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WHAT IS SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION? Paul A. Boghossian
- Tamsyn Walters
- 3 years ago
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1 WHAT IS SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION? Paul A. Boghossian Social Construction Social construction talk is all the rage. But what does it mean and what is its point? The core idea seems clear enough. To say of something that it is socially constructed is to emphasize its dependence on contingent aspects of our social selves. It is to say: This thing could not have existed had we not built it; and we need not have built it at all, at least not in its present form. Had we been a different kind of society, had we had different needs, values, or interests, we might well have built a different kind of thing, or built this one differently. The inevitable contrast is with a naturally existing object, something that exists independently of us and which we did not have a hand in shaping. There are certainly many things, and facts about them, that are socially constructed in the sense specified by this core idea: money, citizenship and newspapers, for example. None of these things could have existed without society; and each of them could have been constructed differently had we so chosen. As Ian Hacking rightly observes, however, in his recent monograph, The Social Construction of What? (1999), social construction talk is often applied not only to worldly items things, kinds and facts but to our beliefs about them. Consider Helene Moussa s The Social Construction of Women Refugees (1992). Clearly, the intent is not to insist on the obvious fact that certain women come to be refugees as a consequence of social events. Rather, the idea is to expose the way in which a particular belief has been shaped by social forces: the belief that there is a particular kind of person the woman refugee deserving of being singled out for special attention. Talk of the social construction of belief, however, requires some elaboration of the core idea. For it is simply trivially true of any belief that we have that it is not necessary that we should have had it and that we might not have had it had we been different from the way we actually are. Consider our belief that dinosaurs once roamed the earth. It is obviously not inevitable that we should have come to this belief. We might never have considered the question. Having considered it, we might have arrived at a different conclusion, for a variety of causes: we might not have been interested in the truth; we might not have been as intelligent at figuring it out; we might never have stumbled across the relevant evidence (the fossil record). These observations supply various boring senses in which any belief might be considered dependent on contingent facts about us. The important question concerns the role of the social once all of these factors have been taken into account: that is, keeping our skills and intelligence fixed, and given our interest in the question and our desire to learn the truth about it, and given our exposure to the relevant evidence, do we still need to invoke contingent social values to explain why we believe that there were dinosaurs? If the answer is Yes if it s true that another society, differing from us only in their social
2 values, would have arrived at a different and incompatible belief then we could say that our belief in dinosaurs is socially constructed. It is crucial, therefore, to distinguish between a constructionist claim that s directed at things and facts, on the one hand, and one that s directed at beliefs on the other, for they are distinct sorts of claim and require distinct forms of vindication. The first amounts to the metaphysical claim that something is real but of our own creation; the second to the epistemic claim that the correct explanation for why we have some particular belief has to do with the role that that belief plays in our social lives, and not exclusively with the evidence adduced in its favor. Each type of claim is interesting in its own way. If a thing were shown to be socially constructed in the first sense, it would follow that it would contravene no law of nature to try to get rid of it (which is not the same as saying that it would be easy to do so consider Manhattan). If a belief of ours were shown to be socially constructed in the second sense, it would follow that we could abandon it without fear of irrationality: if we have the belief not because there is adequate evidence in its favor but because having it subserves some contingent social purpose, then if we happen not to share the social purpose it subserves we ought to be free to reject it. Much important work has been done under each of these headings, most significantly, it seems to me, for the topics of gender and race. Simone de Beauvoir (The Second Sex, 1953) and other feminist scholars since, have illuminated the extent to which gender roles are not inevitable but are rather the product of social forces. Anthony Appiah (Color Conscious: The Political Morality of Race, 1996, with Amy Gutman) has been particularly forceful in demonstrating that nothing physical or biological corresponds to the racial categories that play a pervasive role in our social lives, that these categories owe their existence more to their social function than they do to the scientific evidence. Other claims are more controversial. Mary Boyle has argued that our belief in schizophrenia is socially constructed (Schizophrenia: A Scientific Delusion? 1990). Her claim is that there is no adequate reason to believe that the symptoms commonly lumped under this label are manifestations of a single underlying disease and, hence, that the search for its etiology by neurochemistry is doomed. Perhaps she is right: our understanding of mental illness is certainly in its infancy. On the other hand, there appears to be increasing evidence that the symptoms associated with schizophrenia are predictable significantly before their onset and that the condition is highly heritable. These facts point in the opposite direction. In a flourishing research program, we find the expected mix of important and debatable work. What bears emphasis, however, is that while some particular social construction claims may be empirically controversial, the templates of which they are instances are in no way philosophically controversial. Both the abstract thought that some things are created by societies and the thought that some beliefs owe more to social values than they do to the evidence in their favor, are as old as reason itself. Whence, then, the widespread impression that social constructionists are anti-rationalist, anti-realist and anti-objectivist? 2
3 The answer is that it stems not from the forms of the claims themselves, and not from their application to this or that empirically debatable subject matter. It stems, rather, from the desire of some prominent theorists in this tradition to extend social construction talk to absolutely everything and, in particular, to the facts studied by, and the knowledge claims emanating from, the natural sciences. If we are to find our way through the muddy battleground on which these now famous science wars are being waged it will help to observe certain distinctions. I will begin with the claim about facts and things. Socially Constructed Things Money, citizenship and newspapers are transparent social constructions because they obviously could not have existed without societies. Just as obviously, it would seem, anything that could have or that did exist independently of societies could not have been socially constructed: dinosaurs, for example, or giraffes, or the elementary particles that are supposed to be the building blocks of all matter and that physicists call quarks. How could they have been socially constructed if they existed before societies did? Yet when we turn to some of the most prominent texts in the social construction literature, we find an avalanche of claims to the effect that it is precisely such seemingly mind- and society-independent items that are socially constructed. Take Andrew Pickering s book, Constructing Quarks (1984). As his title suggests, Pickering s view seems to be that quarks were socially constructed by scientists in the 1970s when the so-called Standard Model was first developed. And the language of the text itself does not disappoint: the reality of quarks was the upshot of particle physicists practice. But how can this be? If quarks exist and we are assuming for present purposes that they do they would have had to have existed before there were any societies. So how could they have been constructed by societies? Perhaps Pickering does not mean what he says; perhaps he intends only to be making a claim about our belief in quarks rather than about the quarks themselves, a thesis we shall also want to examine in due course. Whether or not Pickering intended the worldly claim, however, claims like that seem to be all around us. Here, just for another example, are Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar on the subject of the facts studied by natural science (Laboratory Life: The Social Construction of Scientific Facts, 1979, pp ): We do not wish to say that facts do not exist nor that there is no such thing as reality.our point is that out there ness is a consequence of scientific work rather than its cause. But it is not easy to make sense of the thought that facts about elementary particles or dinosaurs are a consequence of scientific theorizing. How could scientific theorizing have caused it to be true that there were dinosaurs or that there are quarks? Of course, 3
4 science made it true that we came to believe that dinosaurs and quarks exist. Since we believe it, we act as though dinosaurs and quarks exist. If we allow ourselves some slightly florid language, we could say that in our world dinosaurs and quarks exist, in much the way as we could say that in the world of Shakespeare s Hamlet, Ophelia drowns. So, still speaking in this vein, we could say that science made it true that in our world there are dinosaurs and quarks. But all we could coherently mean by this is that science made it true that we came to believe that dinosaurs and quarks exist. And that no one disputes. Despite all the evidence in their favor, these beliefs may still be false and the only thing that will make them true is whether, out there, there really were dinosaurs and there really are quarks. Surely, science cannot construct those things; at best, it can discover them. The views apparently on offer here hark back to the discredited transcendental idealism of Immanuel Kant. On Kant s picture (or at least on one influential way of reading it), there is a world that exists independently of human minds, so we do not have to go so far as to say that we created the world. But in and of itself this world is structureless: it is not broken up into things, kinds of things, or facts. We impose structure on the world by thinking of it in a certain way, by having one set of beliefs about it rather than another. There are two different ways to understand the Kantian claim that we impose structure on the world. On the first, we literally make it the case that there are certain kinds of things in the world mountains by thinking of the world in terms of the concept mountain, by believing there to be mountains. On the second, the structure remains entirely on our side of the divide: the claim that there are mountains is just a way of talking about what is true according to our conceptual scheme or language game. It is not even to try to make a claim about how things are in some mind-independent reality. The first alternative, the one that Pickering s and Latour s language most closely suggests, is hopelessly bizarre. How could the mind carve the world out there into kinds? How could it create things and give them properties? And what happens when the world is carved up in two incompatible ways by two different societies? Some of us believe in immaterial souls and others of us do not. Does the world out there then both contain and not contain immaterial souls? In writings that are much cited by social constructionists, however, Richard Rorty has suggested that talk of the social construction of facts and kinds is perfectly cogent provided it is understood along the lines of the second alternative: One reason the question of mind-independent reality is so vexed and confusing is an ambiguity in the notion of independence. [My critics] sometimes [write] as if philosophers who, like myself, do not believe in mind-independent reality must deny that there were mountains before people had the idea of mountain in their minds or the word mountain in their language. But nobody denies that. Nobody thinks there is a chain of causes that makes mountains an effect of thoughts or words.given that it pays to talk about mountains, as it certainly does, one of the obvious truths about mountains is that they were here before we 4
5 talked about them. If you do not believe that, you probably do not know how to play the language games that employ the word mountain. But the utility of those language games has nothing to do with the question of whether Reality as It Is In Itself, apart from the way in which it is handy for human beings to describe it, has mountains in it. Rorty is recommending that the social constructionist distance himself from the claim that we cause there to be mountains by talking about them. According to Rorty, the way to put the point is, rather, this: It pays for us to adopt some ways of talking over others. Among the ways of talking that it pays for us to adopt is one according to which there are mountains and they exist independently of humans. However, no way of talking could be said to be more faithful to the way things are in and of themselves than any other, because there is no way things are in and of themselves. There is just how we talk about how things are and the fact that some of those ways are better for our purposes than others. It is, therefore, correct to say that we do not make the mountains; that is a claim that is licensed by a way of talking that it pays for us to adopt. However, that does not mean that it is just plain true that there are mountains independently of humans; it never makes sense to say that anything is just plain true. All we can intelligibly talk about is what is true according to this or that way of talking, some of which it pays for us to adopt. This, however, is an impossible view, as many critics have pointed out (see especially Thomas Nagel s The Last Word, 1997, and Bernard Williams review of Nagel s book in The New York Review of Books, 1998). First, even Rorty doesn t succeed in distancing himself from any commitment to the idea that some claims are just plain true, and not just true relative to this or that way of talking; he simply commits himself to the implausible view that the only kinds of claim that are just plain true are claims about which ways of talking it pays for us to adopt, rather than claims directly about mountains. Otherwise, he could not simply assert, as he does, that it pays for us to talk about mountains, but only that it pays for us to talk about its paying for us to talk about mountains, and so on without end. Second, if we accept his view that there is no higher authority concerning what s true than how it pays for us to talk, and if, as Rorty admits, it pays for us to say that science discovers a ready-made world, replete with mountains and giraffes, then there is simply no perspective from which he can also say, as he must if he is to express his distinctive view, that there isn t a ready-made world for science to discover, replete with mountains and giraffes. He can t have it both ways; but having it both ways is what his view requires. Socially Constructed Belief If the preceding considerations are correct, social construction talk does not cogently apply to the facts studied by the natural sciences; does it fare any better when applied to the beliefs about those facts produced by those sciences? 5
6 The issue is not whether science is a social enterprise. Of course, it is. Science is conducted collectively by human beings who come equipped with values, needs, interests and prejudices. And these may influence their behavior in a variety of potentially profound ways: they may determine what questions they show an interest in, what research strategy they place their bets on, what they are willing to fund, and so forth. The usual, view, however, is that none of this matters to the believability of a particular claim produced by science, if that claim is adequately supported by the factual evidence. Kepler may have become interested in planetary motion as a result of his religious and occult preoccupations, and for all I know, he may have been strongly invested in getting a certain outcome. But so long as his eventual claim that the planets move in elliptical orbits could be justified by the evidence he presented for it, it does not matter how he came to be interested in the question, nor what prior investment he may have had. The view is now there, with a claim on our attention, and the only way to reject it is to refute the evidence adduced in its favor. It is irrelevant that Kepler would not have engaged in his research had it not been for preoccupations that we do not share or that he may have had extra-evidential motives for hoping for a certain outcome. To put this point another way, we commonly distinguish between what philosophers of science call the context of discovery and what they call the context of justification. And while it s plausible that social values play a role in the context of discovery, it s not plausible that they play a role in the context of justification. Social constructionists about knowledge deny this; for them it is naïve to suppose that while social values may enter into the one context, they need not enter into the other. Well, how could social values enter into the context of justification? There are four distinct ways of articulating the thought a constructionist may have in mind here; while all four may be found in the literature, they are not always sufficiently distinguished from one other. To begin with, a constructionist may hold that it is not the factual evidence that does the justifying, but precisely the background social values. And while it may seem incredible that anyone could have seriously thought anything like this, but there are certainly assertions out there that seem to demand just such a reading. Here is one (Kenneth Gergen, Feminist critiques of science and the challenge of social epistemology, in Feminist Thought and the Structure of Knowledge, edited by Mary Gergen, 1989): The validity of theoretical propositions in the sciences is in no way affected by factual evidence. However, anyone who really thought that, say, Maxwell s Equations could be justified by appeal to Maxwell s, or anyone else s, social or political beliefs would betray a complete incomprehension of the notion of justification. An item of information justifies a given belief by raising the likelihood that it is true. Admittedly, this is not an unproblematic notion. But unless we are to throw it out altogether, it is perfectly clear that one cannot 6
7 hope to justify the fundamental laws of electromagnetism by appeal to one s political convictions or career interests or anything else of a similar ilk. If one were absolutely determined to pursue something along these lines, a slightly better avenue, and the second of our four options, would be to argue that, although social values do not justify our beliefs, we are not actually moved to belief by things that justify; we are only moved by our social interests. This view, which is practically orthodoxy among practitioners of what has come to be known as science studies, has the advantage of not saying something absurd about justification; but it is scarcely any more plausible. On the most charitable reading, it stems from an innocent confusion about what is required by the enterprise of treating scientific knowledge sociologically. The view in question derives from one of the founding texts of science studies, David Bloor s Knowledge and Social Imagery (1977). Bloor s reasoning went something like this: If we wish to explain why certain beliefs come to be accepted as knowledge at a given time, we must not bring to bear our views about which of those beliefs are true and which false. If we are trying to explain why they came to hold that some belief is true, it cannot be relevant that we know it not to be true. This is one of the so-called Symmetry Principles of the sociology of knowledge: treat true and false propositions symmetrically in explaining why they came to be believed. It s possible to debate the merits of this principle, but on the whole it seems to me sound. As Ian Hacking rightly emphasizes, however, it is one thing to say that true and false beliefs should be treated symmetrically and quite another to say that justified and unjustified ones should be so treated. While it may be plausible to ignore the truth or falsity of what I believe in explaining why I came to believe it, it is not plausible to ignore whether I had any evidence for believing it. For some reason that is never explained, however, Bloor and his colleagues seem to think that the two principles are on a par and are both equally required by the enterprise of treating scientific belief sociologically. Bloor builds both into the very foundation of the subject: [The sociology of knowledge] would be impartial with respect to truth and falsity, rationality or irrationality, success or failure. However, absent an argument for being skeptical about the very idea of a good reason for a belief and how could there be such an argument that did not immediately undermine itself? one of the possible causes for my believing what I do is that I have good evidence for it. Any explanatory framework that insisted on treating not only true and false beliefs symmetrically, but justified and unjustified ones as well, would owe us an explanation for why evidence for belief is being excluded as one of its potential causes. And it would have to do so without undermining its own standing as a view that is being put forward because justified. 7
8 This is not, of course, to say that scientific belief must always be explained in terms of the compelling evidence assembled for it; the history of science is replete with examples of views phrenology, for example for which there never was any good evidence. It is simply to insist that scientific belief is sometimes to be explained in terms of compelling evidence and that the history and sociology of science, properly conceived, need have no stake in denying that. This brings us to a third, milder conception of how social values might be indispensable for the justification of scientific belief. On this view, although evidence can enter into the explanation for why a particular view is believed, it can never be enough to explain it. Any evidence we might possess always underdetermines the specific belief that we arrive at on its basis. Something else must close the gap between what we have evidence for and what we actually believe, and that something else is provided by the thinker s background values and interests. This idea, that the evidence in science always underdetermines the theories that we believe on its basis, has exerted considerable influence in the philosophy of science, even in non-constructionist circles. In its modern form, it originated in the thought of the turn of the century French physicist and philosopher, Pierre Duhem. Suppose that an experimental observation is inconsistent with a theory that you believe: the theory predicts that the needle will read 10 and the needle does not budge from zero, say. What Duhem pointed out is that this does not necessarily refute the theory. For the observational prediction is generated not merely on the basis of the theory, but, in addition, through the use of auxiliary hypotheses about the functioning of the experimental apparatus. In light of the recalcitrant observational result, something has to be revised, but so far we do not yet know exactly what: perhaps it s the theory, perhaps it s the auxiliary hypotheses. Perhaps, indeed, it is the very claim that we recorded a genuinely recalcitrant result, as opposed to merely suffering some visual illusion. Duhem argued that reason alone could never decide which revisions are called for and, hence, that belief revision in science could not be a purely rational matter: something else had to be at work as well. What the social constructionist adds is that this extra element is something social. This is a clever argument that does not long conceal its difficulties. Is it really true that we could never have more reason to revise one of our theories rather than another in response to recalcitrant experience? Consider Duhem s example of an astronomer peering through his telescope at the heavens and being surprised at what he finds there, perhaps a hitherto undetected star in a galaxy he has been charting. Upon this discovery, according to Duhem, the astronomer may revise his theory of the heavens or he may revise his theory of how the telescope works. And rational principles of belief fixation do not tell him which to do. The idea, however, that in peering at the heavens through a telescope we are testing our theory of the telescope just as much as we are testing our astronomical views is absurd. The theory of the telescope has been established by numerous terrestrial experiments and 8
9 fits in with an enormous number of other things that we know about lenses, light and mirrors. It is simply not plausible that, in coming across an unexpected observation of the heavens, a rational response might be to revise what we know about telescopes! The point is not that we might never have occasion to revise our theory of telescopes; one can certainly imagine circumstances under which that is precisely what would be called for. The point is that not every circumstance in which something about telescopes is presupposed is a circumstance in which our theory of telescopes is being tested, and so the conclusion that rational considerations alone cannot decide how to respond to recalcitrant experience is blocked. Perhaps, however to come to the fourth and final way in which belief and social values might be intertwined the correct thought is not that the social must be brought in to fill a gap left by the rational, but simply that the rational itself is constitutively social. A good reason for believing something, according to this line of thought, only has that status relative to variable social factors a sharp separation between the rational and the social is illusory. This is currently perhaps the single most influential construal of the relation between the rational and the social in constructionist circles. What it amounts to is a relativization of good reasons to variable social circumstance, so that the same item of information may correctly be said justify a given belief under some social circumstances, in some cultures, but not in others. It is nicely expressed in the following passage (Barry Barnes and David Bloor, Relativism, rationalism and the sociology of knowledge, 1981): there is no sense to the idea that some standards or beliefs are really rational as distinct from merely locally accepted as such. But this is an impossible construal of reasons for belief, as Plato understood some time ago (see his Theatetus). We cannot coherently think of ourselves as believing and asserting anything, if all reasons for belief and assertion are held to be inexorably tied to variable background perspective in the manner being proposed. There are many ways to show this, but perhaps the most telling is this: not even the relativist would be able to adopt such an attitude towards his own view. For, surely, the relativist does not think that a relativism about reasons is justified only relative to his own perspective? If he did, why is he recommending it to us who do not share his perspective? When we believe something we believe it because we think there are reasons to think it is true, reasons that we think are general enough to get a grip even on people who do not share our perspective. That is why we feel entitled to recommend it to them. It s hard to imagine a way of thinking about belief and assertion that precluded the possibility of that sort of generality. The Cultural Authority of Science Neither a generalized constructionism about the objects and facts investigated by the natural sciences, nor one about the reasons for belief provided by those sciences carries 9
10 much plausibility. To what does this matter? Here are two contrasting views. Rorty ( Phony Science Wars, Atlantic Monthly, 1999): The science wars are in part a product of deep and long-lasting clashes of intuition, but mostly they are just media hype journalists inciting intellectuals to diabolize one another. Diabolization may be helpful in keeping intellectuals aroused and active, but it need not be taken very seriously. By way of contrast we have Dorothy Nelkin: Current theories about science do seem to call into question the image of selfless scientific objectivity and to undermine scientific authority, at a time when scientists want to claim their lost innocence, to be perceived as pure unsullied seekers after truth. That is what the science wars are about. I think that Nelkin is closer to being right. As social constructionists realize only too well, we would not attach the same importance to science if we came to be convinced by constructionist conceptions of it. In what does the cultural importance of science consist? This is, of course, a vast subject, but there are, it seems to me, two central elements. First, and most importantly, in matters of belief we defer to science. It would be hard to overestimate the significance of this practice, reflected as it is in what we are prepared to teach our children at school, to accept as evidence in courts of law and to base our social policies upon. Second, we spend vast sums of money on basic scientific research, research that does not look as though it will have any immediate practical payoff. Rorty s laid-back attitude depends on the thought that neither of these practices has any interesting philosophical presuppositions, and so cannot be vulnerable to constructionist critique. But this seems wrong. For deference to make sense, it has to be plausible that science delivers the sort of knowledge that everyone has reason to believe, regardless of their political or more broadly ideological commitments. But this would be directly challenged by a constructionist thesis about reasons for belief, on any of its available versions. If we look at the practice of spending vast sums on basic science, science with no foreseeable practical payoff, it is arguable that an even greater amount of philosophy is presupposed, that we have to hold not only that science delivers knowledge that everyone has reason to believe, but that it delivers true or approximately true knowledge of the structure of an independently existing reality. For if we ask why, given the many pressing social problems we face, we should spend tens of billions of dollars to build a super-collider that will smash ever smaller particles into each other in the hope of releasing ones that we have never seen but which our theories predict, what could possibly be a compelling answer if not that doing so will help us to understand the fundamental, hidden constitution of the universe, and that that is worth doing? If it doesn t make sense to think that there is such a hidden constitution to probe, or even if 10
11 there is, if it doesn t make sense to think that science is capable of probing it, what rationale could there be for spending such vast sums, when that money could equally be spent on AIDS or on poverty? ( To be clear: I am not saying that a search for the fundamental truths automatically trumps all other considerations, only that its coherence as a goal is required to make sense of the importance we attach to basic science.) Conclusion At its best as in the work of de Beauvoir and Appiah social constructionist thought exposes the contingency of those of our social practices that we had wrongly come to regard as inevitable. It does so by relying on the standard canons of good scientific reasoning. It goes astray when it aspires to become either a general metaphysics or a general theory of knowledge. As the former, it quickly degenerates into an impossible form of idealism. As the latter, it assumes its place in a long history of problematic attempts to relativize the notion of rationality. It has nothing new to add to these historically discredited views; if anything, social constructionist versions tend to be murkier and more confused than their traditional counterparts. The difficulty lies in understanding why such generalized applications of social construction have come to tempt so many. One source of their appeal is no doubt their efficiency. If we can be said to know up front that any item of knowledge only has that status because it gets a nod from contingent social values, then any claim to knowledge can be dispatched if we happen not to share the values on which it allegedly depends. There is no need to get into the often complex details. But that only postpones the real question. Why this fear of knowledge? Whence the need to protect against its deliverances? Hacking writes of certain feminists, for example, who see objectivity and abstract truth as tools that have been used against them. They remind us of the old refrain: women are subjective, men are objective. They argue that those very values, and the word objectivity, are a gigantic confidence trick. If any kind of objectivity is to be preserved, some argue, it must be one that strives for a multitude of standpoints. (p96) Hacking professes not to know whether to side with this thought. But he should know. Whatever legitimate worry may be at work here, it cannot be expressed by saying that objectivity and abstract truth are tools of oppression. At most what these observations entitle us to say is that there have been occasions when those concepts have been used as tools of oppression; and no one will want to dispute that. But the fact that a concept can be, and has been, abused can hardly be a basis for indicting the concept itself. Are we to be suspicious of the value of freedom because the Nazis inscribed Arbeit Macht Frei on the gate at Auschwitz? The intuitive view is that there is a way things are that is independent of human opinion, and that we are capable of arriving at belief about how things are that is objectively 11
12 reasonable, binding on anyone capable of appreciating the relevant evidence regardless of their ideological perspective. Difficult as these notions may be, it is a mistake to think that recent philosophy has disclosed any good reasons for rejecting them. 12
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Evaluating (Writing Project 2)
First, select a topic. It can be an event (concert, holiday, festival, etc.), a place (restaurant, public garden or park, the student union, etc.), a thing (a specific car or bike, a computer or phone, a piece of jewelry or an accessory), or a perspective (vegetarian food in the East Valley, 24-hour restaurants [or the lack of them], the local street racing scene, etc.).
Next, select criteria for your evaluation and share them with your audience. You may also need to explain WHY they have been selected.
Then observe your subject, as much as possible. Restaurants are not the same during weekday lunch and weekend dinner time. The fair might be fun, but is it the same every year? How does Poly's student union compare to the Memorial Union at Tempe? If your subject is a car, how does it drive on open freeway vs. in the city?
Your paper should be 3-5 pages. You are not required to use outside sources, but some topics essentially require them. If you evaluate a restaurant, check out its website. If it's a new album or game, read some reviews online. Cite all sources appropriately in either MLA or APA style, both in the paper and on a Works Cited or References page.
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text: Hey everyone... My OS is seriously messed up, and I need to reinstall. Apple's Mail app will not even launch, iTunes and iPhoto quit frequently, etc. So I plan a reinstall. BUT...what I'd like to know is, what do I need to do to back up my iTunes, email and iPhoto data? iTunes is the most important because I have a huge library of stuff I have custom-tagged in iTunes and assume that data will not carry over to a new install unless I act accordingly. I know how to back up the actual mp3 files, I just want to keep all the set lists and artist info, that stuff. Also, whenever I launch any kind of helper app, I get a life preserver and an error message (often error 35) So...any and all help is greatly appreciated. Thanks! -Mike PS I'm a designer, tecchie skill level is basically just enough to be dangerous (to me)


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When Apple started advertising the new iPad, it called it the iPad Wi Fi + 4G, and we all know what the 4G in the name means. Apple did the same with the iPhone 4 and the 4S. There are many people even today who think their iPhones support or work on the 4G network. But be aware, this is wrong. The new iPad uses an LTE or 4G radio which is not compatible for worldwide frequency. The American government uses a frequency for the LTE or 4G network which is different from the rest of the world.
And Apple thinks that including a radio that supports both the North American LTE or 4G network frequency and frequencies of other countries would not be feasible for the design of the current iPad. So it just omitted the radio. But still, the Cupertino tech giant advertised the new iPad as a Wi Fi + 4G iPad in all parts of the world.
This lead to some disturbance in the user base and advertising authorities in some countries including the UK, Australia, Canada, and others. The UK advertising agency even threatened the company that it would investigate the company on the grounds of misleading advertising. There have been cases in Australia where users of who have bought the new iPad Wi Fi + 4G have complained that the tablet is not working on their 4G network.
So, Apple was forced to rename or rebrand the new iPad into something more meaningful. So the new name is iPad Wi Fi + Cellular. Now, the Cellular name just means that it works on cellular network but does not specify on which frequency. In Australia, the company says that the iPad can work on "very fast" cellular networks and that it can "roam worldwide on fast mobile data networks, including HSPA, HSPA+ and DC-HSDPA."
The new name is being reflected on almost all of Apple's online stores including the UK, US, Canada, and Australia. Have you tried using your iPad on your 4G network? Did you find any issues?


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Classical Music Performance
Wednesday, December 27, 2017
The right to freedom of expression takes many forms! Join the Museum and Manitoba Conservatory of Music and Arts cellist Blair Burns and violinist Maya de Forest for a classical music performances over the holiday season.
The performance will take place from 1:30 p.m. to 2:30 p.m. on December 27 on the Carolyn Sifton Foundation Terrace on Level 6.
Free with admission and free for members.
Blair Burns
Blair Burns received his Bachelor of Music from the University of Manitoba where he studied under Bryan Epperson. Blair was principal cellist of the Orchestral Training Programme at the Royal Conservatory in Toronto and received his Master of Music from McGill University, studying under Antonio Lysy. Blair studied period cello with Tafelmusik's Christina Mahler and the AIMS Festival orchestra in Grax, Austria. Blair then remained in Europe for eleven years. During this time he was a member of the LOH-Orchester Sondershausen and Stadtisches Orchester Bremerhaven, as well as playing as a guest with several orchestras in Germany.
Maya de Forest
Maya de Forest began her violin studies in Winnipeg. Her abilities were developed under the guidance of Donna Grescoe, one of the founding members and teachers of the
Manitoba Conservatory. She went on to receive her Bachelor of Music in Performance from McGill University studying with Mauricio Fuks. A working musician for the last twenty years, Maya has been a member of the Kyoto Symphony Orchestra as well as the National Ballet of Canada Orchestra. She spent eight years playing as a regular extra with the Vancouver Symphony Orchestra. Her freelance work includes Orchestra Ensemble Kanazawa, Esprit Orchestra, McGill Chamber Orchestra, Symphony Nova Scotia, The Royal Winnipeg Ballet touring orchestra and the Winnipeg Symphony. Maya has also played numerous live stage productions with the Banff Centre, LIvent, MTC, Rainbow Stage and recording sessions for CBC, Sony, Disney and Livent.


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|Location: Strbske Pleso, High Tatras
|Boarding: Breakfast
|Skiing ability: MP recommends this package for first time skiers, beginners and intermediates with extra luxury
|BOOK with a deposit of £200 per person with the balance due 14 weeks prior to departure.
Price per adult based on 2 people sharing a double/twin room.
Price per child up to 12 years is valid for a child on extra bed sharing parents room.
The Grand Hotel Kempinski occupies a prime location on an alpine lake 1.351 metres above sea level in the spectacular High Tatra Mountains, the Grand Hotel Kempinski High Tatras is an exclusive resort affording discerning guests the very best in year-round sports, entertainment and relaxation.
Discover the beauty of unspoilt nature, magnificent landscapes and endless relaxation on the shores of the glacial lake Strbske pleso. A hidden sanctuary awaits in a UNESCO Heritage environment, where one can take a deep breath and find new horizons.
98 Deluxe rooms, 2 Disabled rooms, 1 Junior suite, 2 Deluxe suites, 1 Presidential suite, All rooms are very spacious with Interactive Flat screens TV, Separate shower and toilet, Wireless LAN, Regular phone, Mobile phone for in-house use, Safe, Minibar, Bathrobe and slippers, Air-conditioning and Heated floors in the bathrooms.
Grand Restaurant
Seating for 124 persons, International cuisine including specialties with meat and fish, Fireplace, Children menus, Sunday Brunches.
Lobby Lounge & Bar
Lobby Bar, Lobby lounge and foyer, Players Lounge, Summer terrace, Pool games. Other Services available.
Wellness & Spa
Indoor pool with hydro-massages, Tepidarium, Jacuzzi / relax pool, Ice brash, Various saunas, Body and face beauty treatments, Themed showers, Spa shop, Relax room with magnificent views, Fitness centre & Vitamin bar.
Ski resort – High Tatras
For the change of scenery Mountain Paradise will transport you to the ski resort of Tatranska Lomnica & Strbske Pleso. You will be skiing 1 day in Strbske Pleso ski resort and 2 days in Tatranska Lomnica.
The High Tatra ski and snowboard resorts Slovakia are ideal for first time skiers, beginners, intermediates and families.
Tatranska Lomnica
Mountain Paradise will transport you to the ski resort of Tatranska Lomnica ski resort Slovakia. The resort offers great slopes for beginners, intermediates and families looking to improve their abilities on the lower newly built slopes which are equipped with new snow making system and additional chair lift on Start – Cucoriedky slope. More experienced skiers can enjoy the black run starting at the altitude of 2196 m and ski all the way down the longest ski run of Slovakia with its 6.5km length. This is the only place where the perfect feeling of skiing in the area with the highest difference in level in Central Europe can be experienced. The 1300 m difference in level with the width of up to 60m ensures wonderful skiing experience.
Strbske Pleso
Mountain Paradise will transport you to the ski resort of Strbske Pleso. There are more than 12 km of regularly maintained ski slopes out of which more than 4.5 km of downhill slopes can be topped up with artificial snow. Interski slope offers FUN PARK for snowboarders with rails and other obstacles for jumping. You can take a break and enjoy a glass of hot wine at the mountain hut Chata pod Soliskom at the altitude of 1840m or newly opened Bivak ski bar.
All monies paid by you for the air holiday package shown are ATOL protected by the Civil Aviation Authority. Our ATOL number is ATOL 6404. For more information see our booking terms and conditions.
We all loved Slovakia, the people, places and skiing, Mountain Paradise supplied a first rate service that we couldn't fault.
We have just returned from a great week in Slovakia skiing in Štrbské Pleso and the holiday you organised for us was superb. You were always on hand to supervise the journeys to and from the ski slopes and went out of your way to make sure everything ran smoothly. Our instructors were very patient with us all and very flexible.
We had a wonderful holiday in the Tatras, So much was due to the excellent service you provided from the moment we arrived in Poprad. It was a new adventure for us all and far exceeded our expectations.
The Slovakian hospitality was lovely and I would have no hesitation in reccommending Mountain Paradise and the High Tatras skiing to anyone – I have already passed on details to friends!
A very big thank you for all you did to look after us on our walking holiday, The mountains were spectacular and we have lots of photos to remind us of the holiday.
We have just returned from a great week in Slovakia skiing in Štrbské Pleso and the holiday you organised for us was superb. You were always on hand to supervise the journeys to and from the ski slopes and went out of your way to make sure everything ran smoothly. Our instructors were very patient with us all and very flexible.
Just wanted to say thanks to you and everyone for a great holiday…we all really enjoyed! The place we stayed in was amazing and our lessons were great fun.
Thanks for organising a great trip for us. I am sure that we will want to come again.
Just a quick note to say a big thank you for a wonderful holiday. We thoroughly enjoyed all aspects and have already started recommending Mountain Paradise to our walking friends.
I had a great week in Slovakia. Excellent organisation – everything went to plan.
Got back from our holiday in Slovakia this afternoon and I would just like to say that my son Jacob and I both enjoyed our first ever skiing trip enormously. You are right, this is a truly beautiful part of the world that we intend to re-visit.
Just a quick message to let you know that we had a fantastic time in Slovakia.
Please convey our sincerest thanks to everyone.
Just wanted to say thank you once again for a most splendid week in the High Tatras – we both enjoyed it immensely and it made an excellent celebration for Dave's birthday.
This is the 2nd year running that we have used Mountain Paradise and the service that we received was again excellent. The skiing and accommodation were 1st class and the people were very friendly. We have already recommended Mountain Paradise to our friends.
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A printed book or PDF download version of The Congo Cookbook is available from lulu
from: Western Africa | cooking method: boiling-simmering
Caakiri (or Chakery, Chakrey, Thiacry, Thiakry, Tiakri) is a snack or dessert from Western Africa. It is similar to the rice puddings of the Middle East and India. Today it is most often made with Couscous (which is made from wheat semolina), but traditionally it was made with similar products made from African grains such as fonio and millet, or maize, or even black-eyed peas. The word Caakiri refers to the grain from which the dish is made, as well as the finished dish itself. It is interesting to speculate that modern Caakiri, a sweetened snack or dessert made from grain and fermented milk, might be directly descended from a similar unsweetened dish that once might have been more of a main course, but, with the passage of time and with the increased availibility of other foods (including sugar), has evolved into a snack or dessert dish. There are many kinds of fermented milk foods and beverages in Africa and they may or may not be the same as the yogurt and other milk products which are used in this recipe. This recipe is similar to the Docono recipe from Countess Marcelle Morphy.
What you need
What you do
And remember: cousous looks like grain -- but is really pasta, made from flour and water.
See the directions for making your own couscous from millet or sorghum flour, on the Couscous page.
Beginning in 1795, Mungo Park explored the course of the Niger River for the British African Association. His description of an encounter with the ubiquitous African porridge is described in Travels in the Interior of Africa (London: A. and C. Black, 1903), a collection of his writings.
July 20th [1796] And hearing that two Negroes were going from thence [the village of Doolinkeaboo] to Sego [Ségou, or Segu, Mali, a town along the Niger River], I was happy to have their company, and we set out immediately. About four o'clock we stopped at a small village, where one of the Negroes met with an acquaintance who invited us to a sort of public entertainment, which was conducted with more than common propriety. A dish made of sour milk and meal, called Sinkatoo, and beer made from corn was distributed with great liberality, and the women were admitted into the society--a circumstance I had never before observed in Africa. There was no compulsion, every one was at liberty to drink as he pleased; they nodded to each other when about to drink, and on setting down the calabash, commonly said berka (thank you). Both men and women appeared to be somewhat intoxicated, but they were far from being quarrelsome.
(Rare Adventures)
Search this website:
Congo Cookbook recipes using YogurtRecipes by Ingredient
Get The Congo Cookbook PDF file. For more information, see the Frequently Asked Questions.
The Congo Cookbook, www.congocookbook.com;
© Copyright, 1999- 2009, Ed Gibbon, The Congo Cookbook (© copyright notice)


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F-1 and J-1 student visas
Please use the links to left of this page to learn more about F-1 and J-1 visas. There are also checklists to use before (pre-arrival) you come the United States, and after (post-arrival) you arrive in the United States.
We know that many of you will seek advice from friends or other students who have been in the US for a while. Although you can certainly receive good advice from friends, you will receive the most current and accurate information on immigration regulations and requirements from the International Student & Scholar Center (ISSC). Various government regulations are always changing and may be different from those your peers and family remember!
Culture shock
As you embark on your exciting journey of studying in the U.S. you may experience a variety of feelings as you are "culturally adapting," and this is known as culture shock. But rest assured that culture shock is temporary and a very normal process that nearly everyone goes through. This experience will be explained and discussed further at International Student Orientation.
Getting help
Talking about your experiences with friends is helpful, and there are offices on campus who are specially trained to help with adjusting to a new country, climate, diet, and neighborhood. See the Related Links on the right.
Updated 11/21/2016


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Thomas Davis Defending Dreams Foundation Thomas Davis Defending Dreams Foundation
Here's a sample of our volunteer opportunities:VIEW AS
Mission Statement
To defend the dreams of disadvantaged students by providing them with opportunities and resources to enable them to strive for excellence in school and life, to build strong character, and become great community leaders in the future.
The vision of the Thomas Davis Defending Dreams Foundation is to see our efforts change the lives of underprivileged children on a national level and give them hope to do whatever is necessary to defend their own dreams.
The Thomas Davis Defending Dreams Foundation (TDDDF) is a non-profit charitable organization established to provide and promote programs that enhance the quality of life for children and families by assisting in community revitalization, educational development, wellness, and financial empowerment for disenfranchised children and families. TDDDF provides programs such as youth leadership development, after-schoolactivities, family support services, youth sports, and many others.The Thomas Davis Defending Dreams Foundation was founded by Thomas Davis, a native of Shellman, Georgia and current member of the Carolina Panthers NFL Team. As a NFL Player, Thomas has a passion for football but he has a strong passion for helping others as well. When he founded the Thomas Davis Defending Dreams Foundation, he decided that he wanted to help others realize that their past does not determine their future and that they too can one day live their dream.
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Request administrator status and update its information!


text: I have found in the recent weeks that my fav thing to cook with is corrionder. It can really bring a dish into a totally new level. I found out a new way to use it just this weekend, that it can also be used in pasta in a simple chicken dish. I had it at a restaurant in dub city on sun night and it just blew me away Is there anything you are into at the moment or have found you just love to use all the time in your dishes.


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The Inwardness of Prayer
The Relation of the Will of God to Sanctification
Asa's Reformation, and Consequent Peace and victory
The Words of Abbot Isaac on the Nature of Prayer.
The Rent Veil
His First Continental Journey.
1 John ii. 17-Dec
The Shortest of the Seven Cries
Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary1. (n.) The act of clearing; as, to make a thorough clearance.
2. (n.) A certificate that a ship or vessel has been cleared at the customhouse; permission to sail.
3. (n.) Clear or net profit.
4. (n.) The distance by which one object clears another, as the distance between the piston and cylinder head at the end of a stroke in a steam engine, or the least distance between the point of a cogwheel tooth and the bottom of a space between teeth of a wheel with which it engages.
ThesaurusClearance (1 Occurrence)
... Noah Webster's Dictionary 1. (n.) The act of clearing; as, to make a thorough
clearance. ... Multi-Version Concordance Clearance (1 Occurrence). ...
/c/clearance.htm - 7k
Cleared (17 Occurrences)
Clear (641 Occurrences)
Gathering (71 Occurrences)
Winnowing-shovel (2 Occurrences)
Threshing-floor (36 Occurrences)
Chop (5 Occurrences)
Store (134 Occurrences)
Storehouse (12 Occurrences)
Burning (415 Occurrences)
Bible ConcordanceClearance (1 Occurrence)
Matthew 3:12 His winnowing-shovel is in His hand, and He will make a thorough clearance of His threshing-floor, gathering His wheat into the storehouse, but burning up the chaff in unquenchable fire."
Related Terms
Winnowing-shovel (2 Occurrences)
Threshing-floor (36 Occurrences)
LinksBible Concordance • Bible Dictionary • Bible Encyclopedia • Topical Bible • Bible Thesuarus


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I read Perfectly Imperfect every day no matter what is on my schedule. I have been known to carry my laptop to bed with me just because I haven't had time to check out her blog that day. No she is not another soaper or a cosmetics maker or even an herbalist. She is a decorator with fantastic ideas and great taste and a super sense of humor.
CSN is giving a $45.00 gift certificate to use in one of their over 200+ stores online. Shaunna is reviewing this beautiful lamp for CSN. I am green with envy!


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All of campus and the surrounding community is invited to Media Week—a week of media-related events presented by Bethany. The culmination of Media Week is the Speechless Film Festival, an international festival that celebrates the universal art of visual (but not silent) storytelling.
There are currently no events scheduled in this category. See the event calendar for more events.


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The 2019 Catalog from the brand Bombtrack is now live. You can either view the bikes at their website, or in their newest catalog on Issu. Head on over to Bombtrack to see what they've added to their lineup.
Who is the Radavist?
A group of individuals who share a love of cycling and the outdoors. We will always stop for a photo, or to hit a jump. Rubber side up!
We believe the outdoors should be respected. Please, pack it in and pack it out. Leave it better, even. Remember, we're all ambassadors for cycling, so be polite on the road and the trails and observe the leave no trace principles.
What does the Radavist mean?
Rad + Atavist = RADAVIST
Why does a porpoise surf a wave, or a sea otter slide down a rock? Atavism is a primal trait in humans and animals that drives us to do what we do – what ought to come naturally – it's the inherent nature of living things to play. Atavism is why we ride the way we ride; From mashing the city on a track bike, riding singletrack on a 'cross bike and shredding trails on a mountain bike. Take the time to get rad and tell the tale.
Want to contribute? Send a submission
Interested in advertising? email the Radavist.
Our comment policy is simple: we welcome and value tactful discourse and opinions. You don't have to agree with our views but please deliver your concerns in a polite and personable manner. This is a safe place, all are welcome to engage in this community. That said, there is zero-tolerance for: racism, sexism, trolling, and slander.
Unless otherwise noted, we do not accept funds for content. This website runs on ad revenue, however, the advertisements do not influence or affect the content or opinions of the authors. If you have concerns or questions, feel free to drop them in the comments on the relevant post.
The Bombtrack team takes on the infamous Dirty Reiver, one of the UK's most challenging dirt road courses, in their latest video.
The 2019 Catalog from the brand Bombtrack is now live. You can either view the bikes at their website, or in their newest catalog on Issu. Head on over to Bombtrack to see what they've added to their lineup.
Do they have any US dealers?
Any active US dealers?
We Just signed up with their Distributor! Revolver Bikes in North Portland
Enjoy the bikes! We sell them here in Adelaide, Australia and are stoked every year when this catalogue comes out. There are some reeeaaaaal nice bikes in there!


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Overall Rank:
Avg. Rating:
# of Ratings:
Theater Date:
Keisha Castle-HughesCliff CurtisMabel WharekawaElizabeth SkeenRawiri ParateneVicky Haughton
Plot Outline:
Based on tradition and culture a young girl fulfills her grandfathers wish and prayers.
Characters left. Want more? See how.
donkeyknight 06/06/2011 (0 of 0 found this helpful)
Rating of 4/4
There are so many things that are perfectly done in this heartrending and spirit-soaring movie. Wonderful lensing, wonderful acting, wonderful depiction of a culture.
Tia Maria 08/18/2008 (0 of 0 found this helpful)
Rating of 0.5/4
Whale Rider is a boring film about a girl who isn't able to fullfill her grandfathers wishes. In my opinion, this movie has no real substance. Sure, some people LOVE it, but I was so bored with it I wasn't even going to watch the end. But, I did, hoping that maybe it would turn out good. It didn't.
GGauthier 09/10/2007 (1 of 1 found this helpful)
Lovely film about a girl that wants be part of the cultural and social changes given in her country. It might be not visually stunning, but is certainly beautiful. It has a very nice story and a great acting. The ending is great and gives to the film a fantasy touch turning it in something special. Watch it for take a break of holywood stuff.
Alex 06/27/2007 (0 of 1 found this helpful)
Rating of 1/4
Not good at all and I heard it was. No matter what you have heard stay away from this movie unless you absolutely love slow movie "feel good" family movies. I was bored and you will be too.
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We are an independent estate agency with an unrivalled reputation for customer service.
Established in 1990, the senior directors alone have over ninety years combined experience.
Weale & Hitchen offer a comprehensive, residential sales service covering north Manchester and south-east Lancashire through their interlinked, 6 branch network, comprising Bury, Holcombe Brook, Ramsbottom, Harwood, Unsworth and Rawtenstall.
As an independent estate agency, Weale & Hitchen have only one objective: to require that our experienced valuers and support staff provide you with the finest house selling advice and service available, to enable your move to go as smoothly as possible and ensure that you recommend us to your family, friends and colleagues.
We are proud that our clients come back to us again and again.
Disclaimer: The information about this Agent is provided by the Agent themselves as an advertisement for their agency services. Rightmove is not endorsing this Agent and makes no warranty as to the accuracy or completeness of the advertisement or any linked or associated information, and Rightmove does not check or verify the accuracy of the content. The information is generated, provided and maintained by Weale & Hitchen, Rawtenstall. Please contact the Agent directly to obtain further information about their property services.
63A Bank Street, Rawtenstall, Rossendale, BB4 7QN


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"Outside the Camp" is a powerful prophetic perspective of the changing landscape of the church, providing a breath of fresh air and much needed encouragement to believers.
With insight from Scripture, through dreams, a vision, and a personal journey of humility, Colin heralds "He makes winds his messengers" ("Psalm 104:4").
There is an age-old resistance to these winds. Are you with the winds or resisting them?
Here is a compelling summons for believers to go to Jesus and be with him "outside the camp" ("Hebrews 13:13").


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What is Possible with Mimeo Connect?23 Jun 2011 I'm working on a series of presentations showing what is possible with the Mimeo Connect Cloud Print Platform. Sometimes its difficult to show people the 100K foot level of what you can do with the print API. This presentation is from a demo I did for some print industry executives, to wet their appetite for what is possible. It covers:
- What is Mimeo?
- What is Mimeo Connect?
- Documents That Do Not Change
- Documents With Dynamic Content
- Application Integration
- Cloud Storage Integration
- Cloud Printing Integration
- Innovate and Print from Any Platform
Whats Possible with Mimeo Connect
View more presentations from kinlane.


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In plotting out an upcoming trip from D.C. to Boston I was pleased to discover Greyhound's new, greener bus fleet which in addition to sporting free wifi and AC plugs (bloggers, put your hands up) boasts a super fuel efficient engine. According to Greyhound calculations, the per-passenger mile works out to approximately 1/3 less CO2 emissions than a hybrid car taking the same trip.
Comparing the Greyhound trip with a Prius the 438 miles trip works out to...
PRIUS: 438 mi / 45 mpg avg. = 9.73 gallons x 20 lbs CO2/gal (that is the conservative estimate) = 195 lbs CO2
GREYHOUND (according to their calcs): = 195/3 = 65 lbs CO2
Then I wondered how that compares to a typical commuter airplane flight on, say the JetBlue's nonstop commuter flight (flight mileage is 401 miles)...
FLIGHT (according to CarbonFund calculator): = .08 tons x 2000 lbs = 160 lbs CO2
Note: the airline calculation does not incorporate "radiative forcing," or the increased impact of CO2 emitted at high altitudes. If you factor that in it works out to .21 tons (or 420 pounds).
The greyhound wins this carbon race.