the Communist guerrilla forces while it weakened the KMT, who depleted their strength fighting a conventional war. Full-scale war between the opposing forces broke out in June 1946. Despite U.S. support to the Kuomintang, Communist forces were ultimately victorious and established the People's Republic of China (PRC) on the mainland. The KMT forces retreated to the island of Taiwan in 1949. Hostilities had largely ceased in 1950.
With the Communist victory in the civil war, the Soviet Union gave up its claim to military bases in China that it had been promised by the Western Allies during World War II. The defeat of the US-backed KMT led to a debate in the United States about who in the US government was responsible for this, the debate is commonly labeled "Who lost China?"
The outbreak of the Korean War diverted the attention of the PRC at the same time as it bolstered US support for Chiang Kai-shek, the two main factors that prevented the PRC from invading Taiwan. Intermittent military clashes occurred between the PRC and Taiwan from
1950-1979. Taiwan unilaterally declared the civil war over in 1991, but no formal peace treaty or truce exists and the PRC officially sees Taiwan as a breakaway province that rightfully belongs to it and has expressed its opposition to Taiwanese independence. Even so, tensions between the two states has decreased over time for example with the Chen-Chiang summits (2008-2011).
Sino-American relations (between the PRC and the US) continued to be mostly hostile up until US president Nixon visited China in 1972. From this point the relations between them have improved over time although some tension and rivalry remain even with the end of the Cold War and the PRC's distancing from the Communist ideology.
At the Yalta Conference, the Allies agreed that an undivided post-war Korea would be placed under four-power multinational trusteeship. After Japan's surrender, this agreement was modified to a joint Soviet-American occupation of Korea.[77] The agreement was that Korea would be divided and occupied by the Soviets from the north and the Americans from the south.[78]
Korea, formerly under Japanese rule, and which had been partially occupied by the Red Army following the Soviet Union's entry into the war against Japan, was divided at the 38th parallel on the orders of the US War Department.[77][79] A US military government in southern Korea was established in the capital city of Seoul.[80][81] The American military commander, Lt. Gen. John R. Hodge, enlisted many former Japanese administrative officials to serve in this government.[82] North of the military line, the Soviets administered the disarming and demobilisation of repatriated Korean nationalist guerrillas who had fought on the side of Chinese nationalists against the Japanese in Manchuria during World War II. Simultaneously, the Soviets enabled a build-up of heavy armaments to pro-communist forces in the north.[83] The military line became a political line in 1948, when separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel, each republic claiming to be the legitimate government of Korea. It culminated in the north invading the south, start of the Korean War two years later.
Labour and civil unrest broke out in the British colony of Malaya in 1946. A state of emergency was declared by the colonial authorities in 1948 with the outbreak of acts of terrorism. The situation deteriorated into a full-scale anti-colonial insurgency, or Anti-British National Liberation War as the insurgents referred to it, led by the Malayan National Liberation Army (MNLA), the military wing of the Malayan Communist Party.[84] The Malayan Emergency would endure for the next 12 years, ending in 1960. In 1967, communist leader Chin Peng reopened hostilities, culminating in a second emergency that lasted until 1989.
French Indochina[edit]
Events during World War II in the colony of French Indochina (consisting of the modern-day states of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia) set the stage for the First Indochina War which in turn led to the Vietnam War.
During World War II, the Vichy French aligned colonial authorities cooperated with the Japanese invaders. The communist-controlled common front Viet Minh (supported by the Allies) was formed among the Vietnamese in the colony in 1941 to fight for the independence of Vietnam, against both the Japanese and prewar French powers. After the Vietnamese Famine of 1945 support for the Viet Minh was bolstered as the front launched a rebellion, sacking rice warehouses and urging the Vietnamese to refuse to pay taxes. Because the French colonial authorities started to hold secret talks with the Free French, the Japanese interned them 9 March 1945. When Japan surrendered in August, this created a power vacuum, and the Viet Minh took power in the August Revolution, declaring the independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam. However, the Allies (including the Soviet Union) all agreed that the area belonged to the French. Nationalist Chinese forces moved in from the north and British from the south (as the French were unable to do so immediately themselves) and then handed power to the French, a process completed by March 1946. Attempts to integrate the Democratic Republic of Vietnam with French rule failed and the Viet Minh launched their rebellion against the French rule starting the First Indochina War that same year (the Viet Minh organized common fronts to fight the French in Laos and Cambodia).
The war ended in 1954 with French withdrawal and a partition of Vietnam that was intended to be temporary until elections could be held. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam held the north while South Vietnam formed into a separate republic in control of Ngo Dinh Diem who was backed in his refusal to hold elections by the US. The communist party of the south eventually organized the common front NLF to fight to unite south and north under the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and thus began the Vietnam War, which ended with the Democratic Republic of Vietnam conquering the South in 1975.
Dutch East Indies[edit]
Japan invaded and occupied Indonesia during the war and replaced much of the Dutch colonial state. Although the top positions were held by Japanese, the internment of all Dutch citizens meant that Indonesians filled many leadership and administrative positions. Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, nationalist leaders Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesian independence. A four and a half-year struggle followed as the Dutch tried to re-establish their colony, using a significant portion of their Marshall Plan aid to this end.[85] The Dutch were directly helped by UK forces who sought to re-establish the colonial dominions in Asia. The UK also kept 35,000 Japanese Surrendered Personnel under arms to fight the Indonesians.
Although Dutch forces re-occupied most of Indonesia's territory a guerrilla struggle ensued, and the majority of Indonesians, and ultimately international opinion, favoured Indonesian independence. In December 1949, the Netherlands formally recognised Indonesian sovereignty.
Covert operations and espionage[edit]
British covert operations in the Baltic States, which began in 1944 against the Nazis, escalated after the war. In Operation Jungle, the Secret Intelligence Service (known as MI6) recruited and trained Estonians, Latvians and Lithuanians for the clandestine work in the Baltic states between 1948 and 1955. Leaders of the operation included Alfons Rebane, Stasys Žymantas, and Rūdolfs Silarājs. The agents were transported under the cover of the "British Baltic Fishery Protection Service". They launched from British-occupied Germany, using a converted World War II E-boat captained and crewed by former members of the wartime German navy.[86] British intelligence also trained and infiltrated anti-communist agents into Russia from across the Finnish border, with orders to assassinate Soviet officials.[87] In the end, counter-intelligence supplied to the KGB by Kim Philby allowed the KGB to penetrate and ultimately gain control of MI6's entire intelligence network in the Baltic states.[88]
Vietnam and the Middle East would later damage the reputation gained by the US during its successes in Europe.[89]
The KGB believed that the Third World rather than Europe was the arena in which it could win the Cold War.[90] Moscow would in later years fuel an arms buildup in Africa. In later years, African countries used as proxies in the Cold War would often become "failed states" of their own.[89]
Recruitment of former enemy scientists[edit]
When the divisions of postwar Europe began to emerge, the war crimes programmes and denazification policies of Britain and the United States were relaxed in favour of recruiting German scientists, especially nuclear and long-range rocket scientists.[91] Many of these, prior to their capture, had worked on developing the German V-2 long-range rocket at the Baltic coast German Army Research Center Peenemünde. Western Allied occupation force officers in Germany were ordered to refuse to cooperate with the Soviets in sharing captured wartime secret weapons,[92] the recovery for which, specifically in regards to advanced German aviation technology and personnel, the British had sent the Fedden Mission into Germany to contact its aviation technology centers and key personnel, paralleled by the United States with its own Operation Lusty aviation technology personnel and knowledge recovery program.
In Operation Paperclip, beginning in 1945, the United States imported 1,600 German scientists and technicians, as part of the intellectual reparations owed to the US and the UK, including about $10 billion (US$123 billion in 2016 dollars) in patents and industrial processes.[93] In late 1945, three German rocket-scientist groups arrived in the U.S. for duty at Fort Bliss, Texas, and at White Sands Proving Grounds, New Mexico, as "War Department Special Employees".[94]
The wartime activities of some Operation Paperclip scientists would later be investigated.[95] Arthur Rudolph left the United States in 1984, in order to not be prosecuted.[96] Similarly, Georg Rickhey, who came to the United States under Operation Paperclip in 1946, was returned to Germany to stand trial at the Mittelbau-Dora war crimes trial in 1947. Following his acquittal, he returned to the United States in 1948 and eventually became a US citizen.[97]
The Soviets began Operation Osoaviakhim in 1946. NKVD and Soviet army units effectively deported thousands of military-related technical specialists from the Soviet occupation zone of post-war Germany to the Soviet Union.[98] The Soviets used 92 trains to transport the specialists and their families, an estimated 10,000-15,000 people.[99] Much related equipment was also moved, the aim being to virtually transplant research and production centres, such as the relocated V-2 rocket centre at Mittelwerk Nordhausen, from Germany to the Soviet Union. Among the people moved were Helmut Gröttrup and about two hundred scientists and technicians from Mittelwerk.[100] Personnel were also taken from AEG, BMW's Stassfurt jet propulsion group, IG Farben's Leuna chemical works, Junkers, Schott AG, Siebel, Telefunken, and Carl Zeiss AG.[101]
The operation was commanded by NKVD deputy Colonel General Serov,[98] outside the control of the local Soviet Military Administration.[102] The major reason for the operation was the Soviet fear of being condemned for noncompliance with Allied Control Council agreements on the liquidation of German military installations.[103] Some Western observers thought Operation Osoaviakhim was a retaliation for the failure of the Socialist Unity Party in elections, though Osoaviakhim was clearly planned before that.[104]
Demise of the League of Nations and the founding of the United Nations[edit]
As a general consequence of the war and in an effort to maintain international peace,[105] the Allies formed the United Nations (UN), which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945.[106] The UN replaced the defunct League of Nations (LN) as the global intergovernmental organization. The LN was formally dissolved on 20 April 1946, but had in practice ceased to function in 1939, being unable to stop the outbreak of World War II. The UN inherited some of the bodies of the LN, such as the International Labour Organization.
League of Nations mandates, mostly territories that had changed hands in World War I, became United Nations Trust Territories. South-West Africa, an exception, was still governed under terms of the original mandate. As the successor body to the League, the UN still assumed a supervisory role over the territory. The Free City of Danzig, a semi-autonomous city state that was partly overseen by the League, became part of Poland.
The UN adopted The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, "as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations." The Soviet Union abstained from voting on adoption of the declaration. The US did not ratify the social and economic rights sections.[107]
The five major Allied powers were given permanent membership in the United Nations Security Council. The permanent members can veto any United Nations Security Council resolution, the only UN decisions that are binding according to international law. The five powers at the time of founding were: the United States of America, the United Kingdom, France, the Soviet Union and the Republic of China. The Republic of China lost the Chinese Civil War and retreated to the island of Taiwan by 1950 but continued to be a permanent member of the Council even though the de facto state in control of mainland China was the People's Republic of China (PRC). This was changed in 1971 when the PRC was given the permanent membership previously held by the Republic of China. Russia inherited the permanent membership of the Soviet Union in 1991 after the dissolution of that state.
Unresolved conflicts[edit]
Japanese holdouts persisted on various islands in the Pacific Theatre until at least 1974. Although all hostilities are now resolved, a peace treaty has never been signed between Japan and Russia due to the Kuril Islands dispute.
Economic aftermath[edit]
By the end of the war, the European economy had collapsed with 70% of the industrial infrastructure destroyed.[108] The property damage in the Soviet Union consisted of complete or partial destruction of 1,710 cities and towns, 70,000 villages/hamlets, and 31,850 industrial establishments.[109] The strength of the economic recovery following the war varied throughout the world, though in general it was quite robust. In Europe, West Germany, after having continued to decline economically during the first years of the Allied occupation, later experienced a remarkable recovery, and had by the end of the 1950s doubled production from its pre-war levels.[110] Italy came out of the war in poor economic condition,[111] but by the 1950s, the Italian economy was marked by stability and high growth.[112] France rebounded quickly and enjoyed rapid economic growth and modernisation under the Monnet Plan.[113] The UK, by contrast, was in a state of economic ruin after the war[114] and continued to experience relative economic decline for decades to follow.[115]
The Soviet Union also experienced a rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era.[116] Japan experienced rapid economic growth, becoming one of the most powerful economies in the world by the 1980s.[117] China, following the conclusion of its civil war, was essentially bankrupt. By 1953, economic restoration seemed fairly successful as production had resumed pre-war levels.[118] This growth rate mostly persisted, though it was interrupted by economic experiments during the disastrous Great Leap Forward.
At the end of the war, the United States produced roughly half of the world's industrial output. This dominance had lessened significantly by the early 1970s.[119]
See also[edit]
- Bretton Woods system
- Demobilization of United States armed forces after World War II
- Danube River Conference of 1948
- Hunger's Rogues
- Japanese holdout
- Operation Black Tulip—the eviction of Germans from the Netherlands after the war
- Operation Unthinkable
- ^ The Dominance of England, Dorothy Crisp, Holborn Publishing, London 1960, pages 22-26,
- ^ The World at War, Mark Arnold-Foster, BCA London, 1974, pages 286-7,
- ^ Sunday Times Sept 6, 2009 by Max Hastings
- ^ A History of the American People, Paul Johnson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1997, pages 647-8
- ^ Michael Ellman and S. Maksudov, "Soviet Deaths in the Great Patriotic War: A Note", Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 46, No. 4, pp. 671-680
- ^ "20m Soviet war dead may be underestimate", Guardian, 30 April 1994 quoting Professor John Erickson of Edinburgh University, Defence Studies.
- ^ Edwin Bacon, "Glasnost and the Gulag: New Information on Soviet Forced Labour around World War II", Soviet Studies, Vol. 44, No. 6 (1992), pp. 1069-1086.
- ^ Michael Ellman, "Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments", Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 54, No. 7 (Nov., 2002), pp. 1151-1172
- ^ Glenn E. Curtis, ed. Russia: A Country Study, Washington: Library of Congress, 1996
- ^ Senn, Alfred Erich, Lithuania 1940 : revolution from above, Amsterdam, New York, Rodopi, 2007 ISBN 978-90-420-2225-6
- ^ Roberts, Geoffrey (2006). Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953. Yale University Press. p. 43. ISBN 0-300-11204-1.
- ^ Wettig, Gerhard (2008). Stalin and the Cold War in Europe. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 20–21. ISBN 0-7425-5542-9.
- ^ Granville, Johanna, The First Domino: International Decision Making during the Hungarian Crisis of 1956, Texas A&M University Press, 2004. ISBN 1-58544-298-4
- ^ Grenville, John Ashley Soames (2005). A History of the World from the 20th to the 21st Century. Routledge. pp. 370–371. ISBN 0-415-28954-8.
- ^ Crampton 1997, pp. 216–7[full citation needed]
- ^ Eastern bloc, The American Heritage New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2005.
- ^ Cook 2001, p. 17
- ^ Wettig 2008, pp. 96–100
- ^ Cost of Defeat Time Magazine Monday, 8 April 1946
- ^ Norman M. Naimark The Russians in Germany pg. 206
- ^ Frederick H. Gareau "Morgenthau's Plan for Industrial Disarmament in Germany" The Western Political Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 2 (Jun., 1961), pp. 517-534
- ^ Ray Salvatore Jennings "The Road Ahead: Lessons in Nation Building from Japan, Germany, and Afghanistan for Postwar Iraq May 2003, Peaceworks No. 49 pg.15
- ^ Ray Salvatore Jennings "The Road Ahead: Lessons in Nation Building from Japan, Germany, and Afghanistan for Postwar Iraq May 2003, Peaceworks No. 49 p.15
- ^ Pas de Pagaille! Time Magazine 28 July 1947.
- ^ Staff. ICRC in WW II: German prisoners of war in Allied hands, 2 February 2005
- ^ Time Magazine, FOREIGN RELATIONS: Secret of the Kurils, Monday, 11 February 1946 URL
- ^ a b Frederick H. Gareau "Morgenthau's Plan for Industrial Disarmament in Germany" The Western Political Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 2 (Jun., 1961), pp. 531
- ^ (Note: A footnote in Gareau also states: "For a text of this decision, see Activities of the Far Eastern Commission. Report of the Secretary General, February 1946 to July 10, 1947, Appendix 30, p. 85.")
- ^ "Japan and North America: First contacts to the Pacific War", Ellis S. Krauss, Benjamin Nyblade, 2004, pg. 351 [1]
- ^ a b "Yomiuri Shimbun".
- ^ "Montreal Gazette".
- ^ "Japan Times". Archived from the original on 2007-10-11.
- ^ Roger S. Whitcomb, "The Cold War in retrospect: the formative years," p. 18 "Churchill suggested that the principles of the Atlantic Charter ought not be construed so as to deny Russia the frontier occupied when Germany attacked in 1941." Google Books
- ^ Roger S. Whitcomb, "The Cold War in retrospect: the formative years," p. 18
- ^ National Park Service. Manzanar National Historic Site
- ^ Various primary and secondary sources list counts between persons.
- ^ Norman Davies, God's Playground, a History of Poland, Columbia University Press, 1982, ISBN 0231053525, p.558
- ^ a b " The Russians in Germany: a history of the Soviet Zone of occupation: 1945-1949", Norman Naimark, Belknap, 1995, pp.70-71 [2]
- ^ " The Russians in Germany: a history of the Soviet Zone of occupation, 1945-1949", Norman Naimark, Belknap, 1995, p.71 [3]
- ^ West Germany under construction: politics, society, and culture in the Adenauer era", Robert G. Moeller, Univ. of Michigan Press, 1997, p.41 [4]
- ^ The Miracle Years: A Cultural History of West Germany, 1949-1968 Hanna Schissler, Princeton University Press, 2001, p.93 [5]
- ^ "Werwolf!: the history of the National Socialist guerrilla movement, 1944-1946", Perry Biddiscombe, University of Toronto Press, 1998, p.260 [6]
- ^ a b c d West Germany under construction: politics, society, and culture in the Adenauer era", Robert G. Moeller, Univ. of Michigan Press, 1997, p.35 [7]
- ^ "What difference does a husband make? Women and marital status in Nazi and postwar Germany", Elizabeth Heineman, Univ. of California Press, 2003, p.81 [8]
- ^ a b c d "Berlin: the downfall, 1945", Antony Beevor, Viking, 2002, p.410 [9]
- ^ a b West Germany under construction: politics, society, and culture in the Adenauer era", Robert G. Moeller, Univ. of Michigan Press, 1997, p.34 [10]
- ^ The Miracle Years: A Cultural History of West Germany, 1949-1968 Hanna Schissler, Princeton University Press, 2001, p.27 [11]
- ^ " The Russians in Germany: a history of the Soviet Zone of occupation, 1945-1949", Norman Naimark, Belknap, 1995, p.92 [12]
- ^ " The Russians in Germany: a history of the Soviet Zone of occupation, 1945-1949", Norman Naimark, Belknap, 1995, p.83 [13]
- ^ " The Russians in Germany: a history of the Soviet Zone of occupation, 1945-1949", Norman Naimark, Belknap, 1995, p.102 [14]
- ^ " The Russians in Germany: a history of the Soviet Zone of occupation, 1945-1949", Norman Naimark, Belknap, 1995, p.104 [15]
- ^ " The Russians in Germany: a history of the Soviet Zone of occupation, 1945-1949", Norman Naimark, Belknap, 1995, p.108 [16]
- ^ " The Russians in Germany: a history of the Soviet Zone of occupation, 1945-1949", Norman Naimark, Belknap, 1995, p.2 [17]
- ^ Norman M. Naimark. The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949. Harvard University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-674-78405-7 pp. 106.
- ^ Dear editor: letters to Time magazine, 1923-1984 ",Phil Pearman, Salem House, 1985, p.75 [18]
- ^ Politicization of sexual violence: from abolitionism to peacekeeping", Carol Harrington, Ashgate Pub., 2010, p.80 [19]
- ^ a b Kaplan, Alice (12 September 2005). "The Interpreter". Simon and Schuster – via Google Books.
- ^ STUART, JULIA (February 2, 2003). "SLEEPING WITH THE ENEMY; SPAT AT, ABUSED, SHUNNED BY NEIGHBOURS. THEIR CRIME?". History News Network. Independent on Sunday. Archived from the original on 21 February 2007. Retrieved 2007-02-26.
- ^ "Norway's "lebensborn"". BBC News. 5 December 2001. Archived from the original on 20 February 2007. Retrieved 2007-02-26.
- ^ Molasky, Michael S; Rabson, Steve (2000), Southern Exposure: Modern Japanese Literature from Okinawa, University of Hawaii Press, p. 16,22,121 ISBN 978-0-8248-2300-9
- ^ Tanaka, Yuki; Tanaka, Toshiyuki (2003), Japan's Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution During World War II, Routledge, ISBN 0-203-30275-3
- ^ a b c Takemae, Eiji; Robert Ricketts (2003). Inside GHQ: The Allied Occupation of Japan and Its Legacy. trans. Robert Ricketts, Sebastian Swann. Continuum International. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-82641-521-9.
- ^ Svoboda, Terese. "U.S. Courts-Martial in Occupation Japan: Rape, Race, and Censorship". The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. Retrieved 2013-05-20.
- ^ Tanaka, Yuki; Tanaka, Toshiyuki (2003), Japan's Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution During World War II, Routledge, p.111 ISBN 0-203-30275-3
- ^ Tanaka, Yuki; Tanaka, Toshiyuki (2003), Japan's Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution During World War II, Routledge, p.112 ISBN 0-203-30275-3
- ^ Kantowicz, Edward R (2000). Coming Apart, Coming Together. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 0-8028-4456-1.
- ^ Stewart Richardson, Secret History of World War II, New York: Richardson & Steirman, 1986, p.vi. ISBN 0-931933-05-6
- ^ Yefim Chernyak and Vic Schneierson, Ambient Conflicts: History of Relations between Countries with Different Social Systems, ISBN 0-8285-3757-7, Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1987, p. 360
- ^ Challener, R. D.; Grew, J. C.; Johnson, W.; Hooker, N. H. (1953). "Career Diplomat: the Record of Joseph C. Grew". World Politics. 5 (2): 263–279. doi:10.2307/2008984. JSTOR 2008984.
- ^ Anthony Cave Brown, Dropshot: The United States Plan for War with the Soviet Union in 1957, New York: Dial Press, 1978, p.3
- ^ Cave Brown, op cit, p. 169
- ^ John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies of Continment, New York: Oxford University Press, pp.127-9
- ^ Walter LaFeber, America, Russia and the Cold War 1945-1966, New York: John Wiley, 1968, pp.123-200
- ^ Chernyak, op cit, p.359
- ^ Christopher M Woodhouse, The Struggle for Greece 1941-1949, London: Hart-Davis 1976, pp.3-34, 76-7
- ^ Lawrence S Wittner, "How Presidents Use the Term 'Democracy' as a Marketing Tool", Retrieved October 29, 2010
- ^ a b Dennis Wainstock, Truman, McArthur and the Korean War, Greenwood, 1999, p.3
- ^ Dennis Wainstock, Truman, McArthur and the Korean War, Greenwood, 1999, pp.3, 5
- ^ Jon Halliday and Bruce Cumings, Korea: The unknown war, London: Viking, 1988, pp. 10, 16, ISBN 0-670-81903-4
- ^ Edward Grant Meade, American military government in Korea,: King's Crown Press 1951, p.78
- ^ A. Wigfall Green, The Epic of Korea, Washington: Public Affairs Press, 1950, p. 54
- ^ Walter G Hermes, Truce Tent and Fighting Front, Washington, D.C.: US Army Center of Military History, 1992, p. 6
- ^ James M Minnich, The North Korean People's Army: origins and current tactics, Naval Institute Press, 2005 pp.4-10
- ^ Mohamed Amin and Malcolm Caldwell (eds.), The Making of a Neo Colony, London: Spokesman Books, 1977, footnote, p. 216
- ^ Nationalism and revolution in Indonesia — Google Books. Books.google.com. ISBN 978-0-87727-734-7. Retrieved 2009-08-18.
- ^ Sigured Hess, "The British Baltic Fishery Protection Service (BBFPS) and the Clandestine Operations of Hans Helmut Klose 1949-1956." Journal of Intelligence History vol. 1, no. 2 (Winter 2001)
- ^ Tom Bower, The Red Web: MI6 and the KGB, London: Aurum, 1989, pp. 19, 22-3 ISBN 1-85410-080-7
- ^ Bower, (1989) pp. 38, 49, 79
- ^ a b Judt, "A Story Still to Be Told"
- ^ Christopher Andrew & Vasili Mitrokhin, The World was Going Our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the Third World, New York: Basic Books, 2005, foreword, p. xxvi
- ^ Tom Bower, The Paperclip Conspiracy: Battle for the spoils and secrets of Nazi Germany, London: Michael Joseph, 1987, pp.75-8, ISBN 0-7181-2744-7
- ^ Bower, op cit, pp.95-6
- ^ Naimark, Science Technology and Reparations: Exploitation and Plunder in Postwar Germany p.60
- ^ Huzel, Dieter K (1960). Peenemünde to Canaveral. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall. pp. 27,226.
- ^ Walker, Andres (2005-11-21). "Project Paperclip: Dark side of the Moon". BBC news. Retrieved 2008-10-18.
- ^ Hunt, Linda (May 23, 1987). "NASA's Nazis". Nation.
- ^ Michael J. Neufeld (2008). Von Braun: Dreamer of Space, Engineer of War Vintage Series. Random House, Inc. ISBN 978-0-307-38937-4.
- ^ a b Norman Naimark (1995). The Russians in Germany. Harvard University Press. p. 220. ISBN 978-0-674-78405-5.
- ^ Norman Naimark (1995). The Russians in Germany. Harvard University Press. p. 227. ISBN 978-0-674-78405-5.
- ^ Norman Naimark (1995). The Russians in Germany. Harvard University Press. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-674-78405-5.
- ^ Norman Naimark (1995). The Russians in Germany. Harvard University Press. p. 222. ISBN 978-0-674-78405-5.
- ^ Norman Naimark (1995). The Russians in Germany. Harvard University Press. p. 223. ISBN 978-0-674-78405-5.
- ^ Norman Naimark (1995). The Russians in Germany. Harvard University Press. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-674-78405-5.
- ^ Norman Naimark (1995). The Russians in Germany. Harvard University Press. p. 224. ISBN 978-0-674-78405-5.
- ^ Yoder, Amos. The Evolution of the United Nations System, p. 39.
- ^ History of the UN
- ^ "Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Questions and Answers" (PDF). Amnesty International. p. 6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 June 2008. Retrieved 2008-06-02.
- ^ "Who benefits from global violence and war: uncovering a destructive system". Marc Pilisuk, Jennifer Achord Rountree (2008). Greenwood Publishing Group. p.136. ISBN 0-275-99435-X
- ^ The New York Times, 9 February 1946, Volume 95, Number 32158.
- ^ Dornbusch, Rüdiger; Nölling, Wilhelm; Layard, P. Richard G (1993). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press. p. 29. ISBN 0-262-04136-7.
- ^ Bull, Martin J.; Newell, James (2005). Italian Politics: Adjustment Under Duress. Polity. p. 20. ISBN 0-7456-1299-7.
- ^ Bull, Martin J.; Newell, James (2005). Italian Politics: Adjustment Under Duress. Polity. p. 21. ISBN 0-7456-1299-7.
- ^ Harrop, Martin (1992). Power and Policy in Liberal Democracies. Cambridge University Press. p. 23. ISBN 0-521-34579-0.
- ^ Dornbusch, Rüdiger; Nölling, Wilhelm; Layard, P. Richard G (1993). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press. p. 117. ISBN 0-262-04136-7.
- ^ Emadi-Coffin, Barbara (2002). Rethinking International Organization: Deregulation and Global Governance. Routledge. p. 64. ISBN 0-415-19540-3.
- ^ Smith, Alan (1993). Russia And the World Economy: Problems of Integration. Routledge. p. 32. ISBN 0-415-08924-7.
- ^ Harrop, Martin (1992). Power and Policy in Liberal Democracies. Cambridge University Press. p. 49. ISBN 0-521-34579-0.
- ^ Harper, Damian (2007). China. Lonely Planet. p. 51. ISBN 1-74059-915-2.
- ^ Kunkel, John (2003). America's Trade Policy Towards Japan: Demanding Results. Routledge. p. 33. ISBN 0-415-29832-6.
Further reading[edit]
- Blum, William (1986). The CIA: A Forgotten History. London: Zed.
- Cook, Bernard A (2001). Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-8153-4057-5.
- Granville, Johanna (2004). The First Domino: International Decision Making during the Hungarian Crisis of 1956. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 1-58544-298-4.
- Grenville, John Ashley Soames (2005). A History of the World from the 20th to the 21st Century. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-28954-8.
- Iatrides (ed), John O (1981). Greece in the 1940s: A Nation in Crisis. Hanover and London: University Press of New England.
- Jones, Howard (1989). A New Kind of War: America's global strategy and the Truman Doctrine in Greece. London: Oxford University Press.
- Laar, Mart, Tiina Ets, Tonu Parming (1992). War in the Woods: Estonia's Struggle for Survival, 1944-1956. Howells House. ISBN 0-929590-08-2.
- Männik, Mart (2008). A Tangled Web: British Spy in Estonia. Tallinn: Grenader Publishing. ISBN 978-9949-448-18-0.
- Martin, David (1990). The Web of Disinformation: Churchill's Yugoslav Blunder. San Diego: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. ISBN 0-15-180704-3.
- Naimark, Norman M. (1995). The Russians in Germany; A History of the Soviet Zone of occupation, 1945-1949. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-78406-5.
- Peebles, Curtis (2005). Twilight Warriors. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114-660-7.
- Roberts, Geoffrey (2006). Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-11204-1.
- Sayer, Ian & Douglas Botting (1989). America's Secret Army: The Story of Counter-intelligence Corps. London: Grafton.
- Stevenson, William (1973). The Bormann Brotherhood. New York: Harcourt, Brace.
- Szulc, Tad (1990). Then and Now: How the World Has Changed since W.W. II. First ed. New York: W. Morrow & Co. 515 p. ISBN 0-688-07558-4.
- Wettig, Gerhard (2008). Stalin and the Cold War in Europe. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-5542-9.
- Wiesenthal, Simon (1984). SS Colonel Walter Rauff: The Church Connection 1943-1947. Los Angeles: Simon Wiesenthal Center.
External links[edit]
- Media related to Aftermath of World War II at Wikimedia Commons


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Long-time Steven Spielberg collaborator, production designer Rick Carter, is preoccupied with "the nature of conscience and the Goya-esque disasters of war." It began with Spielberg's "War of the Worlds" (a gritty metaphor for the destruction of the World Trade Center) and continued with "Munich" (terrorist reprisal),"Avatar" ("The Wizard of Oz" meets "Apocalypse Now"), "Sucker Punch" (war as a means of escaping insanity), "War Horse" (land and life laid waste during the Great War), and the upcoming "Lincoln" (putting a human face on the 16th President's crucible to win the Civil War and end slavery).
That Spielberg has been the catalyst behind four of these six war-themed dramas confirms the depth of the director's field of dreams for Carter. "Some of them are light and have a joyous, wish-fulfillment to them," he says. "But there's also a darkness that has to be overcome and so he's touching quite a wide range of movies, and, as I get older, I admire that."
Carter, who dropped out as a young man and went around the world for a year, has been able to tap the horizons of his experiences with a sense of wonder when called upon to design a place for a movie.
For "War Horse," the large southwestern English county Devon anchors the stirring love story of a young man (Jeremy Irvine) and his horse, separated by The Great War. Nature is so strong there, Carter says, that you feel both insignificant and significant at once, as part of something transcendent.
"But the dark side of that can be where the beauty has been wiped out and now it's uninhabitable, often by man and sometimes by nature," Carter says. "And so with 'War Horse,' the landscape provided the book ends for the story of this horse that won't be extinguished. And there are hundreds of wild horses out in the fields. They're owned but they just roam free all of the time. That's their life — they live out in the elements."
When Carter was looking for the right spot to build the set for the farmstead, he went to the top of the Moors, which is actually owned and used by the army as a training ground. "It was about finding the locations that were evocative of this tale of the land, and at any point along the way, this horse could easily have succumbed to a new identity with whoever it was with, which is another aspect that I liked about this film."
Carter insists that Joey brings out the best in human beings– he's as tenacious as Bruce the shark from "Jaws": "Yet when he is stopped, finally, in this pale of barbed wire and a crown of thorns, practically, it invokes something in the people that the suffering of this poor innocent is terribly wrong, even more wrong than what they're doing at their worst, which is killing each other."
Indeed, Carter believes this represents the kind of leap of faith that Spielberg does best in his movies, which he also recognizes some people resist as overly sentimental. "I go with it because I like having a part of my own innocence reignited in that experience," he admits. "But one of those leaps of faith that happens is that you get to go somewhere that you might not go on your own. And in 'War Horse,' when it works, people are able to feel the jeopardy of their own innocence that can be lost through something as horrendous as the war, which has taken so much, and when you can feel something come back that is not dead, that is the wish-fulfillment."
Carter and the rest of Spielberg's crew that has been together for more than a quarter of a century have accumulated vast amounts of dreamscape imagery. In Carter's case, going to Devon for "War Horse," even if it meant an additional budgetary expense, was essential.
For the first time, cinematographer Janusz Kaminski, known for gritty war films "Schindler's List" and "Saving Private Ryan," let his romanticism come through. "For him to embrace something that is so idyllic and that has such an open heart, to me, that was a real breakthrough," Carter says. "These are not labored productions; he has to make very quick decisions about where he's going to put that key light, even in a broad daylight scene."
Yet "War Horse" is really a fable about making difficult choices to save your life. "I think there are four or five places in 'War Horse' that are quite resonant in the way the horses are used metaphorically as people," says Carter. "There's one, in particular, when the colt comes to Albert when he's eating the apple, and he's unsure of what to do, so he turns around. In the context it shows the uncertainty."
Carter admits that there's a "Gone with the Wind" aspect to "War Horse," because that whole way of life changed after World War I. Not only was the world brought together, but armaments and machinery brought destruction. Carter predicts: "We'll look back on what we're experiencing now, though we won't know for another 10 years, as somewhat of a rite of passage."


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TUESDAY, Aug. 6 (HealthDay News) -- Comprehensive mental health services -- including diagnosis and treatment -- should be an integral part of emergency medical services after disasters, say researchers who analyzed 222 published studies on the issue.
Unlike physical injuries, mental health problems following disasters may not be obvious in victims, according to the authors of the review published in the Aug. 7 issue of the Journal of the American Medical Association.
Studies showed that from 11 percent to 38 percent of "distressed individuals presenting for evaluation at shelters and family assistance centers have stress-related and adjustment disorders; bereavement, major depression," as well as substance use disorders, the researchers wrote. As many as 40 percent of distressed people had preexisting disorders, they found.
People with more intense reactions to the stress of disasters were more likely to accept referral to mental health services than those with less intense reactions, according to a journal news release.
"Mental and physical consequences of major disasters have garnered increasing attention to the need for an effective community response," wrote Dr. Carol North, of the VA North Texas Health Care System and University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, and Dr. Betty Pfefferbaum, of the University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, in Oklahoma City.
"It is estimated that much of the U.S. population will be exposed to a . . . natural disaster during their lives; adding technological events such as airplane crashes and intentional human acts such as terrorism to this estimate would yield even higher numbers," they wrote. "Mental health effects of disaster exposures are relevant to informing care for survivors of all forms of trauma, because nine of 10 people are likely to experience trauma in their lifetimes."
A structured approach to the delivery of "timely and appropriate" mental health services may help ensure that such services are an integral part of the emergency medical response after disasters, the researchers said.
More information
The U.S. National Library of Medicine has more about coping with disasters.
SOURCE: Journal of the American Medical Association, news release, Aug. 6, 2013
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Kim Kardashian's got an A-lister in her corner—and it's Jennifer Aniston!
While the pregnant reality star's been bashed by the likes of Jon Hamm and Daniel Craig for using her private life to make the green, the former Friends star comes to Kim's defense.
Speaking in the new documentary $ellebrity, which gives an all access pass to celebrities and their lives off camera, Jen says, "There's nothing wrong with Kim Kardashian and all those people. If that's how they choose to make a living, more power to them."
PHOTO: Jennifer Aniston's baby bump watch continues on the People's Choice Awards
"My line of work is different," she adds. "I want to entertain people."
Perhaps Jen and fiancé Justin Theroux catch up on the newest season of Keeping Up With the Kardashians on their downtime?
Regardless of how Kim makes her money, she's successful. A testament to that? She and Kanye West, with whom she's expecting her first child, recently purchased a sprawling $11 million Bel Air mansion.
NEWS: Pregnant Kim Kardashian and Kanye West purchase $11 million Bel Air mansion
"When I hear people say [what are you famous for?], I want to say, what are you talking about?" she shares. "I have a hit TV show. We've shot more episodes than I Love Lucy! We've been on the air longer than The Andy Griffith Show! I mean, these are iconic shows, so it blows my mind when people say that."


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California Bill Would Require Insurers to Justify Policy Cancellations
Monday, April 7, 2008
Aired 4/19/09
Long-term care coverage is one of the fastest growing health insurance products. It pays for home-based nursing visits or care in a nursing home. San Diego Assemblywoman Lori Saldana says her bill would help make sure companies don't cancel coverage arbitrarily. It would require insurers to provide the reasons for terminations, and track them by the gender of the insured.
Saldana: So we want to ensure that women are receiving equal insurance coverage, as they typically outlive their spouses, and may require more long-term care assistance.The Assembly insurance committee unanimously approved Saldana's bill. The insurance industry has not taken a position on the measure.
Kenny Goldberg, KPBS News.
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I've been live-blogging OWS here daily since October 1. Email: email@example.com. All times ET. My new e-book is "40 Days That Shook the World: From Occupy Wall Street to Occupy Everywhere." Most of my other books here
—Go HERE for the Wednesday edition of this blog, up now.
10:45 Lawrence Lessig coming up on The Daily Show. …..Yes, my Occupy e-book, "40 Days That Shook the World," still on sale for $2.99.
7:25 Olbermann tweets promo for show: "First Occupy/Political conference: Congressional Progressive Caucus to meet with #Occupy on legislation." Problem is, according to The Atlantic, that group of 10 from NY drew criticism from other Occupyers who said they did not (could not) represent them, not picked by consensus, and so on. So meeting cancelled. "Somebody's taking the reins in terms of representing the group to Congress. But the rest of Occupy's not ready for that yet."
7:15 Thanks to Chuck Todd tweeting mentions of my very OWS relevant "The Campaign of the Century" book finally out in an e-book edition this week. Will be taping MSNBC segment with Todd on Wednesday. The book explores the incredible year when Upton Sinclair, the famed author, led one of the greatest mass movements in U.S. history to End Poverty during the Depression — and swept the Democratic primary for governor. Then the "vested interests" and Hollywood rose up to defeat him, inventing the modern political campaign as we know it today.
7:00 Classic: LAPD moves in on library cleanup crew–thought they were OWS troublemakers. At least no pepper spraying or tear gas or car chase.
6:10 Arcade Fire "intervenes" with Eisenstein's "Potemkin." Working for the judge while your family dies.
6:00 Occupied Media's big catch, 52-minute interview on video with eonomist Jared Bernstein, which they are billing as a "vritual teach-in."


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With Wales internationals Alun Wyn Jones, Dan Biggar and Richard Hibbard all suffering injuries while on duty with the national squad, the news surrounding Dirksen is another setback for Ospreys' head coach Steve Tandy.
The winger is to go under the knife to repair a cartilage problem in his right knee, ruling him out of action for up to six months.
Ospreys head physio, Chris Towers, confirmed: "We've spoken to several specialists and the view is that it is in Hanno's best interests to have the surgery now.
"We've taken a long term view on what is best for Hanno's career moving forward.
"At this stage we are probably looking at a post-op rehab process of around five to six months, it's not something we can rush."


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Hello, I'm new here :-)
5 posts
• Page 1 of 1
Hello, I'm new here :-)Hi everybody -

Just wanted to introduce myself and say hello.

I've been a big fan of Jim's for awhile now, but in the last 8 mos. or so my appreciation for him and his talent has grown even more. I've been going through some difficult times due to health problems and I can honestly say Jim's movies have kept me sane and laughing, and helped keep me feeling positive and I could never thank him enough for that.

I was very glad to have discovered this site and message board dedicated to this incredibly talented man, and I look forward to visiting often now that I've found it.

Love,
Stephanie

PS - My 11 year old nephew is a big fan as well. He just worships Jim...

Re: Hello, I'm new here :-)Hello, and welcome to the group! My name is Jenna, and I vsit the forum all the time! It's great to hear that you are a Jim fan, and especially if he has kept you cheerful through illness. I suffer depression very badly, and I must say that his films have always raised a smile on my face too!!! And your 11 year old nephew is a fan too... that's great!

Well, I gotta dash, cos 'Ace Ventura: Pet Detective' is about to start on Sky!

Look forward to getting to know you!

Jennaxx
It's better to go after something special and risk starving to death than to surrender, if you give up your dreams, what's left?- Jim Carrey.

"It's all fake. I'm not real, I don't even have a left arm!"- Jim Carrey.

This concludes our broadcast day. Click.- The Cable Guy.

Re: Hello, I'm new here :-)Stephanie-

Welcome! So glad you joined our sometimes crazy, sometimes sane group!

I think it's wonderful that JC overcomes your illness. Now that is really a testament to his talent, huh?

Hope to get to know you!

Mary from Michigan

Re: Hi Welcome to the board!Hi Stephanie,

Welcome to the group and My name's Jen. I've been a huge fan of Jim Carrey since '95 and it's great to hear that Jim Carrey's movies kept you laughing and sane when you had tough times and it's very nice to meet you!

Jen

5 posts
• Page 1 of 1
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The Horse Forum
- Horse Tack and Equipment
- - Looking at a western saddle pad
Looking at a western saddle pad 1 Attachment(s) I found this on ebay: http://pages.ebay.com/link/?nav=item.view&id=251253459717 Is this a good deal? if so, what would be the highest I should expect to go and still get a good deal considering it's used condition. Posted via Mobile Device |
I am unsure of this particular brand. So I'm no help there. This is by far my favorite saddle pad, especially if you have trouble saddle fitting. It's got pockets and felt shims that you can add or subtract to guarantee a near perfect saddle fit, and it's brand new and cheaper than the one you're looking at. Roughly $86 if I recall? Diamond Wool Pads - Products - Pressure Relief Pads They also have another one similar to this that's contoured. It's a little extra money, but if your going for contoured this may also be a great bet. Hope this helps. |
Yes, this is a great deal-IF you can use a barrel pad. These sell for about $200. Unless you have a short skirt on your saddle, it may not work. The regular pads they make are about 2" longer. 5 Star are the finest quality 100% wool, and they are amazingly soft.....I will have nothing else. |
1 Attachment(s) I have no question about the fit. I have this saddle with the arabian tree. http://www.buytack.com/products-sadd.../20540-lrg.jpg I believe it's full length is 25-26". I've had a devil of a time trying to find a decent quality pad to fit my very short-backed arabian. What should be the highest that I should go on the pad since it's used? I have no idea about it resale value. $130? $150? $175? |
I think that is entirely up to you. Bidding is an individual thing. THese DO hold their value pretty well. If you want to get an idea of what they have been selling for-go to eBay and do a basic search for "5 star pad". Then focus on the ones in "outdoor sports, then refine by "equestrian". Then-refine by showing "completed listings only". This will tell you exactly what folks have been paying. I saw a bit of a range for this style pad, starting at around $150. Good luck! |
1 Attachment(s) Thanks for the info! |
If that pad were still available (the burgundy has been discontinued), it would currently retail for $225 + shipping. I would sell it w/our current sale for $205, including shipping. They do hold their value VERY well - I have seen some pretty used ones still sell for good prices. So it's up to you how high you want to go, but my above prices give you an idea of what a black or brown one in that size would sell for new so you have a comparison. You can't beat a 5 Star! Soooo much higher compression/concussion rating than the needled wool pads (Wades & Diamond wool). |
1 Attachment(s) Thanks for adding input HnA. That gives me a really good reference. Posted via Mobile Device |
seamom, I'm going nuts trying to find a saddle to fit my twh. None of the makers post pics of the front so we can see the angle of the bars. Would you be so kind and post one? Thank you. |
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this wiki
For the escaped convicts outside the Bison Steve Hotel, see escaped convict. |
The convicts are escaped prisoners who have overrun and occupied the town of Primm in 2281.
The convicts are escaped prisoners from the NCR Correctional Facility. Instead of remaining with the Powder Gangers, they decided to travel south and raid the town of Primm.
In Primm, the convicts have taken their base of operations in the Bison Steve Hotel, where they are keeping the town's deputy prisoner. Their leader is also found in the same building.
Interactions with the player characterEdit
Interactions overviewEdit
General | Services | Quests | ||||||||||||||||||||
- My Kind of Town: the Courier needs to kill or sneak around the convicts to free Beagle.
Effects of player's actionsEdit
If the Courier has completed My Kind of Town quest, the convicts inside Bison Steve Hotel will be dead.
Other interactionsEdit
A pair of convicts can be found south of Primm, patrolling towards the Nevada Highway Patrol station. Oddly, they will not attack you on sight, but will instead warn you to back off unless you get too close.
Apparel | Weapon | Other items | On death |
Merc outfits OR random trooper helmet OR random Cowboy hat | Tire iron OR cleaver and 9mm pistol OR varmint rifle OR single shotgun dynamite |
Steady NCR dollars pack of cigarettes duct tape Med-X metal spoon |
- The two convicts patrolling near the Nevada Highway Patrol station may end up fighting the Jackal raiders, who are waiting behind the building to ambush. Without intervention from The Player, the Jackals will usually kill the two criminals and hunt down the player next.
- The convicts found in Primm are known for using dynamite in many instances. Killing them may be harder for lower-leveled players, as dynamite can be heavily damaging without proper prevention.
Convicts only appear in Fallout: New Vegas.


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For the past week or so, The Hills stars Heidi Montag and Spencer Pratt have been all over the tabloids explaining that they've blown through the $10 million they earned from MTV. But now, Spencer has a back up plan. It involves a lot of tattood dudes with large flesh wounds and trashy chics with knives. You guessed it, it's Spencer's genius new reality show The Inland Empire 909.
Radar has an exclusive trailer for your viewing pleasure. According to Spencer: "These girls will eat the cast of Jersey Shore alive."
I'm not sure the world needs to see that. But the good news is – they may never have to.


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Ancestry.com Allows Americans to Investigate for Themselves, 'What Really Happened to Amelia Earhart'PROVO, UT–(Marketwire – October 23, 2009) –
There are multiple theories surrounding the mysterious disappearance of iconic aviator Amelia Earhart in 1937, but a unique case file published online for the first time ever by Ancestry.com reveals more details. Ancestry.com, the world's largest online resource for family history, has published a 73-page file consisting of letters and telegrams sent in the 1960s by an interesting cast of historical characters, including Congressman J. Arthur Younger, U.S. Ambassador to Japan Douglas MacArthur II and members of the U.S. Navy and U.S. Department of State. Now accessible for free on Ancestry.com, the records give the public a first-hand view of the investigation into the claim that Earhart and her navigator Fred Noonan were taken prisoner and executed in Saipan (then governed by Japan). Through the years, this adaptation of Earhart's death has become one of many theories surrounding her mystery-riddled disappearance."These records leave you wondering if historians and Hollywood have gotten Amelia's story right," said Quinton Atkinson, director of content acquisition for Ancestry.com. "They shed light on a theory of her disappearance that has all but been brushed aside. "In the records, Congressman Younger asks the U.S. Department of State to look into Earhart's disappearance based on "increasing evidence that she did land and was executed in Saipan." Younger asked the department to investigate a lead by Thomas E. Devine, who stated that "he actually saw the grave of Amelia Earhart" while he was stationed in Saipan. "It's been more than 70 years, yet Amelia's disappearance remains one of America's greatest unsolved mysteries," said Atkinson. "These files are a great representation of how historical records offer clues to our past. With records like these now accessible online, Americans can delve deeper into the mysteries and lore that shroud their family histories."The Earhart file is part of the Reports of Deaths of American Citizens Abroad collection on Ancestry.com, now searchable for free for a limited time. Digitized in conjunction with the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), this Reports of Deaths of American Citizens Abroad collection spans the 1960s and 1970s and comprises more than 80,000 records of Americans who died abroad.Whether a conspiracy theorist, a casual historian or simply curious — learn more about the investigation into Amelia Earhart's disappearance and decide for yourself what happened by visiting www.ancestry.com/amelia. Or see if you have a hero in your own family tree on Ancestry.com.
About Ancestry.com
Ancestry.com is the world's largest online resource for family history and has digitized and put online over 4 billion records over the past twelve years. Ancestry users have created over ten million family trees containing over one billion profiles. Ancestry.com has local Web sites directed at nine countries, and more than 8 million unique visitors spent more than 5 million hours on an Ancestry Web site in May 2009 (comScore Media Metrix, Worldwide). For more information on Ancestry.com and its other family history resources, visit http://corporate.ancestry.com.Web sites:
- http://www.familytreemaker.com/


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Apple Braised Pork Recipe
Apples add fruity flavor to the gravy that's served with this tender herb-rubbed pork roast. "Try serving it with baked apple slices, boiled potatoes or French bread", suggests Diane Hixon from Niceville, Florida.
- 1 teaspoon dried thyme
- 1 teaspoon rubbed sage
- 1 teaspoon pepper
- 1 boneless rolled pork loin roast (3 pounds)
- 1 tablespoon canola oil
- 1 cup chopped onion
- 3 garlic cloves, minced
- 1 large apple, peeled and chopped
- 1/2 cup thawed unsweetened apple juice concentrate
- 1/2 teaspoon salt
- 1. Combine the thyme, sage and pepper; rub over pork. In a Dutch oven, brown meat on all sides in oil; remove and keep warm. In the same pan, saute onion and garlic until tender. Add the apple, apple juice concentrate and salt; bring to a boil. Return meat to the pan.
- 2. Cover and bake at 325° for 55-75 minutes or until a thermometer reads 160°, basting occasionally with juices.Remove to a serving platter and keep warm. Let stand for 10 minutes before slicing.
- 3. Pour cooking liquid into a measuring cup; skim off fat. Cool cooking liquid slightly; place in a blender or food processor. Cover and process until smooth. Serve with the roast. Yield: 12 servings.
Nutritional Facts
3 ounce-weight: 219 calories, 9g fat (3g saturated fat), 68mg cholesterol, 144mg sodium, 8g carbohydrate (0 sugars, 1g fiber), 25g protein. Diabetic Exchanges: 3 lean meat, 1/2 fruit.
Reviews for Apple Braised Pork
Wine Pairings
Medium-Bodied White Wine
Enjoy this recipe with a medium-bodied white wine such as Riesling or Gewürtztraminer
© 2017 RDA Enthusiast Brands, LLC


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MÉXICO CITY, March 9, 2012 – The Frida Kahlo Museum, in collaboration with Ogilvy México, presented its new graphic identity that translates the personality of Frida Kahlo and the famous Casa Azul in Coyoacan, where was born, lived and died.
Ms. Hilda Trujillo Soto, Director of the Museum (far right), stated, "A little more than a year after our very first meeting with Ogilvy, today I feel very thrilled and excited to present to the media and to the public the new graphic image and visual identity of this Museum, which is still a live house. It's Frida's home that was visited by important people such as André Breton, Tina Modotti, Paul Weston, Leon Trotsky himself and of course the great Diego Rivera. I want to underline and thank the great interest and passion of all the creative people at Ogilvy who embraced this important project for the Museum."
Pepe Montalvo, Vice President of Creative Services for Ogilvy, also declared, "We launched an internal contest within the agency among all the art directors and graphic designers to develop the new graphic design for the Museum. We were inspired by the iconic figure of Frida Kahlo, perhaps the most important female Mexican artist of the 20th century. The proposals were inspired by Frida's physical disability, by her love for Mexican popular art, by the birds, by her famous painting The Two Fridas, but mostly by the colors and shapes of the Mexican textiles that she used all her life, showing all her "mexicanity" of which Frida was so proud of and also of the Bauhaus school."
He added: "The winning institutional image project, designed by Marcela Estrada, was also inspired by the Bauhaus, the famous design, art and architecture school founded in 1919 by Walter Gropius in Germany. This school, in addition to being seen as contemporary by Frida, was founded in her father's homeland of Germany. We are very proud and satisfied with our efforts and creativity to make this Museum more contemporary and known through its new image. The winning proposal shows Frida Kahlo's personality and that of her home – the Casa Azul (Blue House), where she was born, lived and died – and also reflects color, hope and struggle."
After creating the graphic image, Ogilvy also developed the application manual that states the proper use of colors, sizes, backgrounds, etc., in order to assure its proper application in all elements and promotional items.
Ogilvy México creative team who participated in the concept and development of this project are: Marcela Estrada, Iván Carrasco, Francisco Hernández, Sergio Díaz, Luis Mata, Gonzalo Villegas, Verónica Medina, Sergio Díaz-Infante, Edgar Romero, Gina Muñoz, Demian Nájera, Orlando López, Juan Carlos Necochea and Alejandro López. Victor Alvarado supplied the photographs for the development of the application manual and the invitation.
The synergy developed by the Frida Kahlo Museum and Ogilvy México was possible given the profound interest of the ad agency in the art and culture of México and of the world.
For more information:Pilar Fernándezpilar.email@example.com+52.55.5351.9108
Manuel Juárezmanuel.email@example.com+52.55.5351.9158
Contact: Pilar Fernandez Date: March 09, 2012 Office: Mexico City


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Wednesday, May 1st, 2013
By William Kincaid
City wants to create detention area for flooding
CELINA - City officials want to create a detention area on U.S. 127 near Beaver Creek to temporarily capture high waters strewn during heavy rains.
Mayor Jeff Hazel this morning called the project critical to protecting nearby businesses during floods.
The city has applied to the Federal Emergency Management Agency for a $213,425 hazard mitigation grant. Officials likely will find out in the next three to four months if the application is approved. The grant would pay for the entire project.
"I think we've got a decent chance, particularly ... because of the (Celina) Medical Center," Hazel said.
If rejected, the city would try to pay for the detention area itself because it's so important to protect businesses from flood damage, Hazel noted.
The detention area with 35,000 cubic yards of storage capacity is planned for immediately north of Beaver Creek on a large, empty city field behind Bella's Italian Grille.
"It would just take over this whole area," Hazel said.
The area would not be designed to hold water all of the time, just during heavy rains and flash flooding - thus the designation of detention instead of retention, Hazel pointed out.
It would be used to detain overflowing water from Beaver Creek to prevent flooding northwards, he said. The captured water eventually would release back to the creek once the heavy rains or flooding stops.
"The medical center is our key target because they're low enough - this protects them," Hazel said.
The Celina Medical Center also is looking into installing its own storm pump, Hazel said.
The project could start this fall or next year and likely would take about a month to complete depending on the weather.
The detention area also would protect the city's nearby lagoons.
Officials in the past have talked about moving the three sludge lagoons along U.S. 127 to the renewable energy center. Hazel this morning said the city is still dealing with odor problems in the lagoons and would like to find a solution before moving the problem to somebody else's backyard.
"We are working on a couple different solutions on dealing with that where it's at now," Hazel said. "I really want them moved, but the smell is the key issue."
Both organic and chemical sludges from the water treatment plant are pumped to the three ponds, where they remain until cleaned out by Mike's Sanitation at a price of about $60,000 a year.
Additional online stories for this date
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• County seeking TIF
• New Bremen Dental Associates takes over previous practice
• Niemeyer in command as Wildcats down Cavs
• Redskins edge out Panthers
• Flyer girls, Coldwater boys win at tri-meet
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