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1 Yale Law School Yale Law School Legal Scholarship Repository Faculty Scholarship Series Yale Law School Faculty Scholarship A History of Same Sex Marriage William N. Eskridge Jr. Yale Law School Follow this and additional works at: Part of the Law Commons Recommended Citation Eskridge, William N. Jr., "A History of Same Sex Marriage" (1993). Faculty Scholarship Series. Paper This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Yale Law School Faculty Scholarship at Yale Law School Legal Scholarship Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Faculty Scholarship Series by an authorized administrator of Yale Law School Legal Scholarship Repository. For more information, please contact
2 A HISTORY OF SAME-SEX MARRIAGE William N. Eskridge, Jr. * INTRODUCTION XIJ'WHA was a key cultural and political leader in the Zuni VIcommunity in the late nineteenth century, at one point serving as an emissary from that southwestern Native American nation to Washington, D.C.' He was the strongest, wisest, and most esteemed member of his community. And he was a berdache, a male who dressed in female garb. Such men were revered in Zuni circles for their supposed connection to the supernatural, the most gifted of them called lhamana, spiritual leader. We'wha was the most celebrated Zuni lhamana of the nineteenth century. He was married to a man. Ifeyinwa Olinke lived in the nineteenth century as well. 2 She was a wealthy woman of the Igbo tribe, situated in what is now Eastern Nigeria. She was an industrious woman in a community where most of the entrepreneurial opportunities were seized by women, who thereby came to control much of the Igbo tribe's wealth. Ifeyinwa socially overshadowed her less prosperous male husband. As a sign of * Professor of Law, Georgetown University Law Center; Visiting Professor of Law, New York University School of Law. This Article originated with work I did in connection with my ongoing representation of a gay couple suing the District of Columbia for a marriage license. Dean v. District of Columbia, No. CA (D.C. Super. Ct. Dec. 30, 1991), appeal docketed, No (D.C. Ct. App. June 2, 1992). Critically useful primary source leads were provided by Professors William Leap and Geoffrey Burkhart, both anthropologists at American University, and by Father Alexei Michalenko, the Chaplain at the Georgetown University Law Center. I received very helpful comments on earlier drafts of this Article from Marc Arkin, Yair Chamudot, Sylvia Law, Bill Nelson, Mitt Regan, David Richards, and numerous participants at presentations of this Article to the Sexual Orientation and the Law Reading Group of the Gay and Lesbian Attorneys of Washington, D.C: (GAYLAW), the student-sponsored Frontiers of Legal Thought Conference at the Duke Law School, the Georgetown University Law Center, the Fordham University School of Law, the New York University School of Law, and the Symposium on Sexual Orientation and the Law sponsored by the Virginia Law Review. I For an account of We'wha's life, see Will Roscoe, The Zuni Man-Woman (1991). 2 For a description of Ifeyinwa's life, see Ifi Amadiume, Male Daughters, Female Husbands: Gender and Sex in an African Society (1987) HeinOnline Va. L. Rev
3 1420 Virginia Law Review [Vol. 79:1419 her prosperity and social standing, Ifeyinwa herself became a female husband to other women. Her epithet "Olinke" referred to the fact that she had nine wives. Sergius and Bacchus were Roman soldiers who lived in the fourth century. They were male lovers. Yet it was for their Christian faith that they were persecuted by the Romans. Ultimately, Bacchus was tortured to death by the intolerant Romans. According to Christian tradition, Sergius' faith faltered with the death of his lover, only to return when Bacchus appeared to him in a vision and implored, "Your reward will be me," meaning that the couple would be reunited in heaven should Sergius maintain his faith. Sergius kept faith and, like his mate, died a martyr. During the Middle Ages, the relationship of Sergius and Bacchus was considered an exemplar of companionate marriage, or marriage based upon agapic love and mutual respect. The stories of We'wha, Ifeyinwa Olinke, and Sergius and Bacchus resonate strangely in modern American ears. Culturally, most twentieth-century Americans consider marriage to be an institution that intrinsically involves different- rather than same-sex partners. Although some Americans are willing to tolerate same-sex relationships, and even to give them some euphemistic sanction, few consider them to be "real" marriages. The law reflects these cultural attitudes. For example, the most recent edition of Black's Law Dictionary defines "marriage" as the "legal status, condition, or relation of one man and one woman united in law for life, or until divorced, for the discharge to each other and the community of the duties legally incumbent on those whose association is founded on the distinction of sex." '4 This cultural and legal consensus denying the legitimacy of samesex marriages has been under siege for over twenty years. Since the Stonewall riots of June 1969,1 gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals have 3 Their story will be told in John Boswell, What God Has Joined Together: Same-Sex Unions in the Christian Tradition (forthcoming 1994) (on file with Virginia Law Review Association). 4 Black's Law Dictionary 972 (6th ed. 1990) (emphasis added); accord 3A Norman J. Singer, Sutherland Statutory Construction (5th ed. 1992); 52 Am. Jur. 2d Marriage 1 (1970). 5 The Stonewall Riots occurred on the nights of June 27 and 28, 1969, when the gay and lesbian patrons of the Stonewall Bar fought back against a routine police raid of the bar. See Toby Marotta, The Politics of Homosexuality (1981). HeinOnline Va. L. Rev
4 1993] Same-Sex Marriage 1421 come out of the closet and claimed our identity in great numbers. Many of these individuals have formed same-sex relationships, which members of the gaylesbian community have long referred to as "marriages." A number of these couples have insisted that the state recognize these marriages on the same terms that it recognizes different-sex marriages. At present, however, states have refused to recognize same-sex marriages, and none of the publicized lawsuits seeking such recognition has yet succeeded, nor have similar legislative efforts. Opponents of same-sex marriage argue that the concept is oxymoronic. Marriage, they say, must involve a man and a woman because (1) that is the definitional essence of marriage, (2) the Judeo- Christian tradition requires it, and/or (3) the modem Western nationstate has structured society around the assumption that only differentsex marital unions are allowed. Proponents of same-sex marriage dispute and often ridicule these assertions. Thus far, neither side has analyzed these arguments in the context of the history of marriage itself. That is the project of this Article. Part II, the heart of this Article, recounts the history of same-sex marriage, synthesizing scholarship in the fields of social anthropology, ethnography, mythology, comparative literature, sociology, and ecclesiastical history. Most of the scholarship is of recent vintage, reflecting the post-stonewall interest in the topic. 6 This contemporary literature tends to be sympathetic to gaylesbian concerns, and much of it is written by openly bisexual, lesbian, and gay scholars. The same can be said of this Article, for I also share the methodological perspective of this new scholarship-social constructionism-which I explain in Part I. A social constructionist history emphasizes the ways in which marriage is "constructed" by society over time, with "exclusions" from 6 Social anthropologists became interested in this phenomenon earlier than historians, legal scholars, and others. Consider the following findings: In 49 (64 percent) of the 76 societies other than our own for which information is available, homosexual activities of one sort or another are considered normal and socially acceptable for certain members of the community.... In many cases this [same-sex] behavior occurs within the framework of courtship and marriage, the man who takes the part of the female being recognized as a berdache and treated as a woman. In other words, a genuine mateship is involved. Clellan S. Ford & Frank A. Beach, Patterns of Sexual Behavior (1951) (surveying the sexual practices, mores, and institutions of 76 societies) (footnote omitted). HeinOnline Va. L. Rev
5 1422 Virginia Law Review [Vol. 79:1419 the institution being viewed as reflecting larger social power relations. Thus, the exclusion of same-sex couples from marriage in America is an expression of our society's persecution of sexual orientation minorities-lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals. Our insistence that marriage be an option available to us is part of an historical process by which the victims of society's dividing practice (sexual deviation) have come to resist and defy the power of that stigma. This Article situates that resistance in the larger history of Western culture's shifting attitudes toward same-sex intimacy, and in the even larger context of other cultures' more favorable attitudes toward same-sex intimacy. Part III explores the implications of this history, initially addressing debates within the gay, lesbian, and bisexual community about whether we even should be seeking the right to marry (I argue that we should), and then turning to the legal arguments developed in Part I. The history has both "defensive" and "offensive" argumentative power. It reveals the traditional arguments against same-sex marriage to be seriously defective: the definitional argument essentializing marriage around male-female intimacy is factually wrong; the argument from Judeo-Christian tradition is hypocritical, given early Christianity's tolerance of same-sex intimacy; and the pragmatic argument is revealed to rest upon a normatively questionable status quo. The history of same-sex marriage also has offensive, or affirmative, persuasive power. I offer it to the lesbian, bisexual, and gay community as part of a collective effort to retrieve our history, which has been suppressed and denied. And I offer it to the legal community as part of our larger narrative: same-sex unions have been a valuable institution for most of human history and in most known cultures. Social and religious mores in most cultures, including Western culture at certain times, have valorized same-sex unions for most of the same reasons they have valorized different-sex unions. Cultures, such as that of the recent West, that deny same-sex unions do so to suppress and persecute a homosocial minority. The process of suppression is an ugly one. For the same reasons that law ended its prohibition of interracial marriages in 1967, it should end its prohibition of same-sex marriages now. HeinOnline Va. L. Rev
6 19931 Same-Sex Marriage 1423 I. THE LEGAL ARGUMENTS FOR AND AGAINST SAME-SEX MARRIAGE The intellectual debate over same-sex marriage in American law has been a twenty-year conversation largely conducted within the framework of liberal theory. The post-stonewall period of gay rights activism thrust the issue onto the nation's policy agenda, as gay and lesbian couples came out and began to insist on legal recognition of their relationships. These couples and their advocates relied on rights-oriented arguments, asserting that same-sex couples are not materially different from different-sex couples and should therefore be given the same legal treatment as a matter of constitutional or statutory right. These arguments have recently succeeded in gaining same-sex couples some of the same benefits regularly bestowed upon differentsex couples in the private sector and under local domestic partnership ordinances. They have thus far been unsuccessful, however, in gaining state-wide recognition of same-sex unions as marriages. The reasons given by opponents of same-sex marriage are also grounded in liberal rhetoric. With respect to the institution of marriage, these opponents argue, same-sex couples are simply not similar to differentsex couples. Because marriage definitionally, morally, and practically requires a man and a woman, there is no constitutional or statutory "right" for same-sex couples to marry. Why have liberal arguments been so unavailing for those advocating same-sex marriage? Social constructionist thought suggests that liberal theory's hostility to same-sex marriage derives not from any internal logic but instead from cultural attitudes-specifically, the way American society has constructed both marriage and homosexuality. Just as interracial marriage was portrayed in such a way as to isolate African Americans from mainstream society, so prohibitions against same-sex marriage help to preserve the subordination of gays, lesbians, and bisexuals within society. Nonetheless, just as there was no neutral way for liberal theory to justify prohibiting interracial marriage yesterday, so there is no neutral way to justify prohibiting samesex marriage today. A. Liberal Arguments for Same-Sex Marriage Before 1969, the notion of a same-sex couple entering into statesanctioned marriage seemed culturally and legally implausible in this HeinOnline Va. L. Rev
7 1424 Virginia Law Review [Vol. 79:1419 country. Even though many same-sex couples in American history entered into the functional equivalent of marriage or, surprisingly enough, were legally married, these traditions were suppressed or ignored. The Stonewall riots changed all that, however, as gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals came out of the closet in substantial numbers. Many of these newly-liberated couples formed openly committed relationships functionally similar to different-sex marriages. As part of this demand for acknowledgment or acceptance, many activists sought legal recognition of same-sex marriages on the same terms as different-sex marriages, as part of a general movement to end all forms of state discrimination against lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals. For twenty years, gay activists have confronted the legal systemmainly the courts--demanding that it end its discrimination against same-sex marriages. Three types of arguments have been made in support of these demands. 7 First, state refusal to recognize same-sex marriages violates the right to marry, which the Supreme Court inferred from the Due Process Clause in Loving v. Virginia. 8 Loving invalidated state laws prohibiting different-race marriages in response to arguments that they violated African Americans' right to equal protection and interracial couples' due process right to marry. Subsequent cases have emphasized that the freedom to marry the person of one's choosing stands as a fundamental due process right recognized for poor people and even prisoners and that this right can only be abridged to further an important or compelling state interest. 9 Gay activists and friendly commentators argue that by refusing to allow same-sex couples to add a legal sanction to their relationships, states violate same-sex couples' constitutional right to marry, a position 7 For sources presenting the rights-oriented arguments, see Nan D. Hunter, Sherryl E. Michaelson & Thomas B. Stoddard, The Rights of Lesbians and Gay Men: The Basic ACLU Guide to a Gay Person's Rights (3d ed. 1992); Alissa Friedman, The Necessity for State Recognition of Same-Sex Marriage: Constitutional Requirements and Evolving Notions of Family, 3 Berkeley Women's L.J. 134 ( ); Rhonda R. Rivera, Our Straight-Laced Judges: The Legal Position of Homosexual Persons in the United States, 30 Hastings L.J. 799, (1979); Editors of the Harv. L. Rev., Sexual Orientation and the Law (1990) U.S. 1 (1967). 9 See Turner v. Safley, 482 U.S. 78 (1987) (holding that the state cannot, without compelling reason, forbid prison inmates from marrying while in prison); Zablocki v. Redhail, 434 U.S. 374 (1978) (finding that the state cannot forbid a person with outstanding support obligations from remarrying); Boddie v. Connecticut, 401 U.S. 371 (1971) (declaring that the state cannot condition divorce upon payment of fees that poor people cannot afford). HeinOnline Va. L. Rev
8 1993] Same-Sex Marriage 1425 which is just as irrational as previous state action prohibiting different-race marriages. 10 In addition, gaylegal theorists and feminists have argued that by prohibiting same-sex marriage, states engage in sex discrimination, thereby violating the federal Equal Protection Clause and/or state equal rights amendments. 1 Although the state will give a marriage license to virtually any woman-man couple, no license will be dispensed to any woman-woman couple. As a consequence, the state is discriminating against the latter couple simply because the second partner is a woman and not a man. That, the argument goes, is de jure sex discrimination, which is unconstitutional unless justified by a compelling state interest. A deeper form of the sex discrimination argument, developed by Sylvia Law, is that any effort by the state to hardwire sex differences into the concept of marriage perpetuates traditional sex-based stereotypes of man-as-breadwinner and womanas-housekeeper. 1 2 Same-sex marriage is required by a genderless Constitution precisely because it unlinks functional roles from sex stereotypes. Finally, under a gayliberal analysis, prohibiting same-sex marriages is invalid precisely because it discriminates against lesbian and gay couples. Many scholars 13 and some judges 14 have argued that statutes 10 See Friedman, supra note 7, at ; Herma H. Kay, Private Choices and Public Policy: Confronting the Limitations of Marriage, 5 Austl. J. Farn. L. 69 (1991); Editors of the Harvard Law Review, supra note 7, at See Sylvia A. Law, Homosexuality and the Social Meaning of Gender, 1988 Wis. L. Rev. 187, , ; Claudia A. Lewis, Note, From This Day Forward: A Feminine Moral Discourse on Homosexual Marriage, 97 Yale L.J (1988). 12 Law, supra note 11, at The most sustained case for strict scrutiny is made in Carol S. Steiker, Note, The Constitutional Status of Sexual Orientation: Homosexuality as a Suspect Classification, 98 Harv. L. Rev (1985). For other scholarly works on this issue, see John H. Ely, Democracy and Distrust (1980); Bruce A. Ackerman, Beyond Carolene Products, 98 Harv. L. Rev. 713 (1985); Elvia R. Arriola, Sexual Identity and the Constitution: Homosexual Persons as a Discrete and Insular Minority, 10 Women's Rts. L. Rep. 143 (1988); Richard Delgado, Fact, Norm, and Standard of Review-The Case of Homosexuality, 10 U. Dayton L. Rev. 575 (1985); Cass R. Sunstein, Sexual Orientation and the Constitution: A Note on the Relationship Between Due Process and Equal Protection, 55 U. Chi. L. Rev (1988). For an excellent cautionary piece, see Janet E. Halley, The Politics of the Closet: Towards Equal Protection for Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Identity, 36 UCLA L. Rev. 915 (1989). 14 The leading judicial decision applying strict scrutiny to sexual orientation classifications is Judge William A. Norris' panel opinion in Watkins v. United States Army, 847 F.2d 1329, (9th Cir. 1988), aff'd on other grounds, 875 F.2d 699 (9th Cir. 1989) (en banc) (affirming the panel decision on the ground of equitable estoppel, declining to reach the HeinOnline Va. L. Rev
9 1426 Virginia Law Review [Vol. 79:1419 classifying individuals on the basis of their sexual orientation should trigger heightened equal protection scrutiny. Under such scrutiny, state prohibitions of same-sex marriage ought to be invalidated because no compelling state interest justifies treating gay couples differently from heterosexual couples. Like the sex discrimination argument, this claim can sometimes be asserted on the basis of statutory as well as constitutional rights. A number of jurisdictions have enacted human rights statutes that broadly prohibit discriminating against lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals on the basis of their sexual orientation." 5 In the District of Columbia, for example, the Human Rights Act prohibits the government from discriminating on the basis of sexual orientation or from adopting policies that have a discriminatory effect upon sexual orientation minorities. 16 Because denying marriage licenses has such an effect on lesbian and gay couples, the District's refusal to issue licenses is arguably unlawful sexual orientation, as well as sex, discrimination. Although such rights-based arguments are naturally raised in litigation contexts, lesbian and gay advocates have relied on similar pitches in lobbying for support in the executive and legislative branches. Activists have brought these constitutional and statutory arguments to state attorneys general, in addition to petitioning state legislatures to adopt statutes allowing same-sex marriages. constitutional issues, and withdrawing the district court and panel opinions). Judge Norris' views were favorably cited in Commonwealth v. Wasson, 842 S.W.2d 487, 499 (Ky. 1992). For dicta supporting Judge Norris' views, see Gay Rights Coalition v. Georgetown Univ., 536 A.2d 1, 36 (D.C. Ct. App. 1987) (opinion of Mack, J.) (en banc). 15 California, Connecticut, the District of Columbia, Hawaii, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Vermont, and Wisconsin have statutes prohibiting job discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. See Cal. Lab. Code (West Supp. 1993); Conn. Gen. Stat. Ann. 46a- 81c (West Supp. 1993); D.C. Code Ann , (1981); Haw. Rev. Stat , (Supp. 1992); Mass. Gen. Laws Ann. ch. 151B, 4 (West Supp. 1993); N.J. Stat. Ann. 10:5-4, -12 (West Supp. 1993); Vt. Stat. Ann. tit. 3, 961(6) (Supp. 1992); id. tit (a), 1726(a)(7); Wis. Stat. Ann (West 1988 & Supp. 1991). The District of Columbia, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Vermont, and Wisconsin also prohibit businesses from engaging in such discrimination when providing services in places of "public accommodation." See D.C. Code (1981); Mass. Gen. Laws Ann. ch. 272, 92A, 98 (West 1990); N.J. Stat Ann. 10:5-4, -12f (west 1993); Vt. Stat. Ann. tit 9, 4502(a) (Supp. 1992); Wis. Stat. Ann (9) (West Supp. 1990). 16 The District's anti-discrimination rules were applied to District government agencies in Dickerson v. D.C. Dep't of Human Servs., No PA(N) (D.C. Comm'n on Human Rights, 1991). HeinOnline Va. L. Rev
10 1993] Same-Sex Marriage 1427 B. Liberal Arguments Against Same-Sex Marriage As of October 1993, none of the legal efforts to gain statewide recognition of same-sex marriage in the United States has been successful, 7 though several efforts are still pending and one (in Hawaii) has obtained a ruling that the state must show a compelling interest for its exclusion of same-sex couples from marriage. Same-sex marriage opponents-primarily state attorneys general defending state statutes, state court judges interpreting and upholding those statutes, and interest group opponents (the Catholic Church and fundamentalist Protestant denominations)-have argued that the concept is a contradiction in terms. Marriage must involve a man and a woman, they contend: a relationship between people of the same sex simply cannot be a marriage, as a matter of definition, morality, and Western practice. The main argument against same-sex marriage is definitional: marriage is necessarily different-sex and therefore cannot include samesex couples. Hence, the authors of any statute that talks of "marriage" could have only contemplated different-sex couples, even if the statute is not gendered, i.e., does not use the specific terms "husband" 17 For leading judicial decisions rejecting arguments for same-sex marriage, see Adams v. Howerton, 486 F. Supp (C.D. Cal. 1980), aff'd on other grounds, 673 F.2d 1036 (9th Cir. 1982); Singer v. Hara, 522 P.2d 1187 (Wash. Ct. App. 1974); Jones v. Hallahan, 501 S.W.2d 588 (Ky. 1973); Baker v. Nelson, 191 N.W.2d 185 (Minn. 1971), appeal dismissed, 409 U.S. 810 (1972); see also Baehr v. Lewin, No (Haw. Cir. Ct. Sept. 3, 1991) (rejecting plaintiffs' equal protection claim), vacated and remanded, 852 P.2d 44 (Haw. 1993); Succession of Bacot, 502 So. 2d 1118, (La. Ct. App.) (holding that a man cannot be a "concubine" of another man), writ denied, 503 So. 2d 466 (La. 1987); Jennings v. Jennings, 315 A.2d 816, 820 n.7 (Md. Spec. Ct. App. 1974) (explaining that "Maryland does not recognize a marriage between persons of the same sex"); In re Estate of Cooper, 564 N.Y.S.2d 684, 687 (N.Y. Sup. Ct. 1990) (refusing to "elevate[ ] homosexual unions to the same level achieved by the marriage of two people of the opposite sex"); Anonymous v. Anonymous, 325 N.Y.S.2d 499 (N.Y. Sup. Ct. 1971) (stating that "[m]arriage is and always has been a contract between a man and a woman"); De Santo v. Barnsley, 476 A.2d 952 (Pa. Super. Ct. 1984) (holding that persons of the same sex cannot contract a common law marriage); Slayton v. Texas, 633 S.W.2d 934, 937 (Tex. Ct. App. 1982) (stating that same-sex marriage is impossible in Texas). The attorneys general of at least six states have issued opinions that their states' marriage laws prohibit same-sex marriages and can constitutionally do so. They are 190 Op. Att'y Gen. Ala. 30 (1983); 1975 Colo. AG LEXIS 38; 77 Op. Att'y Gen. Kan. 248 (1977); 1978 Miss. AG LEXIS 684; 1976 S.C. AG LEXIS 423; 88 Op. Att'y Gen. Tenn. 43 (1988). HeinOnline Va. L. Rev
11 1428 Virginia Law Review [Vol. 79:1419 and "wife." Typical is the Kentucky Court of Appeals' discussion in Jones v. Hallahan : 18 Kentucky statutes do not specifically prohibit marriage between persons of the same sex nor do they authorize the issuance of a marriage license to such persons. Marriage was a custom long before the state commenced to issue licenses for that purpose. For a time the records of marriage were kept by the church... [Miarriage has always been considered as the union of a man and a woman and we have been presented with no authority to the contrary. It appears to us that appellants are prevented from marrying, not by the statutes of Kentucky or the refusal of the County Court Clerk of Jefferson County to issue them a license, but rather by their own incapability of entering into a marriage as that term is defined. 19 Any argument focusing on statutory interpretation is naturally dispatched by this definitional approach, because all of the state marriage statutes-whether gendered or not-employ the term "marriage. 2 0 Although the Kentucky court relied on history and tradition to define marriage, other courts have approached the issue as a functional matter, but with the same result: same-sex unions are not "marriages" because the purpose of marriage is procreation, which same-sex couples cannot accomplish. 21 Courts have also invoked the definitional argument as a basis for rejecting constitutional challenges founded upon Loving's right to marry. The leading case is the Washington Court of Appeals' decision in Singer v. Hara, 2 z which not only rejected a federal due process argument based upon Loving, but also an argument based upon the state equal rights amendment: Given the definition of marriage which we have enunciated, the distinction between the case presented by appellants [two men] and S.W.2d 588 (Ky. 1973). 19 Id. at 589 (emphasis added and footnote omitted). 20 See id. at 590 (stating that "the relationship proposed by the appellants does not authorize the issuance of a marriage license because what they propose is not a marriage"); Bacot, 502 So. 2d at 1130; Baker, 191 N.W.2d at ; Singer, 522 P.2d at See Baker, 191 N.W.2d at 186. On this view, procreation at least must be a potential purpose. Because same-sex couples cannot create children by themselves (a third different-sex person must be introduced, e.g., a sperm donor or a surrogate), defining marriage in this way also excludes different-sex couples who are unable to bear children P.2d 1187 (Wash. Ct. App. 1974). HeinOnline Va. L. Rev
12 1993] Same-Sex Marriage 1429 [that] presented in Loving... is apparent. In Loving... the parties were barred from entering into the marriage relationship because of an impermissible racial classification. There is no analogous sexual classification involved in the instant case because appellants are not being denied entry into the marriage relationship because of their sex; rather, they are being denied entry into the marriage relationship because of the recognized definition of that relationship as one which may be entered into only by two persons who are members of the opposite sex. 23 By defining marriage as essentially different-sex, the court thus was able to avoid the charge that the state was creating an invidious discrimination by denying licenses to same-sex couples. 24 The opponents of same-sex marriage have also attempted to show that defining marriage to include only different-sex couples is justified morally, to preserve family values and traditional ethical notions. Accordingly, the second type of oppositionist argument invokes community values, including the antihomosexual teachings of the Old Testament. The federal court in Adams v. Howerton 25 made just such a definitional argument by linking it to traditional Judeo-Christian morality: The definition of marriage, the rights and responsibilities implicit in that relationship, and the protections and preferences afforded to marriage, are now governed by the civil law. The English civil law took its attitudes and basic principles from canon law, which, in early times, was administered in the ecclesiastical courts. Canon law in both Judaism and Christianity could not possibly sanction any marriage between persons of the same sex because of the vehement condemnation in the scriptures of both religions of all homosexual relationships. Thus there has been for centuries a combination of scriptural and canonical teaching under which a "marriage" between persons of the same sex was unthinkable and, by definition, impossible Id. at See also Baker, 191 N.W.2d at , in which the court distinguished Loving from the right to privacy cases on the ground that the latter emphasized procreation's essential link to marriage. For this reason, "in common sense and in a constitutional sense, there is a clear distinction between a marital restriction based merely upon race and one based upon the fundamental difference in sex." Id. at F. Supp (C.D. Cal. 1980), aff'd on other grounds, 673 F.2d 1036 (9th Cir. 1982). 26 Id. at 1123 (footnotes omitted). HeinOnline Va. L. Rev
13 1430 Virginia Law Review [Vol. 79:1419 More dramatically, the District of Columbia Superior Court's decision in Dean v. District of Columbia 27 invoked passages from Genesis, Deuteronomy, Matthew, and Ephesians to support its holding that "societal recognition that it takes a man and a woman to form a marital relationship is older than Christianity itself, " ' 28 an apparent reference to Adam and Eve. Although these decisions rest upon a suspiciously sectarian vision of morality, they could have invoked general "family values" to the same effect, as other courts and commentators have done. 29 Traditional Judeo-Christian morality works against same-sex marriage in another way. Its sexual mores are reflected in state sodomy laws-currently found in more than twenty states-which are invoked in their relevant jurisdictions as a basis for opposing same-sex marriages. The District of Columbia Superior Court in Dean believed that allowing same-sex marriages would contradict expressed public policy where the sexual conduct at the heart of those marriages was criminalized. 30 The Supreme Court in Bowers v. Hardwick"a suggested that "millennia of moral teaching" 3 2 can protect sodomy laws against due process attack. The same idea is potentially applicable to marriage rights. A third argument against same-sex marriage appeals to pragmatism. Even if unconstrained by formal definitions and traditional 27 No. CA (D.C. Super. Ct. Dec. 30, 1991), appeal docketed, No (D.C. Ct. App. June 2, 1992). 28 Id., slip op. at A similar trope was deployed in Baker, 191 N.W.2d at 186 ("The institution of marriage as a union of man and woman, uniquely involving the procreation and rearing of children within a family, is as old as the book of Genesis."). 29 See G. Sidney Buchanan, Same-Sex Marriage: The Linchpin Issue, 10 U. Dayton L. Rev. 541, 567 (1985) ("The majority [of society], therefore, may reasonably believe that legal recognition of same-sex marriage... would impair the ability of opposite-sex marriage to advance the individual and community values that it has traditionally promoted."); see also id. at (arguing that the state ought to be able to implement community moral standards by discouraging conduct inconsistent with those standards). 30 See Dean, slip op. at 9 ("[L]egislative authorization of homosexual, same-sex marriages would constitute tacit state approval or endorsement of the sexual conduct, to wit, sodomy, commonly associated with homosexual status-conduct deemed by society to be so morally reprehensible as to be a criminal offense in the District of Columbia and many other jurisdictions.") (footnotes omitted). The District subsequently repealed its sodomy law in 1993, however U.S. 186 (1986). 32 Id. at 197 (Burger, C.J., concurring). Though the Chief Justice's phrasing is more quotable, the majority opinion relied on a similar argument. See id. at HeinOnline Va. L. Rev
14 1993] Same-Sex Marriage 1431 morality, the pragmatist might still be reluctant to allow same-sex marriages if such marriages would prove impractical or unjustified under a social cost-benefit analysis. Judge Richard Posner's Sex and Reason presents just such a pragmatic case against permitting samesex marriage at this time. 33 Recognizing same-sex relationships as marriage would be problematic, he suggests, because it would "be widely interpreted as placing a stamp of approval on homosexuality." 34 Moreover, such recognition would carry an "information cost" in that the social value of knowing someone is married would be somewhat reduced as the term is broadened. 3 Finally, acknowledging same-sex marriages would have a variety of "collateral effects, simply because marriage is a status rich in entitlements," many of which were not designed with same-sex couples in mind. 36 This last point is the most important. If the state suddenly recognized same-sex marriages, employers would have to rethink whether to provide fringe benefits once many of their newly married gay and lesbian employees claimed spousal coverage. Legislatures would become embroiled in a spate of controversies about which (if any) marriage entitlements they would deny to same-sex couples. If any entitlements were denied, state attorneys general would then be faced with the prospect of litigating the constitutionality of such discrimination. Finally, state agencies and private employers would have to perform new cost-benefit analyses to recalibrate the health care, spousal leave, and other benefits now accorded married couples. For the Posnerian pragmatist, even if the moral objections to samesex marriage have become attenuated after Stonewall, the concept of different-sex marriage is so culturally embedded in our society-and interwoven throughout its social and economic institutions-that policymakers (especially unelected judges) cannot simply legalize same-sex marriages and expect that society will acquiesce without 33 Richard A. Posner, Sex and Reason (1992). 34 Id. at 311. Judge Posner does not discuss the argument that, by permitting convicted rapists, spouse abusers, and misogynists to marry their victims, the state might be widely interpreted as placing a stamp of approval on rape, spouse abuse, and misogyny. 35 Id. at 312. Judge Posner concedes that denying same-sex marriages carries what I consider to be even more severe "information costs" for those in a same-sex union: the parties cannot signal their level of commitment by getting married or deliberating the issue. 36 Id. at 313. This point is reviewed critically in William N. Eskridge, Jr., A Social Constructionist Critique of Posner's Sex and Reason: Steps Toward a Gaylegal Agenda, 102 Yale L.J. 333, (1992). HeinOnline Va. L. Rev
15 1432 Virginia Law Review [Vol. 79:1419 experiencing turmoil and disruption. On the other hand, pragmatic concerns such as those articulated above might be viewed less as arguments against same-sex marriage simpliciter, and more as arguments that this new institution cannot be thrust upon society abruptly by unelected judges. Instead, advocates should advance the idea incrementally, starting with domestic partnership ordinances and working up to same-sex marriages over time. C. Toward a Gaylegal Response: Social Constructionism In response to the definitional, moral, and pragmatic arguments discussed above, the gaylegal community and its allies have developed liberal meta-arguments. The main pitch has been libertarian: the state should allow people to marry whomever they desire so long as there are no grave third-party effects of a tangible and significant nature. Under a libertarian view, the definitional argument is circular-the state cannot defend its prohibition of same-sex marriages simply because it does not believe them to be marriages. Cases upholding the right to marry require the state to provide an independent reason, one grounded upon third-party harms and not just moral disapproval 37 or a sectarian understanding of marriage. 38 Also, as a practical matter, state prohibition of same-sex marriage serves none of the family values trumpeted by those who resist the institution. By denying gay and lesbian couples the legal protections and household stability facilitated by marriage laws, the state only impedes our ability to create "families we choose."1 39 These libertarian counterarguments have been uniformly unsuccessful, for reasons having to do with precedent (the Bowers problem with any argument based on the Due Process Clause), the doctrinal weakness of the right-to-marry line of cases, 4 and cultural resistance 37 This is supported not only by Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1 (1966), whose validation of different-race marriages came in the face of widespread social disapproval, but also by Palmore v. Sidoti, 466 U.S. 429 (1984), which held that majority "prejudice" generally could not be the basis for state penalties. Id. at 434. Both cases expressly disapproved of state acts imposing punishment as a means by which to accommodate racial prejudice. 38 See Sherryl E. Michaelson, Note, Religion and Morality Legislation: A Reexamination of Establishment Clause Analysis, 59 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 301, (1984). 39 See Friedman, supra note 7, at ; see also Kath Weston, Families We Choose: Lesbians, Gays, Kinship (1991) (coining the phrase). 40 See Earl M. Maltz, Constitutional Protection for the Right to Marry: A Dissenting View, 60 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 949 (1992). HeinOnline Va. L. Rev
16 19931 Same-Sex Marriage 1433 to the very idea of same-sex marriage generally and "homosexuals" in particular. Perhaps a better line of liberal meta-argument is the egalitarian pitch: it is discrimination, pure and simple, to deny same-sex couples the same marriage rights as different-sex couples. Denying same-sex couples marriage licenses is a clear case of discrimination, therefore directly implicating the Equal Protection Clause, which renders any gendered state policy suspect (or quasi-suspect). The policy of the Equal Protection Clause is also strongly implicated, because such discrimination is animated by the sorts of irrational prejudices and gender stereotypes that have been cleared away in other contexts. Bowers by its terms does not apply to equal protection claims. The Hawaii Supreme Court recently accepted a version of the egalitarian argument, while decisively rejecting the libertarian pitch, and has required the state to justify its exclusion of same-sex couples. 41 Except for the Hawaii decision, egalitarian claims have suffered the same fate as libertarian ones. A difficulty they share is that both operate under a faith that our liberal polity will assure bisexuals, gay men, and lesbians the same "neutral" protection of our autonomy (the libertarian point) and the same "neutral" protection against arbitrary classifications (the egalitarian point) that are assured all citizens in a liberal polity. Yet liberalism has had no bite for us: our liberty has been defined away by denying our capacity for making a marital "choice," and our equality has been compromised by making homosexuality a suspect "group" rather than a suspect "classification." This poses a challenge for the gaylegal community-to escape confining liberal conceptualizations of our position. Social constructionist theory has provided a different way to conceptualize the case for same-sex marriage. At the same time the gaylegal community was struggling to obtain equal rights, we were also engaged in an intellectual struggle to understand why American society has been so hysterically hostile to us. 42 What emerged from this struggle was widespread agreement among gaylesbian intellectuals that sexual orientation as a category is socially constructed, and that the modem West's obsession with that category 41 See Baehr v. Lewin, 852 P.2d 44, 67 (Haw. 1993). 42 This latter struggle has many parallels with feminist and critical race theory and, indeed, was influenced heavily by feminist thought in particular. See, e.g., Gayle Rubin, Thinking Sex: Notes for a Radical Theory of the Politics of Sexuality, in Pleasure and Danger 267 (Carole S. Vance ed., 1984). HeinOnline Va. L. Rev
17 1434 Virginia Law Review [Vol. 79:1419 is part of a complex web of attitudes and institutions that work to subordinate whole groups of people, including straight, bisexual, and lesbian women as well as bisexual and gay men. 43 There is now a substantial literature, grounded in philosophy, history, anthropology, and sociology, that develops social constructionist theory as a way of thinking about culture generally, and sexuality and marriage in particular. Social constructionism provides a framework for evaluating samesex marriages that differs from traditional liberal thought. This framework can be expressed as three hypotheses. First, marriage is not a naturally generated institution with certain essential elements. Instead, it is a construction that is linked with other cultural and social institutions, so that the old-fashioned boundaries between the public and private life melt away. Second, the social construction of institutions like marriage is not and cannot be neutral, for it involves the playing out of a society's power relationships. Categorically denying same-sex marriage relates not only to the notion that procreation is essential to marriage, but more deeply to Americans' fears of homosexuality (itself an historically recent construct), just as denying different-race marriage was related to Americans' racial anxieties (also an historical construct). Third, the social construction of marriage is dynamic. Linked as it is to other institutions and attitudes, marriage will change as they change. Conceptualized around certain practices dividing society's constituents, marriage should change as the subordinated groups identify their own oppression and decide to resist it. These social constructionist hypotheses have many implications for the legal debate over same-sex marriage, but I can hardly explore those implications without offering some evidence supporting the hypotheses themselves. As evidence, I offer the following history of same-sex unions. 43 For the leading sources, see I Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality (Robert Hurley trans., Pantheon Books 1978) (1976); Mary McIntosh, The Homosexual Role, 16 Soc. Probs. 182 (1968), reprinted in The Making of the Modem Homosexual (Kenneth Plummer ed., 1981); see also Forms of Desire: Sexual Orientation and the Social Constructionist Controversy (Edward Stein ed., 1990) (exploring social constructionism); Sexual Meanings: The Cultural Construction of Gender and Sexuality (Sherry B. Ortner & Harriet Whitehead eds., 1981) (same). HeinOnline Va. L. Rev
18 1993] Same-Sex Marriage 1435 II. SAME-SEX UNIONS IN OTHER TIMES AND OTHER CULTURES If one read only legal materials, one would think same-sex marriage an historical and cultural oddity, if not freakish and perverse. Yet historians, social anthropologists, and scholars of comparative literature have been writing about same-sex marriage for most of this century, with a boomlet in the last two decades. Same-sex unions grounded upon affection, sexual attraction, or a mixture thereof are commonplace in human history, and the following account is my effort to introduce this scholarship to a legal audience. Several general points should be made at the outset. The story I am going to tell is episodic and fragmentary. A thorough history of marriage itself has yet to be written,"4 and may never be written, because the records of people's everyday lives no longer exist or exist in hardto-decipher form. 45 A history of same-sex unions will be even more fragmentary, because same-sex relationships have not comprised the predominant form of mateship in most cultures and have been systematically suppressed in the West for several centuries. Another complication involves terminology. Human relationships and companionships assume as many different forms as there are societies, and generalizing about institutions across cultures is perilous. Nonetheless, employing some categories may help to make sense of the data. I shall thus use the term "same-sex unions" to refer to any kind of culturally or legally recognized institution whereby people of the same sex are bonded together in relationships for sexual or other reasons of affinity. Included within the general category of same-sex unions will be same-sex "relationships," which are culturally but not legally recognized in the society, and same-sex "marriages," which are given some kind of legal recognition However, there have been many excellent monographs. E.g., James A. Brundage, Law, Sex, and Christian Society in Medieval Europe (1987); John R. Gillis, For Better, For Worse: British Marriages, 1600 to the Present (1985); David Herlihy, Medieval Households (1985); Sarah B. Pomeroy, Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves (1975); Tamara K. Hareven, The History of the Family and the Complexity of Social Change, 96 Am. Hist. Rev. 95 (1991). 45 Thus we do not know when marriage became institutionalized in most societies, or even the extent to which historical marriage-like institutions resemble marriages taking place today in current Western society. 46 Compare my approach with the more liberal approach taken by John Boswell in Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality 26 (1980): No marriages in ancient societies closely match their modem equivalents. Most were vastly more informal; some were more rigid... No precise criteria could be specified HeinOnline Va. L. Rev
19 1436 Virginia Law Review [Vol. 79:1419 Functional categories may also be useful, both descriptively and normatively. 47 "Transgenerational" unions refer to intimate pairings of people of different generations or at least significantly different ages or levels of maturity. These unions typically involve a mature person and a youthful one and tend to be temporary relationships. For these reasons, such relationships are more normatively questionable from the perspective of Western values, though they may serve a cultural purpose from the point of view of the societies in which they occur. Transgenerational relationships are often linked with marriage, as a preparation for or a complement to one's different-sex marriage, for example. "Transgenderal" unions involve two people of the same sex, one of whom assumes some of the roles and characteristics of the opposite sex. These unions can take the form of either relationships or marriages. Berdache marriages, such as that of We'wha, were transgenderal. Note that transgenderal unions accept society's concepts of gender (for the most part). From a feminist point of view, these relationships might be questionable. Finally, a "companionate" union, such as that between Sergius and Bacchus, involves a same-sex couple, each partner having equal status and neither necessarily assuming the role or identity of the opposite sex. Companionate unions are most similar to those that are typically valorized by most modern Western perspectives. For narrative convenience, I have organized the history of same-sex unions into three segments: first, the pre-modern antecedents of Western (European) culture; second, Native American, African and Asian cultures, with a focus on the treatment of same-sex unions prior to Westernization; and, third, the modern period, in which Western culture came to dominate the world. The first two segments reveal that in many communities, including pre-modern Western society, samesex marriage flourished. However, in the modern period, our third segment, one finds that society generally has suppressed same-sex marriage. as constituting a "legal" marriage during most of the period of this study: two people who lived together permanently and whose union was recognized by the community were "married." 47 For a discussion of these typological terms, see generally David F. Greenberg, The Construction of Homosexuality (1988) (providing a leading social history of homosexuality and distinguishing homosexual relationships on the basis of the relative social statuses of the persons involved). HeinOnline Va. L. Rev
20 1993] Same-Sex Marriage 1437 A. Same-Sex Unions in Pre-Modern Western Cultures The early Egyptian and Mesopotamian societies that are considered important antecedents for Western culture apparently not only tolerated same-sex relationships, but also recognized such relationships in their culture, literature, and mythology. Evidence of same-sex marriage is at best indirect in these ancient societies, however. One finds slightly stronger and more direct evidence of same-sex marriages in Greek and early Roman culture, in imperial Rome, and in Western Europe for much of the Christian Middle Ages. 1. The Ancient Near East (Egypt and Mesopotamia) Because there are so few surviving records pertaining to family and sexual matters, we know little of the most ancient cultures' specific practices, namely, those of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and their environs. However, after examining the few pertinent records (including legal documents), as well as the literature, myths, and artifacts of this period, one might tentatively conclude that most ancient cultures did not prohibit same-sex relationships, nor did many stigmatize them. Although the evidence is debatable, some of the ancient cultures may have treated same-sex relationships similarly to marriages involving different-sex partners. The evidence of marital practices-whether for different- or samesex unions-is particularly sparse for Egypt; few records illuminate the intimate practices of the region, and no authoritative legal texts survive. Yet some artifacts have depicted same-sex couples in familiar poses, perhaps providing evidence that Egyptian society at some points in its history was accepting of same-sex relationships. For example, a tomb for two male courtiers of the Fifth Dynasty (circa 2600 B.C.) includes bas-reliefs of the "two men in intimate poses, holding hands, embracing, noses touching, ' '4 8 poses that are strikingly more erotic than those depicting different-sex couples in Egyptian tombs. 49 Social historian David Greenberg argues that the men were lovers whose same-sex relationship was apparently accepted by the state, because the Pharaoh provided their tomb. Indeed, the tomb of 48 Id. at Id. This is significant in part because Egyptian tomb art of that period was almost always stiffly posed, even for husband-and-wife figures. HeinOnline Va. L. Rev
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text:
Change and challenge are two aspects of life that keep us rolling out of bed in the morning. Bowling is a game involving both concepts. Rather than focusing our attention on one or two aspects of the game this week, let's take a look at a variety of bowling items of interest to Valley keglers.
The Professional Bowlers Association is well into its 1985 season with new incentives and prize funds. The Lehigh Valley is represented on tour this year by a fresh face as George Andrews Jr. has packed up his equipment to take on the challenge of competing with the boys who play for pay.

subset: commoncrawl


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jol, 03 Jul 2009samsung I8000 spec look better It has screen rotating for web browsing and gps orientation. never hangs.
hi here is one intresting thing in that mobile its screen is very big,is having GPS Function,how it will be worked,bcoz company not providing any GPS software with this,,so please suggest where from i get this software for this,other wise its not worth for me bcoz specially is big screen & GPs is there so i bought this phone.
Great display and today screen interface. Decent batter life. Responds to touch beautifully. Feels solid and impressive in hand.
I bought this phone recently and the following are the comments:
Display: VGA Extremely good treat to watch.
Screen: 3.5" Just brilliant
Features: No 3.5mm Head phone jack, Sound quality is just OK.(you have treat this as a business phone.
Build : Very good. Only problem is back battery cover is metal and makes noise.I have put a cellophane tape.
Battery: Please forgive this phone. Driving this large display and software consumes more power. Asus!! Please provide large 2nd battery.
Software provided : Full marks. But which GPS shall I use for VGA display.
Package contents: Best would be P750 in these terms. No phone car holder and car charger for such a nice GPS capable phone.
Processor, ROM and RAM: Perfect and pretty zippy.
Price: This would be a better choice of phone when compared to names like HD, Diamond, Hay, its really less and sells for $500 in India. Just grab one.
To Asus: Continue to make good phones, add nice items in the package as you used to do earlier, keep up great build, achieve fine finish, please look in to the battery. Best of luck and I will wait for the next Asus Communicator by 2010
jol, 03 Jul 2009samsung I8000 spec look better This phone is good, the Samasung I8000 is good, but be smart and choose the Sony Ericsson Satio, the only one 12Mp smartphone!!!And that phone has a great CPU too, 600MHZ!
Anonymous, 09 Apr 2009no battery life of Asus phone.btw, i've seen alot of people complaining battery issue for smartphones. I have to admit it doesn't last you many days but 2 days is quite common. For this phone, it does last you for 2 days(my usage) and probably you'd like to charge it everyday. Of course you'd like to switch off bluetooth or wifi after you used it.
today scren should be turned off b'cos it really sucks. I'd rather not having it at all.
Jit, 25 May 2009Request opinion on 1. value for money, 2. Camera spec and pic quality 3. Ease of usage. ThanksI've got the phone with english rom. Compared to diamoned 2, cheaper and have a bigger screen, more buttons. software is not as good. Not confirmed for official 6.5 upgrade. As stated in some reviews, hardware wise is great value buy but software integration is not as good as diamond2.
riddhima, 24 May 2009somebody suggest me shd i buy p835 need suggestions plz helpTry Zoop at Charni Road Mumbai
or Alfa at Vile Parle
Request opinion on 1. value for money, 2. Camera spec and pic quality 3. Ease of usage. Thanks
Atul, 15 May 2009Now that the P835 is out and with double amount of RAM what comparision in processing speed be... morehy atul if u come to know somethin plz forward that information to me also thanks
Anonymous, 19 May 2009This phone had been launched in india, its available in Bangalore (Sangetha Mobiles - 25,738 ... moreYeah..its available everywhere in India...
This phone had been launched in india, its available in Bangalore (Sangetha Mobiles - 25,738 INR ), I used it for a about 30 minutes, the screen is beautiful and images are crisp. Downside is the ASUS Today, its slow for todays standards.
Does P835 come with an extra battery in the kit in India?, as i got this mobile but with no extra battery in the kit, could anyone clarify this.
Now that the P835 is out and with double amount of RAM what comparision in processing speed between the P565 and P835 be felt. Any first hand reviews or links. Want to buy but cant decide. Confused incase of multitask which will outperform and during single but loaded task what will the performance be life.


text:
DALLAS (AP) – Prosecutors in Dallas say a 14-year-old boy faces 30 years in prison over the death of a man allegedly pushed into a moving train.
The teen pleaded guilty Tuesday to murder over the November death of 19-year-old Octavius Lanier.
Investigators say four juveniles were charged with capital murder after Lanier was shoved off a Dallas Area Rapid Transit train platform. Prosecutors say the 14-year-old boy apologized in court during the plea agreement hearing.
He'll begin serving his sentence at a Texas Youth Commission facility. The boy could be moved to a Texas prison unit when he turns 16, or paroled after three years in the TYC.
A judge last Friday ruled that another defendant, who's 15, will not be tried as an adult. Cases are pending against two other boys.
(© Copyright 2011 The Associated Press. All Rights Reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.)
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text: With the Thunderbolt LTE switch app you can set it to "LTE Only" and when I did this my 4G did not drop to 3G or at all. I did find one flaw though. You cannot send text messages on that setting. I am not exactly sure why, as I was receiving messages, they would just not send.


text:
How Training and Support Help You Expand
Training, tools and coaching help franchisees grow their businesses
Chem-Dry franchises are designed to grow. While it is possible to make a solid living running a single van, you can achieve much more by operating your business as an owner-manager rather than as an owner-operator. We provide the tools you need to quickly move into an owner-manager role and grow a large business.
The biggest challenges are effective marketing, managing schedules, maintaining strong business records, training employees and seizing opportunities as an owner. Here's a look at how we help franchisees conquer those challenges:
Software for managing the business, maximizing marketing efforts
Chem-Dry franchisees are able to use onTrack, our proprietary management and tracking software, to make it much easier to manage a growing business, analyze results and capture opportunities for revenue and profits. Chem-Dry's onTrack simplifies the process of growing your business. A cloud-based suite, onTrack works on both desktop computers and mobile devices, which enables you to access key data and adjust schedules on the fly from anywhere.
Additionally, onTrack allows you to quickly schedule jobs with customers, provide notes about specific customer requests and plan truck routes for technicians — which allows you to save fuel costs as you serve customers throughout your territories. The onTrack system even makes planning multiple truck routes simple. As your business grows and becomes busier, and as you add additional vans to serve customers, you can plan tighter routes that minimize gasoline costs and maximize profits.
With onTrack, adjusting price quotes is a breeze. If a customer orders carpet cleaning and then asks for additional upholstery cleaning, your technician quickly makes the adjustment and provides a new quote to the customer. The system then allows you to invoice the customer and collect payment on the spot.
After the job is complete, the software can automatically send a followup survey to the customer's email. Not only will you see how customers feel about the service they received from your technician, but the customer is also invited to provide a testimonial that you can then use in your marketing efforts.
Meanwhile, onTrack maintains a record of what work the customer ordered and when it was done — information you can use to automate follow-up with your customers, emailing them in six months or a year, or alerting you to call them to ask if they would like a follow-up cleaning. The reminder, and the personal attention, can boost your customer retention and your rate of repeat business to our industry-leading 96%. The more customers get to know you and your business, the more likely they are to refer you to friends.
Innovation that empowers employees and helps them (and you) earn more
Chem-Dry's parent company, Harris Research Inc., has been working with chemists to develop cleaning techniques since 1977, and we provide training and resources to franchisees to help them take advantage of our expertise.
We train Chem-Dry franchisees and technicians to identify types of spots and the methods they can use to remove stains from carpet. These techniques go beyond typical carpet cleaning — and they are beyond the expertise of many carpet cleaners.
How do you remove an oil or wine stain without damaging and discoloring the carpet fibers? How do you completely eliminate pet urine stains and smells? These are just two of the dozens of questions a Chem-Dry technician can answer with our training and expertise — one of the reasons customers love Chem-Dry. We have answers to those questions, and we specialize in removing stains that other carpet cleaners refuse to tackle. When you can remove a tough stain, you get great word-of-mouth referrals — and you also can earn great revenue. Customers are happy to pay extra for spot removal.
One of the reasons franchisees love Chem-Dry is that we have embraced innovation in order to put more of our collective know-how into the hands of technicians. As smartphones became ubiquitous, Chem-Dry began developing a suite of apps that can help technicians identify stains and find the right techniques to remove them. It's a big deal, because customers pay about $40, on average, for stain removal. Often, the technician will get a portion of that added revenue, with the rest flowing to the Chem-Dry owner. It's a huge "win-win-win." Technicians and owners make extra money and customers get better service.
Likewise, another smartphone app that we developed guides technicians through how to inform customers about other services that are available — offering them conversational sales techniques that aren't pushy, and that can make a big difference in terms of average invoices. After all, someone who wants stains out of their carpet would probably love to have stains removed from their couch, too!
As you work to build your business, these apps reinforce your staff's training — and give you the tools you need to help boost your results as you study your onTrack data and identify ways to grow your business.
Extreme coaching program has delivered results
In order to learn the business, most Chem-Dry owners act as technicians while they are first growing their businesses, and transitioning to a pure management role can be tricky. Fortunately, we have four decades of experience helping franchisees make that transition. Our "get off the van" program is specifically designed to help franchisees make the transition from their first van or two and a tiny team of employees to a larger team in which the franchise owner is no longer out in the field all day, and is instead free to manage employees and concentrate on marketing opportunities.
If you are planning to operate multiple territories, then you already have a head start. The first phase of the "get off the van" program involves setting goals and a vision for where you want to take your business — which probably already matches the way you are thinking about the Chem-Dry franchise opportunity.
Chem-Dry has a detailed, proven system for helping franchise owners build their client bases. Ed Quinlan, our vice president of franchise services, knows it up and down. Our nine-part webinar series provides a detailed path to follow for growth, and it provides systematic plans to help you work toward your goals. One key element of the program is a financial analysis that helps you understand the revenue numbers you need to achieve different milestones for your business: When should I consider hiring a part-timer to help in the evenings? When should I add a van? How much revenue should I have, and how many vans should I have on the road, before I stop working as a technician and concentrate on full-time management? How do I pay myself when I am not in the field every day serving customers? What should the organization chart look like as my business grows?
Just as important, the program offers practical advice and training to help you reach revenue milestones. Perhaps a new or renewed marketing effort can bring in new customers. Often franchisees are able to bring in extra revenue by offering additional services to customers — services that have higher profit margins, result in higher invoices and allow you to pay performance bonuses that attract highly skilled and loyal technicians.
As you continue to grow, the support continues. Our "extreme business coaching" program is offered quarterly to any franchisees who are looking for ways to grow their businesses, whether they have one van or 15. The free program consists of several weeks of conference call meetings with a coach and other franchisees, and helps owners reinvigorate their business practices to become more efficient, win more customers, and maximize profits. Franchisees of all levels of experience participate; we've helped multi-territory franchisees with three decades of experience find new ways to grow. Part of the magic of the program comes because franchisees don't just learn from us — they learn from each other.
When you join Chem-Dry, you join a family of more than 1,000 owners who are building the brand together in the United States. We get together each year at an annual conference and at regional gatherings to learn about the latest improvements in the Chem-Dry system, share tips with each other, support each other and become friends.


text: I have what I think is a pretty good idea for an app or suite of apps. However, I have no desire to learn programming so I was curious if it is possible to hire a developer? If so, how does that usually work? Pay per hour? Split profits? Thanks for any insights.