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Gaius Sallustius Crispus, usually anglicised as Sallust (/ˈsæləst/; 86 – c. 35 BC[1]), was a Roman historian, politician, and novus homo from a provincial plebeian family. Sallust was born at Amiternum in the country of the Sabines and was a popularis, opposer of the old Roman aristocracy throughout his career, and later a partisan of Julius Caesar. Sallust is the earliest known Roman historian with surviving works to his name, of which we have Catiline's War (about the conspiracy in 63 BC of L. Sergius Catilina), The Jugurthine War (about Rome's war against the Numidians from 111 to 105 BC), and the Histories (of which only fragments survive). Sallust was primarily influenced by the Greek historian Thucydides and amassed great (and ill-gotten) wealth from his governorship of Africa.[2]
Life and career
Sallust was probably born in Amiternum in Central Italy,[3][4][5] though Eduard Schwartz takes the view that Sallust's birthplace was Rome.[3] His birthdate is calculated from the report of Jerome's Chronicon.[6] But Ronald Syme suggests that Jerome's date has to be adjusted because of his carelessness.[6] The British historian offers 87 BC as a more correct date.[6] However, dating Sallust's birth as 86 BC is widely used,[4][7][8] and the Kleine Pauly Encyclopedia uses 1 October 86 BC as the birthdate.[9] Michael Grant cautiously offers 80s BC.[5]
There is no information about Sallust's parents.[10] The only exception (regarding his family) is Tacitus' mention of his sister.[11] Sallustii was a provincial noble family of Sabine origin.[4][5][12] They belonged to the equites and had a full Roman citizenship.[4] During the Social War Gaius' parents could hide in the capital, because Amiternum was under threat of siege by rebelling Italic tribes.[13] Due to this Sallust could have been raised in Rome[10] He received a very good education.[4]
After an ill-spent youth, Sallust entered public life and may have won election as quaestor in 55 BC. However, there is no strict evidence about this, and some scholars suppose that Sallust had not been a quaestor — the practice of violating cursus honorum was common in the last years of the Republic.[5][14][15] He became a Tribune of the Plebs in 52 BC, the year in which the followers of Milo killed Clodius in a street brawl. Sallust then supported the prosecution of Milo. Sallust, Titus Munatius Plancus and Quintus Pompeius Rufus also tried to blame Cicero, one of the leaders of the Senators' opposition to triumvirate, for his support of Milo.[16] Because of his position in Milo's trial Syme suggests that originally Sallust did not support Caesar.[17] T. Mommsen states that Sallust acted in Pompey's interests (according to Mommsen, Pompey was preparing to install his own dictatorship).[18]
According to one inscription, some Sallustius with unclear praenomen was a proquaestor in Syria in 50 BC under Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus.[19] Theodor Mommsen identified Sallustius from Syria with Sallust the historian, though T. R. S. Broughton argued that Sallust the historian couldn't be an assistant to Julius Caesar's adversary.[20]
From the beginning of his public career, Sallust operated as a decided partisan of Julius Caesar, to whom he owed such political advancement as he attained. In 50 BC, the censor Appius Claudius Pulcher removed him from the Senate on the grounds of gross immorality (probably really because of his opposition to Milo and Cicero). In the following year, perhaps through Caesar's influence, he was reinstated.
During the Civil War of 49–45 BC Sallust acted as Caesar's partisan, but his role was not significant, so his name is not mentioned in the dictator's Commentarii de Bello Civili.[21] It was reported[by whom?] that Sallust dined with Caesar, Hirtius, Oppius, Balbus and Sulpicius Rufus on the night after his famous crossing over the Rubicon river into Italy on 10 January.[22] In 49 BC Sallust was moved to Illyricum and probably commanded at least one legion there after failure of Publius Cornelius Dolabella and Gaius Antonius.[9][21] This campaign was unsuccessful.[21] In 48 BC he was probably made quaestor by Caesar to re-enter the Senate.[9] However, the last statement is based on the "Invective against Sallust" ascribed to Cicero[23] but which is probably a later forgery. In the late summer 47 BC a group of soldiers rebelled near Rome, demanding their discharge and payment for service. Sallust as praetor designatus was sent to persuade the soldiers with several other senators, but the rebels killed two senators, while Sallust narrowly escaped death.[24][25] In 46 BC, he served as a praetor and accompanied Caesar in his African campaign, which ended in the decisive defeat of the remains of the Pompeian war party at Thapsus. Sallust did not participate in military operations directly, but he commanded several ships and organized supply through the Kerkennah Islands.[26] As a reward for his services, Sallust gained appointment as governor of the province of Africa Nova. The reason of his designation is unclear: Sallust was not a skilled general, while the province was militarly significant with three legions deployed there.[26] Moreover, governors after him were experienced military men.[26] However, Sallust successfully managed the organizing of supply and transportation, and these qualities could determine Caesar's choice.[26] In the capacity of governor he committed such oppression and extortion that only the influence of Caesar enabled him to escape condemnation. On his return to Rome he purchased and began laying out in great splendour the famous gardens on the Quirinal known as the Horti Sallustiani or Gardens of Sallust. These gardens would later belong to the emperors.
Sallust then retired from public life and devoted himself to historical literature, and further developed his Gardens, upon which he spent much of his accumulated wealth. According to Anthony Everitt, Sallust later became the second husband of Cicero's ex-wife Terentia.[27]
Sallust's account of the Catiline conspiracy (De coniuratione Catilinae or Bellum Catilinae) and of the Jugurthine War (Bellum Iugurthinum) have come down to us complete, together with fragments of his larger and most important work (Historiae), a history of Rome from 78 to 67 BC, intended as a continuation of Cornelius Sisenna's work.
The Conspiracy of Catiline
The Conspiracy of Catiline (Sallust's first published work) contains the history of the memorable year 63. Sallust adopts the usually accepted view of Catiline, and describes him as the deliberate foe of law, order and morality, and does not give a comprehensive explanation of his views and intentions. (Note that Catiline had supported the party of Sulla, which Sallust had opposed.) Mommsen's suggestion—that Sallust particularly wished to clear his patron (Caesar) of all complicity in the conspiracy—may have contained some truth.
In writing about the conspiracy of Catiline, Sallust's tone, style, and descriptions of aristocratic behavior show that he was deeply troubled by the moral decline of Rome. While he inveighs against Catiline's depraved character and vicious actions, he does not fail to state that the man had many noble traits, indeed all that a Roman man needed to succeed. In particular, Sallust shows Catiline as deeply courageous in his final battle.
This subject gave Sallust the opportunity to show off his rhetoric at the expense of the old Roman aristocracy, whose degeneracy he delighted to paint in the blackest colours.
The work probably was written between 44 and 40 BC,[28] or between 42 and 41 BC according to Der Kleine Pauly.[9] However, Louis MacKay proposed a different dating. According to him, The Conspiracy was prepared by Sallust in 50 BC as a political pamphlet, but was not published; after the Civil War Sallust reviewed and finally published it.[29]
The work does not have any traces of personal experience, and the most common explanation is Sallust's military service during this period.[30] The main source for this work is De Consulatu Suo by Cicero.[31]
Jugurthine War
Sallust's Jugurthine War is a brief monograph recording the war against Jugurtha in Numidia from c. 112 BC to 105 BC. Its true value lies in the introduction of Marius and Sulla to the Roman political scene and the beginning of their rivalry. Sallust's time as governor of Africa Nova ought to have let the author develop a solid geographical and ethnographical background to the war; however, this is not evident in the monograph, despite a diversion on the subject, because Sallust's priority in the Jugurthine War, as with the Catiline Conspiracy, is to use history as a vehicle for his judgement on the slow destruction of Roman morality and politics.
Other works
The extant fragments of the Histories (some discovered in 1886) show sufficiently well the political partisan, who took a keen pleasure in describing the reaction against Sulla's policy and legislation after the dictator's death. Historians regret the loss of the work, as it must have thrown much light on a very eventful period, embracing the war against Sertorius (died 72 BC), the campaigns of Lucullus against Mithradates VI of Pontus (75-66 BC), and the victories of Pompey in the East (66-62 BC).
Two letters (Duae epistolae de republica ordinanda), letters of political counsel and advice addressed to Caesar, and an attack upon Cicero (Invectiva or Declamatio in Ciceronem), frequently attributed to Sallust, are thought by modern scholars to have come from the pen of a rhetorician of the 1st century AD, along with a counter-invective attributed to Cicero. At one time Marcus Porcius Latro was considered a candidate for the authorship of the pseudo-Sallustian corpus, but this is no longer commonly held.[32]
The style of works written by Sallust was well known in Rome. His style differs from the writings of his contemporaries — Caesar and especially Cicero. It is characterized by brevity and by the use of rare words and turns of phrase. As a result, his works are very far from the conversational Latin of his time.[33]
The most famous feature of his style is the use of archaic words. According to Suetonius, Lucius Ateius Praetextatus (Philologus) helped Sallust to collect them.[34] R. Syme suggests that Sallust's choice of style and even particular words was influenced by his antipathy to Cicero, his rival, but also one of the trendsetters in Latin literature in the 1st century BC.[35] "The Conspiracy of Catiline" reflects many features of style that were developed in his later works.[36]
Sallust avoids common words from public speeches of contemporary Roman political orators, such as honestas, humanitas, consensus.[37] In several cases he uses rare forms of well-known words: for example, lubido instead of libido, maxumum instead of maximum, the conjunction quo in place of more common ut. He also uses rare endings -ere instead of common -erunt in the third-person plural in perfectum (for example, coepere «[they] have started» instead of coeperunt) and -is instead of -es in the third declension in accusative case for adjectives and nouns (for example, montis «mountains» instead of montes). Some words used by Sallust (for example, antecapere, portatio, incruentus, incelebratus, incuriousus), are not known in other writings before him. They are believed to be either neologisms or intentional revival of archaic words.[38] Sallust also often uses antithesis, alliterations and chiasmus.[39]
On the whole, antiquity looked favourably on Sallust as a historian. Tacitus speaks highly of him (Annals, iii.30); and Quintilian does not hesitate to put him on a level with Thucydides, and declares that he is a greater historian than Livy. Martial joins the praise: "Sallust, according to the judgment of the learned, will rank as the prince of Roman historiographers".[40]
His books were sometimes used by authors of 1st and 2nd centuries AD, especially after imitations of archaic style gained popularity. Among those who borrowed information from his works were Silius Italicus, Lucan, Plutarch, Ammianus Marcellinus.[41][42] Fronto used ancient words collected by Sallust to provide "archaic coloring" for his works.[43] In 2nd century AD Zenobius translated his works into Ancient Greek.[41]
Other opinions were also present. For example, Gaius Asinius Pollio criticized Sallust's addiction to archaic words and his unusual grammatical features.[44] Aulus Gellius saved Pollio's unfavorable statement about Sallust's style. According to him, Sallust once used word "transgressus" meaning generally "to pass [by foot]" for a platoon which have crossed the sea (Latin word for this type of crossing is "transfretatio").[45] Though Quintilian has a generally favorable opinion on Sallust, he offers to avoid using several features of his style:
For though a diffuse irrelevance is tedious, the omission of what is necessary is positively dangerous. We must therefore avoid even the famous terseness of Sallust (though in his case of course it is a merit), and shun all abruptness of speech, since a style which presents no difficulty to a leisurely reader, flies past a hearer and will not stay to be looked at again.[46]
Sallust struck out for himself practically a new line in literature, his predecessors having functioned as little better than mere dry-as-dust chroniclers, whereas he endeavoured to explain the connection and meaning of events and successfully delineated character. The contrast between his early life and the high moral tone adopted by him in his writings has frequently made him a subject of reproach, but history gives no reason why he should not have reformed.
In any case, his knowledge of his own former weaknesses may have led him to take a pessimistic view of the morality of his fellow-men, and to judge them severely. He took as his model Thucydides, whom he imitated in his truthfulness and impartiality, in the introduction of philosophizing reflections and speeches, and in the brevity of his style, sometimes bordering upon obscurity.
During the Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages his works preserved popularity and some influential early Christian theologists (Marcus Minucius Felix and Augustine of Hippo) knew him well.[41][47] In the Middle Ages Sallust's works were often used in schools to teach Latin. His brief style influenced, among others, Widukind of Corvey and Wipo of Burgundy.[47] In the thirteenth century Sallust's passage about expansion of the Roman Republic (Cat. 7) was cited and interpreted by theologian Thomas Aquinas and scholar Brunetto Latini.[48] During the Late Middle Ages and Renaissance Sallust's works began to influence political thought in Italy. Among many scholars and historians interested in Sallust most notable are Leonardo Bruni, Coluccio Salutati and Niccolo Machiavelli.[49] Petrarch also highly praised Sallust, though he primarily appreciated his style and moralization.[50] During the French Wars of Religion, "De coniuratio Catilinae" became widely known as a tutorial on disclosing conspiracies.[51] Among his admirers in England were Thomas More, Alexander Barclay and Thomas Elyot.[52] Justus Lipsius marked Sallust as the second most notable Roman historian after Tacitus.[53]
Nietzsche credits Sallust in Twilight of the Idols[54] for his epigrammatic style: "My sense of style, for the epigram as a style, was awakened almost instantly when I came into contact with Sallust" and praises him for being "compact, severe, with as much substance as possible, a cold sarcasm against 'beautiful words' and 'beautiful sentiments'." First play of Henrik Ibsen was Catiline which was based on Sallust's story.[47]
Several manuscripts of his works survived due to his popularity in Antiquity and the Middle Ages.
All manuscripts with his writings are usually divided into two groups — mutili (mutilated) and integri (whole; not wrecked). The classification is based on the existence of the lacuna between 103.2 and 112.3 of the Jugurthine War. The lacuna exists in the mutili scrolls, while integri manuscripts have the text there. The most ancient scrolls which survive are the Codex Parisinus 16024 and Codex Parisinus 16025, known as "P" and "A" respectively. They were created in the 9th century AD and both belong to the mutili group.[55] Both these scrolls include only Catiline and Jugurtha, while some other mutili manuscripts also include Invective and Cicero's answer.[56] The oldest integri scrolls were created in the 11th century AD.[57] The probability that all these scrolls came from one or more ancient manuscripts is discussed.[58]
There is also a unique scroll Codex Vaticanus 3864, known as "V". It includes only speeches and letters from Catiline, Jugurtha and Histories.[55] The creator of this manuscript changed the original word order and replaced archaisms with more familiar words.[55] The "V" scroll also includes two anonymous letters to Caesar probably from Sallust,[55] but their authenticity is discussed (see above).
Several fragments of Sallust's works survived in papyri of 2nd—4th centuries AD. Many ancient authors cited Sallust, and sometimes their citations of Histories are the only source for reconstruction of this work. But its significance for the reconstruction is uncertain, because occasionally the authors cited Sallust from memory, and some distortions were possible.[59]
- The Conspiracie of Cateline and The Warre of Jugurth (trans. Thomas Heywood, 1608). New York: AMS Press, 1967 (among other modern printings).
- Loeb Classical Library, Vol. 116 (trans. J.C. Rolfe). Cambridge, MA: HUP, 1921.
- Catiline's War, the Jugurthine War, Histories (trans. A.J. Woodman). London: Penguin, 2007 (ISBN 0140449485). (Page xxvii, "When Sallust died, probably in 35...")
- Catiline's Conspiracy, The Jugurthine War, Histories (trans. William W. Batstone). Oxford: OUP, 2010 (ISBN 9780192823458).
- ↑ Woodman, A.J. (2007). Catiline's War, the Jugurthine War, Histories. London: Penguin. p. xxvii. ISBN 0140449485.
When Sallust died, probably in 35.
- ↑ Woodman, Catiline's War, the Jugurthine War, Histories, p. xxvii
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Syme, R. (1964) Sallust. University of California Press. P. 7
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Mellor, R. J. (1999) The Roman historians. Routledge. P. 30
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Grant, M. (1995) Greek and Roman historians: information and misinformation. Routledge. P. 13
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Syme, R. (1964) Sallust. University of California Press. P. 13
- ↑ Invalid language code. Альбрехт, М. (2002) История римской литературы, Т. 1. Греко-латинский кабинет. С. 480
- ↑ Invalid language code. Горенштейн, В. О. (1981) Гай Саллюстий Крисп. Сочинения. Наука. С. 148
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Schmidt, P. L. "Sallustius. 4" In Der Kleine Pauly. Bd. IV. Sp. 1513
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Syme, R. (1964) Sallust. University of California Press. P. 14
- ↑ Tacitus. Annales, III, 30, 3
- ↑ Syme, R. (1964) Sallust. University of California Press. P. 9
- ↑ Syme, R. (1964) Sallust. University of California Press. P. 12
- ↑ Syme, R. (1964) Sallust. University of California Press. P. 28
- ↑ Earl D. C. The Early Career of Sallust in Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. Vol. 15, No. 3. 1966. P. 306
- ↑ (Asc. Mil., 20 (37)) Asconius Pedianus. Commentary on Pro Milone, 20 (37)
- ↑ Syme, R. (1964) Sallust. University of California Press. P. 29
- ↑ Моммзен, Т. (2005) История Рима. Т. 3. Наука. С. 223
- ↑ Broughton, T. R. S. (1952) Magistrates of the Roman Republic, Vol. 2. American Philological Association. P. 242
- ↑ Broughton, T. R. S. (1952) Magistrates of the Roman Republic, Vol. 2. American Philological Association. P. 247
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Syme, R. (1964) Sallust. University of California Press. P. 36
- ↑ Dando-Collins, Stephan (2002). The Epic Saga of Julius Caesars Tenth Legion and Rome. p. 67. ISBN 0-471-09570-2.
- ↑ Broughton, T. R. S. (1952) Magistrates of the Roman Republic, Vol. 2. American Philological Association. P. 274
- ↑ (App. B. C., II, 92) Appian. Roman history. Civil wars, II, 92
- ↑ (Cass. Dio, XLII, 52) Cassius Dio. Roman history, XLII, 52
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 Syme, R. (1964) Sallust. University of California Press. P. 37
- ↑ Everitt, Anthony, Cicero. The life and times of Rome's greatest politician, Random House, 2001
- ↑ Mellor, R. (1999) The Roman historians. Routledge. P. 32
- ↑ MacKay, L. A. Sallust's "Catiline": Date and Purpose // In: Phoenix, Vol. 16, No. 3 (Autumn, 1962). P. 190
- ↑ Earl D. C. The Early Career of Sallust // In: Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. Vol. 15, No. 3. 1966. P. 307-309
- ↑ MacKay, L. A. Sallust's "Catiline": Date and Purpose // In: Phoenix, Vol. 16, No. 3 (Autumn, 1962). P. 183
- ↑ Smith, William (1867), "Latro, M. Porcius", in Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology 2, Stefano Ciufferpebble, p. 726
- ↑ Invalid language code. Альбрехт, М. (2002) История римской литературы, Т. 1. Греко-латинский кабинет. С. 494
- ↑ (Suet. Gram. 10) Suetonius. On Famous Grammarians and Rhetoricians, 10
- ↑ Syme, R. (1964) Sallust. University of California Press. P. 257
- ↑ Syme, R. (1964) Sallust. University of California Press. P. 266
- ↑ Invalid language code. Альбрехт, М. (2002) История римской литературы, Т. 1. Греко-латинский кабинет. С. 493
- ↑ McGushin, P. Bellum Catilinae: A Commentary. Brill Archive, 1977. P. 19
- ↑ Invalid language code. Горенштейн, В. О. (1981) Гай Саллюстий Крисп. Сочинения. Москва: Наука. С. 161
- ↑ (Mart. XIV, 191) Martial. Epigrams, XIV, 191: Hic erit, ut perhibent doctorum corda virorum, // Primus Romana Crispus in historia.
- ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 Invalid language code. Альбрехт, М. (2002) История римской литературы, Т. 1. Греко-латинский кабинет. С. 504
- ↑ Rawson E. Sallust on the Eighties? // In: The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 37, No. 1 (1987). P. 164
- ↑ Invalid language code. Тронский, И. М. (1946) История античной литературы Ленинград: Учпедгиз. С. 47
- ↑ (Suet. Gram. 10) Suetonius. On Famous Grammarians and Rhetoricians, 10
- ↑ (Gellius. Att. Noct., X, 26) Gellius. Noctes Atticae, X, 26
- ↑ (Quint. Inst. IV, 44-45) Quintilian, Institio Oratoria, IV, 44-45
- ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 Invalid language code. Альбрехт, М. (2002) История римской литературы, Т. 1. Греко-латинский кабинет. С. 505
- ↑ Osmond P. J. Princeps historiae Romanae: Sallust in Renaissance political thought // In: Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. — 1995. — Vol. 40. — P. 104
- ↑ Osmond P. J. Princeps historiae Romanae: Sallust in Renaissance political thought // In: Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. — 1995. — Vol. 40. — P. 107ff.
- ↑ Osmond P. J. Princeps historiae Romanae: Sallust in Renaissance political thought // In: Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. — 1995. — Vol. 40. — P. 106
- ↑ Osmond P. J. Princeps historiae Romanae: Sallust in Renaissance political thought // In: Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. — 1995. — Vol. 40. — P. 121
- ↑ Osmond P. J. Princeps historiae Romanae: Sallust in Renaissance political thought // In: Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. — 1995. — Vol. 40. — P. 120
- ↑ Osmond P. J. Princeps historiae Romanae: Sallust in Renaissance political thought // In: Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. — 1995. — Vol. 40. — P. 101
- ↑ Nietzsche, Twilight of the Idols, s. 13.1
- ↑ 55.0 55.1 55.2 55.3 Ramsey, J. T. (2007) Sallust's Bellum Catilinae. 2nd Ed. New York—Oxford: Oxford University Press. P. 14
- ↑ Rolfe J. C. (1921-1931) Introduction. // In: Sallust. Loeb Classical Library. P. XVIII
- ↑ Ramsey J. T. (2007) Sallust's Bellum Catilinae. 2nd Ed. New York—Oxford: Oxford University Press. P. 26
- ↑ Invalid language code. Альбрехт, М. (2002) История римской литературы, Т. 1. Греко-латинский кабинет. С. 502
- ↑ Ramsey J. T. (2007) Sallust's Bellum Catilinae. 2nd Ed. New York—Oxford: Oxford University Press. P. 15
- Funari, R. (ed.). Corpus dei papiri storici greci e latini. Parte B. Storici latini. 1. Autori noti. Vol. 2 Caius Sallustius Crispus. Pisa & Rome: Fabrizio Serra Editore, 2008.
- Lemprière, John. A Classical Dictionary. London: Cadell & Davies, 1820; p. 683.
- Oniga, Renato. Sallustio e l'etnografia. Pisa: Giardini, 1995.
- 12px This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Further reading
|Wikiquote has quotations related to: Sallust
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- Latin with English translation
- at LacusCurtius (J. C. Rolfe, 1921):
- Bellum Catilinae
- Bellum Iugurthinum
- Invectiva in Ciceronem (uncertain authorship, sometimes attributed to Sallust)
- Oratio ad Caesarem (uncertain authorship)
- Works by Sallust at Project Gutenberg (Schmitz and Zumpt, 1848):
- Bellum Catilinae
- Bellum Iugurthinum
- at the Perseus Project (Watson, 1899):
- at Attalus.org:
- Fragmenta Historiarum (translation of selected fragments)
- Fragmenta Historiarum (Latin text of all surviving fragments)
- Latin only
- at Latin Library (unknown edition):
- Bellum Catilinae
- Bellum Iugurthinum
- Fragmenta Historiarum
- Epistolae ad Caesarem
- Invectiva in Ciceronem
External links
- Works by Sallust at Project Gutenberg
- Lua error in Module:Internet_Archive at line 634: attempt to index field 'wikibase' (a nil value).
- Works by Sallust at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) 20px
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text:
When you're feeling pretty flat-out terrible during your period, the last thing you need is to eat something that's going to make you feel worse. Between the unbearable bloating, the constant cramping, and the pesky emotions of PMS, it can be tempting to reach for some comfort food. Unfortunately, some of these foods that make you feel good in the moment can end up making you feel even worse later on.
"Many females report cravings of 'unhealthy' foods while on their menstrual cycle, and many report that it is difficult to avoid the temptation to eat the foods they crave," says Bethany Wheeler, RD. "I don't believe in deprivation, so I recommend clients to incorporate the foods they crave, but in appropriate portions and to have them with other nutrient dense foods, which can help you feel fuller sooner, and thus, decrease the likelihood of wanting more of the craving food."
Eating the right foods can help decrease bloating, improve your mood, and even give you more energy, but eating the wrong types of food can actually exacerbate these problems. To help you better cope through the nasty perils of your period, you should try to avoid these seven foods if possible, as they can leave you lethargic, bloated, and overall miserable.
1. Salty Foods
"Some females report bloating and water retention while on their period," says Wheeler. "To alleviate some the discomfort, some women find that lowering their sodium intake works."
High-sodium foods can increase already existing bloating and discomfort, so try to stay away from foods like chips, french fries, and canned foods.
2. Coffee
Like salt, caffeine can increase discomfort from cramps and bloating.
"Caffeine is a vasoconstrictor," says Dr. Lori Shemek. "It makes blood vessels constrict and may cause the vessels that feed the uterus to tighten."
If you need a boost of energy to get you through the day, try switching to tea for the first few days of your period, as it contains less caffeine, therefore having a minimal effect on cramping and bloating.
3. Sugar
"Blood sugar is like a roller coaster during menstruation," says Dr. Shemek. By consuming more of the sweetener, you're only adding fuel to the fire by letting blood sugar levels rise and drop drastically. "On top of that, sugar is inflammatory and has a tendency to increase cramping," she says.
If you're having an insatiable craving for something sweet, try eating some natural sugars such as figs or dates, which keep your blood sugar levels more stable.
4. Fatty Meat
Many heavy meats are high in saturated fats, which can worsen period pains.
"This fat contains arachidonic acid, which produces prostaglandins that can cause uterine contractions and cramping," says Dr. Shemek. "Eating a diet high in saturated fat during the first few days of your period can lead to bloating, breast tenderness and breakouts."
5. Processed Foods
Trans fats, also known as hydrogenated oils, are found in junk foods such as french fries, packaged foods and desserts, and they can worsen your period symptoms. These detrimental fats cause inflammation in the body, and can worsen pains you already experience while menstruating.
6. White Grains
Refined grains like white rice and white flour have a similar effect to sugar, as they can cause a drastic spike and drop in blood sugar because their nutrients have been removed.
"This leads to inflammation, cravings and hunger," says Dr. Shemek.
7. Dairy
Not only will dairy worsen your bloating, but it can also exacerbate cramping. Foods like milk, cheese, and ice cream contain arachidonic acid, an omega-6 fatty acid which can increase inflammation and can cause cramping.

subset: commoncrawl


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Replay: A Cowboys Talk With Kristi Scales (2/2/15)
3rd & 7 37yd
3rd & 7 37yd
Kellen Moore, who is signed through the end of this season, will likely be the primary backup. The third QB will likely be drafted in April. Will it be the #4 overall pick, or will the Cowboys use their top pick on another position? Neither Jerry Jones nor Carnac the Magnificent know at this point what will happen at #4 overall. Neither do I.
This past season it was DeMarcus Lawrence who, in my opinion, made the biggest leap. In 2016, it all depends on who can stay healthy. The easiest answer is DE Randy Gregory who didn't reach his potential in 2015 because of the ankle sprain that kept him out early in the regular season. But I'm also anxious to see how Byron Jones does once he's settled into a position...and when I mean "leap" with Byron Jones in 2016, I mean making plays on the ball and forcing takeaways. Tyrone Crawford is a veteran, but I want to see what he can do when he's not hampered by a shoulder injury. He was the one a lot of people thought would have a breakout year in 2015, but instead he played through a painful shoulder injury. Can't wait to see what La'el Collins will do in his second season after breaking into the starting lineup as a rookie. And I am anxious to see Brice Butler at receiver with a full offseason and training camp with the Cowboys.
Thanks for taking the quizzes....hopefully everyone had fun recalling great plays and players from the Cowboys' five Super Bowls!!! Let's see...least favorite interview of all time. Well, it was never a one-on-one interview, but Deion Sanders did not act like he held the media in high regard when he played here. I know he's a well-known media member now, but I think most of us in the media at the time didn't care for his act when he was playing for the Cowboys.
Yes, Witten would be a great coach. So would Tony Romo who, during the games he missed this season with the broken collarbone, was a de facto coach on the sideline. Romo was very involved in the game, standing alongside Garrett and Linehan, also helping the backup QBs. But why would Witten and Romo --or any other player who has made millions of dollars --- want to coach, especially in the NFL? The hours are ridiculously long. I hope those guys spend time with their families (young kids) after they retire...then decide if they want to coach. Other guys on the team who would be good coaches? Hmmm. I don't know if he has any desire to coach, but CB Brandon Carr is terrific with kids. He does so much work with his foundation. He's great when interacting with the kids during Cowboys U in the summer. Tyrone Crawford's charity is anti-bullying -- he's also great with kids. DE Jeremy Mincey enjoyed acting as mentor to the young Cowboys defensive linemen. There are lots of great candidates for future coaches on the current roster.
Troy Aikman would be a terrific general manager or personnel guy or team president. He would be outstanding in any endeavor because of his work ethic and attention to detail. Do you know how to tell how hard he works as a broadcaster? He makes it sound easy...that's how I know how much research he does during the week to prepare for his FOX broadcasts. He is a meticulous-type of person, just as he was as a player. But I wouldn't get my hopes up about him necessarily plying his craft in NFL management with the Cowboys...not with the current structure of the team's administration. He would likely start with another NFL franchise because there's very little room at the top of the Cowboys power structure.
It's great for football fans who crave the NFL, and it's great for NBC and CBS which will score big in the ratings (as CBS did this past year). But I don't think it's great for the game. Not at all. It is not good for competitive balance. A short work week is too burdensome for the visiting team. Also, a short work week is bad for players' bodies...they recuperate during the week, and you want two of your thirty two teams to play on a short week? I'm sick of the NFL talking about the importance of player safety and competitive balance, then scheduling for Thursday games. Maybe it's because so much of my job is reporting injuries, but I think it's not good for them to have such a short turnaround. All of that being said, I was completely surprised by something the NFL announced this week. In their press release about 2015 Injuries, the statistics showed fewer injuries (per game) on Thursdays (5.7) compared to Sundays/Mondays (6.6). To me, that defies logic. But it's the result and something the league probably used to justify more Thursday games.
It's understandable the Jones will play their cards close to the vest regarding the 4th pick, but I find it interesting the amount of negative criticism placed on Brandon Carr and Mo Claiborne for the ills of the Dallas backfield. Until Dallas establishes a legitimate threat in the pass-rush, the D-backs will be exposed to quarterbacks with the time they need for their receivers to come open. You can only maintain tight coverage for so long, then, well, you know. That said, and obviously with an eye toward the pass-rush, would you rather have a first round number 4 linebacker, a disruptive 'beast' of a DT or an elite edge rusher with some serious "bend" potential? Thanks Kristi.
I think the criticism for Carr & Claiborne is based on the lack of interceptions/takeaways. Because, in truth, the Cowboys pass defense did a good job this year, at least statistically. Most fans would be surprised to learn they were in the top 5 in the NFL in pass defense most of the season. Carr was the second highest hit on the cap in 2015 ($12.777 million) so people want him to be a playmaker, not just a guy who knocks down passes. And Claiborne hasn't shown that he can get through a full season without some part of his body breaking down. That being said, I hope both players are back in 2016 (Claiborne re-signed at a reasonable price), along with Orlando Scandrick (knee). Then Byron Jones can play free safety full-time.
I've had the honor the past 14 years to be a judge at Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders auditions....yeah, I know...plenty of you would love to volunteer as a judge, right? Kelli Finglass, the DCC director, is a former cheerleader. So is DCC choreographer Judi Trammell. They definitely have the biggest impact. But for the current squad, there is great leadership from Jennifer and Holly and Jacie and Angela who are the four squad leaders. Other terrific DCC vets like Jena and Melissa and Jinelle and Lacey....wow, I shouldn't start naming names (because I don't want to forget anyone). This past season's rookie class was amazing, so I can't wait to see them at tryouts in the spring when they've had a full year with the squad (yes, returning vets have to re-audition every year). Great question, but for impact over the long haul, it is undoubtedly Kelli & Judy.
Hi Kristi! I've heard you on the radio as the sideline reporter. Great to actually chat with you personally! I think a lot of us are wondering who you think the Cowboys might pick with the 4th pick in the NFL draft. Also if Greg Hardy will be resigned. I've read and heard a lot of negative arguments against him coming back. Thanks!
Thanks for listening to our Cowboys Radio broadcasts (we like your ears!!). Thanks for jumping on the chat, too. I don't think Greg Hardy will be back just because they didn't get enough bang for the buck from him in 2015. When I say buck, I don't necessarily mean money. A lot of resources (time/attention, off the field) was devoted to him...and I don't mean just the coaching staff. In my opinion, what he contributed on the field was not worth the headache for the organization...much less the black eye the team got public relations-wise when it signed him. I think he'll command enough money in the open market that the Cowboys won't match it and try to bring him back. The lack of words used by Garrett & Jones regarding Hardy since the end of the season...well, they'd be talking him up if they really wanted him back. The fact they give one-sentence answers regarding Hardy is telling. As for the 4th overall pick in the draft, if anyone tells you they know what the Cowboys are going to do, they're lying. They don't know because the Cowboys don't know yet. Will it be Carson Wentz or another QB at #4? Sure it could. But there are so many other holes to fill on this roster. My hope is that they only use #4 on a QB if the Cowboys are convinced the guy is a future franchise QB.
Wow, the one that jumps out in my mind is Leon Lett having the ball batted out of his hand by Don Beebe in Super Bowl XXVII. I was the producer for the 3 Cowboys' Super Bowl wins in the 1990s. I was not on the sideline until 1999. Another thing that stands out is Super Bowl XXVIII...for Cowboys Radio we awarded our Player of the Game to James Washington. Emmitt Smith was officially named MVP of that game, but we thought J-Dub was the difference maker. But the one memory that is most visceral is from just before kickoff of Super Bowl XXVIII. It was the Georgia Dome and the national anthem was sung by Natalie Cole, accompanied by a gospel choir. I'm not a person who wants oohs-and-aaah's in the anthem. Just sing the song, right? Not only did Natalie sing it...it was so beautiful, so moving. The hair on the back of our necks was standing up. I remember thinking, "Don't Cry, Don't Cry". Then I looked to the big guy standing next to me in the radio booth (Dale Hansen) who also appeared to be fighting back tears. The song was that moving. After Natalie and the choir hit their final note, Dale (on-air) exclaimed, "Nat, your daughter sure can sing!!!". Natalie, of course, was the daughter of Nat King Cole. I was sorry to hear of Natalie Cole's passing last month. She provided the most moving moment of my three Super Bowls. Kind of crazy that it wasn't a specific play or anything related to the game, but I'll never forget that feeling.
I've never been on the team bus when we've been involved in a fender bender or an accident, but we've been "egged" plenty of times (it didn't turn out too well for the egg). We didn't get egged in Philly this year, but that's because we entered the stadium from a different direction. You can usually count on getting egged in the City of Brotherly Love. I also remember getting egged in Buffalo...not this past December, but when we were there 8 years ago. Shockingly, fans in every city are eager to wave hello as the team bus pulls into the parking lot. Usually they're waving a single-finger salute...yes, the middle finger.
It's true, Jason Garrett is often monotone and always 'on-message' during his press conferences. He doesn't reveal too much, which is pretty boring for long-time media members and fans who enjoyed listening to Parcells who would regale us with stories from the Giants' days. He was entertaining and, if you paid attention, could learn so much football as well as stories of leadership, etc. You can do the same with Garrett, too, if you pay attention. He has a lot of great messages about life, etc. Away from press conferences or any microphones or writing pads, Jason Garrett is bright and funny and has so many great stories. When he is not having to be the face/mouthpiece of the franchise, always on-message, you'll find him at a Bruce Springsteen concert or at a ballgame or doing fun stuff. He is so intellectually curious about everything, not just sports...that's what I respect about him.
One more note about Garrett away from the press conference podium....remember when Troy Aikman first started his broadcasting career and so many fans were surprised how engaging and funny (dry humor) he was on-air? He was different from what he was as the starting Cowboys QB when he had to measure every word and be responsible for every comment as the franchise QB. Troy success in broadcasting, and his personality, was no surprise to anyone who knew him away from football. It would be the same way with Jason Garrett. When you have the responsibility of representing the organization, you have to be measured and can't just cut loose.
Sorry, hit the wrong key. Let's try again. I think the initial reaction of Vegas businessman Sheldon Adelson (CEO of Sands Casino) building a $1 billion dome stadium in Las Vegas was dismissed by observers who think the NFL would never move to Sin City because of the league's long-standing aversion to gambling on pro sports. But then there were reports of a memo sent by the league office to all teams with talking points, basically saying everything is on the table and no city would necessarily be dismissed for a move unless it couldn't fit the basic criteria used for the league's most recent move to LA. But whether the Raiders go to Vegas or to San Antonio depends on what Raiders owner Mark Davis can wrangle from city leaders in Oakland/Bay Area. The Cowboys & Texans wouldn't want another team in Texas. And as we've seen from what happened in league owners approving a move by the Rams from St Louis to LA, the determining factor will be money. And there's plenty of it in Vegas.


text:
Location: Plant Polymer ResearchTitle: Exopolysaccharide hydrogels for corrosion inhibition Author
|Finkenstadt, Victoria
|Bucur, Claudiu
|Evans, Kervin
|Cote, Gregory
Submitted to: Meeting Abstract
Publication Type: Abstract Only
Publication Acceptance Date: 9/2/2011
Publication Date: 11/12/2011
Citation: Finkenstadt, V.L., Bucur, C.B., Evans, K.O., Cote, G.L. 2011. Exopolysaccharide hydrogels for corrosion inhibition [abstract]. International Congress on Biohydrogel.
Interpretive Summary:
Technical Abstract: Exopolysaccharide production by micro-organisms have several industrial applications in food, pharmaceuticals, or other industries. Lactic acid bacteria such as Leuconostoc mesenteroides (LM) are endemic to the environment and produce extracellular polymeric glucans such as dextran. Dextrans cause significant problems in sugar refineries where they grow as biofilms that can clog filters and inhibit sugar crystallization. The authors recently showed that some exopolysaccharide coatings inhibited corrosion on steel even when thoroughly hydrated. The polarization resistance was measured by two independent methods. Corrosion current was determined by creating a Tafel plot of the polarization curves. Both anodic and cathodic reactions are reduced by the exopolysaccharide coating. Both corrosion rate and Rp was determined for over 2 dozen strains of LM. Measured by FT-IR, complete hydration of a typical, 50 nm thick, hydrogel coating occurred within 3 minutes without loss of corrosion inhibition. The observed hydration/dehydration phenomena suggested that the film swelled so the nanoscale films were examined by AFM. When exopolysaccharide coatings were scratched, the metal substrate was exposed. The sample was then sprayed with water and allowed to equilibrate and then was re-examined by AFM. The hydrated exopolysaccharide coating flowed into the scratch and partially resealed the metal substrate (see Figure). This has implications as a paint undercoat. Extensive electrochemical analyses showed that LM strain-specific exopolysaccharide hydrogels adhered to metal substrates, provided active resistance to corrosive environments, and displayed limited self-healing behavior. The authors hypothesized that polymer mobility, as well as diffusion properties, played a role in ion mobility through the nanoscale hydrogels and thus affected the corrosion inhibition. The hydrogels are bio-based, environmentally benign, and cost comparative to existing measures.


text:
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Associate Professor of History
U.S. in the World, International History, Modern U.S. History
My interests are wide and varied but I gravitate toward broad global themes and how they straddle the domestic and international. I see the history of the United States not as separate or exceptional but something firmly connected to the stream of world events. Nevertheless, culture, politics, and society within the United States interact with and refract the global. This is reflected in my research. My first book, The Great American Mission: Modernization and the Construction of an American World Order, (Princeton University Press, 2010) looks at the place of development ideas in American foreign relations during the twentieth century. Modernization was defined in the Depression as liberals sought proof that they could master the forces of modernity. Compelling models emerging from the New Deal were trussed for worldwide use. These approaches, newly labeled "modernization," became a consensus view internationally. At home modernization became an American mission, an imperative appealing to constituencies across society. Strategically, it found a central role U.S.-led "nation building" programs in critical parts of the "Third World." In the 1960s and 1970s, modernization was brought to crisis by its intimate connection to the war in Vietnam, growing criticism of the Western modernity that was assumed to be its goal, and an environmental critique that highlighted ecological and human costs. This discredited modernization in many quarters. Nevertheless, modernization's influence continues to echo in institutions and approaches that remain in the skeletal structure of the international community today.
My current book project, Look at the World: The Rise of an American Globalism in the 1930s reflects a growing interest in the interwar crisis. It focuses on a period where political upheaval facilitated the rise of "totalitarian" states. These were believed to have changed the nature of international life. Americans came to the conclusion that to remain secure at home they had to actively promote policies they believed would assure global stability. This demanded the assumption of vast—and potentially limitless—commitments that defined a new type of American globalism.
However, much of the thinking legitimating this view emerged from a transnational discourse contending with a collapsing world order. Because of dramatic changes in mass media and advocacy, these broader views quickly diffused down from international activists and institutions to very local and immediate segments of American society. They led a profound revision of American perceptions, politics, and institutions that remain foundations for our present day understanding of the U.S. role in the world.
Professional experiences have given me insight into the array of actors and ideas that move world affairs. For several years I worked with the Carnegie Corporation of New York, a philanthropic foundation, on international affairs and conflict prevention issues. I spent some time with an UN-affiliated educational program in New York and Costa Rica. Other opportunities led me to Japan where I contributed to educational programs of the Tokyo Foundation.
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