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Market Wrap
In a repeat performance of recent weeks the markets nearly made a complete round trip from resistance to support and back again over the last two days. The Dow, which topped at 10430 on Friday and Monday retreated to exactly the low of 10307 marking the bottom of the recent range that was made on the 14th. We then saw an end of day rally that returned us back to near the Monday highs. We are at a stalemate where the bulls and bears are evenly matched as long as we are within this range. Attempts to breakout on either side are met with firm support and resistance.
Chart of the Dow Industrials:
Chart of the NASDAQ Composite:
Chart of the SOX semiconductor index:
The morning was uneventful with no material economic reports and nothing to stimulate traders in either direction. The Dow took a slight hit after a Wal-Mart suit was upgraded to class action on sex discrimination action. WMT dropped -$1 on the news but recovered slightly at the close. Chain Store Sales only rose +0.1% last week and continued their summer doldrums. The small drop in gas prices should eventually see those dollars make their way back into retailer cash drawers but it could be a long dull summer for retailers.
It was not a slow spring for PalmOne. The company reported earnings at 32 cents which more than doubled street numbers at 13 cents. The stock soared on the news gaining +37% on the day. Sounds like they might have under estimated their sales. On purpose or on accident? If the rest of the tech stocks followed suit for the 2Q earnings we would not be worried about the Nasdaq breaking 2000 but 3000 instead. Unfortunately we all know that will not be the case. GS and MWD also reported blowout earnings with GS reporting $2.31 per share with estimates of only $1.95. MWD reported $1.10 per share with estimates of $1.06. Earnings for Wednesday morning include FDX with estimates of $1.33 per share and WOR at $0.76 per share. Earnings after the close include ARRO, BBBY, CDIC, COGN, MLHR, MU, OVTI.
The Nasdaq got help from the SOX after the index rebounded from support at 450 but that rally ran into trouble early in the afternoon. It was a technical bounce more than a fundamental rebound and sellers were still waiting just over 460. After a brief selling attempt the SOX rallied once again to a new three day high and led the Nasdaq back over its 1980 resistance. The SOX has tested 450 support for three days without failing and chip buyers became convinced that a bottom had formed. The SOX gained +3.5% for the day.
Traders watching the election surveys today saw their worst fears confirmed. The election is a toss up with a prior strong point for Bush swinging to Kerry's favor. The terror factor swung in favor of Kerry at 48% to Bush at 47% for those voters that expressed an opinion. What this means is the majority of voters now feel Kerry would be better at dealing with terrorist threats than Bush. This has long been a Bush strong point and one that helped him maintain a lead over the challenger. This makes the election a real tossup and adds more confusion to the investing future.
The clock is slowly ticking down to the June 30th event horizon and volume is ticking down with it. Monday's volume barely broke 3.0B across all markets and ranked as one of the slowest days of the year. Tuesday's rebound from the bottom of our recent range produced a slightly stronger day as buyers forced shorts to cover as volatility increased. The events facing us are the Fed meeting, Iraq turnover, end of quarter and the Russell shuffle. The following week sees a resumption of the major economic reports and the beginning of earnings season. Add in the July-4th holiday and the reasons not to trade over the next eight days outweigh the reasons to be in the market. I have covered all of these events before so I will not elaborate but suffice to say the cloud on the horizon has kept most traders on the sidelines but that may be changing.
The market is not producing anything notable to discuss and is following my game plan for the week exactly. I expected a continued range bound environment until after the FOMC meeting and then a possible uptick into the holiday weekend. So far so good but stay tuned.
The range is clearly defined from 10300-10430 on the Dow with a possible expansion of 100 points in either direction if a suitable news event appears. The Dow managed to cross that entire range in just the last two days. The rebound at the close today was nearly +100 points off the bottom but still could not muster enough excitement to break the 10400 resistance level and closed at 10395.
The Nasdaq range is 1965 to 2000 and we saw most of that on Tuesday as well. As I mentioned above the +3.5% gain in the SOX brought the Nasdaq back from 1965 to close at 1994 and near the high of the day. The Russell also helped to power the Nasdaq with a rebound off the 564 lows and support at 565 to close at resistance at 572. This +8 point jump off the morning lows was very strong and was partially due to the rebound in the SOX. Many of the chip stocks are big fish in the Russell pond and the three indexes are very interrelated.
The markets appear evenly mixed between the "doom and gloom" crowd expecting the worst from the next ten days and the "fears priced in" crowd. Those that feel the worst case scenarios have already been taken into account are using the dips to the bottom of the range as buying opportunities. Neither crowd has been able to break the range but I am going to give the nod to the bullish possibilities. I think the large amount of money waiting on the sidelines is getting nervous that a rally might break out without them. The last two times we saw an end of day rally it was on strong volume compared to the low volume gravity induced sell offs.
This puts the risk on the side of the sellers more than the buyers. With the various events so over analyzed I think anybody that wants to sell has probably already sold and buyers are becoming immune to the news. That news will increase as the day draws near but short of a real surprise I think there is a potential for a post Fed/Iraq rally into the holiday weekend and then again post holiday. Buyers are deciding that the risk may not be so great and maybe they should nibble at long positions in advance just in case.
I am far from expecting a blowout but you never can tell when the buying urge will hit. Just like every tick below our range increases fear of a breakdown, every tick above our range increases the fear of missing the rally train. We still have very strong resistance from 10400-10575 but that would more than double our current 130 point range. It may be a tough road but buying support appears to be building. I really liked the strength of the afternoon rebound despite the end of day stall.
There are no material economic reports on Wednesday with only Mortgage Applications and Mass Layoffs slated. The calendar picks up some on Thursday with Jobless Claims, Durable Goods, Help Wanted and New Home Sales. Friday sees GDP, Sentiment and Existing Home Sales. These reports will ratchet up the interest level for traders but should not be market movers. The two of greatest interest will be Durable Goods and GDP. The GDP is the final for Q1 and is expected to be +4.4%.
I am having technical problems tonight so I am going to cut this short. While I still think the possibility for a continued range bound market is strong I think we are starting to see the potential to begin testing the upper range and a higher high. I have shifted back to a "buy the dip" mode and suggest you do the same. Should we see a Dow move over 10430 we could see an acceleration of buying that just might overcome the resistance areas to the 10500 level. That would be my next pause point and one that should contain the markets until the 30th baring any spectacular news events.
Enter Passively, Exit Aggressively.
Jim Brown

subset: commoncrawl


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Emile Durkheim's 1897 On Suicide is widely recognized as one of the foundational classic texts of sociology. It is also one that shows the degree to which strong interpretative skills can often provide the bedrock for high-level analysis. Durkheim's aim was to analyse the nature of suicide in the context of society itself - examining it not just as an individual decision, but one in which different social factors played important roles. In order to do this, it was vital that he both define and classify suicide into subtypes - kinds of suicide with different causal factors at play. From his research, Durkheim identifed four broad types of suicide: egoistic (from a sense of not-belonging), altruistic (from a sense that group goals far outweigh individual well-being), anomic (from lack of moral or social direction), and fatalistic (in response to excessive discipline or oppression). These definitions opened the way for Durkheim to pursue a close social analysis examining how each type related to different social contexts.While his study is in certain ways dated, it remains classic precisely because it helped define the methodology of sociology itself - in which interpretative skills remain central.
Robert Easthope holds an MSc in race and postcolonial studies from the London School of Economics.
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Man dies and two others injured after car crashes into bridge in Co Clare
A man has died and two others suffered injuries after a car crashed into a bridge in Co Clare in the early hours of this morning.
The incident happened at Caherogan, Miltown Malbay at around 4.15am.
A 30-year-old man, who was sitting in the rear of the vehicle, was killed.
The driver of the car - a 28-year-old man - and a woman (26) who was sitting in the front seat have been taken to University Hospital Limerick.
The extent of their injuries is not yet known.
The Miltown Malbay/Kilmaley Road (R474) remains closed to facilitate an examination by forensic investigators.
Gardaí are appealing for witnesses to contact Miltown Malbay Garda Station on 065 708 4222, the Garda Confidential Telephone Line on 1800 666 111 or any garda station.
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$$a_n = \frac{1}{2n}.$$
Work Step by Step
Our first term is $a_1 = \frac{1}{2}$. The numerator is consistently 1, while the denominator is doubled for each value of $n$. Hence the formula for $a_n$ is $$a_n = \frac{1}{2n}.$$
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Let There Be Light
HILLSONG 2016 CD Worship
We have an unshakeable belief in the power of Jesus Christ. Despite the pain, sorrow and tension of this world, Jesus is not threatened by the darkness. He has no rival. He has no equal. He is the light of the world and the hope of humanity.So many of the songs on Let There Be Light speak to the truth of who Jesus is. His Name is above every other name. Deliberatively written to translate across the global local Church, the songs on this project include anthems such as "What a Beautiful Name", "Behold", "Grace to Grace" and the title track "Let There Be Light". Intimate and personal, yet congregationally friendly, the songs from this project help to facilitate the heart of the Hillsong worship team, to resource individuals, worship teams and churches alike with songs that are as diverse as the greater Church herself.
1 – Behold (then Sing Me Soul)
2 – Love So Great
3 – Look To The Son
4 – Crowns
5 – What A Beautiful Name
6 – Your Word
7 – Let There Be Light
8 – In Control
9 – Grace To Grace
10 – Elohim
11 – I Will Boast In Christ
12 – As It Is (in Heaven)


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Smart Home Security Receives an Affordable, No-Monthly-Fees Revamp with SENS8
Unlike other smart security devices, SENS8 doesn't put a price on your peace of mind
SAN FRANCISCO--(BUSINESS WIRE)--For homeowners, keeping your family and property secure is always top of mind. But monthly fees for quality home security can put a dent in your budget to spend on quality family activities. Now thanks to SENS8, launching today as a brand new, all-in-one smart security device, homeowners have access to an affordable, top-of-the-line home security system, without any monthly fees.
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In addition to its portability and sleek design, users are never required to pay fees to use the device or to access their video recordings. With unlimited cloud storage that's encrypted for added security, and absolutely free thanks to a direct API connection to Dropbox, homeowners save hundreds of dollars, unlike other subscription-based security systems.
SENS8's unique humidity, temperature and ambient light sensors, also gives homeowners a Smart Home Index score, providing useful feedback on the home's environment health. Ideal for homeowners who need a healthy home environment, due to newborns or elderly relatives, the Home Index compares the minimum comfort threshold to current environment data to provide accurate information on home health.
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8G local storage with embedded eMMC memory stores 800 video clips. Compared to SD card storage, built-in memory stores faster, and cannot be removed from the device, adding an extra level of security.
"We take pride in providing families with a high quality, cost-effective security system, without sacrificing functionality or design," said Dr. Yang Liu, founder of SENS8. "We believe that everyone deserves to feel safe in their own home, without spending hundreds of dollars a year. That's why we've also developed a security system that minimizes false alarms, eliminating unwarranted expenses, and giving homeowners peace of mind that their family and home are safe."
The free SENS8 app keeps iOS and Android users connected anywhere, anytime. Once a threat is detected, thanks to the system's high definition camera, embedded light, and motion and temperature sensors, the app will send an immediate alert to your smartphone and trigger the 95dB+ alarm - providing homeowners with maximum security, whether near or far. Users can then contact the police through the app if a threat is confirmed. For further peace of mind, the live stream can be viewed by up to four family members per device simultaneously.
SENS8 is available for $169 at Amazon. For more information, please visit: mysens8.com.
SENS8 is an all-in-one, smart home security device that offers comprehensive monitoring at an affordable, low cost. SENS8 provides everything one would expect in a premium security system, with the ability to detect nearly any abnormal event in your home thanks to light intensity, ambient temperature and humidity sensors, an infrared motion detector, microphone, and 1080p HD live streaming camera with night vision. SENS8's Smart Alert Technology also minimizes false alarms and alerts users once a true threat is detected. The device also offers unlimited cloud storage that's free, thanks to a direct API connection to Dropbox, along with a sleek design and easy to use app. For more information, please visit: mysens8.com.
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No Affiliation With Seller.
Sweet looking and clean with the exception of a Grover Imperial switched out for a Sta-tite. I think I see some neck heel separation and some headstock wing separation, but with no bid minimum this could be a real deal. Tweed case too. Dig the neck angle!


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Exercising is really difficult. I started a routine at the beginning of the year but wasn't able to keep it up. Once you stop, it's hard to get back to it. Walking up the stairs made me so tired. My muscles were stiff and were not in use. Recently I made it a goal to get fit. I don't have time to go to the gym so I work out at home. There are about two apps that assist me in doing so.
1. Samsung health app. This app comes with most Samsung phones.
It helps track how many steps you take in a day. How much water you drink during the day and how many hours of sleep you get.
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2. 7 fit app. This is available at play store. It might be available at app store. This app is awesome. It's gives you many options on what you want to do.
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Eating right is also part of my fitness routine. I've been trying to have a balanced diet. Have some protein, veggies and carbs as part of my diet. I eat whole wheat bread and oatmeal for breakfast at times. At times pancake and eggs. I want to start making smoothies for the days I can't eat a full meal. Drinking lots of water is also very good. It helps clear the skin and keep the body hydrated. My goal is is to drink 72 fl oz of water or 9 cups of water everyday.
Hope you guys found this post useful. Let me know what you guys do to stay fit.


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Regulation of preB cell colony-enhancing factor by STAT-3dependent interleukin-6 trans-signalingImplications in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis.код для вставкиСкачать
ARTHRITIS & RHEUMATISM Vol. 54, No. 7, July 2006, pp 2084–2095 DOI 10.1002/art.21942 © 2006, American College of Rheumatology Regulation of Pre–B Cell Colony-Enhancing Factor by STAT-3–Dependent Interleukin-6 Trans-Signaling Implications in the Pathogenesis of Rheumatoid Arthritis Mari A. Nowell,1 Peter J. Richards,1 Ceri A. Fielding,1 Simona Ognjanovic,2 Nick Topley,1 Anwen S. Williams,1 Gillian Bryant-Greenwood,3 and Simon A. Jones1 PBEF via its OSM receptor ␤ and not its LIF receptor. The involvement of PBEF in arthritis progression was confirmed in vivo, where induction of AIA resulted in a 4-fold increase in the synovial expression of PBEF. In contrast, little or no change was observed in IL-6ⴚ/ⴚ mice, in which the inflammatory infiltrate was markedly reduced and synovial STAT-1/3 activity was also impaired. Analysis of human RA synovial tissue confirmed that PBEF immunolocalized in apical synovial membrane cells, endothelial cells, adipocytes, and lymphoid aggregates. Synovial fluid levels of PBEF were significantly higher in RA patients than in osteoarthritis patients. Conclusion. Experiments presented herein demonstrate that PBEF is regulated via IL-6 trans-signaling and the IL-6–related cytokine OSM. PBEF is also actively expressed during arthritis. Although these data confirm an involvement of PBEF in disease progression, the consequence of its action remains to be determined. Objective. To determine whether interleukin-6 (IL-6) trans-signaling directs the expression of pre–B cell colony-enhancing factor (PBEF) in vitro and in vivo. Methods. Complementary DNA from rheumatoid arthritis (RA) synovial fibroblasts treated with IL-6 and soluble IL-6 receptor (sIL-6R) was used to probe a cytokine microarray. PBEF regulation by the IL-6– related cytokines, IL-6, sIL-6R, oncostatin M (OSM), IL-11, and leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) was determined by reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction analysis. IL-6–mediated STAT-3 regulation of PBEF was determined using a cell-permeable STAT-3 inhibitor peptide. Antigen-induced arthritis (AIA) was induced in wild-type (IL-6ⴙ/ⴙ) and IL-6–deficient (IL-6ⴚ/ⴚ) mice. PBEF and STAT were detected by immunohistochemistry, immunoblotting, and electrophoretic mobility shift assay. Synovial levels of PBEF were quantified by enzyme immunoassay. Results. IL-6 trans-signaling regulated PBEF in a STAT-3–dependent manner. In addition, PBEF was regulated by the IL-6–related cytokine OSM, but not IL-11 or LIF. Flow cytometric analysis of the IL-6– related cognate receptors suggested that OSM regulates Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) is a polyarticular synovitis disease characterized by the activation and proliferation of synovial tissue with associated degradation of articular cartilage. Fibroblast-like cells appear to be hyperplastic, hyperproductive, and phenotypically distinct from their "normal" counterparts and, as a result, are believed to play a major role in disease pathogenesis, altering the synovial environment from a site of acute inflammation to one of chronic inflammation (1). One of the major factors thought to contribute to the chronic milieu is interleukin-6 (IL-6), exerting its effects through 2 membrane-bound receptors, namely, IL-6R and gp130 (2). IL-6–related cytokine receptors are divided into nonsignaling ␣-receptors (IL-6R, IL-11R, ciliary neuro- Supported by Arthritis Research Campaign, project grants 14002 and 14006. 1 Mari A. Nowell, PhD, Peter J. Richards, PhD, Ceri A. Fielding, PhD, Nick Topley, PhD, Anwen S. Williams, PhD, Simon A. Jones, PhD: Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, UK, 2 Simona Ognjanovic, PhD: Tissue Genesis, Honolulu, Hawaii; 3Gillian Bryant-Greenwood, PhD: John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, Honolulu. Address correspondence and reprint requests to Mari A. Nowell, PhD, Medical Biochemistry and Immunology, Tenovus Building, School of Medicine, Heath Park Campus, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF14 4XN, UK. E-mail: email@example.com. Submitted for publication October 11, 2005; accepted in revised form March 24, 2006. 2084 PBEF REGULATION BY STAT-3–DEPENDENT IL-6 TRANS-SIGNALING trophic factor receptor [CNTFR]) and signaltransducing membrane receptors (gp130, leukemia inhibitory factor receptor [LIFR], and oncostatin M receptor ␤ [OSMR␤]). In addition, all IL-6–related cytokines require at least 1 molecule of gp130 for signaling. IL-6, IL-11, and CNTF initially bind to their ␣-receptors and bind to gp130 homodimer (IL-6 and IL-11) or gp130/LIFR heterodimer (CNTF). In the case of LIF and OSM, signals are elicited by the interaction of these cytokines with gp130 and LIFR (LIF and OSM) or OSMR␤ (OSM). Expression of the universal signal transducing receptor gp130 is ubiquitous; however, the cellular distribution of the ␣-receptors is more limited (2). Cells lacking the cognate IL-6R can be made responsive to IL-6 via a soluble IL-6R (sIL-6R) through a process known as IL-6 trans-signaling (3). Patients with RA have high synovial fluid levels of IL-6 and sIL-6R (4). Because structural cells in the synovial joint lack the cognate receptor, trans-signaling is believed to be the main pathway that governs IL-6 activity in RA (4). Interestingly, clinical trials involving antibodies to IL-6R showed a reduction in both RA disease activity and markers of inflammation, such as C-reactive protein and the erythrocyte sedimentation rate (5). Activation of RA synovial fibroblast-like cells by IL-6 trans-signaling regulates the expression of a monocyte chemoattractant protein (CCL2), thereby exerting an influence on leukocyte trafficking into the joint (4). With this in mind, we used microarray analysis to explore additional sIL-6R–inducible factors that may be contributing to chronic inflammation in the stromal environment. Using a complementary DNA (cDNA) cytokine microarray, we identified the novel protein pre–B cell colony-enhancing factor (PBEF) as being significantly up-regulated in RA synovial fibroblasts following IL-6 trans-signaling. Functional analysis of PBEF has confirmed its role as a soluble secreted protein (6–11) that can regulate both apoptosis (10) and gene transcription (8). We report the regulation of PBEF both in vitro and in vivo and discuss the potential contribution of PBEF to the pathology associated with RA. PATIENTS AND METHODS Synovial tissue and fluid. Ethical approval was obtained from the Bro-Taf Regional Health Authority of Wales prior to beginning the study. All patients were diagnosed as having RA for at least 3 months. Patients were taking nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), corticosteroids, and disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs) (with the 2085 exception of tumor necrosis factor inhibitors), either alone or in combination. These regimens are consistent with conventional rheumatology clinical practice. Synovial tissue was collected from RA patients during routine joint synovectomy at the time of total knee joint replacement. Synovial fluid was collected from 12 RA patients and 10 osteoarthritis patients during routine joint aspiration. Synovial fluid samples were rendered cell-free by centrifugation, and the supernatants were stored at –80°C. Human synovial fibroblasts (HSFs). HSFs were isolated from RA synovial tissue. Briefly, HSFs were digested for 1 hour at 37°C with 1 mg/ml of collagenase (Sigma-Aldrich, Poole, UK). Cells were cultured in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium containing 100 units/ml of penicillin/streptomycin; 1 M hydrocortisone, 1⫻ insulin-transferrin-selenium-X, and 20% heat-inactivated fetal calf serum (Gibco Invitrogen, Paisley, UK). All stimulations were performed on growtharrested HSFs, and cells were exclusively used between the third and seventh passages. Cells were stimulated with 30 ng/ml of IL-6, sIL-6R, OSM, IL-11, or LIF (R&D Systems, Oxford, UK) as indicated in the figure legends. Growth-arrested HSFs were subjected to flow cytometric analysis of membrane receptors using phycoerythrin (PE)– conjugated anti-human gp130 (R&D Systems), PE-conjugated anti-human CD126 (anti–IL-6R; BD PharMingen, Oxford, UK), PE-conjugated anti-human gp190 (anti-LIFR; BD PharMingen). OSMR␤ was detected using anti-human OSMR␤ (N-20) (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA), with PE-conjugated F(ab⬘)2 fragment of goat anti-mouse IgG (Dako, Cambridge, UK). To control for the activation of STAT-3, HSFs were preincubated for 1 hour with 100 M STAT-3 inhibitor peptide (STAT-3iP; Calbiochem, Abingdon, UK), which acts as a cell-permeable inhibitory analog of the STAT-3–SH2 domain– binding phosphopeptide (12). Cells were subsequently challenged for 2 hours with 30 ng/ml of IL-6 and sIL-6R, and total RNA was prepared as described below. Microarray of stimulated HSFs. RNA was extracted from HSFs with 500 l of TRI reagent (Sigma-Aldrich) and processed according to the manufacturer's protocol. Total RNA (2 g) was reverse transcribed using human cytokinespecific primers (R&D Systems), 3,000 Ci/mole of ␣33P-dCTP (Amersham, Buckinghamshire, UK), and reverse transcriptase (R&D Systems) according to the R&D Systems human cytokine expression array protocol. Labeled cDNA was purified and hybridized (overnight at 65°C) to the human cytokine expression array according to the manufacturer's protocol. The arrays were exposed to a phosphor screen, and the results were analyzed with QuantityOne software (Bio-Rad, Hertfordshire, UK). The pixel intensity in each spot of the array was corrected against background readings. The normalized signal was calculated by representing the average gene spot intensity as a percentage of the signal from a housekeeping gene. Data generated from 4 housekeeping genes (␤2-microglobulin, ␤-actin, cyclophilin A, and transferrin R) were averaged to give the final value. Genes that were up-regulated 2–3-fold were chosen for further analysis. Reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction (RTPCR) analysis of up-regulated genes. Total RNA (0.5 g) was reverse transcribed using random hexanucleotide primers and Superscript II reverse transcriptase (Gibco Invitrogen). Oligo- 2086 nucleotide primers for ␤-actin were used as a normalization control. Oligonucleotide primer sets for RT-PCR analysis of CCL2, PBEF, and ␤-actin were those described previously (13,14). The primer sequences for gp130 were: 5⬘-GGATACTGGAGTGACTGGAGTGAAG-3⬘ (coding strand) and 5⬘CCATCTTGTGAGAGTCACTTCATAATC-3⬘ (noncoding strand). All primers were annealed at 55°C, and 10-l aliquots were removed from the PCR reaction at 20 cycles (␤-actin) 25 cycles (gp130), and 28 cycles (PBEF and CCL2). In silico analysis of STAT binding sites in the PBEF promoter. The PBEF promoter sequence was retrieved from the genomic bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) clone RP11-22N19 submitted to the National Center for Biotechnology Information database (accession no. AC007032). Analysis included the proximal and distal promoter regions, as described previously (7). Induction of murine antigen-induced arthritis (AIA). Experiments were undertaken in 7–8-week-old male inbred C57BL/6J wild-type (IL-6⫹/⫹) and IL-6⫺/⫺ mice. Procedures were performed in accordance with UK Home Office– approved project license PPL-30/1820. Briefly, male mice were immunized subcutaneously with 1 mg/ml of methylated BSA (mBSA) emulsified with an equal volume of Freund's complete adjuvant (CFA) and injected intraperitoneally with 100 l of heat-inactivated Bordetella pertussis toxin (all reagents from Sigma-Aldrich). The immune response was boosted 1 week later. Twenty-one days after the initial immunization, AIA was induced by intraarticular administration of 10 l of mBSA (10 mg/ml) into the right knee joint. Three days after the intraarticular injection, mice were killed for biochemical (n ⫽ 3) and immunohistochemical (n ⫽ 3) analyses. Immunohistochemistry of AIA mouse joints. Joints were fixed in neutral buffered formalin, decalcified with formic acid at 4°C, and then embedded in paraffin. For immunohistochemical analysis of PBEF, mid-sagittal serial sections (7 m in thickness) were first incubated in peroxidase-blocking solution (Dako) to eliminate endogenous peroxidase activity. To inhibit endogenous biotin, sections were incubated in a biotinblocking system (Dako). PBEF was detected with 1 g/ml of rabbit IgG–purified polyclonal antibody (Amgen, Thousand Oaks, CA). For assessment of phosphorylated STAT-1 and STAT-3, sections were incubated in 10 mM citrate buffer (pH 6) high-temperature antigen-retrieval solution using the microwave method. Phosphorylated STAT was detected using pSTAT-1 (Tyr701) and pSTAT-3 (Tyr705) (clone 58E12) rabbit antibodies (Cell Signaling Technology, Beverly, MA). All sections were probed using a biotinylated F(ab⬘)2 fragment of swine anti-rabbit IgG (Dako) and StreptABComplex/HRP (Dako) and developed using diaminobenzidine chromogen, with hematoxylin counterstaining. Control slides were probed with 1 g/ml of naive rabbit IgG and processed as above. Preparation of mouse joint extracts. Joints of the right hind leg from IL-6⫹/⫹ and IL-6⫺/⫺ experimental animals harvested on day 0 (i.e., control) and day 3 after arthritis induction were trimmed of skin, muscle, and excess bone around the articular joint and immediately frozen on dry ice. Tissue was ground under liquid nitrogen, and resuspended in 1 ml of 10 mM HEPES–KOH (pH 7.9) containing, 1.5 mM MgCl2, 10 mM KCl, 0.5 mM dithiothreitol (DTT), and 0.2 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF), 50 mM NaF, 1 mM Na3VO4, and protease inhibitors (Sigma-Aldrich) diluted NOWELL ET AL 1:1,000. This suspension was incubated on ice for 30 minutes, with continuous agitation. Following centrifugation, the supernatant was removed and used as the cytosolic extract for PBEF protein analysis. The cell pellet was resuspended in 0.5 ml of 20 mM HEPES–KOH (pH 7.9) containing 420 mM NaCl, 1.5 mM MgCl2, 0.2 mM EDTA, 25% glycerol, 0.3 mM DTT, 0.2 mM PMSF, 50 mM NaF, 1 mM Na3VO4, and protease inhibitors (Sigma-Aldrich) diluted 1:1,000. Extracts were incubated on ice for 30 minutes, with continuous agitation. Following centrifugation, the supernatant was removed and used as the nuclear extract for analysis of STAT transcription factor activation. Total protein concentration was determined using a modified Bradford assay (Bio-Rad). Analysis of PBEF in cytosolic extracts. Mouse knee cytosolic extract (10 g) was analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) under reducing conditions, followed by Western blotting. PBEF expression was analyzed using 0.2 g/ml of rabbit IgG–purified polyclonal antibody (Amgen), and detected using biotinylated F(ab⬘)2 fragment of swine anti-rabbit IgG (Dako), streptavidin– horseradish peroxidase (Amersham) and SuperSignal West Pico chemiluminescent substrate (Pierce, Chester, UK). Specificity was confirmed with recombinant murine PBEF (Amgen), and blots were probed with 0.2 g/ml rabbit IgG. Analysis of STAT in nuclear extracts. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSAs) were performed as previously described (15). Briefly, 10 g of mouse knee nuclear extracts was incubated with ␣32P-dTTP–labeled double-stranded oligonucleotide containing a STAT-binding consensus sequence (SIE-m67). The oligonucleotide sequences for the SIE-m67 probe were 5⬘-CGACATTTCCCGTAAATCG-3⬘ (sense) and 3⬘-GTAAAGGGCATTTAGCAGC-5⬘ (antisense). DNA protein complexes were resolved by nondenaturing PAGE through 6% polyacrylamide gels in 0.5⫻ Tris–borate–EDTA buffer. The gel was then dried and exposed to x-ray film at –70°C, with intensifying screens. Densitometric analysis of bands. Gel images were analyzed for peak intensity using ImageJ imaging software (NIH Image, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD; online at: http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/). The data from the densitometry of the Western blots and EMSAs were normalized to a baseline of 1. Statistical analysis of the differences in peak intensities was performed by the homoscedastic WilcoxonMann-Whitney U test. P values less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant. Immunolocalization of PBEF in RA tissue. RA synovial tissue was processed for immunohistochemical analyses by fixation in 4% neutral buffered formalin and embedded in paraffin. Serial sections (7 m) were incubated in a peroxidase-blocking solution (Dako), and PBEF was detected using human visfatin rabbit polyclonal antibodies (AdipoGen, Seoul, South Korea). Control slides were probed with 1 g/ml of naive rabbit IgG and processed as above. Sections were probed using biotinylated F(ab⬘)2 fragment of swine anti-rabbit IgG (Dako) and StreptABComplex/HRP (Dako) and developed using diaminobenzidine chromogen, with hematoxylin counterstaining. EIA of PBEF in synovial fluid. Quantification of synovial fluid levels of PBEF was assessed using an enzyme immunoassay kit (Phoenix Pharmaceuticals, Karlsruhe, Germany). Individual samples were measured in duplicate. Statis- PBEF REGULATION BY STAT-3–DEPENDENT IL-6 TRANS-SIGNALING 2087 Figure 1. Cytokine expression array of growth-arrested human synovial fibroblasts (HSFs) obtained from patients with rheumatoid arthritis. This array comprises 375 cloned cDNA fragments, printed in duplicate, of cytokines, chemokines, immunomodulatory factors, and their receptors. Control genes include genomic DNA–positive controls (the tetrads at the 4 corners), 9 housekeeping genes (far right column, top), and 4 negative controls (far right column, bottom). The array was probed with 33P-labeled cDNA that was prepared using cytokine-specific primers. A, Cytokine expression of unstimulated HSFs. B, HSFs stimulated for 2 hours with 50 ng/ml of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and soluble IL-6 receptor. Numbered boxed areas in A and B indicate the following signals, which correspond to the numbered spots shown in C: 1 ⫽ CCL2, 2 ⫽ macrophage migration inhibitory factor, 3 ⫽ pre–B cell colony-enhancing factor (PBEF), 4 ⫽ insulin-like growth factor binding protein 8 (IGFBP-8), 5 ⫽ interferon-␣/␤ receptor ␣-subunit (IFN␣/␤R␣), 6 ⫽ oncostatin M receptor ␤-subunit (OSMR␤), 7 ⫽ gp130, 8 ⫽ IL-1 receptor type I, and 9 ⫽ glial cell line–derived neurotrophic factor receptor ␣3-subunit (GFR␣3). The expression of 4 housekeeping genes, ␤2-microglobulin, ␤-actin, cyclophilin A, and transferrin R, was consistent in each sample (arrows). C, Comparison of cytokine expression signals in the microarray between control and stimulated HSFs. The normalized signal was calculated by representing the average gene spot intensity as a percentage of the signal from a housekeeping gene. Data generated from 4 housekeeping genes (␤2-microglobulin, ␤-actin, cyclophilin A, and transferrin R) were averaged to give the final value. tical analysis of PBEF concentrations in synovial fluid from RA and OA patients was compared by the homoscedastic Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U test. P values less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant. RESULTS Identification of genes regulated by IL-6 transsignaling. The human cytokine expression array from R&D Systems was used to analyze changes in the expression of cytokine, chemokine, and inflammatory mediator genes in HSFs following stimulation with IL-6 and sIL-6R (Figure 1). No significant changes in the relative expression of the housekeeping genes ␤2microglobulin, ␤-actin, cyclophilin A, and transferrin R were observed between samples, and these genes were subsequently used for normalization. Normalized genes that were regulated more than 2-fold are shown graphically in Figure 1C. Regulation of CCL2 by IL-6 trans- 2088 Figure 2. Semiquantitative reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis of growth-arrested human synovial fibroblasts (HSFs) obtained from patients with rheumatoid arthritis. HSFs were serum starved for 48 hours prior to stimulation. At set time intervals, mRNA was extracted for RT-PCR analysis. Conditions were optimized, and ␤-actin was used as a control gene. A, HSFs were unstimulated or were stimulated for 2, 10, and 36 hours with 30 ng/ml each of interleukin-6 (IL-6) in combination with soluble IL-6 receptor (sIL-6R). Results of RT-PCR analysis for CCL2, pre–B cell colonyenhancing factor (PBEF), gp130, and ␤-actin mRNA are shown. B, HSFs were unstimulated or were stimulated for 2 hours with either 30 ng/ml of IL-6, 30 ng/ml each of IL-6 in combination with sIL-6R, or 30 ng/ml each of IL-6 in combination with sIL-6R following preincubation for 1 hour with 100 M STAT-3 inhibitor peptide (STAT-3iP). Results of RT-PCR analysis (2 independent experiments) for CCL2, PBEF, and ␤-actin mRNA are shown. C, Schematic representation of elements in the PBEF promoter region that correspond to the palindromic STAT DNA-binding sequence TT(N)5AA. Exon 1 is shown with a noncoding region (open box) and a coding region (solid box). The distance from the transcription-initiation site (arrow) is marked (in kb). The asterisk represents one of the TATA boxes (based on reference 7). signaling in HSFs has previously been reported (4) and was used as an internal positive control. Several induced genes not previously affiliated with IL-6 trans-signaling, including PBEF, gp130, interferon-␣/␤ receptor ␣-subunit (IFN␣/␤R␣), OSMR ␤-subunit (OSMR␤), and insulin-like growth factor NOWELL ET AL binding protein 8 (IGFBP-8), were shown to be upregulated, whereas expression of glial cell line–derived neurotrophic factor receptor ␣3-subunit was downregulated in this array. The apparent induction of IL-1R type I was eliminated from further analysis because of the high degree of variability observed between the labeling of the duplicate spots. Regulation of a novel cytokine (PBEF) by IL-6 trans-signaling. Verification of the array data by RTPCR and flow cytometric analyses confirmed that IL-6 trans-signaling promoted strong induction of CCL2 and PBEF, but not gp130 (Figure 2A). Of particular interest was the regulation of PBEF, which showed a level of induction (⬃15-fold) comparable to that of CCL2. Subsequent RT-PCR analysis demonstrated that CCL2 and PBEF share similar expression profiles and that their regulation by IL-6 trans-signaling could be blocked by the inclusion of STAT-3iP (Figure 2B). In silico analysis of the 5⬘-promoter region of the genomic BAC clone RP11-22N19 containing the PBEF gene, revealed 2 putative STAT binding sites (TTCCAGGAA and TTCTTGGAA), as predicted from the consensus STATbinding sequence TT(N)5AA (16). These were present in both the proximal (1 kb upstream) and distal (2 kb upstream) promoter regions, respectively (Figure 2C) Regulation of PBEF by IL-6–related cytokines. To determine whether other IL-6–related cytokines also regulate PBEF, growth-arrested HSFs were stimulated with OSM, LIF, and IL-11. OSM up-regulated PBEF messenger RNA (mRNA) expression after 2 hours. However, no stimulatory effects were observed with either LIF or IL-11 (Figure 3A). Since OSM elicits a response via a heterodimer complex consisting of either gp130 and LIFR or gp130 and OSMR␤, these data suggest that OSM mediates the control of PBEF through its selective cognate receptor OSMR␤. This was confirmed by flow cytometry, which showed that HSFs express gp130 and OSMR␤, but not IL-6R or LIFR (Figure 3B). Indeed, consistent with the data presented in Figure 1, IL-6 trans-signaling was found to enhance OSMR␤ expression on HSFs (Figure 3B), suggesting a close relationship between IL-6 transsignaling, OSM activity, and the regulation of PBEF. Expression of the cognate IL-11R could not be ascertained due to the lack of a suitable antibody. Regulation of PBEF by IL-6 in vivo. Based on these in vitro observations, we tested whether IL-6 governs PBEF expression during experimental arthritis. Immunohistochemistry and Western blot analysis using antibodies against murine PBEF were performed on joint sections and mouse knee cytosolic extracts PBEF REGULATION BY STAT-3–DEPENDENT IL-6 TRANS-SIGNALING Figure 3. Semiquantitative reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction of pre–B cell colony-enhancing factor (PBEF) following interleukin-6 (IL-6)–related cytokine stimulation of growth-arrested human synovial fibroblasts (HSFs) obtained from patients with rheumatoid arthritis. A, HSFs were stimulated for 0, 2, 4, and 6 hours with 30 ng/ml of IL-6–related cytokines oncostatin M (OSM), IL-11, and leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), and PBEF and ␤-actin mRNA were measured. B, Expression of IL-6–related cytokine receptors on HSFs. HSFs were analyzed by flow cytometry for surface expression of gp130, IL-6 receptor (IL-6R), OSM receptor ␤-subunit (OSMR␤), and LIF receptor (LIFR). C, Flow cytometric analysis of gp130 and OSMR␤ following IL-6 trans-signaling. Following 16 hours of stimulation with 30 ng/ml of IL-6 and soluble IL-6R (sIL-6R), the expression of gp130 remained unchanged and cell surface OSMR␤ was up-regulated 2.5-fold. prepared from IL-6⫹/⫹ and IL-6⫺/⫺ mice 3 days after arthritis induction (i.e., during the acute inflammatory phase of the model) (4). PBEF was present in low 2089 amounts in the joints of nonarthritic IL-6⫹/⫹ mice, with occasional staining in the cells of the synovium and articular cartilage chondrocytes (Figure 4A). There was an increase in staining for PBEF in the joint sections of IL-6⫹/⫹ mice, and this coincided with a large inflammatory infiltrate in the synovial tissue and a marked activation of STAT-1/3 (Figure 4). PBEF staining was diffuse in the tissue sections, suggesting that it was secreted into the surrounding area. Fibroblast-like synoviocytes in the synovial membrane and subintimal synovium showed both cytoplasmic and nuclear staining for PBEF (Figure 4E inset). In addition, cells of the inflammatory infiltrate also appeared to be positive for PBEF (Figure 4E). In contrast, synovial infiltration in IL-6⫺/⫺ mice was markedly reduced, and this was accompanied by less PBEF staining. (Figure 4C). There was very little staining for PBEF in the synovial membrane and subintimal lining. Joint sections were probed for phosphorylated STAT-1 and STAT-3. Both pSTAT-1 and pSTAT-3 were detected throughout the synovial tissue of IL-6⫹/⫹ mice with AIA (Figures 4E and H). Although pSTAT-1 and pSTAT-3 were detected in IL-6⫺/⫺ mice (Figures 4F and I), levels were markedly reduced and approached those in normal, nonarthritic mice (Figures 4D and G). These results were supported by the findings of Western blotting for PBEF in cytoplasmic extracts (Figure 5A) and EMSA for STAT activity in nuclear extracts prepared from the corresponding mouse knee joints (Figure 5B). Densitometry showed a significant mean fold increase in PBEF expression in cytosolic extracts from the knee joints of IL-6⫹/⫹ mice with AIA (mean ⫾ SEM 4.42 ⫾ 1.19, n ⫽ 3), as compared with their normal, nonarthritic counterparts (P ⬍ 0.05) (Figure 5C). Both normal IL-6⫺/⫺ mice (1.39 ⫾ 0.26, n ⫽ 3) and IL-6⫺/⫺ mice with AIA (1.50 ⫾ 0.25, n ⫽ 3) showed no significant difference in PBEF levels as compared with normal IL-6⫹/⫹ mice (P ⬎ 0.05) (Figure 5C). However, IL-6⫺/⫺ mice showed no evidence of PBEF induction following AIA (P ⬎ 0.05). Densitometry also showed a significant increase in STAT DNA binding activity in IL-6⫹/⫹ mice following arthritis induction (1.94 ⫾ 0.19, n ⫽ 3; P ⬍ 0.05) (Figure 5D). In contrast, IL-6 deficiency led to impaired STAT activation (0.57 ⫾ 0.18, n ⫽ 3), which showed no evidence of induction following AIA (0.64 ⫾ 0.36, n ⫽ 3) (Figure 5C). Expression of PBEF in RA synovial tissue. Immunolocalization of PBEF in RA synovium indicated positive cytoplasmic and nuclear staining in the apical 2090 NOWELL ET AL Figure 4. Immunohistochemical analysis of pre–B cell colony-enhancing factor (PBEF) and STAT activation in mice with antigen-induced arthritis (AIA). IL-6⫹/⫹ and IL-6⫺/⫺ mice were primed with methylated bovine serum albumin BSA (mBSA), then given a single intraarticular injection of mBSA into the right knee joint. After 3 days, histology samples were obtained, and serial sections of the joints were prepared for immunohistochemistry. A, Control IL-6⫹/⫹ mouse, showing PBEF immunostaining in cells of the synovial lining and subsynovium (solid arrowhead) and in chondrocytes of the meniscus (M) and articular cartilage (open arrowheads). T ⫽ patellar tendon. B, IL-6⫹/⫹ mouse with AIA, showing PBEF immunostaining and extensive leukocyte infiltration in the synovium. F ⫽ femur. C, IL-6⫺/⫺ mouse with AIA, showing PBEF immunostaining. D, High-power view of PBEF immunostaining in a control IL-6⫹/⫹ mouse. SM ⫽ synovial membrane; A ⫽ adipose tissue. E, High-power view of PBEF immunostaining in an IL-6⫹/⫹ mouse with AIA, showing PBEF in the synovial membrane, subintimal (SI) synovium, and adipose tissue. A large inflammatory infiltrate (L) in the synovium also stained positive for PBEF. Inset, Fibroblast-like synoviocytes in the synovial membrane showed both nuclear (solid arrowhead) and cytoplasmic (open arrowhead) staining for PBEF. F, High-power view of PBEF immunostaining in an IL-6⫺/⫺ mouse with AIA, showing very little staining in the synovial membrane and subintimal synovium. PBEF was associated with the (reduced) leukocyte infiltrate. G, Control IL-6⫹/⫹ mouse, showing no immunostaining for pSTAT-1. H, IL-6⫹/⫹ mouse with AIA, showing nuclear staining for pSTAT-1 throughout the synovium. Inset, Fibroblast-like synoviocytes in the synovial membrane showed nuclear staining for pSTAT-1 (arrowhead). I, IL-6⫺/⫺ mouse with AIA, showing reduced nuclear staining for pSTAT-1, with strongest staining in areas with leukocyte infiltrates. J, Control IL-6⫹/⫹ mouse, showing no immunostaining for pSTAT-3. K, IL-6⫹/⫹ mouse with AIA, showing nuclear staining for pSTAT-1 throughout the synovium. Inset, Fibroblast-like synoviocytes in the synovial membrane showed nuclear staining for pSTAT-3 (arrowhead). L, IL-6⫺/⫺ mouse with AIA, showing pSTAT-3 staining similar to that of pSTAT-1. Arrowheads in E, H, and K indicate the regions shown in the respective insets. Scale bars represent m. PBEF REGULATION BY STAT-3–DEPENDENT IL-6 TRANS-SIGNALING 2091 Figure 5. Biochemical analysis of pre–B cell colony-enhancing factor (PBEF) and STAT activation in knee joint extracts prepared from normal (nonarthritic) and arthritic IL-6⫹/⫹ IL-6⫹/⫹ and IL-6⫺/⫺ mice. Samples were obtained on day 3 after induction of antigen-induced arthritis (AIA). A, Western blot analysis of PBEF protein in cytoplasmic extracts from normal and arthritic IL-6⫹/⫹ and IL-6⫺/⫺ mice. PBEF was resolved at 50 kd. Shown are 2 representative samples from each group (n ⫽ 3 mice per group). B, Corresponding electrophoretic mobility shift assay of nuclear extracts of the samples in A, showing DNA protein complexes of STAT transcription factors. C and D, Densitometry of PBEF (C) and STAT (D) in mouse knee homogenates was performed. Peak intensities were normalized to a baseline value of 1 (nonarthritic IL-6⫹/⫹ basal levels). Values are the mean and SEM fold difference in peak intensity in normal and arthritic IL-6⫹/⫹ and IL-6⫺/⫺ mice, as compared with basal levels (horizontal line) (ⴱ ⫽ P ⬍ 0.05, by Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U test). synovial membrane cells, which are made up of fibroblast-like and macrophage-like cells (Figures 6A and B). Evidence of PBEF expression was also observed in endothelial cells lining the capillaries and within tissue lymphoid aggregates (Figure 6C). In both cases, the staining pattern revealed cytoplasmic and nuclear localization. In addition, there was some evidence of nuclear PBEF staining in cells identified within adipose tissue (Figure 6D). Rabbit IgG used as negative controls on corresponding serial sections showed no nonspecific staining (data not shown). Expression of PBEF in synovial fluid. RA patients had a significantly higher synovial fluid concentration of PBEF (mean ⫾ SEM 150.0 ⫾ 39.07 ng/ml) than did osteoarthritis patients (64.1 ⫾ 21.58 ng/ml) (Figure 6E). DISCUSSION IL-6 and its soluble receptor are expressed in large quantities in synovial tissue and synovial fluid from patients with RA and are believed to be important in instigating and maintaining the pathology of RA (4). Indeed, monoclonal antibodies that block IL-6R– mediated signaling have proven to be clinically beneficial in patients with RA (17). STAT-3 is the principal STAT transcription factor activated by IL-6 (18), and inappropriate STAT-3 activity is closely associated with experimental arthritis, where its activities have been linked with the regulation of the expression of cytokines and chemokines and the induction of antiapoptotic genes that prevent HSF and T cell apoptosis (4,19–22). In experimental models of inflammation, IL-6– 2092 NOWELL ET AL Figure 6. A–D, Immunohistochemical staining for pre–B cell colony-enhancing factor (PBEF) in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) synovial tissue at 2 different magnifications (in m), and B, PBEF concentrations in synovial fluid from patients with osteoarthritis (OA) and RA. A, Synovial tissue containing positively stained spindle-shaped fibroblast-like cells within the thickened synovial membrane (SM) and in the loose adipose connective tissue (AT) of the subintimal (SI) synovial lining (arrowheads). B, Synovial membrane containing positively stained nuclei of rounded macrophage-like cells on the apical surface (arrowheads). J ⫽ joint. C, Lymphoid aggregate in the subintimal synovial lining showing staining for PBEF. Both the cytoplasm and nuclei appear to be stained (solid arrowhead). Endothelial cells of the blood vessels also stained positive (open arrowhead). D, Adipose tissue situated below the subintimal synovial lining showing adipocytes with nuclear staining (arrowhead). E, Box and whiskers plot of PBEF concentrations in synovial fluid (SF) from 10 OA and 12 RA patients (ⴱ ⫽ P ⬍ 0.05, by Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U test). Boxes show the 25% and 75% percentiles, horizontal lines within the boxes show the median, and whiskers show the upper and lower extremes. deficient mice display reduced leukocyte infiltration accompanied by altered chemokine expression (4,23). Such a response can, however, be reversed through reconstitution of IL-6 trans-signaling (4,23). During the acute phase of arthritis in the AIA model (day 3 after intraarticular administration of mBSA), the synovial tissue becomes infiltrated with large numbers of mononuclear cells that invade the subintimal synovium, underlying adipose tissue, smooth muscle layer, and joint tendon. As a consequence, these mononuclear cells contribute not only to the local production of chemokines, but also to the local levels of sIL-6R through shedding of their membrane-bound IL-6 receptor (Now- ell MA, et al: unpublished observations). IL-6 transsignaling promotes mononuclear leukocyte recruitment both in vitro and in vivo via the production of CCL2 (4). We have demonstrated that IL-6 trans-signaling also regulates the expression of the novel cytokine-like factor PBEF in human synovial fibroblasts and that this expression appears to be governed by STAT-3. STAT regulation of PBEF was confirmed by in silico analysis of the promoter region of PBEF, where we identified the presence of 2 putative STAT-binding sites. We have also shown that PBEF is up-regulated in the inflamed synovium of mice with AIA and is associated with an increase in STAT activation. In the absence of IL-6, the degree of PBEF REGULATION BY STAT-3–DEPENDENT IL-6 TRANS-SIGNALING leukocyte infiltration following arthritis induction is markedly reduced, along with diminished levels of PBEF and STAT. Although in vitro appraisal of synovial fibroblasts highlights these cells as one source of PBEF, it is evident from histologic staining of mouse and human tissue that other stromal cells and infiltrating leukocytes may contribute to synovial PBEF levels. Since IL-6 trans-signaling also regulates leukocyte recruitment, PBEF levels may also be impaired through the reduced influx of leukocytes that is seen in IL-6⫺/⫺ mice. Of the other IL-6–related cytokines known to activate gp130, only OSM regulated PBEF expression in vitro. Levels of both LIF and OSM are elevated in synovial fluid and serum from RA patients (24,25) and share many activities due to their utilization of a common receptor complex (26). However, OSM is unique in its ability to bind with both the LIFR and an OSMR␤ (27). Both receptors activate STAT-1 and STAT-3, but OSMR␤ can also recruit STAT-5, which accounts for some of the different bioactivities observed with OSM (28). Flow cytometry, however, confirmed that OSM directs PBEF expression through OSMR␤, since LIFR was not detected in HSFs. Although not directly tested in these experiments, it is expected that neither cardiotropin 1 (CT-1) nor CNTF would induce PBEF in HSFs since both cytokines require LIFR for signaling. However, it remains to be determined whether IL-31 promotes PBEF expression in HSFs, since IL-31 requires OSMR␤ and a selective IL-31 binding receptor (29). The unresponsiveness of HSFs to IL-11 also suggests that HSFs do not express IL-11R. The mechanism by which IL-11 transmits its signal is very similar to that of IL-6 (i.e., the requirement of an ␣-receptor and gp130 homodimerization for signal transduction); however, IL-11 and IL-6 have opposing effects, and IL-11 is reported to suppress arthritis activity (30,31). Further insight into the activity of IL-11 may therefore provide valuable clues to the potential pathologic involvement of PBEF in arthritis progression. Our study has demonstrated elevated levels of PBEF in synovial fluid from RA patients as compared with OA patients. These levels are consistent with serum concentrations of PBEF described recently (32). Furthermore, PBEF expression has been immunolocalized to several cells of the synovium, including fibroblast-like and macrophage-like synoviocytes, endothelial cells, and adipocyte-like cells. Of particular interest is the expression of PBEF within synovial lymphoid aggregates. In RA, these aggregates are believed to consist of antigenspecific lymphocytes that have been trapped in the synovium by proretentive and antiapoptotic signals elic- 2093 ited by synovial fibroblasts (1). Aberrant apoptosis and inappropriate chemokine activity of synovial fibroblasts and inflammatory cells in the RA joint are believed to be major contributory factors to the pathogenesis of arthritis (33–36). Such activities may relate to the involvement of PBEF. Specifically, PBEF has been shown to prevent fibroblasts and neutrophils from entering apoptotic cell death (10,37) and can activate protein kinase B (Akt) following engagement of the insulin receptor (11). PBEF has also been shown to regulate both IL-6 and CXCL8 gene transcription in epithelial cells (8). It was recently suggested that dysregulated PBEF expression plays a significant role in a number of other inflammatory disorders, including infection-induced preterm birth, acute lung injury, sepsis, colorectal cancer, and metabolic syndrome (7,9–11,15). Overexpression of PBEF in disease is thought to be more than simply a biomarker of inflammation (9); as its name suggests, pre–B cell colony-enhancing factor has been described as a novel factor in B cell development (6,38,39). PBEF is also known as visfatin, a cytokine-like factor associated with visceral fat, and increased serum levels of visfatin have been linked with obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (11,40). Sequence and functional analysis of the PBEF protein also suggest that this protein may act as an enzyme that is involved in energy metabolism, a nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAmPRTase) (41–43). In addition to controlling intracellular NAD⫹, the NAmPRTase activity of PBEF has the ability to modulate a number of biologic processes, including apoptosis, by directly controlling the transcriptional regulatory activity of a NAD-dependent protein deacetylase, the silent information regulator SIR-2 (43). However, attempts to assay NAmPRTase in human peripheral blood cells have been unsuccessful, suggesting that this enzyme is tightly governed and may require further processing or regulation before orchestrating enzymatic activities (44). The involvement of an NAmPRTase activity in disease progression is highlighted by the specific noncompetitive inhibitor FK866, which is currently under investigation in phase I clinical trials for the treatment of prostate melanoma (45,46). PBEF is likely to have multipotency, acting as both an intracellular enzyme and a secreted cytokine. This would incorporate it into a family of proteins that show dual activities including neuroleukin, cyclophylin, CXCL7, connective tissue activation peptide III, and macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) (47–50). PBEF has properties very similar to MIF, although it should be noted that IL-6 trans-signaling did not upregulate MIF in the mRNA cytokine array (Figure 1). 2094 NOWELL ET AL Like MIF, PBEF lacks a signal sequence (6,51), shows both nuclear and cytoplasmic immunolocalization (52,53), and bears structural and functional resemblance to previously characterized microbial enzymes (41– 43,50). It has also been suggested that either a cofactor or protein modification may be required for activation of the catalytic activities of both PBEF (43) and MIF (50). Consequently, PBEF is associated with a number of factors known to act as mediators of inflammation during disease (11,54). In conclusion, this study has demonstrated that IL-6 trans-signaling and the IL-6–related cytokine OSM regulate PBEF. The regulation of this protein in inflammatory arthritis suggests that PBEF actively contributes to the pathology observed; however, it remains to be determined how the high levels of PBEF affect disease progression clinically. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We wish to acknowledge the rheumatologists and nursing staff in the South Wales area for facilitating the collection of clinical samples. REFERENCES 1. Buckley CD, Pilling D, Lord JM, Akbar AN, Scheel-Toellner D, Salmon M. Fibroblasts regulate the switch from acute resolving to chronic persistent inflammation [review]. Trends Immunol 2001; 22:199–204. 2. Heinrich PC, Behrmann I, Muller-Newen G, Schaper F, Graeve L. Interleukin-6-type cytokine signaling through the gp130/Jak/STAT pathway [review]. Biochem J 1998;334:297–314. 3. Jones SA, Rose-John S. 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Martin PR, Shea R, Mulks MH. Identification of a plasmidencoded gene from Haemophilus ducreyi which confers NAD independence. J Bacteriol 2001;183:1168–74. 2095 42. Rongvaux A, Shea RJ, Mulks MH, Gigot D, Urbain J, Leo O, et al. Pre-B-cell colony-enhancing factor, whose expression is upregulated in activated lymphocytes, is a nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase, a cytosolic enzyme involved in NAD biosynthesis. Eur J Immunol 2002;32:3225–34. 43. Revollo JR, Grimm AA, Imai SI. The NAD biosynthesis pathway mediated by nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase regulates Sir2 activity in mammalian cells. J Biol Chem 2004;279:50754–63. 44. Sestini S, Jacomelli G, Pescaglini M, Micheli V, Popucci G. Enzyme activities leading to NAD synthesis in human lymphocytes. Arch Biochem Biophys 2000;379:277–82. 45. Hassman M, Schemainda I. FK866, a highly specific noncompetitive inhibitor of nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase, represents a novel mechanism for the induction of tumor cell apoptosis. 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After you / Jojo Moyes.
New York, New York : Penguin Books, 2016.©2015
Moyes, Jojo, 1969- author.
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Young women -- England -- Fiction.
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Sequel to: Me before you.
9780143108863 (softcover)
After the transformative six months spent with Will Traynor. Louisa Clark is struggling without him. When an accident forces Lou to return home to her family, she cannot help but feel she is right back where she started. Her body heals, but Lou knows that she needs to be kick-started back to life.
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Customer oriented approach
Customer-Oriented Approach to Power Supply Reliability
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