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By: Shaun Wren (Two Beers) –
Finishing their first year as freshman, Jim (Jason Briggs), Oz (Chris Klein), Kevin (Thomas Ian Nicholas) and Finch (Eddie Thomas) return home and find life back a bit boring. So the gang decides to spend the summer together at a beach house and hold the biggest party ever seen. However, preparation doesn't go to plan with Stifler (Seann William Scott), Finch, and Jim become more close to one another then they wish.
A Toast
After the huge success of the first instalment this sequel had to show the boys growing up and seeing if things have changed, which I think is a good subject matter to cover.
You see Jim still unlucky to score with girls and wishing for a relationship with Nadia, (Shannon Elizabeth) but throughout the film you see him on some sort of quest to find Michelle (Alyson Hannigan) and learn to be the perfect lover for his overseas goddess. By the end of the film Jim finally finds out who he is and sees the girl of his dreams is the nerdy band geek, not the foreign girl.
With Oz you see the struggles of a young couple being apart when Heather (Mena Suvari) goes to study abroad and we watch a couple coping with a long distance relationship. Kevin is more of a different story as you see him return as the leader of the pack, but throughout the film he reveals how much he's struggling at college and being a nobody.
With Finch it's more of a sexual journey where he's looking for that perfect someone for fill him after shagging Stifler's mom (Jennifer Coolidge). Speaking of Stifler, he becomes more of a main character and he hasn't changed.
Again, this film has some funny moments and one liners, but it also has the same nostalgia as the first film and a great soundtrack.
Beer Two
Saying that, though, it struggles to compare to its bigger brother and it may be because the characters have got older.
Jim's dad features less in this movie, which is a good thing because the film's not really about him, but when gives advice to Jim halfway through its seems pointless and would have made more sense to have the father – son chat just before Jim leaves for the summer.
Another unnecessary part of the film is right at the end when Nadia hooks up with Sherman just because he's a geek. Also, Shannon Elizabeth's Eastern European English is just dreadful.
It's a good follow up, but it has something missing that made the first American Pie a classic.
Drinking Game
Take a Drink: when Stifler insults someone.
Take a Drink: when Nadia is mentioned.
Do a Shot: when Jim's dad pops up.
Take a Drink: when someone mentions Tantra
Do a Shot: when someone says "The Sherminator".


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Wyndham Public School's 150th birthday celebrations
Wyndham Public School is celebrating 150 years of education in a massive celebration next month.
The memorable occasion will have tonnes of activities at the school throughout the day.
There will be wood chopping displays, horse drawn vehicles, vintage cars, local stalls and workshops, old time games and plenty of food and entertainment.
The day will culminate with a dinner and dance in the evening at Wyndham Hall from 6.30pm.
Tickets can be ordered from the school office before this Friday, June 15 or online at southcoasttickets.com.au at a cost of $55.
Music will be provided by Gary Carson Jones band Mojo as well as a delicious three course Buffet style seated dinner by Valley Katering.
To ensure the success of this day, please extend the invitation out to family and friends, save the date for Saturday, July 7.

subset: commoncrawl


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Nesting bowls / spun metal with giant rims
Posted on June 24, 2012
Nesting bowls, 2008
Brief: Design a set of nesting bowls using metal spinning as a production method.
Necessity calls for a spun metal bowl to have a rigidity bead rim for strength. The rigidity bead is enlarged to the point that it's the focus of the design. It's also a universal design element as it aids gripping and passing. The dimple on the bottom of each bowl adds stability to grip and helps keep the bowls centered when nested.


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Szarka's is now closed.
It has been a great ride and I am deeply grateful for the thousands of people who supported me over the last 30 years. So much generosity in the jewelry making community from teaching, to support, and all the fantastic clients.
I have decided to semi-retire in the jewelry making trade. What that means is I will only be making jewelry for the art of it, for family, and possibly selling at a few shows now and then. I will continue to be active in all the forums I frequent. I would love to see you all there.
The place I spend most of my time is in the Magpie Gemstones Newsgroup, Jewelry Makers and Bead Lovers, as well as my own group, Szarka's Newsgroup. Come hang out with us.
I am not sure if I will let this website float away or if I will use it to present my work. More will be revealed to me as I go through this process.
I will be focusing most of my "work" energy towards Magpie Gemstones, my other happy passion.
Warmest Regards and Love;
Come hang out with us in our Facebook Group, visit Szarka's wholesale gemstone bead store Magpie Gemstones and sign up for our newsletter so you never miss new beauties and sales!
We are not responsible for the information presented on this page expressed or implied about the suitability for healing or for curing diseases. The information here is provided for you to make your own decisions and has not been evaluated or approved by FDA or any other agencies. Metaphysical healing stones can possibly support emotional, mental, spiritual, and physical mindfulness and energy which may be beneficial for certain conditions. We make no claims that a stone heals a disease but that the focus, intention, and mindfulness of your personal healing process may be impacted by the use of metaphysical gemstone jewelry. For more information on what we believe please check out our article on "Healing Gems". **Copyright** Information presented here is protected by copyright. If you should decide to use it you must link to this page as the source. **All articles, photos, and products are copyright. You can reprint these articles as long as the original author is sited and a link to this website is included.


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As a new mum, life is hard. You are functioning on limited sleep, pain medication and are now in the midst of the most important and challenging thing you will ever do: fully support a life.
So with all this in mind, how are you supposed to eat? Not only do you want to get back in pre-baby shape but you want that little bundle of joy to get every bit of nutrition they need to be healthy and happy for life.
Read on to find out:
- Do NOT COUNT CALORIES!
I wish this one was self explanatory. Unfortunately I see so many mothers do this and wonder why they feel like crap and why their bubba is always crying. It may have something to do with them trying to limit their food for 1200 calories per day.
This is NOT the time to worry about calories or portion control. The best rule for new mothers to follow is to eat until their hunger is satisfied: to learn their own unique bodies cues and signals just like how they are doing with their little baby. Developing this awareness is also one of the keys to lifelong appetite awareness and long term sustainable weight loss.
2. Eat sufficient protein
This is a rule that not only applies now, but at almost every time in any decent nutrition plan. Protein is the building block of all tissue and you need adequate protein to help your body recover from the biggest workout (childbirth) you ever did. A palm sized portion at every main meal is a great place to start and if you are hungry, eat more.
3. High quality fats
Did you know that breast milk is quite high in fats? And that these fats are essential for the healthy development of your baby's eyes, brain, nervous system and immune system. In this period of life, we do not need to worry about restricting fats. Remember that while we are breastfeeding we aren't concerned with calories! Try and get your fats from the healthiest sources and a large variety is beneficial here as well. Some of the best sources include:
- Nuts and nut butters
- Olive Oil
- Butter
- Coconut oil and milk
- Avocadoes
- Oily fish – try and consume at least 2-4 times a week, the fatty acids are especially beneficial for infant brain development.
4. Don't avoid fruit or vegetables trying to be low carb
Some new mothers avoid carbs from fruit and vegetables as part of trying to lose baby weight as fast as possible. This is a bad idea as it limits some of the nutrition you will be receiving. There are many valuable vitamins and minerals in these foods (fruits, potatoes, pumpkin, rice) and you do not need to avoid them at all. In fact it is actually a terrible idea as you will need some carbs for energy with all your late night feeds.
5. Supplement smartly
Now is not the time for fat burners, stimulants or anything else crazy. You should stick to the following and no more:
- Fish oil – good for baby brain development
- Multi-vitamin – cover your nutritional bases
- Probiotics – help with gut health.
- Magnesium – ensure what sleep you get is of a high quality.
If you implement the following strategies not only will weight loss be easy as breastfeeding goes on, you will also have the greatest gift of all: a happy healthy baby!


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The Australian Red Cross will be providing information on emergency preparedness from all our library sites in June.
Emergencies can strike at any time. They can be large as a flood or fire, or as personal as a death in the family. They upset routines and in many cases they can lead to significant financial burden. The focus of the information booth is to raise awareness to the community living within the council area and how they can be better prepared in case of an emergency and how Red Cross can support family members, friends and community who may be at increased risk during an emergency.
When: Thursday 14 June 2018, 10am - 12noon
Where: Noarlunga Library, Hannah Rd, Noarlunga Centre
No bookings required | Free
Enquiries phone Noarlunga Library 8384 0655
www.facebook.com/noarlungalibrary Phone: 8384 0655


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This week in La-La Land we are giving you a complete break from all things Christmas with our new design team challenge...
Anything BUT Christmas
I decided to use one of my favourite images - Mad Hatter Luka - he just lends himself to fun colours and layouts. I can't resist a pop of lime green - my favourite colour :)
Don't forget to pop over to our BLOG where you can check out inspiration from my amazing teamies and remember La-La Land Crafts also have a Facebook Page HERE and La-La Lands Facebook Group HERE. We love seeing your amazing creations using La-La Land Stamps and Dies too.
Copics Used
Skin - E11, E00, E000, R20, R11
Hair - YG67, YG25, YG23, YG21, YG17
Clothes - YG67, YG25, YG23, YG21, YG17, 100, YR27, YR24, YR23, YR21, V17, V05, V04, V01, T8, T6, T4
Cup - YR23, YR21, YR20


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Dame Edna's clash with the colour of money
It's the sort of discomfort someone like Dame Edna Everage could only wish on carefully selected members of her audience. At Broadway's big orgy of self-congratulation, next week's Tony Awards, she's the distinct underdog in a category created especially for her four years ago.
Then, when the dame hit Broadway for the first time in 1999's Dame Edna: The Royal Tour, there wasn't a Tony category for a one-person show that relied on audience humiliation.
Answer? Create a one-off award, for "special theatrical event", to give a dame her due. It was such a hit that by the next year "special theatrical event" was elevated to a competitive category, aided by producers' realisation that one-person formats were popular and profitable.
This year the dame's latest Broadway foray, Back with a Vengeance, is one of four slugging it out for the now-coveted gong. It's fiercely competitive. The competition is Billy Crystal's 700 Sundays, Whoopi Goldberg's Whoopi: The 20th Anniversary Show and Mario Cantone's Laugh Whore. Back with A Vengeance closed on May 1 after a six-month run during which the show sold $US7 million ($9 million) in seats and collected reviews as glowing as those four years ago.
So why is Dame Edna struggling to compete for an award that she got, in effect, by acclamation in 2000?
The lights are bright, but money talks on Broadway. Crystal's show has taken $US17 million since opening in December, has the highest average ticket price of Broadway's 37 shows ($US106) and is still selling out a sizzling, if statistically impossible, 102 per cent of its house. It has just been extended until June 12, meaning the price might go through the roof in its final week if it beats Dame Edna. And in a competition where the gongs are often bestowed for the most economic benefit they can bring, it is also the only nominee still playing.
In contrast, the closure of Back with a Vengeance meant that it forfeited the "current attraction" status that powered The Royal Tour so successfully in 2000. And Tonys voters, often industry insiders, can be hard-headed. If bestowing a Tony can provide a box office bump, says one prevailing attitude, why waste it on a show with no box office to bump? The latest extension to 700 Sundays, announced a few days after the nominations, was probably contingent on getting nominated.
In its final weeks, Back with a Vengeance was selling as low as 44 per cent of its house, probably making closure a financial necessity. Still, a few weeks later it looks like a bad strategic move if Dame Edna wants to make Broadway history by winning the same award in two different ways.
In a year in which the nominations brazenly snubbed some Hollywood stars on Broadway - Denzel Washington, Natasha Richardson, Jeff Goldblum and Jessica Lange did not get nominated - it's probably sensible to pay homage to a Tinseltown insider like Crystal.
It makes even more sense when Crystal, the veteran Oscars host, has a track record of getting big television audiences for awards shows. This year's three-time return host, Hugh Jackman, pocketed a Tony last year and probably won't want to become a Radio City Music Hall fixture forever.
Few Broadway punters rate the special theatrical event category as more than a two-horse race between Crystal and Barry Humphries. Goldberg is given little chance and Cantone is a bit too edgy for Tony voters. The irony for Dame Edna is that her reviews last November ("in the pantheon of the world's great comedians", said The New York Times) were a good deal more gushing than those for Crystal's largely autobiographical and very sentimental show. "You don't need to put on the psychological armour you would wear for Dame Edna Everage," the Times said of Crystal's show a few weeks later in a much more reserved review.
The Tony Awards are handed out at Radio City Music Hall on June 1.


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|Tome I
|Tome III
|Tome IV
Newton and the composition of light
The composition of the white light
|In December, 1672,
Newton was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and at this meeting a
paper describing his invention of the refracting telescope was read. A
few days later he wrote to the secretary, making some inquiries as to the
weekly meetings of the society, and intimating that he had an account of
an interesting discovery that he wished to lay before the society. When
this communication was made public, it proved to be an explanation of the
discovery of the composition of white light. We have seen that the question
as to the nature of color had commanded the attention of such investigators
as Huygens, but that no very satisfactory solution of the question had
been attained. Newton proved by demonstrative experiments that white light
is composed of the blending of the rays of diverse colors, and that the
color that we ascribe to any object is merely due to the fact that the
object in question reflects rays of that color, absorbing the rest. That
white light is really made up of many colors blended would seem incredible
had not the experiments by which this composition is demonstrated become
familiar to every one. The experiments were absolutely novel when Newton
brought them forward, and his demonstration of the composition of light
was one of the most striking expositions ever brought to the attention
of the Royal Society. It is hardly necessary to add that, notwithstanding
the conclusive character of Newton's work, his explanations did not for
a long time meet with general acceptance.
Newton was led to his discovery by some experiments made with an ordinary glass prism applied to a hole in the shutter of a darkened room, the refracted rays of the sunlight being received upon the opposite wall and forming there the familiar spectrum. "It was a very pleasing diversion," he wrote, "to view the vivid and intense colors produced thereby; and after a time, applying myself to consider them very circumspectly, I became surprised to see them in varying form, which, according to the received laws of refraction, I expected should have been circular. They were terminated at the sides with straight lines, but at the ends the decay of light was so gradual that it was difficult to determine justly what was their figure, yet they seemed semicircular.
"Comparing the length of this colored spectrum
with its breadth, I found it almost five times greater; a disproportion
so extravagant that it excited me to a more than ordinary curiosity of
examining from whence it might proceed. I could scarce think that the various
thicknesses of the glass, or the termination with shadow or darkness, could
have any influence on light to produce such an effect; yet I thought it
not amiss, first, to examine those circumstances, and so tried what would
happen by transmitting light through parts of the glass of divers thickness,
or through holes in the window of divers bigness, or by setting the prism
without so that the light might pass through it and be refracted before
it was transmitted through the hole; but I found none of those circumstances
material. The fashion of the colors was in all these cases the same.
"I then proceeded to examine more critically what might be effected by the difference of the incidence of rays coming from divers parts of the sun; and to that end measured the several lines and angles belonging to the image. Its distance from the hole or prism was 22 feet; its utmost length 13 1/4 inches; its breadth 2 5/8; the diameter of the hole 1/4 of an inch; the angle which the rays, tending towards the middle of the image, made with those lines, in which they would have proceeded without refraction, was 44 degrees 56'; and the vertical angle of the prism, 63 degrees 12'. Also the refractions on both sides of the prism - that is, of the incident and emergent rays - were, as near as I could make them, equal, and consequently about 54 degrees 4'; and the rays fell perpendicularly upon the wall. Now, subducting the diameter of the hole from the length and breadth of the image, there remains 13 inches the length, and 2 3/8 the breadth, comprehended by those rays, which, passing through the centre of the said hole, which that breadth subtended, was about 31', answerable to the sun's diameter; but the angle which its length subtended was more than five such diameters, namely 2 degrees 49'.
"Having made these observations, I first computed from them the refractive power of the glass, and found it measured by the ratio of the sines 20 to 31. And then, by that ratio, I computed the refractions of two rays flowing from opposite parts of the sun's discus, so as to differ 31' in their obliquity of incidence, and found that the emergent rays should have comprehended an angle of 31', as they did, before they were incident.
"But because this computation was founded on the hypothesis of the proportionality of the sines of incidence and refraction, which though by my own experience I could not imagine to be so erroneous as to make that angle but 31', which in reality was 2 degrees 49', yet my curiosity caused me again to make my prism. And having placed it at my window, as before, I observed that by turning it a little about its axis to and fro, so as to vary its obliquity to the light more than an angle of 4 degrees or 5 degrees, the colors were not thereby sensibly translated from their place on the wall, and consequently by that variation of incidence the quantity of refraction was not sensibly varied. By this experiment, therefore, as well as by the former computation, it was evident that the difference of the incidence of rays flowing from divers parts of the sun could not make them after decussation diverge at a sensibly greater angle than that at which they before converged; which being, at most, but about 31' or 32', there still remained some other cause to be found out, from whence it could be 2 degrees 49'."
All this caused Newton to suspect that the rays, after their trajection through the prism, moved in curved rather than in straight lines, thus tending to be cast upon the wall at different places according to the amount of this curve. His suspicions were increased, also, by happening to recall that a tennis-ball sometimes describes such a curve when "cut" by a tennis-racket striking the ball obliquely.
"For a circular as well as a progressive motion being communicated to it by the stroke," he says, "its parts on that side where the motions conspire must press and beat the contiguous air more violently than on the other, and there excite a reluctancy and reaction of the air proportionately greater. And for the same reason, if the rays of light should possibly be globular bodies, and by their oblique passage out of one medium into another acquire a circulating motion, they ought to feel the greater resistance from the ambient ether on that side where the motions conspire, and thence be continually bowed to the other. But notwithstanding this plausible ground of suspicion, when I came to examine it I could observe no such curvity in them. And, besides (which was enough for my purpose), I observed that the difference 'twixt the length of the image and diameter of the hole through which the light was transmitted was proportionable to their distance.
"The gradual removal of these suspicions at length led me to the experimentum crucis, which was this: I took two boards, and, placing one of them close behind the prism at the window, so that the light must pass through a small hole, made in it for the purpose, and fall on the other board, which I placed at about twelve feet distance, having first made a small hole in it also, for some of the incident light to pass through. Then I placed another prism behind this second board, so that the light trajected through both the boards might pass through that also, and be again refracted before it arrived at the wall. This done, I took the first prism in my hands and turned it to and fro slowly about its axis, so much as to make the several parts of the image, cast on the second board, successively pass through the hole in it, that I might observe to what places on the wall the second prism would refract them. And I saw by the variation of these places that the light, tending to that end of the image towards which the refraction of the first prism was made, did in the second prism suffer a refraction considerably greater than the light tending to the other end. And so the true cause of the length of that image was detected to be no other than that LIGHT consists of RAYS DIFFERENTLY REFRANGIBLE, which, without any respect to a difference in their incidence, were, according to their degrees of refrangibility, transmitted towards divers parts of the wall."[1]


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Traffic and schools
One hour and 10 minutes to travel 11 miles: That's the current time of my commute. It's a beautiful route I started many years ago, from Cutler Bay to Coral Gables, through Palmetto Bay, Pinecrest.
Up until about two years ago, the usual commute was about 45 to50 minutes. Sundays it took 17 minutes. During the summers, it took 17 to 25 minutes. What does that tell you?
Schools are part of the problem, a huge issue that needs to be examined and could be a key factor in alleviating some traffic gridlock.
For example, I looked at all the start times of the schools that I drive by so I can avoid them. Yet I still see gridlock around the schools and, worst of all, there are school-zone lights still flashing when there are no students walking around the school.
There are 345,000 students and 40,000 employees in Miami-Dade public schools, all trying to get to the same places at the same time. We need to address and better plan for school arrival, drop-off and slow-down zones.
Judith M. Briggs,


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|Clear (diamond), black (graphite)
|General properties
|Name, symbol, number
|carbon, C, 6
|Element category
|Group, period, block
|14, 2, p
|Standard atomic weight
|12.0107 g·mol−1
|Electron configuration
|1s2 2s2 2p2 or [He] 2s2 2p2
|Electrons per shell
|2,4 (Image)
|Physical properties
|Density (near r.t.)
|amorphous:[1] 1.8 - 2.1 g·cm−3
|Density (near r.t.)
|graphite: 2.267 g·cm−3
|Density (near r.t.)
|diamond: 3.515 g·cm−3
|Sublimation point
|Triple point
|4600 K (4327°C), 10800[2][3] kPa
|Heat of fusion
|117 (graphite) kJ·mol−1
|Specific heat capacity
|(25 °C) 8.517(graphite),
6.155(diamond) J·mol−1·K−1
|Atomic properties
|Oxidation states
|4, 3 [4], 2, 1 [5], 0, -1, -2, -3, -4[6]
|2.55 (Pauling scale)
|Ionization energies
|1st: 1086.5 kJ·mol−1
|2nd: 2352.6 kJ·mol−1
|3rd: 4620.5 kJ·mol−1
|Covalent radius
|77(sp³), 73(sp²), 69(sp) pm
|Van der Waals radius
|170 pm
|Magnetic ordering
|Thermal conductivity
|(300 K) 119-165 (graphite)
900-2300 (diamond) W·m−1·K−1
|Thermal expansion
|(25 °C) 0.8 (diamond) [8] µm·m−1·K−1
|Speed of sound (thin rod)
|(20 °C) 18350 (diamond) m/s
|Young's modulus
|1050 (diamond) [8] GPa
|Shear modulus
|478 (diamond) [8] GPa
|Bulk modulus
|442 (diamond) [8] GPa
|Poisson ratio
|0.1 (diamond) [8]
|Mohs hardness
|1-2 (Graphite)
10 (Diamond)
|CAS registry number
|Most stable isotopes
|Main article: Isotopes of carbon
Carbon is the chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6. As a member of group 14 on the periodic table, it is nonmetallic and tetravalent—making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds. There are three naturally occurring isotopes, with 12C and 13C being stable, while 14C is radioactive, decaying with a half-life of about 5730 years.[9] Carbon is one of the few elements known since antiquity.[10][11] The name "carbon" comes from Latin language carbo, coal.
There are several allotropes of carbon of which the best known are graphite, diamond, and amorphous carbon.[12] The physical properties of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form. For example, diamond is highly transparent, while graphite is opaque and black. Diamond is among the hardest materials known, while graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper (hence its name, from the Greek word "to write"). Diamond has a very low electrical conductivity, while graphite is a very good conductor. Under normal conditions, diamond has the highest thermal conductivity of all known materials. All the allotropic forms are solids under normal conditions but graphite is the most thermodynamically stable.
All forms of carbon are highly stable, requiring high temperature to react even with oxygen. The most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is +4, while +2 is found in carbon monoxide and other transition metal carbonyl complexes. The largest sources of inorganic carbon are limestones, dolomites and carbon dioxide, but significant quantities occur in organic deposits of coal, peat, oil and methane clathrates. Carbon forms more compounds than any other element, with almost ten million pure organic compounds described to date, which in turn are a tiny fraction of such compounds that are theoretically possible under standard conditions.[13]
Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth's crust, and the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. It is present in all known lifeforms, and in the human body carbon is the second most abundant element by mass (about 18.5%) after oxygen.[14] This abundance, together with the unique diversity of organic compounds and their unusual polymer-forming ability at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth, make this element the chemical basis of all known life.
The different forms or allotropes of carbon (see below) include the hardest naturally occurring substance, diamond, and also one of the softest known substances, graphite. Moreover, it has an affinity for bonding with other small atoms, including other carbon atoms, and is capable of forming multiple stable covalent bonds with such atoms. As a result, carbon is known to form almost ten million different compounds; the large majority of all chemical compounds.[13] Carbon also has the highest melting and sublimation point of all elements. At atmospheric pressure it has no melting point as its triple point is at 10.8 ± 0.2 MPa and 4600 ± 300 K,[2][3] so it sublimates at about 3900 K.[15][16].
Carbon sublimes in a carbon arc which has a temperature of about 5800 K. Thus, irrespective of its allotropic form, carbon remains solid at higher temperatures than the highest melting point metals such as tungsten or rhenium. Although thermodynamically prone to oxidation, carbon resists oxidation more effectively than elements such as iron and copper that are weaker reducing agents at room temperature.
Carbon compounds form the basis of all known life on Earth, and the carbon-nitrogen cycle provides some of the energy produced by the Sun and other stars. Although it forms an extraordinary variety of compounds, most forms of carbon are comparatively unreactive under normal conditions. At standard temperature and pressure, it resists all but the strongest oxidizers. It does not react with sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, chlorine or any alkalis. At elevated temperatures carbon reacts with oxygen to form carbon oxides, and will reduce such metal oxides as iron oxide to the metal. This exothermic reaction is used in the iron and steel industry to control the carbon content of steel:
with sulfur to form carbon disulfide and with steam in the coal-gas reaction:
Carbon combines with some metals at high temperatures to form metallic carbides, such as the iron carbide cementite in steel, and tungsten carbide, widely used as an abrasive and for making hard tips for cutting tools.
As of 2009, graphene appears to be the strongest material ever tested.[17] However, the process of separating it from graphite will require some technological development before it is economical enough to be used in industrial processes.[18]
The system of carbon allotropes spans a range of extremes:
|Synthetic nanocrystalline diamond is the hardest material known.
|Graphite is one of the softest materials known.
|Diamond is the ultimate abrasive.
|Graphite is a very good lubricant.
|Diamond is an excellent electrical insulator.
|Graphite is a conductor of electricity.
|Diamond is the best known naturally occurring thermal conductor
|Some forms of graphite are used for thermal insulation (i.e. firebreaks and heat shields)
|Diamond is highly transparent.
|Graphite is opaque.
|Diamond crystallizes in the cubic system.
|Graphite crystallizes in the hexagonal system.
|Amorphous carbon is completely isotropic.
|Carbon nanotubes are among the most anisotropic materials ever produced.
Atomic carbon is a very short-lived species and, therefore, carbon is stabilized in various multi-atomic structures with different molecular configurations called allotropes. The three relatively well-known allotropes of carbon are amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond. Once considered exotic, fullerenes are nowadays commonly synthesized and used in research; they include buckyballs,[19][20] carbon nanotubes,[21] carbon nanobuds[22] and nanofibers.[23][24] Several other exotic allotropes have also been discovered, such as lonsdaleite,[25] glassy carbon,[26] carbon nanofoam[27] and linear acetylenic carbon.[28]
|Biosphere, oceans, atmosphere
|0.45 × 1018 kilograms
|Organic carbon
|13.2 × 1018 kg
|62.4 × 1018 kg
|1200 × 1018 kg
Carbon is the fourth most abundant chemical element in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. Carbon is abundant in the Sun, stars, comets, and in the atmospheres of most planets. Some meteorites contain microscopic diamonds that were formed when the solar system was still a protoplanetary disk. Microscopic diamonds may also be formed by the intense pressure and high temperature at the sites of meteorite impacts.[31]
In combination with oxygen in carbon dioxide, carbon is found in the Earth's atmosphere (in quantities of approximately 810 gigatonnes) and dissolved in all water bodies (approximately 36,000 gigatonnes). Around 1,900 gigatonnes are present in the biosphere. Hydrocarbons (such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas) contain carbon as well—coal "reserves" (not "resources") amount to around 900 gigatonnes, and oil reserves around 150 gigatonnes. With smaller amounts of calcium, magnesium, and iron, carbon is a major component in very large masses of carbonate rock (limestone, dolomite, marble etc.).
Coal is a significant commercial source of mineral carbon; anthracite containing 92–98% carbon[32] and the largest source (4,000 Gt, or 80% of coal, gas and oil reserves) of carbon in a form suitable for use as fuel.[33]
Graphite is found in large quantities in New York and Texas, the United States, Russia, Mexico, Greenland, and India.
Natural diamonds occur in the rock kimberlite, found in ancient volcanic "necks," or "pipes". Most diamond deposits are in Africa, notably in South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, the Republic of the Congo, and Sierra Leone. There are also deposits in Arkansas, Canada, the Russian Arctic, Brazil and in Northern and Western Australia.
Diamonds are now also being recovered from the ocean floor off the Cape of Good Hope. However, though diamonds are found naturally, about 30% of all industrial diamonds used in the U.S. are now made synthetically.
Carbon-14 is formed in upper layers of the troposphere and the stratosphere, at altitudes of 9–15 km, by a reaction that is precipitated by cosmic rays. Thermal neutrons are produced that collide with the nuclei of nitrogen-14, forming carbon-14 and a proton.
Isotopes of carbon are atomic nuclei that contain six protons plus a number of neutrons (varying from 2 to 16). Carbon has two stable, naturally occurring isotopes.[9] The isotope carbon-12 (12C) forms 98.93% of the carbon on Earth, while carbon-13 (13C) forms the remaining 1.07%.[9] The concentration of 12C is further increased in biological materials because biochemical reactions discriminate against 13C.[34] In 1961 the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted the isotope carbon-12 as the basis for atomic weights.[35] Identification of carbon in NMR experiments is done with the isotope 13C.
Carbon-14 (14C) is a naturally occurring radioisotope which occurs in trace amounts on Earth of up to 1 part per trillion (0.0000000001%), mostly confined to the atmosphere and superficial deposits, particularly of peat and other organic materials.[36] This isotope decays by 0.158 MeV β- emission. Because of its relatively short half-life of 5730 years, 14C is virtually absent in ancient rocks, but is created in the upper atmosphere (lower stratosphere and upper troposphere) by interaction of nitrogen with cosmic rays.[37] The abundance of 14C in the atmosphere and in living organisms is almost constant, but decreases predictably in their bodies after death. This principle is used in radiocarbon dating, invented in 1949, which has been used extensively to determine the age of carbonaceous materials with ages up to about 40,000 years.[38][39]
There are 15 known isotopes of carbon and the shortest-lived of these is 8C which decays through proton emission and alpha decay and has a half-life of 1.98739x10−21 s.[40] The exotic 19C exhibits a nuclear halo, which means its radius is appreciably larger than would be expected if the nucleus were a sphere of constant density.[41]
Formation of the carbon atomic nucleus requires a nearly simultaneous triple collision of alpha particles (helium nuclei) within the core of a giant or supergiant star. This happens in conditions of temperature and helium concentration that the rapid expansion and cooling of the early universe prohibited, and therefore no significant carbon was created during the Big Bang. Instead, the interiors of stars in the horizontal branch transform three helium nuclei into carbon by means of this triple-alpha process. In order to be available for formation of life as we know it, this carbon must then later be scattered into space as dust, in supernova explosions, as part of the material which later forms second, third-generation star systems which have planets accreted from such dust. The Solar System is one such third-generation star system.
One of the fusion mechanisms powering stars is the carbon-nitrogen cycle.
Rotational transitions of various isotopic forms of carbon monoxide (e.g. 12CO, 13CO, and C18O) are detectable in the submillimeter regime, and are used in the study of newly forming stars in molecular clouds.
Under terrestrial conditions, conversion of one element to another is very rare. Therefore, the amount of carbon on Earth is effectively constant. Thus, processes that use carbon must obtain it somewhere and dispose of it somewhere else. The paths that carbon follows in the environment make up the carbon cycle. For example, plants draw carbon dioxide out of their environment and use it to build biomass, as in carbon respiration or the Calvin cycle, a process of carbon fixation. Some of this biomass is eaten by animals, whereas some carbon is exhaled by animals as carbon dioxide. The carbon cycle is considerably more complicated than this short loop; for example, some carbon dioxide is dissolved in the oceans; dead plant or animal matter may become petroleum or coal, which can burn with the release of carbon, should bacteria not consume it.[42]
Carbon has the ability to form very long chains of interconnecting C-C bonds. This property is called catenation. Carbon-carbon bonds are strong, and stable. This property allows carbon to form an almost infinite number of compounds; in fact, there are more known carbon-containing compounds than all the compounds of the other chemical elements combined except those of hydrogen (because almost all organic compounds contain hydrogen too).
The simplest form of an organic molecule is the hydrocarbon—a large family of organic molecules that are composed of hydrogen atoms bonded to a chain of carbon atoms. Chain length, side chains and functional groups all affect the properties of organic molecules. By IUPAC's definition, all the other organic compounds are functionalized compounds of hydrocarbons.[citation needed]
Carbon occurs in all known organic life and is the basis of organic chemistry. When united with hydrogen, it forms various flammable compounds called hydrocarbons which are important to industry as refrigerants, lubricants, solvents, as chemical feedstock for the manufacture of plastics and petrochemicals and as fossil fuels.
When combined with oxygen and hydrogen, carbon can form many groups of important biological compounds including sugars, lignans, chitins, alcohols, fats, and aromatic esters, carotenoids and terpenes. With nitrogen it forms alkaloids, and with the addition of sulfur also it forms antibiotics, amino acids, and rubber products. With the addition of phosphorus to these other elements, it forms DNA and RNA, the chemical-code carriers of life, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the most important energy-transfer molecule in all living cells.
Commonly carbon-containing compounds which are associated with minerals or which do not contain hydrogen or fluorine, are treated separately from classical organic compounds; however the definition is not rigid (see reference articles above). Among these are the simple oxides of carbon. The most prominent oxide is carbon dioxide (CO2). This was once the principal constituent of the paleoatmosphere, but is a minor component of the Earth's atmosphere today.[43] Dissolved in water, it forms carbonic acid (H2CO3), but as most compounds with multiple single-bonded oxygens on a single carbon it is unstable.[44] Through this intermediate, though, resonance-stabilized carbonate ions are produced. Some important minerals are carbonates, notably calcite. Carbon disulfide (CS2) is similar.
The other common oxide is carbon monoxide (CO). It is formed by incomplete combustion, and is a colorless, odorless gas. The molecules each contain a triple bond and are fairly polar, resulting in a tendency to bind permanently to hemoglobin molecules, displacing oxygen, which has a lower binding affinity.[45][46] Cyanide (CN–), has a similar structure, but behaves much like a halide ion (pseudohalogen). For example it can form the nitride cyanogen molecule ((CN)2), similar to diatomic halides. Other uncommon oxides are carbon suboxide (C3O2),[47] the unstable dicarbon monoxide (C2O),[48][49] carbon trioxide (CO3),[50][51] cyclopentanepentone (C5O5),[52] cyclohexanehexone (C6O6) [52], and mellitic anhydride (C12O9).
With reactive metals, such as tungsten, carbon forms either carbides (C4–), or acetylides (C2−2) to form alloys with high melting points. These anions are also associated with methane and acetylene, both very weak acids. With an electronegativity of 2.5,[53] carbon prefers to form covalent bonds. A few carbides are covalent lattices, like carborundum (SiC), which resembles diamond.
Organometallic compounds by definition contain at least one carbon-metal bond. A wide range of such compounds exist; major classes include simple alkyl-metal compounds (e.g. tetraethyl lead), η2-alkene compounds (e.g. Zeise's salt, and η3-allyl compounds (e.g. allylpalladium chloride dimer; metallocenes containing cyclopentadienyl ligands (e.g. ferrocene); and transition metal carbene complexes. Many metal carbonyls exist (e.g. tetracarbonylnickel); some workers consider the carbon monoxide ligand to be purely inorganic, and not organometallic.
While carbon is understood to exclusively form four bonds, an interesting compound containing an octahedral hexacoordinated carbon atom has been reported. The cation of the compound is [(Ph3PAu)6C]2+. This phenomenon has been attributed to the aurophilicity of the gold ligands.[54]
The English name carbon comes from the Latin carbo for coal and charcoal,[55] and from hence also comes the French charbon, meaning charcoal. In German, Dutch and Danish, the names for carbon are Kohlenstoff, koolstof and kulstof respectively, all literally meaning coal-substance.
Carbon was discovered in prehistory and was known in the forms of soot and charcoal to the earliest human civilizations. Diamonds were known probably as early as 2500 BCE in China, while carbon in the form of charcoal was made around Roman times by the same chemistry as it is today, by heating wood in a pyramid covered with clay to exclude air.[56][57]
In 1722, René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur demonstrated that iron was transformed into steel through the absorption of some substance, now known to be carbon.[58] In 1772, Antoine Lavoisier showed that diamonds are a form of carbon, when he burned samples of carbon and diamond then showed that neither produced any water and that both released the same amount of carbon dioxide per gram. Carl Wilhelm Scheele showed that graphite, which had been thought of as a form of lead, was instead a type of carbon.[59] In 1786, the French scientists Claude Louis Berthollet, Gaspard Monge and C. A. Vandermonde then showed that this substance was carbon.[60] In their publication they proposed the name carbone (Latin carbonum) for this element. Antoine Lavoisier listed carbon as an element in his 1789 textbook.[61]
A new allotrope of carbon, fullerene, that was discovered in 1985[62] includes nanostructured forms such as buckyballs and nanotubes.[19] Their discoverers (Curl, Kroto, and Smalley) received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1996.[63] The resulting renewed interest in new forms lead to the discovery of further exotic allotropes, including glassy carbon, and the realization that "amorphous carbon" is not strictly amorphous.[26]
Commercially viable natural deposits of graphite occur in many parts of the world, but the most important sources economically are in China, India, Brazil, and North Korea.[64] Graphite deposits are of metamorphic origin, found in association with quartz, mica and feldspars in schists, gneisses and metamorphosed sandstones and limestone as lenses or veins, sometimes of a meter or more in thickness. Deposits of graphite in Borrowdale, Cumberland, England were at first of sufficient size and purity that, until the 1800s, pencils were made simply by sawing blocks of natural graphite into strips before encasing the strips in wood. Today, smaller deposits of graphite are obtained by crushing the parent rock and floating the lighter graphite out on water.
According to the USGS, world production of natural graphite in 2006 was 1.03 million tons and in 2005 was 1.04 million tons (revised), of which the following major exporters produced: China produced 720,000 tons in both 2006 and 2005, Brazil 75,600 tons in 2006 and 75,515 tons in 2005 (revised), Canada 28,000 tons in both years, and Mexico (amorphous) 12,500 tons in 2006 and 12,357 tons in 2005 (revised). In addition, there are two specialist producers: Sri Lanka produced 3,200 tons in 2006 and 3,000 tons in 2005 of lump or vein graphite, and Madagascar produced 15,000 tons in both years, a large portion of it "crucible grade" or very large flake graphite. Some other producers produce very small amounts of "crucible grade".
According to the USGS, U.S. (synthetic) graphite electrode production in 2006 was 132,000 tons valued at $495 million and in 2005 was 146,000 tons valued at $391 million, and high-modulus graphite (carbon) fiber production in 2006 was 8,160 tons valued at $172 million and in 2005 was 7,020 tons valued at $134 million.
The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of powerful businesses, and is also highly concentrated in a small number of locations around the world (see figure).
Only a very small fraction of the diamond ore consists of actual diamonds. The ore is crushed, during which care has to be taken in order to prevent larger diamonds from being destroyed in this process and subsequently the particles are sorted by density. Today, diamonds are located in the diamond-rich density fraction with the help of X-ray fluorescence, after which the final sorting steps are done by hand. Before the use of X-rays became commonplace, the separation was done with grease belts; diamonds have a stronger tendency to stick to grease than the other minerals in the ore.[65]
Historically diamonds were known to be found only in alluvial deposits in southern India.[66] India led the world in diamond production from the time of their discovery in approximately the 9th century BCE[67] to the mid-18th century AD, but the commercial potential of these sources had been exhausted by the late 18th century and at that time India was eclipsed by Brazil where the first non-Indian diamonds were found in 1725.[68]
Diamond production of primary deposits (kimberlites and lamproites) only started in the 1870s after the discovery of the Diamond fields in South Africa balls. Production has increased over time and now an accumulated total of 4.5 billion carats have been mined since that date.[69] Interestingly 20% of that amount has been mined in the last 5 years alone and during the last ten years 9 new mines have started production while 4 more are waiting to be opened soon. Most of these mines are located in Canada, Zimbabwe, Angola, and one in Russia.[69]
In the United States, diamonds have been found in Arkansas, Colorado, and Montana.[70][71] In 2004, a startling discovery of a microscopic diamond in the United States[72] led to the January 2008 bulk-sampling of kimberlite pipes in a remote part of Montana.[73]
Today, most commercially viable diamond deposits are in Russia, Botswana, Australia and the Democratic Republic of Congo.[74] In 2005, Russia produced almost one-fifth of the global diamond output, reports the British Geological Survey. Australia boasts the richest diamantiferous pipe with production reaching peak levels of 42 metric tons (41 LT; 46 ST) per year in the 1990s.[70]
There are also commercial deposits being actively mined in the Northwest Territories of Canada, Siberia (mostly in Yakutia territory, for example Mir pipe and Udachnaya pipe), Brazil, and in Northern and Western Australia. Diamond prospectors continue to search the globe for diamond-bearing kimberlite and lamproite pipes.
Carbon is essential to all known living systems, and without it life as we know it could not exist (see alternative biochemistry). The major economic use of carbon other than food and wood is in the form of hydrocarbons, most notably the fossil fuel methane gas and crude oil (petroleum). Crude oil is used by the petrochemical industry to produce, amongst others, gasoline and kerosene, through a distillation process, in refineries. Cellulose is a natural, carbon-containing polymer produced by plants in the form of cotton, linen, and hemp. Cellulose is mainly used for maintaining structure in plants. Commercially valuable carbon polymers of animal origin include wool, cashmere and silk. Plastics are made from synthetic carbon polymers, often with oxygen and nitrogen atoms included at regular intervals in the main polymer chain. The raw materials for many of these synthetic substances come from crude oil.
The uses of carbon and its compounds are extremely varied. It can form alloys with iron, of which the most common is carbon steel. Graphite is combined with clays to form the 'lead' used in pencils used for writing and drawing. It is also used as a lubricant and a pigment, as a molding material in glass manufacture, in electrodes for dry batteries and in electroplating and electroforming, in brushes for electric motors and as a neutron moderator in nuclear reactors.
Charcoal is used as a drawing material in artwork, for grilling, and in many other uses including iron smelting. Wood, coal and oil are used as fuel for production of energy and space heating. Gem quality diamond is used in jewelry, and Industrial diamonds are used in drilling, cutting and polishing tools for machining metals and stone. Plastics are made from fossil hydrocarbons, and carbon fiber, made by pyrolysis of synthetic polyester fibers is used to reinforce plastics to form advanced, lightweight composite materials. Carbon fiber is made by pyrolysis of extruded and stretched filaments of polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and other organic substances. The crystallographic structure and mechanical properties of the fiber depend on the type of starting material, and on the subsequent processing. Carbon fibers made from PAN have structure resembling narrow filaments of graphite, but thermal processing may re-order the structure into a continuous rolled sheet. The result is fibers with higher specific tensile strength than steel.[75]
Carbon black is used as the black pigment in printing ink, artist's oil paint and water colours, carbon paper, automotive finishes, India ink and laser printer toner. Carbon black is also used as a filler in rubber products such as tyres and in plastic compounds. Activated charcoal is used as an absorbent and adsorbent in filter material in applications as diverse as gas masks, water purification and kitchen extractor hoods and in medicine to absorb toxins, poisons, or gases from the digestive system. Carbon is used in chemical reduction at high temperatures. Coke is used to reduce iron ore into iron. Case hardening of steel is achieved by heating finished steel components in carbon powder. Carbides of silicon, tungsten, boron and titanium, are among the hardest known materials, and are used as abrasives in cutting and grinding tools. Carbon compounds make up most of the materials used in clothing, such as natural and synthetic textiles and leather, and almost all of the interior surfaces in the built environment other than glass, stone and metal.
The diamond industry can be broadly separated into two basically distinct categories: one dealing with gem-grade diamonds and another for industrial-grade diamonds. While a large trade in both types of diamonds exists, the two markets act in dramatically different ways.
A large trade in gem-grade diamonds exists. Unlike precious metals such as gold or platinum, gem diamonds do not trade as a commodity: there is a substantial mark-up in the sale of diamonds, and there is not a very active market for resale of diamonds.
The market for industrial-grade diamonds operates much differently from its gem-grade counterpart. Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and heat conductivity, making many of the gemological characteristics of diamond, including clarity and color, mostly irrelevant. This helps explain why 80% of mined diamonds (equal to about 100 million carats or 20,000 kg annually), unsuitable for use as gemstones and known as bort, are destined for industrial use.[76] In addition to mined diamonds, synthetic diamonds found industrial applications almost immediately after their invention in the 1950s; another 3 billion carats (600 metric tons) of synthetic diamond is produced annually for industrial use.[77] The dominant industrial use of diamond is in cutting, drilling, grinding, and polishing. Most uses of diamonds in these technologies do not require large diamonds; in fact, most diamonds that are gem-quality except for their small size, can find an industrial use. Diamonds are embedded in drill tips or saw blades, or ground into a powder for use in grinding and polishing applications.[78] Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high pressure experiments (see diamond anvil cell), high-performance bearings, and limited use in specialized windows.[79][80] With the continuing advances being made in the production of synthetic diamonds, future applications are beginning to become feasible. Garnering much excitement is the possible use of diamond as a semiconductor suitable to build microchips from, or the use of diamond as a heat sink in electronics.[81]
Pure carbon has extremely low toxicity and can be handled and even ingested safely in the form of graphite or charcoal. It is resistant to dissolution or chemical attack, even in the acidic contents of the digestive tract, for example. Consequently once it enters into the body's tissues it is likely to remain there indefinitely. Carbon black was probably one of the first pigments to be used for tattooing, and Ötzi the Iceman was found to have carbon tattoos that survived during his life and for 5200 years after his death.[82] However, inhalation of coal dust or soot (carbon black) in large quantities can be dangerous, irritating lung tissues and causing the congestive lung disease coalworker's pneumoconiosis. Similarly, diamond dust used as an abrasive can do harm if ingested or inhaled. Microparticles of carbon are produced in diesel engine exhaust fumes, and may accumulate in the lungs.[83] In these examples, the harmful effects may result from contamination of the carbon particles, with organic chemicals or heavy metals for example, rather than from the carbon itself.
Carbon may also burn vigorously and brightly in the presence of air at high temperatures, as in the Windscale fire, which was caused by sudden release of stored Wigner energy in the graphite core. Large accumulations of coal, which have remained inert for hundreds of millions of years in the absence of oxygen, may spontaneously combust when exposed to air, for example in coal mine waste tips.
The great variety of carbon compounds include such lethal poisons as tetrodotoxin, the lectin ricin from seeds of the castor oil plant Ricinus communis, cyanide (CN-) and carbon monoxide; and such essentials to life as glucose and protein.
|Periodic table
Carbon (C) is the sixth element on the periodic table. It is an essential element to life.
Molecular Weight = 12.011 g·mol-1
Melting Point = 3500°C
Density = 1.8 g·mL-1[1]
CARBON (symbol C, atomic weight 12), one of the chemical non-metallic elements. It is found native as the diamond (q.v.), graphite, as a constituent of all animal and vegetable tissues and of coal and petroleum. It also enters (as carbonates) into the composition of many minerals, such as chalk, dolomite, calcite, witherite, calamine and spathic iron ore. In combination with oxygen (as carbon dioxide) it is also found to a small extent in the atmosphere. It is a solid substance which occurs in several modifications, differing very much in their physical properties. Amorphous carbon is obtained by the destructive distillation of many carbon compounds, the various kinds differing very greatly as regards physical characters and purity, according to the substance used for their preparation. The most common varieties met with are lampblack, gas carbon, wood charcoal, animal charcoal and coke. Lampblack is prepared by burning tar, resin, turpentine and other substances rich in carbon, with a limited supply of air; the products of combustion being conducted into condensing chambers in which cloths are suspended, on which the carbon collects. It is further purified by heating in closed vessels, but even then it still contains a certain amount of mineral matter and more or less hydrocarbons. It is used in the manufacture of printer's ink, in the preparation of black paint and in calico printing. Gas carbon is produced by the destructive distillation of coal in the manufacture of illuminating gas (see GAS: Manufacture), being probably formed by the decomposition of gaseous hydrocarbons. It is a very dense form of carbon, and is a good conductor of heat and electricity. It is used in the manufacture of carbon rods for arc lights, and for the negative element in the Bunsen battery.
Charcoal is a porous form of carbon; several varieties exist. Sugar charcoal is obtained by the carbonization of sugar. It is purified by boiling with acids, to remove any mineral matter, and is then ignited for a long time in a current of chlorine in order to remove the last traces of hydrogen. Animal charcoal (bone black) is prepared by charring bones in iron retorts. It is a very impure form of carbon., containing on the average about 80% of calcium phosphate. It possesses a much greater decolorizing and absorbing power than wood charcoal. A variety of animal charcoal is sometimes prepared by calcining fresh blood with potassium carbonate in large cylinders, the mass being purified by boiling out with dilute hydrochloric acid and subsequent reheating. Wood charcoal is a hard and brittle black substance, which retains the external structure of the wood from which it is made. It is prepared (where wood is plentiful) by stacking the wood in heaps, which are covered with earth or with brushwood and turf, and then burning the heap slowly in a limited supply of air. The combustion of the wood is conducted from the top downwards, and from the exterior towards the centre; great care has to be taken that the process is carried out slowly. The disadvantage in this process is that the by-products, such as pyroligneous acid, acetone, wood spirit, &c., are lost; as an alternative method, wood is frequently carbonized in ovens or retorts and the volatile products are condensed and utilized.
Charcoal varies considerably in its properties, depending upon the particular variety of wood from which it is prepared, and also upon the process used in its manufacture. It can be made at a temperature as low as 300° C., and is then a soft, very friable material possessing a low ignition point. When made at higher temperatures it is much more dense, and its ignition point is considerably higher. Charcoal burns when heated in air, usually without the formation of flame, although a flame is apparent if the temperature be raised. It is characterized by its power of absorbing gases; thus, according to J. Hunter [Phil. Mag., 1863 (4), 2 5, p. 363], one volume of charcoal absorbs (at o° C. and 760 mm. pressure) 171.7 ccs. of ammonia, 86.3 ccs. of nitrous oxide, 67.7 ccs. of carbon monoxide, 21.2 ccs. of carbon dioxide, 17.9 ccs. of oxygen, 15.2 ccs. of nitrogen, and 4.4 ccs. of hydrogen [see also J. Dewar, Ann. Chico. Phys., 1904 (8), 3, p. 5]. It also has the power of absorbing colouring matters from solution. Charcoal is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in metallurgical processes.
The element carbon unites directly with hydrogen to form acetylene when an electric arc is passed between carbon poles in an atmosphere of hydrogen (M. Berthelot); it also unites directly with fluorine, producing, chiefly, carbon tetrafluoride CF 4. It burns when heated in an atmosphere of oxygen, forming carbon dioxide, and when heated in sulphur vapour it forms carbon bisulphide. When heated with nitrogenous substances, in the presence of carbonated or caustic alkali, it forms cyanides. It combines directly with silicon, at the temperature of the electric furnace, yielding carborundum, SiC; and H. Moissan has also shown that it will combine with many metals at the temperature of the electric furnace, to form carbides (q.v.).
Porous wood carbon.
Sp. Ht.
Sp. Ht.
Sp. Ht.
- 50.5
- 50.3
0 -23
- 10.6
- 10.7
0 -99
0 1128
0 -223
o 2385
61 3
The specific heat of carbon varies with the temperature, the following values having been obtained by H. F. Weber (Jahresberichte, 1874, p. 63): - The atomic weight of carbon has been determined by J. B. A. Dumas and by I. S. Stas [Ann. Chim. Phys., 1841 (3), I, D. I: Jahresb., 1849, 2231 by estimating the amount of carbon dioxide formed on burning graphite or diamond in a current of oxygen, the value obtained being 12.0 (o = 16). Confirmatory evidence has also been obtained by 0. L. Erdmann and R. F. Marchand (Jour. Prak. Chem., 1841, 23, p. 159 see also F. W. Clarke, Jahresb., 1881, p. 7).
Three oxides of carbon are known, namely, carbon suboxide, C,02, carbon monoxide, CO, and carbon dioxide, C02. Carbon suboxide, C302, is formed by the action of phosphorus pentoxide on ethyl malonate (0. Diels and B. Wolf, Ber., 1906, 39, p. 689), CH2(000C2H5)2 =2C 2 H 4 +2H 2 0+C 3 0 2. At ordinary temperatures it is a colourless gas, possessing a penetrating and suffocating smell. It liquefies at 7° C. It is an exceedingly reactive compound, combining with water to form malonic acid, with hydrogen chloride to form malonyl chloride, and with ammonia to form malonamide. When kept for some time in sealed tubes it changes to a yellowish liquid, from which a yellow flocculent substance gradually separates, and finally it suddenly solidifies to a dark red mass, which appears to be a polymeric form. Its vapour density agrees with the molecular formula C302, and this formula is also confirmed by exploding the gas with oxygen and measuring the amount of carbon dioxide produced (see Ketenes).
Carbon monoxide, CO, is found to some extent in volcanic gases. It was first prepared in 1776 by J. M. F. Lassone (Mem. Acad. Paris) by heating zinc oxide with carbon, and was for some time considered to be identical with hydrogen. Cruikshank concluded that it was an oxide of carbon, a fact which was confirmed by Clement and J. B. Desormes (Ann. Chim. Phys., 1801, 38, p. 285). It may be prepared by passing carbon dioxide over red-hot carbon, or red-hot iron; by heating carbonates (magnesite, chalk, &c.) with zinc dust or iron; or by heating many metallic oxides with carbon. It may also be prepared by heating formic and oxalic acids (or their salts) with concentrated sulphuric acid (in the case of oxalic acid, an equal volume of carbon dioxide is produced); and by heating potassium ferrocyanide with a large excess of concentrated sulphuric acid, K 4 Fe(CN) 6 -i-6H2S04+6H20=2K2S04+FeS04+3(NH4)2S04+6C0. It is a colourless, odourless gas of specific gravity 0.967 (air = I). It is one of the most difficultly liquefiable gases, its critical temperature being - 139'5° C., and its critical pressure 35'5 atmos. The liquid boils at - 190° C., and solidifies at - 21 I ° C. (L. P. Cailletet, Comptes rendus, 1884, 99, p. 706). It is only very slightly soluble in water. It burns with a characteristic pale blue flame to form carbon dioxide. It is very poisonous, uniting with the haemoglobin of the blood to form carbonyl-haemoglobin. It is a powerful reducing agent, especially at high temperatures. It is rapidly absorbed by an ammoniacal or acid (hydrochloric acid) solution of cuprous chloride. It unites directly with chlorine, forming carbonyl chloride or phosgene (see below), and with nickel and iron to form nickel and iron carbonyls (see Nickel and IxoN). It also combines directly with potassium hydride to form potassium formate (see Formic Acid). The volume composition of carbon monoxide is established by exploding a mixture of the gas with oxygen, two volumes of the gas combining with one volume of oxygen to form two volumes of carbon dioxide. This fact, coupled with the determination of the vapour density of the gas, establishes the molecular formula CO.
Carbon dioxide, C02, is a gas first distinguished from air by van Helmont (1577-1644), who observed that it was formed in fermentation processes and during combustion, and gave to it the name gas sylvestre. J. Black (Edin. Phys. and Lit. Essays, 1755) showed that it was a constituent of the carbonated alkalis and called it "fixed air." T. 0. Bergman, in 1774, pointed out its acid character, and A. L. Lavoisier (1781-1788) first proved it to be an oxide of carbon by burning carbon in the oxygen obtained from the decomposition of mercuric oxide. It is a regular constituent of the atmosphere, and is found in many spring waters and in volcanic gases; it also occurs in the uncombined condition at the Grotto del Cane (Naples) and in the Poison Valley (Java). It is a constituent of the minerals cerussite, malachite, azurite, spathic iron ore, calamine, strontianite, witherite, calcite aragonite, limestone, &c. It may be prepared by burning carbon in excess of air or oxygen, by the direct decomposition of many carbonates by heat, and by the decomposition of carbonates with mineral acids, M2C03+2HC1=2MCl-FH 2 O+CO 2. It is also formed in ordinary fermentation processes, in the combustion of all carbon compounds (oil, gas, candles, coal, &c.), and in the process of respiration.
It is a colourless gas, possessing a faint pungent smell and a slightly acid taste. It does not burn, and does not support ordinary combustion, but the alkali metals and magnesium, if strongly heated, will continue to burn in the gas with formation of oxides and liberation of carbon. Its specific gravity is 1.529 (air = I). It is readily condensed, passing into the liquid condition at o° C. under a pressure of 35 atmospheres. Its critical temperature is 31.35° C., and its critical pressure is 72.9 atmos. The liquid boils at - 78.2° C. (1 atmo.), and by rapid evaporation can be made to solidify to a snow-white solid which melts at - 65° C. (see Liquid Gases). Carbon dioxide is moderately soluble in water, its coefficient of solubility at o° C. being 1.7977 (R. Bunsen). It is still more soluble in alcohol. The solution of the gas in water shows a faintly acid reaction and is supposed to contain carbonic acid, H2C03. The gas is rapidly absorbed by solutions of the caustic alkalis, with the production of alkaline carbonates (q.v.), and it combines readily with potassium hydride to form potassium formate. It unites directly with ammonia gas to form ammonium carbamate, NH 2 00ONH 4. It may be readily recognized by the white precipitate which it forms when passed through lime or baryta water. Carbon dioxide dissociates, when strongly heated, into carbon monoxide and oxygen, the reaction being a balanced action; the extent of dissociation for varying temperatures and pressures has been calculated by H. Le Chatelier (Zeit. Phys. Chem., 1888, 2, p. 782; see H. Sainte-Claire Deville, Comptes rendus, 1863, 56, p. 195 et seq.). The volume composition of carbon dioxide is determined by burning carbon in oxygen, when it is found that the volume of carbon dioxide formed is the same as that of the oxygen required for its production, hence carbon dioxide contains its own volume of oxygen. Carbon dioxide finds industrial application in the preparation of soda by the Solvay process, in the sugar industry, in the manufacture of mineral waters, and in the artificial production of ice.
Carbonyl chloride (phosgene), COC1 2, was first obtained by John Davy (Phil. Trans., 1812, 40, p. 220). It may be prepared by the direct union of carbon monoxide and chlorine in sunlight (Th. Wilm and G. Wischin, Ann., 1868, 14, p. 150); by the action of phosphorus pentoxide on carbon tetrachloride at 200-210° C. (G. Gusta y son, Ber., 1872, 5, P. 30), 4CC14-+P4010 =2C02+4P0Cl3 20001 2; by the oxidation of chloroform with chromic acid mixture (A. Emmerling acid B. Lengyel, Ber., 1869, 2, P. 54), 4CHC13+302= 40001 2 +2H 2 O+2C1 2 i or most conveniently by heating carbon tetrachloride with fuming sulphuric acid (H. Erdmann, Ber., 1893, 26, p. 1 993), 2S03-FCC14=S205C12+COC12.
It is a colourless gas, possessing an unpleasant pungent smell. Its vapour density is 3.46 (air = I). It may be condensed to a liquid, which boils at 8° C. It is readily soluble in benzene, glacial acetic acid, and in many hydrocarbons. Water decomposes it violently, with formation of carbon dioxide and hydrochloric acid. It reacts with alcohol to form chlorcarbonic ester and ultimately diethyl carbonate (see Carbonates), and with ammonia it yields urea. It is employed commercially in the production of colouring matters (see Benzophenone), and for various synthetic processes.
Carbon oxysulphide, COS, was first prepared by C. Than in 1867 (Ann. Suppl., 5, p. 236) by passing carbon monoxide and sulphur vapour through a tube at a moderate heat. It is also formed by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen on the isocyanic esters, 2CONC 2 H 5 +H 2 S=COS+CO(NHC 2 H 5) 2, by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on the isothiocyanic esters, Rncs H 2 O = Cos Rnh 2, Or Of Dilute Sulphuric Acid On The Thiocyanates. In The Latter Reaction Various Other Compounds, Such As Carbon Dioxide, Carbon Bisulphide And Hydrocyanic Acid, Are Produced. They Are Removed By Passing The Vapours In Succession Through Concentrated Solutions Of The Caustic Alkalis, Concentrated Sulphuric Acid, And Triethyl Phosphine; The Residual Gas Is Then Purified By Liquefaction (W. Hempel, Zeit. Angew. Chemie, 1901, 14, P. 865). It Is Also Formed When Sulphur Trioxide Reacts With Carbon Bisulphide At 100° C., Cs2 3S03 =Cos 4So 2, And By The Decomposition Of Ethyl Potassium Thiocarbonate With Hydrochloric Acid, Co(0C2115)Sk Hc1= Cos Kc1 C 2 H 5 Oh. It Is A Colourless, Odourless Gas, Which Burns With A Blue Flame And Is Decomposed By Heat. Its Vapour Density Is 2.1046 (Air= I). The Liquefied Gas Boils At 47° C. Under Atmospheric Pressure. It Is Soluble In Water; The Aqueous Solution Gradually Decomposes On Standing, Forming Carbon Dioxide And Sulphuretted Hydrogen. It Is Easily Soluble In Solutions Of The Caustic Alkalis, Provided They Are Not Too Concentrated, Forming Solutions Of Alkaline Carbonates And Sulphides, Cos 4Kho = K2C03 K 2 S 2H20.
Carbonado >>
Categories: CAP-CAR
|Chemical element
|Previous: boron (B)
|Next: nitrogen (N)
from Latin carbo
carbon (countable and uncountable; plural carbons)
For etymology and more information refer to: http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/elem/be.html (A lot of the translations were taken from that site with permission from the author)
|Atomic Structure.
|Atomic Number
|Atomic Mass
|12.00 g/mol
|Periodic Table
|Row / Period
|Element Category
Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and some other elements like sulfur and phosphorus together form most life on earth (see Organic chemistry and List of biologically important elements). Carbon forms a very large number of organic compounds because it can form strong bonds with itself and with other elements. Because of the amounts of carbon living things have, all organic things are considered "carbon-based". Also, each carbon atom can form 4 single covalent bonds. Many carbon atoms linked together with hydrogen atoms form plastic. Also, Carbon is the only element that can form long chain-shaped molecules. When iron is heated up with carbon, hard steel is formed.
The name of carbon comes from Latin carbo, meaning charcoal. In many foreign languages the words for carbon, coal and charcoal are synonyms.
Carbon in nature is found in three forms called allotropes: diamond, graphite, and fullerenes. Graphite, with clay, is in pencils. It is very soft. The carbon atoms in it make rings, which are on top of each other and slide very easily. Diamonds are the hardest natural mineral. Fullerenes are a "soccer ball" shape of carbon. They are mostly of interest to science. A special, man-made, tube-shaped allotrope of carbon is the carbon nanotube. carbon nanotubes are very hard, so they might be used in armor. Nanotubes might be useful in nanotechnology.There are 10 million known carbon compounds.
A whole type of Chemistry, organic chemistry, is about carbon and its compounds. Carbon makes many types of compounds. Hydrocarbons are molecules with carbon and hydrogen. Methane, Propane, and many other fuels are hydrocarbons. Many of the substances that people use daily are organic compounds.
A radioactive isotope of carbon, carbon-14, can be used to figure out how old some objects are or when something died. As long as something is on the surface of the earth and taking in carbon, the amount of carbon-14 stays the same. When an object stops taking in carbon, the carbon-14 amount goes down. Because the half-life (how long it takes for half of a radioactive isotope to go away) of carbon-14 is 5730 years,[1] scientists can see how old the object is by how much carbon-14 is left.
Carbon is in many places in the universe. It was first made in old stars. Carbon is the fourth most common element in the sun.[1] Almost all of the atmosphere of Mars is Carbon dioxide.[2]
It is important to the human body, and it is the second most common element in the human body, at 23% of all body weight.[1] It is also a key part of many biological molecules (molecules used in life).
Graphite is in many areas, including Sri Lanka, Madagascar, and Russia. Diamonds are rare and are found in Africa. Carbon is also in some meteorites.
Periodic table


text: Exit this survey >> ES_GeoSTAC Student Post-test 1. GeoSTAC Post-Test for Elementary School Thank you for participating in this project funded by the National Science Foundation. We are working to understand how to use GIS in middle school classrooms. Teachers at Lane Community College have been working with your teacher to develop lessons and activities that will introduce geospatial technology. To develop really good lessons, we need to see what you know already and how much you have learned after using GIS. We would like you to take a pre-test now and later you will take a post-test. Your teacher will not get the scores for specific students, but will know in general how each class did. Participation in the survey is voluntary. Thank you for your help. NSF Grant #0903330Respectfully, Lynn Songer, Ph.D., PIEric Sproles, CoPIAcknowledgments: Many components of this test were developed by Dr. Jongwon Lee and further refined as part of the AAG's "Teacher's Guide to Modern Geography project." Updated: September 25, 2010 Next >>


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Lately I've found myself repeatedly encouraging startups to use PickFu, so I thought it's time to share that advice with a wider audience. Here's how it works.
You give PickFu $5 and then they get 50 people via Mechanical Turk to do an A/B test for you in the form of a question, e.g. which page/image looks better and why?
In addition to recommending them to others, I've used it twice so far myself. I made the results public so you can see them. First, I asked about two different homepage logo designs. Second, I asked about two different about page designs. (The latter test I paid a bit more, $9 for 100 responses.)
It was interesting to me that in both cases there wasn't a clear winner. My original concern was people would just pick one and you'd expect an equal split in that case. And I'm still not sure that isn't happening.
On the other hand, I found the comments people left somewhat compelling. They make sense and so I'm inclined believe most people are actually taking it seriously.
More to the point though, I found the feedback valuable enough to iterate on the About page design and ended up with more of a hybrid approach. I wouldn't have got there without reading those comments. It's really a cheap and quick form of useful feedback.
I'd of course be interested in your experiences as well. Also of note are UserTesting ($40 for videoed user test) and FeedbackArmy ($15 for 10 written up usability tests). I haven't used these sites yet, but plan to do so soon when a need arises. I'd also be interested in your feedback on them.
If you have comments, hit me up on Twitter. I'm the Founder & CEO of DuckDuckGo, the search engine that doesn't track you. I'm also the co-author of Traction, the book that helps you get customer growth. More about me.


text:
Dancing at the crossroads
The crossroads down around Inver is a popular landmark to the hundreds of drivers who daily make their journeys to Killybegs, Glenties, Dungloe, Ardara and more locally to Inver, Letterbarrow, Ardaghey, Drimarone and Frosses.
Nearly 1,000 dance fans made their way to the Abbey Hotel, Donegal town on Saturday night to support the St Naul's Keelogs Strictly Come Dancing fundraiser.
See today's Donegal Democrat for full pics and coverage.


text:
Disney has gone and bought Lucasfilm for a paltry $4+ billion, and they're planning at least three new Star Wars movies. I'm not quite sure how to feel about that. On one hand, the original three Star Wars movies are probably my favourite SF/fantasy movies. On the other, the recent three "episodes" nearly ruined all that. I guess the main advantage is that Lucas is stepping away from the series and letting someone else look after it. The last time he did that we got Empire Strikes Back, which is the best movie in the series.
Maybe it won't be a bad thing.
Maybe. 🙂


text:
We are Seeking Interns Across a Number of Departments – Spring 2017
Civil Rights Defenders is now looking for interns across a wide number of departments for the spring semester 2017. We are are seeking one intern for each of the following departments: Latin America and Caribbean, East and Horn of Africa, Eurasia and two for the Legal Department (Swedish speakers only) Details about these exciting opportunities can be accessed by clicking on the link below. Closing date for applications 15 November 2016.
We are Seeking an Intern to the Eurasia Department
We are Seeking an Intern to the East & Horn of Africa Department
We are Seeking an Intern to the Latin America and Caribbean Department
Vi söker två praktikanter till juridiska avdelningen
Categories: Internships and News.
Tags: Internship.
Regions: Sweden.


text:
Steel Security and Heritage Doors for Melbourne, Melton and Geelong
Our stylish heritage doors provide the best solution for at-home security, made from robust and protective materials. Made-to-measure to suit your home's unique requirements, each door is fully customisable in a range of colours, coatings and finishes, to make it a stylish option for any architecture. Australian-made with the best quality materials.
Custom-designed and quality doors
Preserving the heritage charm of your unique property is essential – and our doors provide you with the ideal stylish addition.
All of our door options come in a variety of colours and styles, and their sizes are readily changed and cut-to-measure, depending on the size of the frame. The products can be produced in standard and premium colours.
When combined with a mesh security feature, you are able to choose the option of complete privacy with our super mesh, tuff mesh for extra strength, or stainless steel mesh for complete protection from the weather, deterioration and corrosion. Each mesh door provides you the ability to view outside unobstructed.
We also provide enhanced technical features, such as a tough safety dead lock, steel level handle, an automatic door-close mechanism and three robust hinges, which are all made from quality building materials.
Contact our dedicated heritage team
Professionals with many years of expertise and experience in the field, the dedicated team at Bayside Security is able to offer you a wide range of security solutions. If you are looking for a heritage door to add to the style and safety of your home, speak to us about obtaining an in-house measure and quote. We design and install your doors to your precise needs and requirements, throughout Melbourne, Geelong, Melton and surrounding areas.


text: One thing is certainly true about all weeds. We hate them! I know you're with me on this. It's not necessarily the labor of pulling weeds that gets under my skin. It's the time it takes to do it. When I'm pulling weeds it means I'm taking time away from other jobs that are more


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Why Do You Need Data Backups?
The first defense line to prevent data loss is data backup. Backup is like exercise, it's important but often been overlooked. It has not been paid enough attention by the network administrator in some big enterprises. For example, once you updated or added content to your website with data & file backup, even you deleted useful news or important contents mistakenly, you could use system backup and restore method to recover it to achieve the security and reliability of the data. Or if the original data of enterprise website is lost or damaged, you can use backup software to realize data recovery so that the system works continuously. From those examples, we could see the importance of backups. Database backup and recovery should be listed to indispensable system work to avoid huge loss.
Select the Appropriate Method of Data Backup
Backup is a strategy to make sure data security, which is an exact the copy of original data depending on the backup object. Enterprise backup can be divided into two parts generally, that are file backup and database backup. File backup usually includes documents, texts, spreadsheets, pictures, audio and video files and so on. The object of database backup are database library file, database logs, etc. How to choose the appropriate backup software is not an easy job. Regardless in which kinds of software, there are three basic forms. They are full/standard backup, incremental backup and differential backup. In general, the size of the data and the frequency of modifying data determine to database backup mode.
1. Full / standard data backup
Full backup refers to creating a backup of all the valid data, whether it is new added or exists for a long time. It includes system files, application files, user files, etc. The full data backup is a way to make data been protected well, but it's very time-consuming. It's faster and easier to restore data from other backup forms, because all data has been backed up with one or more disks.
However, full backup is less popular in enterprises. The main reason is time-consuming for most full backup should be finished in non-commercial time. But enterprise's data is too large to complete full backup within a short time. One solution is to use multiple disk drive to back up the specified files on server hard disk. While the large data backup should be complete within a limited short time, the incremental backup and differential backup can solve the issue perfectly.
2. Incremental backup and differential backup
Incremental backup and differential backup are very similar. The difference between is that, after finishing an incremental backup, the file's archive will be reset, that is to say, as long as the files haven't been modified since the last incremental backup, it won't be archived. Although the differential backup only backs up the changed data based on full backup, it can help to improve backup efficiency and reduce storage disk space required by the image file.
Since incremental backup and differential backup only back up new changed files and data, it saves time and speeds up the backup process. So many enterprises are using incremental and differential backups based on full backup weekly. In combination with those three backup methods, it ensures your data security without data loss.
A backup is something you must do and also, make sure that your backup files are valid!


text: DigitalManager Recalls the Muddying of Creedence Clearwater RevivalBy Richard Horgan|May 27, 2011 ShareBy Richard Horgan|May 27, 2011 Share Any article that begins with a Hunter S. Thompson quote is fine by FishbowlLA. That's the case with "The Fortunate Son: Part 5," a fantastic, must-read excerpted remembrance of the late 1960s rise and fall of Creedence Clearwater Revival, written by the band's former manager Jake Rohrer.Rohrer charts the fortuitous timing of the band's first album with the emergence of San Francisco underground FM radio station KSAN. But just a few years later, the wheels started to come off for CCR in 1970 as they hired powerful PR firm Rogers & Cowan:It was among several questionable moves the band adopted at the time to help establish CCR at the top of the heap, somehow ignoring the fact that they had already arrived there on their own… The firm conceived what we came to refer to as "Night of the Generals," a gala [San Francisco] press junket where we flew in all the prestigious rock journalists from all over the country. We put them up at Berkeley's Claremont Hotel, wined and dined them at the "Factory," CCR headquarters in Berkeley…A few members of the elite press corps, most notably New York critic and blue-ribbon asshole, Al Aronowitz, took full advantage of all the free perks, only to write whiny, self centered articles that largely ignored the music and bitched about the slightly less than royal treatment received at the hands of these West Coast upstarts. F*ck you, Al.The article winds its way to the leased Lear jet that would plunge the band into the "waiting abyss." The entire series of serialized Rohrer memoir excerpts for Boonville, CA's Anderson Valley Advertiser can be found here. Bookmark, and enjoy. Sharehttp://adweek.it/2k6RG14 copy Adweek Adweek


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Creative Director Francesco Russo was inspired by architectural design and form when designing the latest Sergio Rossi FW13 collection. The old woman who lived in a shoe, made famous from the well-known English nursery rhyme, would certainly give up all her children to upgrade to one of these 'homes.' Granted, the feminine silhouettes, delicate details and overall fierceness may be too much for her to handle.
With stunning geometrical patterns in the form of gold-plated steel cages and square cutouts as well as skyscraper heels, the Sergio Rossi FW13 collection is a treat for the eyes as well as the feet. Each one is made for chic and sophisticated women who loves to dress up and always has a place to go, even if that's only work.
Architecture-Inspired Footwear
More Stats +/-
Belted Gladiator Footwear
Baseball-Inspired Footwear
Spicy Condiment Kicks
Bold Fur-Covered Heels
British Culture Pumps
The Sergio Rossi FW13 Collection Offers Chic Homes for Feet
- By: Meghan YoungFeb 27, 2013
References: sergiorossi & fashiongonerogue
References: sergiorossi & fashiongonerogue


text:
BSOD Windows 8 Pro
I've been getting it several times a day.
I repaired W8 Pro installation and for a week things were good, but BSOD came back again.
See .DMP file in onedrive here:
Anwsers to the Problem BSOD Windows 8 Pro
Download Error Fixer for Free Now
Windows Restore - Totally Fix All Errors including BSOD Windows 8 Pro
- Click on the Start button on the Taskbar.
- Type "System Restore" (without quotes) in the Search box and hit Enter or,
- Click on System Restore (when you see System Restore pop up in the list of search results).
- Make sure the "Recommended restore" radio button is checked on the restore utility window.
- Click on Next and follow the instructions given.
Note: There is the option on the restore utility to select "Choose a different restore point". Unless you have a specific reason to select a different date and time than what Windows recommends, just select the recommended option stated in the steps above. If you choose to select another one, follow these steps:Click on that desired date and time, and Windows 7 will perform a scan for any affected programs in that restore point.
Once completed, click Next and follow the instructions given.
Once you have selected the restore point, your system will start the restoring process, after which you will have to restart the system.
Recommended Method to Repair the Problem: BSOD Windows 8 Pro:
How to Fix BSOD Windows 8 Pro with SmartPCFixer?
1. Click the button to download Error Fixer . Install it on your system. Open it, and it will perform a scan for your system. The junk files will be shown in the scan result.
2. After the scan is finished, you can see the errors and problems need to be repaired. Click Fix All.
3. The Repair part is finished, the speed of your computer will be much higher than before and the errors have been removed. You can also use other functions in SmartPCFixer. Like dll downloading, windows updating and print spooler error repair.
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text:
Join us Sunday, December 9th, 2018 at Full Earth Farm!
High Tunnel Production Workshop
Upcoming On-Farm FOG Workshops
We will be announcing more upcoming workshops in 2019 very soon! We are currently identifying and selecting host farms to share knowledge on the following topics:
- Organic pest and disease management
- Specialty crop production
- Post-harvest handling & food safety
- Bees for honey & pollination
- Tractors and implements
- Conservation best practices
Organic Farming Workshops
Florida Organic Growers (FOG) has a long tradition of promoting and organizing successful organic farming workshops throughout Florida. We partner with organic farmer experts, University of Florida-IFAS, Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University (FAMU) and many other research and education institutions to bring these practical on-farm workshops to life. The goal behind these workshops is to promote sustainable and organic farming methods such as farm planning, sustainable soil management, sustainable pest, disease, and weed management, food safety, marketing,
USDA National Organic Program (NOP) regulations, and much more.
These workshops create a critical meeting place for the sharing and exchange of ideas among farmers and researchers, promoting a sense of collaboration and partnership among them, and to present the most up to date research information. Practices highlighted in workshops are relevant to all farming operations, with the potential to help reduce input costs while improving soil characteristics and whole-farm ecological function. Workshop participants benefit from host farmers' experiences and insights, as well as knowledge and experience from invited speakers and FOG staff.


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Taj Mahal of India-"The Epitome of Love", "a monument of immeasurable beauty". the beauty of this magnificent monument is such that it is beyond the scope of words. The thoughts that come into the mind while watching the Tajmahal of Agra is not just its phenomenal beauty, but the immense love which was the reason behind its construction. Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan got this monument constructed in the memory of hes beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal, with whom he fell in love at the first sight. This very first sight of the Tajmahal, the epitome of love and romance leaves one Mesmerized.
standing majestically on the banks of river Yamuna, the Taj mahal is synonymous with love and romance. It is believed that he name of TAJMAHAL was derived from the name of Shah Jahan wife Mumtaz Mahal and means "CROWN PALACE".
The purity of the white marble, the exquisite ornamentation, precious gemstones used and its picturesque location, all make Taj Mahal Travel gain a place amongst the most popular ones.


text:
Unrivalled Strength & Durability
A modern door needs to be many things. Because of their prominence, external doors such as front doors and back doors must be visually appealing. Furthermore, they must also be easy to operate, weather-proof and of course strong and secure. To ensure that we give you doors that meet and exceed all of the demands put on them, we use only the very best materials and cutting-edge manufacturing techniques.
To give you doors that are lightweight yet still incredibly strong, we use a range of modern materials, including composite, UPVC and aluminium. Not only are these doors guaranteed to remain secure for years to come but they also offer great insulation; helping to improve the overall energy efficiency of your home.
UPVC has become one of the most popular materials for external home improvements such as doors thanks to the many great benefits they provide. Strong, durable and easy to maintain, UPVC doors in Mid Wales are continuing to grow in popularity. With over 20-years of experience, we know that homes around the Newtown, Welshpool, Shropshire and Mid Wales area come in a variety of sizes and styles. Offering a wide-choice of UPVC colours and finishes for you to choose from, we do everything we can to give homeowners unrivalled choice and the best UVC doors prices in the area. Thanks to the affordability of UPVC doors, they are also a great low cost way of instantly improving your home's appearance and security. To help you get a better idea of what we offer and allow you to see for yourself the many great colours and designs we offer, all of our UPVC doors are available to view online.


text:
Message from National Chief Shawn A-in-chut Atleo
The Assembly of First Nations (AFN) would like to thank the First Nation students and teachers who participated in our video contest telling us about your school. All of the videos portray the pride of the students in their cultures and communities. We appreciate your creativity and generosity in showing us what you like about your school, how it's making a difference in your life and what would make it even better.
Click on the videos below to view the submissions.
iCount school in Moricetown (BC)
Truro Junior High School (NS)
Lamle' Iwesawtexw – Seabird Island Community School (BC)
Nkamplx i Snmamayatn kl sqilxwtet (BC)
Otetiskiwin Kiskinwamahtowekamik Elementary School (MB)
Otter Nelson River School, Cross Lake (MB)
Grade 8 class at Lakeview School in M'Chigeeng First Nation (ON)