text:
Switching vectors for inverter.
\r\n\tEnvironmental Chemoinformatics aims to avoid animal testing, with respect of REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation, and restriction of Chemicals) regulations, using QSAR models to prioritize compounds by environmental hazard and risk assessment.
\r\n\tOptimization of process parameters in various chemical process and operations can carried out by simulation programs (separation: simulation of a fractional distillation column; transport properties; penetration trough membranes; coatings; fermentative process, etc.).
Stroke is the fourth leading causes of death in the United States. Annually, about 795,000 people suffer from a stroke with about 140,000 people, or 1 in 19, dying each year due to stroke related causes. [1] Between 1995-2005 overall stroke death rate fell 30%, even so, annual health care related costs for stroke patients in 2012 were up to 38.6 billion. [1] It is well recognized that cerebrovascular disease, specifically carotid atherosclerosis and subsequent stenosis, is a leading cause of ischemic stroke, which makes up 87% of all strokes. Due to the significant morbidity and mortality incurred by these patients the identification, management, and treatment of carotid disease is of paramount importance.\n
Cerebrovascular disease does not appear to affect all races and genders equally. In addition to the usual cardiovascular risk factors of hypertension, diabetes, and smoking; age, gender and race have also been shown to have an additive effect on stroke risk. In a study by Rockman et al. they looked at a little over 3 million patients for evidence of carotid artery stenosis. After controlling for gender and age differences, they found that there was a marked variation in the prevalence of carotid artery stenosis with Native American subjects having the highest prevalence followed by Caucasians. [2] Yet, based on CDC data, African Americans' risk of having a first stroke is nearly twice that of Caucasians. Overall, as would be expected based on the prevalence of carotid disease, American Indians/Alaska Natives are more likely to have a stroke than other groups. [1] Gender differences have also been analyzed. In a large population based study carotid artery stenosis was detected in 3.8% of men and 2.7% of women. [3] The reasons for these differences are thought in part to be due to carotid plaque differences between men and women. Sangiorgi et al. evaluated plaque specimens from 457 patients and found that women, as compared to men of the same age, had a lower prevalence of thrombotic plaques and a smaller area of necrotic core and hemorrhage extension. Also, they found inflammatory features were less pronounced in women as compared to men. [4] These results correlate with similar studies done for evaluation of patients with coronary artery disease that showed that sex hormones seem to play a fundamental protective role in women. [5, 6] More studies still need to be conducted to determine the true role of gender in carotid artery disease. Age greater than 70 also appears to be a risk for stroke. In the Framingham study they found that seventy year olds with hypertension and the presence one additional risk factor, such as diabetes mellitus, cigarette smoking, cardiovascular disease, atrial fibrillation or electrocardiographic abnormalities had an increase in 10 year stroke risk from an average of less than 9% in women and 12.3% in men, to greater than 80%. [7].\n
Significant carotid artery atherosclerosis can put patients at a risk for stroke and/or transient ischemic attack (TIA) making it imperative that at risk populations be accurately evaluated and followed for disease progression. An ideal diagnostic imaging test could accurately and reproducibly determine the degree of luminal stenosis as well as plaque morphology in both a non-invasive and cost effective way. No one single imaging test encompasses all these traits however several have been shown to have benefit in the diagnosis and work up of carotid disease. At this time the most clinically effective first line imaging modality for identifying patients with carotid artery disease is duplex ultrasound (DUS). In 2006 Wardlaw et al published a meta-analysis looking at non-invasive imaging tests either alone or combined to determine if they could replace intra-arterial angiography for evaluation of carotid stenosis. They included 41 studies and found that contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance angiography (CEMRA) was the most accurate imaging modality for patients with 70-99% stenosis, however it was not cost-effective. Alternatively, DUS had a sensitivity of 0.89 and specificity of 0.84 for carotid stenosis between 70-90%, was cost effective and allowed for expedient diagnosis and treatment for patients recommending it as the diagnostic test of choice. In patients with lower degrees of stenosis around 50-69% the sensitivity of DUS dropped to 0.36. [8] Conversely, another meta-analysis performed by Jahromi et al found improved sensitivities and specificities of 0.98 and 0.88 for detecting greater than 50% ICA stenosis; and 0.94 and 0.90 respectively for detecting greater than 70% ICA stenosis. [9] Due to the potential risk of surgical intervention in patients with a questionable or 50-69% stenosis, a subsequent CEMRA or a multi detector computed tomographic angiogram (MDCTA), is highly recommended. [8] Principle limitations of ultrasound remain primarily operator experience. Occasionally, plaque calcification, shadowing and patient body habitus can also prevent accurate assessment of stenosis. Currently the indications for carotid duplex ultrasonography are cervical bruit, amaurosis fugax, focal or cerebral transient ischemic attacks, drop attacks, or syncope.\n \n \n
The degree of luminal stenosis has traditionally been the most important element when considering the severity of carotid disease, however recently several studies have shown that plaque structure and composition may be an additional marker for future cerebrovascular events. [10, 11] DUS can provide only a basic view of plaque morphology, unable to consistently and accurately delineate characteristics of plaque vulnerability such as ulceration, a large lipid necrotic ore, and a thin fibrous cap. [12, 13]. Gray-Weale developed a scale, later modified by Geroulakos that identified 5 types of carotid artery plaques: type 1 (anechogenic with echogenic fibrous cap), type 2 (predominately anechogenic but with echogenic areas representing less than 25% of the plaque), type 3 (predominately hyperechogenic but with anechogenic areas representing less than 25% of the plaque), type 4 (echogenic and homogeneous plaque) and type 5 (unclassified plaques reflecting calcified plaques with areas of acoustic shadowing which hide the deeper part of the arterial layers). [14, 15]. Using this type of classification, a study by Polak et al. showed that asymptomatic elderly patients with a hypo-echoic plaque have relative risk of ipsilateral ischemic stroke of 2.78, this was independent from the degree of stenosis and other cardiovascular risk factors. [16]Another, similar investigation by Mathiesen et al. found comparable results with the relative risk of ipsilateral cerebrovascular events in patients with hypo-echoic plaques to be 3.52. [17] Nevertheless in the Asymptomatic Carotid Surgery Trial (ACST), there was no evidence that the Gray-Weale classification, or plaque echolucency, showed any influence on the risk of stroke over degree of stenosis. [18]. The emergence of multi-detector computed tomographic angiography (MDCTA) came with the increased advances of improved spatial and temporal resolution for evaluating different arterial regions but also the ability to further differentiate plaque morphology between smooth, irregular and ulcerated surfaces. [19] Density of a plaque can also be determined measured in Hounsfield units (HU). This can differentiate a "soft" plaque (<50 HU) which usually has a lipid-rich core and more likely to be associated with symptoms from a "calcified" plaque (>120 HU) which generally remains asymptomatic. [20]. Even so, it seems that MRA is probably the best modality for evaluating plaque morphology. Plaque components such as lipid cores, intraplaque hemorrhage, fibrotic tissue, fibrotic caps and calcifications can all be evaluated with MRA to distinguish unstable plaques from stable ones. [21-23] In a study by Sadat et al. MRA was used to evaluate plaque morphology in acute symptomatic, recently symptomatic and asymptomatic patients. Results showed that MRA was clearly able to identify plaque features including hemorrhage and thin fibrous caps in the acutely symptomatic group that varied from the recently symptomatic and asymptomatic groups. [23] The use of MRA for further risk stratifying symptomatic patients or predicting high-risk asymptomatic patients, however requires further evaluation to determine its role in the evaluation of carotid artery disease.\n
Even with all of the advances of DUS, MDCTA, and MDMRA, for many practitioners intra-arterial digital subtraction arteriography (IADSA) still remains the gold standard for imaging extra cranial and intracranial circulation. Although angiography allows for detailed evaluation of the aortic arch, origins of the great vessels and the distal ICA, it is still an invasive imaging modality potentially exposing patients to unnecessary complications and even possibly death. Complications rates do vary among studies from as low as 0.4% in the Veterans Affair Cooperative Study to 1.2% in the Asymptomatic Carotid Atherosclerosis Study and as high as 12.5% in patients with severe bilateral carotid obstructive disease. [24-26]. IADSA can be forgone in most situations where noninvasive diagnostic tests are available and now usually only utilized in conjunction with planned carotid artery stenting.\n
Patients with cerebrovascular disease can be divided into asymptomatic and symptomatic disease. Patient's with asymptomatic carotid disease generally come to the attention of practitioners because they are found to have one or more risk factor for developing cerebrovascular disease (age, diabetes mellitus, coronary artery disease, peripheral vascular disease, hypertension, or hyperlipidemia) and/or signs on clinical exam, such as carotid bruit on auscultation, that warrant further diagnostic evaluation. About 5% of the general population over 65 years of age has an asymptomatic CAS of 50% or greater. [27-28]. This is increased in patients with peripheral arterial disease up to 15% and in patients with abdominal aortic aneurysms up to about 12%. [29] The overall annual risk of ipsilateral stroke for patients found to have asymptomatic carotid stenosis that are treated medically is about 2%. Asymptomatic carotid disease, in fact, seems to be a better indicator of generalized vascular disease than of stroke risks. In this population the average annual non-stroke death rates are generally higher than those of ipsilateral stroke with more than 50% of the non-stroke related deaths due to ischemic heart disease and its complications. [30] For patients who are found to have carotid disease, optimal medical management is the cornerstone to overall treatment. The goal of medical therapy is to reduce overall cardiovascular events as well as stroke by a five pronged attack including: treatment of hypertension, treatment of diabetes mellitus, treatment of lipid abnormalities, smoking cessation, and antithrombotic treatment. As mentioned previously, hypertension has been consistently found to be an independent risk factor for carotid artery atherosclerosis with each 10-mm Hg increase in blood pressure resulting in an increase in risk for stroke of 30-45%. Conversely each 10-mm Hg reduction in blood pressure in hypertensive patients decreases risk for stroke by 33%. [31] Currently recommendations are for blood pressures to be maintained less than 140 systolic and 90 diastolic. For patients with coronary artery disease the relationship between lipid abnormalities and ischemic heart events has also been clearly identified in the literature however at this time the relationship between elevated cholesterol and stroke risk remain unclear. [32,33] Nevertheless, studies have shown that patients with known atherosclerosis have demonstrated reduced stroke rates by 15-30% when treated with lipid lowering therapy. [34] Smoking cessation is important for all patients with vascular disease, and in carotid artery disease this is no different nearly doubling the overall risk for stroke. [35] Finally both antithrombotic and anticoagulant therapy can also be utilized for prevention in patients with carotid disease. There is more robust evidence for the use of antithrombotic treatment for secondary prevention of recurrent stroke in symptomatic patients than for prevention in asymptomatic patients, however it is still recommended that patients who are at risk, or have known vascular disease, take a daily aspirin for prophylaxis. [36] Anticoagulation with Coumadin is generally reserved for patients at risk for an embolic stroke from atrial fibrillation and is not used as prophylaxis for asymptomatic or symptomatic carotid disease. [37]\n
For asymptomatic patients who continue to have worsening carotid disease even with best medical management the next step in treatment is to consider operative intervention. The current recommendations from the Society for Vascular Surgery is for carotid endarterectomy in asymptomatic patients with carotid stenosis of greater than or equal to 60% as long as the expected combined stroke and mortality rate for the individual surgeon was not greater than 3%. [38] These recommendations are based on three major prospective, randomized trials the Veterans Administration Asymptomatic Carotid Stenosis Study (VA ACS), the Asymptomatic Carotid Atherosclerosis Study (ACAS), and the Asymptomatic Carotid Surgery Trial (ACST).\n
The VA ACS evaluated a total of 444 patients over an 8 year period randomizing them to a surgical group (211) or and a medical group (233). Both groups were treated with aspirin and best medical risk factor control. For the surgical arm, the 30-day mortality rate was 1.9% and the incidence of stroke was 2.4% with a combined stroke and mortality rate of 4.3%. In total, all neurologic events were 30 (14.2%). Conversely, the medical group had a total of 55 (23.6%) neurologic events recorded. These findings were found to be statistically significant with a P value of less than 0.006. [39] However, the study did not find any difference in overall survival rates between groups. This trial gave credence that best medical treatment plus carotid endarterectomy (CEA) would reduce stroke and TIAs versus medical treatment alone in asymptomatic patients.\n
The ACAS was a NIH-funded randomized trial which included 1662 patients between the ages of 40-79 years with greater than 60% asymptomatic stenosis. Patients were randomized to optimal medical management versus CEA and medical management. The 30-day combined mortality and stroke rate was 2.3%, which accounts for two preoperative deaths and seven preoperative strokes making the actual stroke rate 1.3% and mortality rate 0.1%. After a mean follow up of 2.7 years the overall 5-year risk for ipsilateral stroke, perioperative stroke and death was 5.1% for surgical patients and 11% for the medical group (P=0.004). [40] An absolute risk reduction for stroke and death in the surgical group was calculated to be 53%. [41] One drawback of the ACAS study is that all patients with 60%-99% carotid stenosis were analyzed together and there was no breakdown for event rates by deciles. Nevertheless, their results again favored CEA plus medical management over medical management alone.\n
Finally a group of European investigators embarked on an additional randomized trial, ACST, to try, in addition to validating CEA for asymptomatic patients with significant stenosis, to identify a higher-risk group of patients. They randomized 3129 patients, both men and women, with greater than 60% asymptomatic unilateral or bilateral carotid artery stenosis to CEA versus best medical therapy. The found a 5 year stroke or death rate to be 6.4% versus 11.8 % (p<0.0001) in the CEA versus medical group, respectively. Overall perioperative stroke or death rate was 3.1%. These results were found to be significant for bother males and females when analyzed separately [18].\n
When compared to asymptomatic patients the benefit of CEA with recent ipsilateral carotid territory symptoms and moderated to severe carotid stenosis is much greater. In patients who experience a TIA or minor stroke the risk of subsequent stroke or death is very high, especially during the first few days and weeks after an event. [42] Traditionally the mainstay of treatment for symptomatic disease in these patients is surgical intervention with CEA. Recently there has been literature advocating aggressive medical therapy alone may be adequate in certain patients, preventing early stroke after TIA and reducing the need for urgent CEA. The Stroke Prevention Aggressive Reduction of Cholesterol Levels (SPARCL) trail tested whether treatment with atorvastatin reduced strokes in subjects with recent minor stroke or TIA. The study included 4731 participants with a mean follow up of 4.9 years and found that high does Atorvastatin use after TIA or stroke was associated with a 16% relative reduction in risk of fatal or nonfatal stroke. Also patients treated were found to have a 56% reduction in later carotid revascularization compared with placebo. Researchers postulated that the use of statins might help stabilize the arterial wall decreasing events as well as reducing intraoperative complications as well for patients who did proceed with surgery. [43,44] Merwick et al. also evaluated early high dose statin use postulating that pretreatment at TIA onset would modify early stroke risk. They found that non-procedural 7-day stroke risk was 3.8% with statin treatment compared to 13.2% in those not pretreated. [45] Another study by Chimowitz et al. evaluated a different medical treatment looking at recently symptomatic patients with intracranial 79-99% stenosis who were treated with dual antiplatelet therapy versus percutaneous transluminal angioplasty and stenting (PTAS) (gold standard for intracranial lesions). This study found a 30-day rate of stroke or death was found to be 14.7% in the PTAS group and 5.8% in the medical-management group. At one year follow this study concluded that medical management with dual antiplatelet therapy was superior to PTAS and advocates belief this data can be extrapolated to severe, symptomatic extra cranial disease as well. [46,47]. Several other older studies have compared the use of platelet antiaggregants with placebo in treating patients with cerebral ischemia secondary to extra cranial atherosclerosis. [48-51] These results however proved inferior to surgery, which was highlighted in the landmark North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial.\n
Two major randomized control trials have reported data to date advocating for CEA in symptomatic patients with 50%-99% stenosis: The North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial (NASCET) and Medical Research Council European Carotid Surgery Trial (ECST). The NASCET trial was set up to evaluate two subsets of patients those with 70-99% stenosis and those with 30-69% stenosis. In the high-grade stenosis group the 30-day operative morbidity and stroke mortality rate for patients was 5%. In the surgical group at 2-year follow-up the incidence of ipsilateral stroke was 9% compared to 26% in the medical treatment group. This difference represented an absolute risk reduction of 17% in favor of surgical management and a relative risk reduction of 71% at the end of the 18-month follow up. Mortality rates were also measured at the end of 18 months yielding 12% mortality rate in the medical group compared to a significantly lower rate of 5% in the surgical group. [52,53]. The results for the moderate stenosis group were also reported. The 30-day combined mortality, disabling stroke rate, and non-disabling stroke rate was 6.7%. At 5 year follow up in this group the ipsilateral stroke rate was 22.2% in the medical patients and 16.7% in the surgical patients. [54]\n
The ECST trial was a European randomized control trial that enrolled patients over 10 years almost concurrently with the NASCET trial. There were 2518 patients with nondisabling ischemic stroke, TIA or retinal infarct due to a stenotic lesion in the ipsilateral carotid artery randomized to either medical management with aspirin or surgery. At 3 years, the risk of stroke was found to be 26.5% in the medical group compared to 7% in the surgery group with an absolute reduction of 14.9%. The actual incidence of ipsilateral stroke was 2.8% in the surgery group versus 16.8% in the medical group. [55] ECST trial also evaluated gender, age, severity of stenosis, plaque morphology, and time since last event. They found that risk of events increased with age and with male gender. They did not find any benefit for surgery over medical treatment in the mild stenosis group (10%-29%) unlike the severe stenosis group, which showed a 6-fold reduction in subsequent strokes over 3 years. [56]\n
Based on these randomized studies there seems to be a consensus on which patients would benefit from operative intervention after an ischemic event, however the timing of intervention has been much debated. The risk of recurrent stroke after TIA or minor stroke is the highest within the first 7-10 days. According to a meta-analysis by Giles et al the risk of stroke after TIA is 6.7% at 48 hours and 10% at 7 days with more than half of the strokes occurring within the first 7 days doing so within the first 24 hours after the inciting event. [57,58] In another study by Ois et al. the rate of recurrent stroke in symptomatic patients with greater then 50% stenosis was determined to be 20.9% in the first 72 hours, 6.7% between 72 hours and 7 days and 3.7% between 7 and 14 days. [59] These results support early intervention in the first 48 hours because the risk of recurrent stroke appears to outweigh the operative risk in patients who are medically stable and have relatively small or no infarcts on imaging studies. Alternatively, for a completed stroke researchers advocate delayed surgical intervention for at least 4-6 weeks due to the risk of converting an ischemic cerebral infarction into a hemorrhagic one. Giordano et al reported on 49 CEAs done after a completed acute stroke. 27 of these were performed within 5 weeks of the event and 22 were done between 5 and 20 weeks. The early intervention group had a morbidity and mortality of 18.5% compared to nothing for the later group. [60] These results seem to corroborate with observations in both the NASCET and ECST trials.\n
Along with CEA, carotid artery stenting (CAS) has emerged as an alternative treatment strategy for patients with carotid artery disease. Initially proponents of angioplasty and stenting projected that this procedure could overcome the risks associated with CEA and provide a minimally invasive alternative for patients. However at this time the utility of CAS is highly debated with CEA remaining the standard of care in most asymptomatic and symptomatic patients.\n
There have been very few studies that have specifically addressed CAS in asymptomatic patients and most of the data available comes from high-risk registries which include patients with lesions located at or above the level of C2, contralateral carotid occlusion, severe ulceration and tandem intracranial stenosis, age over 80, active coronary artery disease or congestive heart failure, and patient's with "hostile necks" (immobile neck, previous irradiation, previous surgery on the ipsilateral side or previous surgery on the contralateral side with vocal cord paralysis). In the SAPPHIRE trial, which population included 70% asymptomatic high-risk patients, their results found cumulative perioperative incidence of death, stroke, and MI of 5.4% for CAS and 10.2% for CEA. [61] Their results found that CAS with cerebral protection was not inferior to CEA. This study, however had several limitations including failure to randomize >50% of patients, unaccounted for elevated incidence of perioperative stroke, and possible reporting bias. The Carotid Revascularization Endarterectomy versus Stent Trial (CREST) enrolled more than 1000 asymptomatic patients. Stroke and death rates after CAS were 2.6% and 1.1% respectively with a difference between CAS and CEA in asymptomatic patients for any periprocedural stroke being 2.5% versus 1.4%. [62-64] These results did not show significant difference between CAS and CEA. The results from this study, however, were based on procedures performed by highly experienced operators and have not been replicated by other trials. [65]\n \n
For symptomatic patients several major randomized trials comparing CEA versus CAS have been completed. These include the International Carotid stenting Study (ICSS), the Stent-Supported Percutaneous Angioplasty of the Carotid Artery Versus Endarterectomy (SPACE) trial, the Endarterectomy versus Angioplasty in Patients with Symptomatic Severe Carotid Stenosis (EVA-3s) trial, the Stenting and Angioplasty with Protection in Patients at high risk for Endarterectomy (SAPPHIRE) trial and the Carotid Revascularization Endarterectomy Versus Stenting Trial (CREAST).\n
|\n Trial\n\n
|\n Methods\n\n
|\n Results\n\n
|\n Conclusions\n\n
|1713 patient with symptomatic stenosis >50%\n
CEA vs CEA
-Primary endpoint at 120 days was stroke, death or MI
|-Primary endpoints:\n
Stroke: 7.7% CAS vs 4.1% CEA
Death: 2.3% CAS vs. 0.8% CEA
MI: 8.5% CAS vs. 5.2% CEA
|-CAS higher rates of any stroke and all cause death\n
-No significant difference between groups in disabling stroke
|European study 1196 patients with symptomatic stenosis randomly assigned 180 days after TIA or stroke to CAS vs. CEA\n
-Primary endpoint: ipsilateral stroke or death at 30 days
|-Stroke or Death:\n
-6.9% CAS vs. 6.5% CEA
-2 year follow up showed no significant difference btw CAS and CEA
- 9.5% CAS vs. 8.8% CEA
|-failed to prove noninferiority of CAS vs. CEA\n
-2 year restenosis more frequent in CAS group
-10.7% vs 4.6%
|French multicenter study 259 patients with severe symptomatic stenosis >60% CAS vs. CEA\n
-Evaluate hypothesis that CAS in not inferior to CEA (similar to SPACE)
-Primary endpoint: stroke or death at 30 days
|- Stroke and/or Death:\n
-9.6% CAS vs. 3.9% CEA
-4 year follow up Stroke and/or Death
- 11.1% CEA vs. 6.2% CAS
|-Stopped premature 2/2 deaths in CAS group\n
-CEA needs to be safer before it can be alternative to CEA
*CPD were optional
|RCT largest comparing CAS vs. CEA in both symptomatic and asymptomatic patients\n
-2502 enrolled; 47% asymptomatic
|- Death:\n
0.7% CAS vs. 0.3% CE
- Stroke:
4.1% CAS vs. 2.3% CEA
1.1% CAS vs. 2.3% CEA
- Combined endpoints:
7.2% CAS vs. 6.8% CEA
-4 year follow up combined endpoints:
6.4% CAS vs. 4.7% CEA
|-overall effectiveness and safety were similar\n
-similar results male vs. female and symptomatic vs. asymptomatic
-Periprocedural higher risk of stroke with CAS and higher risk MI with CEA
|- No difference in primary endpoint\n
on symptomatic status
- Periprocedure stroke and
lower in CEA in symptomatic
|Multicenter RCT comparing CAS vs. CEA in both symptomatic and asymptomatic patients\n
-334 patients randomized
->70% of patients asymptomatic
-CPD used in about 95%
|-30 day Death stroke and MI:\n
5.4% CAS and 8.4% CEA
-1 year follow up death, stroke and /or MI
-12.2% CAS vs. 20.1% CEA
|- CAS with use of CPDs is not inferior to CEA\n
-Mostly high risk patients enrolled
-747 patients enrolled only less then ½
-High periprocedural death rate compared
to other trials
The ICSS was a randomized prospective, multicenter trial in 2010 composed of 1713 subjects with recently symptomatic carotid artery stenosis greater than 50% who were randomized to either CEA or CAS. At this time the 120-day reported results show that the CAS group had a stroke, death, and MI rates of 7.7%, 2.3% and 8.5%, respectively. These were significantly higher than rates in the CEA group, which were 4.1%, 0.8%, and 5.2% respectively. Also there was an additional group that was analyzed by MRI. This analysis showed a greater number of patients in the CAS group that had a new ischemic brain lesion compared to the surgery counterpart. [66] The EVA-3S and SPACE trial had similar protocols as the ICSS trial. EVA-3S study divided 259 patients to CAS with cerebral protection devices (CPD) and CEA. This study found a significant, 2.5, higher risk for 30-day stroke and death in the CAS group than in the CEA group (9.6% versus 3.9%). At 4 year follow-up the risk of periprocedural stroke or death, and nonperiprocedural ipsilateral stroke was also higher in the CAS group (11.1% versus 6.2%). [67] This trial however was limited by operator experience were physicians were only required to perform a minimum of two procedures with any device to qualify for enrollment. In the SPACE trial, which was larger with 1196 patients, the rate of death or ipsilateral ischemic stroke was 6.9% in the CAS group and 6.5% in the CEA group. At the end of two years results showed a greater probability of recurrent carotid stenosis of more than 70% in the CAS group Similar concerns were raised against the SPACE trial concerning the inexperience of the operators. The inconsistent use of CPDs was another concern raised by opponents of this trial. [68,69] Nevertheless, all three of these trials strongly favor CEA over CAS.\n
The SAPPHIRE trial previously mentioned was another one of the initial trials comparing CAS versus CEA. This corporate sponsored study had a high proportion of patients who were asymptomatic and at high risk for CEA. Results at one year found primary end-points of ipsilateral stroke or death to be lower in the stenting group than in the CEA group (12.2% versus 20.1%; P=0.5) supporting the superiority of CAS over CEA. The clinical correlation to symptomatic patients however is unclear. The CREST trial, alternatively, was a randomized, prospective, multicenter trial, which included 2502 patients. This trial had about an equal inclusion of symptomatic and asymptomatic patients. The primary endpoint of any stroke, MI or death at 30-days were similar between CAS and CEA (6.8% versus 7.2%). Upon further examination, patients in the CAS group had a lower rate of MI within 30 days (1.1% versus 2.3%) and patients in the CEA group had a lower 30-day rate of stroke (2.3% versus 4.1%). At one-year follow up quality of life measurements were examined. Investigators found that patients who had strokes reported significantly lower quality of life scores than those who had MI or cranial nerve palsy. After one year, however, these measurements did not show any significant difference. [62,64]The improved outcomes found in the CREST trial may reflect the increased experience of vascular surgeons with endovascular procedures and stent placement as well as the improvement in stents and device designs. This data supports that CAS is not inferior to CEA and both procedures can be safely offered to patients for the treatment of carotid artery disease.\n
Current overall recommendations by the Society of Vascular Surgery for intervention in patients with carotid artery disease are:\n
For symptomatic patients with stenosis <50% or asymptomatic patients with stenosis <60% optimal medical therapy is indicated
In patients who have >50% symptomatic lesions or >60% asymptomatic lesions CEA is preferred to CAS
Asymptomatic patients >60% stenosis should be considered for CEA if that have a 3-5 year life expectancy and perioperative stroke/death rates are <3%
In patients with symptomatic stenosis >50% CEA is preferred, especially if patient is >70, has a long lesion (>15mm), preocclusive stenosis, lipid-rich plaque that can be completely removed, and have not had previous neck operations or radiation
CAS is preferred over CEA in symptomatic patients with >50% stenosis when
Patient has a tracheal stoma, scarred and fibrotic tissue from previous ipsilateral surgery or radiation, prior cranial nerve injury, and lesions that extend proximal to the clavicle or distal to the C2 vertebral body
Patient has severe uncorrectable CAD, CHF or COPD
Asymptomatic patients with >60% stenosis deemed "high risk" for CEA should be managed with optimal medical therapy
Insufficient data to recommend CAS for asymptomatic patients that are normal or high risk for CEA. [38]
The electric motors are electromechanical machines, which are used for the conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy. The foremost categories of AC motors are asynchronous and synchronous motors. The asynchronous motors are called singly excited machines, that is, the stator windings are connected to AC supply whereas the rotor has no connection from the stator or to any other source of supply. The power is transferred from the stator to the rotor only by mutual induction, owing to which the asynchronous motors are called as induction machines.\n
The synchronous motors require AC supply for the stator windings and DC supply for the rotor windings. The motor speed is determined by the AC supply frequency and the number of poles of the synchronous motor, the rotor rotates at the speed of the stator revolving field at synchronous speed, which is constant. The variations in mechanical load within the machine's rating will not affect the motor's synchronous speed [1].\n
One of the types of synchronous motor is the PMSM. The PMSM consists of conventional three phase windings in the stator and permanent magnets in the rotor. The purpose of the field windings in the conventional synchronous machine is done by permanent magnets in PMSM. The conventional synchronous machine requires AC and DC supply, whereas the PMSM requires only AC supply for its operation. One of the greatest advantages of PMSM over its counterpart is the removal of dc supply for field excitation as discussed in [2].\n
The development of PMSM has happened due to the invention of novel magnetic materials and rare earth materials. PMSM give numerous advantages in scheming recent motion management systems. Energy efficient PMSM are designed due to the availability of permanent magnet materials of high magnetic flux density.\n
In synchronous motors the rotor rotates at the speed of stator revolving field. The speed of the revolving stator field is called as synchronous speed. The synchronous speed (ωs\n) can be found by the frequency of the stator input supply (fs\n), and the number of stator pole pairs (p). The stator of a three phase synchronous motor consists of distributed sine three phase winding, whereas the rotor consists of the same number of p-pole pairs as stator, excited by permanent magnets or a separate DC supply source as given in [3].\n
When the synchronous machine is excited with a three phase AC supply, a magnetic field rotates at synchronous speed develops in the stator. The synchronous speed of this rotating magnetic field is shown by the Eq. (1).\n
where N, synchronous speed, fs\n, frequency of AC supply in Hz; P, number of poles; p, pole pairs and it is given by (P/2).\n
The PMSM are classified based on the direction of field flux are as follows,
Radial field
Axial field
In radial field, the flux direction is along the radius of the machine. The radial field permanent magnet motors are the most commonly used. In axial field, the flux direction is parallel to the rotor shaft. The axial field permanent magnet motors are presently used in a variety of numerous applications because of their higher power density and quick acceleration.\n
The permanent magnets can be placed in many different ways on the rotor of PMSM as discussed in [3, 4]. \nFigures 1\n and \n2\n show the permanent magnets mounted on the surface of the outer periphery of rotor laminations. This type of arrangement provides the highest air gap flux density, but it has the drawback of lower structural integrity and mechanical robustness. Machines with this arrangement of magnets are known as Surface mount PMSMs.\n\n\n
One other types of placing the permanent magnets in the rotor, is embedding the permanent magnets inside the rotor laminations. This type of machine construction is generally referred to as Interior PMSM and it is shown in \nFigures 3\n and \n4\n.\n\n\n
The development of this arrangement is more difficult than the surface mount or inset magnet permanent magnet rotors. The inset permanent magnet rotor construction has the advantages of both the surface and interior permanent magnet rotor arrangements by easier construction and mechanical robustness, with a high ratio between the quadrature and direct-axis inductances, respectively.\n
The surface PMSM with radial flux are generally applied for applications which require low speed operations. These machines have the advantage of high power density than the other types of PMSM. The interior PMSM are used for applications which require high speed.\n
The principle of operation is identical for all the types of PMSM, in spite of the types of mounting the permanent magnets in the rotor.\n
The important significance of the type of mounting the permanent magnets on the rotor is the variation in direct axes and quadrature axes inductance values, which is explained below. The primary path of the flux through the permanent magnets rotor is the direct axis. The stator inductance when measured in the position of permanent magnets aligned with stator winding is called as direct axis inductance. The quadrature axis inductance is measured by rotating the magnets from the already aligned position (direct axis) by 90°, in this position the iron (inter polar area of the rotor) sees the stator flux. The flux density of the permanent magnet materials is presently high and its permeability is almost equal to that of the air, such that the air gap between the rotor and stator of PMSM can be treated as an extension of permanent magnet thickness. The reluctance of direct axis is always greater than the quadrature axis reluctance, since the effectual air gap of the direct axis is several times that of the real air gap looked by the quadrature axis.\n
The significance of such an uneven reluctance is that the direct axis inductance is greater than the quadrature axis inductance and it is shown in Eq. (2).\n
where Ld is the inductance along the direct to the magnet axis and Lq is the inductance along the axis in quadrature to the magnet axis.\n
For proper simulation and analysis of the system, a complete modelling of the drive model is essential. The motor axis has been developed using d-q rotor reference frame theory as shown in \nFigure 5\n, as given [5]. At any particular time t, the rotor reference axis makes an angle θr with the fixed stator axis and the rotating stator mmf creates an angle α with the rotor d axis. It is viewed that at any time t, the stator mmf rotates at the same speed as that of the rotor axis.\n\n
The required assumptions are obtained for the modelling of the PMSM without damper windings.
Saturation is neglected.
Induced EMF is sinusoidal in nature.
Hysteresis losses and Eddy current losses are negligible.
No field current dynamics.
Voltage equations from the model are given by,\n
Flux linkages are given by,\n
Substituting Eq. (5) and Eq. (6) into Eq. (3) and Eq. (4)\n\n
Arranging Eq. (7) and Eq. (8) in matrix form,\n
The developed torque motor is being given by,\n
The mechanical torque equation is,\n
Solving for the rotor mechanical speed form Eq. (11)\n\n
In the above equations ωr is the rotor electrical speed, ωm is the rotor mechanical speed.\n
The dynamic d-q modelling of the system is used for the study of motor during transient state and as well as in the steady state conditions. It is achieved by converting the three phase voltages and currents to dqo axis variables by using the Parks transformation [4].\n
Converting the phase voltages variables Vabc to Vdqo variables in rotor reference frame axis are illustrated in the equations,\n
Convert \n\n to \n\n\n\n
Equivalent circuit is essential for the proper simulation and designing of the motor. It is achieved and derived from the d-q modelling of the motor using the voltage equations of the stator. From the assumption, rotor d axis flux is represented by a constant current source which is described through the following equation,\n
where λf, field flux linkage; Ldm, d-axis magnetizing inductance; if, equivalent permanent magnet field current.\n
\n\nFigure 6\n shows the equivalent circuit of PMSM without damper windings.\n\n
The motor drive essentially consists of four main components such as the PMSM, the inverter, the main control unit and the position sensor. Interconnections of the components are shown in \nFigure 7\n.\n\n
For variable frequency and magnitude, voltage source inverters are devices which convert the constant DC voltage level to variable AC voltage. As specified in the function, these inverters are commonly used in adjustable speed drives.\n
\n\nFigure 8\n shows a voltage source inverter with a supply voltage Vdc and with six switches. The frequency of the AC voltage can be variable or constant based on the applications [2, 6].\n\n
Three phase inverters consist of a DC voltage source and six power ON/OFF switches connected to the PMSM as shown in \nFigure 8\n. Selection of the inverter switches must be carefully done based on the necessities of operation, ratings and the application. There are several devices available in the market and these are thyristors, bipolar junction transistors (BJTs), MOS field effect transistors (MOSFETs), insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) and gate turn off thyristors (GTOs). It has been inferred that MOSFETs and IGBTs are preferred in the industry because of its advantages that the MOS gating permits high power gain and control advantages. MOSFET is considered to be universal power ON/OFF device for low power and low voltage applications, whereas IGBT has wide acceptance in the motor drive applications and other application in the low and medium power range. The power devices when used in motor drives applications require an inductive motor current path provided by antiparallel diodes when the switch is turned off.\n
Many techniques based on both motor designs and control techniques that have been proposed in literature to diminish the torque ripples in the PMSM (\nFigure 9\n).\n\n
One way of controlling AC motors for variable speed applications is through the open loop scalar control, which represents the most popular control strategy of squirrel cage AC motors. It is presently used in applications where information about the angular speed need not be known. It is suitable for a wide range of drives as it ensures robustness at the cost of reduced dynamic performance. Typical applications are pump and fan drives and low-cost drives. The main idea of this method is the variation of the supply voltage frequency inattentively from the shaft response (position, angular speed). The magnitude of the supply voltage is changed according to the frequency in a constant ratio. The motor is then in the condition where the magnetic flux represents the nominal value and the motor is neither over excited nor under excited. The major advantage of this simple method is running in a sensorless mode because the control algorithm does not need information about the angular speed or actual rotor position. On the contrary, the significant disadvantages are the speed dependence on the external load torque, mainly for PMSM, and the reduced dynamic performances.\n
The vector control of PMSM allows separate closed loop control of both the flux and torque, thereby achieving a similar control structure to that of a separately excited DC machine, as discussed in [7].\n
The DTC is one of the high performance control strategies for the control of AC machine. In a DTC drive applications, flux linkage and electromagnetic torque are controlled directly and independently by the selection of optimum inverter switching modes of operation. To acquire a faster torque output, low inverter switching frequency and low harmonic losses in the model, the selection is made to restrict the flux linkages and electromagnetic torque errors within the respective flux and torque hysteresis bands. The required optimal switching vectors can be selected by using the optimum switching voltage vector look-up table. This can be obtained by simple physical considerations involving the position of the stator-flux linkage space vector, the available switching vectors, and the required torque flux linkage.\n
For the control of PM motors, FOC technique is used for synchronous motor to evaluate as a DC motor. The stator windings of the motor are fed by an inverter that generates a variable frequency variable voltage scheme. Instead of controlling the inverter frequency independently, the frequency and phase of the output wave are controlled using a position sensor.\n
FOC was invented in the beginning of 1970s and it demonstrates that an induction motor or synchronous motor could be controlled like a separately excited DC motor by the orientation of the stator mmf or current vector in relation to the rotor flux to achieve a desired objective. For the motor to behave like a DC motor, the control needs knowledge of the position of the instantaneous rotor flux or rotor position of permanent magnet motor. This needs a resolver or an absolute optical encoder. Knowing the position, the three phase currents can be calculated. Its calculation using the current matrix depends on the control desired. Some control options are constant torque and flux weakening. These options are based in the physical limitation of the motor and the inverter. The limit is established by the rated speed of the motor, at which speed the constant torque operation finishes and the flux weakening starts as shown in \nFigure 10\n as shown in [7]. From the literature it has been found that the best control for PMSM to make it to behave like a DC motor using decoupling control is known as vector control or field oriented control. The torque components of flux and currents in the motor are separated by the vector control through its stator excitation.\n\n
From the dynamic model of the PMSM, the vector control is derived.\n
Assuming the line currents as input signals,\n
Writing the above Eq. (17) to Eq. (19) in the matrix form,\n
where α is the angle between the rotor field and stator current phasor, ω\nr\n is the electrical rotor speed.\n
Using the Park's transformation, the currents obtained in the previous cycle are transformed to the rotor reference frame axis with the rotor speed ω\nr\n. Since α is fixed for a given load torque, the q and d axis currents are fixed in the rotor reference frames. These constant values are made similar to the armature and field currents in the separately excited DC machine. The q axis current is distinctly equivalent to the armature current of the DC machine. The d axis current is field current, but not in its entirety. It is only a partial field current; the other part is contributed by the equivalent current source representing the permanent magnet field. Thus, the q axis current is known as the torque producing component and the d axis current is called the flux producing component of the stator currents.\n
Substituting Eq. (20) in Eq. (14) and obtaining id and iq in terms of Im as follows,\n
Using Eq. (3), Eq. (4), Eq. (10) and Eq. (21) the electromagnetic torque equation is obtained as given below,\n
where Ld and Lq are the d and q axis synchronous inductances. Each of the two terms in the equation has a useful physical interpretation. The first "magnet" torque term is independent of id but is directly proportional to the stator current component iq. In contrast, the second reluctance torque term is proportional to the id and iq current component product and to the difference of the inductance values.\n
As Eq. (22) shows that the torque depends on the rotor type and its inductances Ld, Lq and on permanent magnets mounted on the rotor. The non-salient PMSM have surface mounted magnets on the rotor and the reluctance term disappears since Lq equals Ld. On the contrary, the electromagnetic torque is more dominated by the reluctance component when permanent magnets are interior mounted and the rotor's saliency causes a difference in Lq and Ld.\n
One of the major disadvantages of the PMSM drive is the torque ripple produced which can be attributed to the following sources:
mutual torque, due to the interaction of the rotor field and stator currents;
reluctance torque, due to rotor saliency;
cogging torque, due to the existence of stator slots.
In this section presents an application of fuzzy logic control to denigrate the torque ripple associated with the field oriented control when used in control of a PMSM. a SVPWM based FOC with fuzzy logic control is proposed to produce an effective selection of the stator voltage vector to obtain smooth torque performance. The significant advantages of space vector modulation are the ease of microprocessor implementation. Also, one advantage of FOC is that it increases efficiency, letting smaller motors replace larger ones without sacrificing torque and speed. Another advantage is that it offers higher, more dynamic performance in the case of speed and torque controlled ac drives.\n
The block diagram of proposed FOC with the fuzzy logic based controller for the PMSM drive is shown in \nFigure 11\n.\n\n
The fuzzy logic controller (FLC) executes the rule based taking the inputs and gives the output by defuzzification. The inputs are torque error (e) and change in torque error (ce) and the output is torque limit (T*) which is equivalent to isqref. The dq projections of the stator currents are then compared to their reference values isqref and isdref = 0 (to get maximum torque, set to zero if there is no field weakening) and corrected by means of PI current controllers. The outputs of the current controller are passed through the inverse Park transform and a new stator voltage vector is impressed to the motor using the SVPWM technique.\n
Space vector PWM (SVPWM) refers to a special technique of determining the switching sequence of the upper three power transistors of a three-phase voltage source inverter (VSI). There are eight possible combinations of on and off states for the three upper power transistors which determine eight phase voltage configurations. This PWM technique controls the motor based on the switching of space voltage vectors, by which an approximate circular rotary magnetic field is obtained. It approximates the reference voltage Vref by a combination of the eight switching patterns (V0–V7). The vectors (V1–V6) divide the plane into six sectors (each sector: 60°). Vref is generated by two adjacent non-zero vectors and two zero vectors. The switching sector is shown in \nFigure 12\n and \nTable 1\n shows the switching vector for inverter.\n\n
|V0 = {000}\n
|V1 = {100}\n
|V2 = {110}\n
|V3 = {010}\n
|V4 = {011}\n
|V5 = {001}\n
|V6 = {101}\n
|V7 = {111}\n
The current loop PI controllers compare the actual current with reference current and produce iq and id current, respectively. PI tuning is done by trial and error method.\n
The basic concept behind FLC is to utilize the expert knowledge and experience of a human operator for designing a controller an application process whose input-output relationship is given by a collection of fuzzy control rules using linguistic variables instead of a complicated dynamic model.\n
The FLC initially converts the crisp error and change in error variables into fuzzy variables and then are mapped into linguistic labels. Membership functions are associated with each label as shown in which consists of two inputs and one output. The inputs are Torque error and change in torque error and the output is torque limit. Fuzzy Inference System uses "IF... THEN..." statements, and the connectors present in the rule statement are "OR" or "AND" to make the necessary decision rules.\n
The linguistic labels are divided into seven groups. They are: NB—negative big; NM—negative medium; NS—negative small; Z—zero; PS—positive small; PM—positive medium; PB—positive big. Each of the inputs and the output contain membership functions with all these seven linguistics.\n
\n\nFigure 13\n shows the speed error, \nFigure 14\n shows the change in speed error and \nFigure 15\n shows the torque limit.\n\n\n\n
The mapping of the fuzzy inputs into the required output is derived with the help of a rule base as given in \nTable 2\n.\n
|e Δe\n
The simulink model of FLC with SVPWM based FOC of PMSM is shown in \nFigure 16\n and that of SVPWM pulse production is shown in \nFigure 17\n.\n\n\n
The FOC of PMSM is done using conventional PI controller and FLC using SVPWM techniques using MATLAB version R2009a and the results are compared with other reported results in \nTable 3\n. The parameters of PMSM used in the simulation are given in the appendix.\n
The torque ripple can be calculated by using the relation.\n
The simulation results are shown in \nFigures 18\n–\n20\n.\n\n\n\n
From \nFigure 19\n (Torque waveform) it is inferred that the torque ripples oscillates from 7.91 Nm (minimum) to 8.05 Nm (maximum) for the given reference torque of 8 Nm.\n
Torque ripple factor (%) as per Eq. 23 is given by = ((8.05–7.91)/8) × 100 = 0.14/8 × 100 = 1.75.\n\n
It is clear that variation in torque shown in \nTable 3\n is less in case of fuzzy logic controllers and they can achieve a minimum torque ripple than other control techniques. It has been viewed that the discussed control strategy has helped in reducing the torque ripples to 1.75%. Thus by using FLC based controller, ripples are reduced completely.\n
The encoders, resolvers, eddy current sensors are used for rotor position sensing of PMSM control. Absolute encoder has the advantages that it could retain the position information in power outage conditions and for long inactive periods of devices. It is suitable for the applications such as flow control, crane movement, and astronomical telescopes. The position resolvers are the rotary transformers where primary winding is placed on rotor. The induced voltage at secondary winding is shifted by 90 would be different which is based on the rotor shaft angle [12].\n
The PMSM control with speed, torque controller, where rotor angular position sensor is used to get the feedback. The general block diagram is given in \nFigure 21\n.\n\n
The PMSM control with speed, torque controller, where rotor angular position sensor is used to get the feedback. The general block diagram is given in \nFigure 22\n.\n\n
The control scheme for sensorless PMSM where the rotor position information is used as feedback to controllers is given in \nFigure 23\n.\n\n
The estimation of stator flux is used to find the stator current at a predicted rotor position. The error in the predicted rotor position is corrected by finding the difference between the estimated stator current and measured current [13].\n
The difficulties in estimating the rotor position due the reasons: 1. scalar speed estimation and 2. initial position of rotor is not known. The non-measurable variables of PMSM are estimated by the observers. For zero-speed application, salience tracking technique is considered as appropriate, where back-Emf technique fails at low speed. The methods generally used to estimate the rotor position are tracking observer, tracking state filter and arctangent calculation [14].\n
The sliding mode observer having sigmoid switching function, effectively suppressed the oscillation of system. The cut-off frequency of LPF is tuned to rotor speed, so that the rotor speed becomes real-time and tunable [15].\n
In PMSM vector control system with space vector PWM voltage source inverter (SVPVM-VSI), the single shunt current sensing with model reference adaptive system (MRAS) for rotor position sensorless control method is implemented [16].\n
To estimate the position variable of PMSM: 1. Linear Luenberger observer is constructed 2. PI-type controller which is based on LMI is suggested [17].\n
To estimate the rotor position: 1. The delta-sigma modulation 2. CIC extraction filter method are used. It is found that signal-to-noise ratio is high in this technique [18].\n
The neural network observer used for estimating speed/position of rotor in PMSM, where the observer can do the tracking of the rotor speed at low speed range with greater accuracy [19].\n
A linearized IPMSM model which is using FOC is created. The rotor speed and phase current of the model is estimated by extended Kalman filter (EKF) [20].\n
A novel SMO is proposed to achieve greater degree of accuracy in estimating the position and speed of PMSM. Further, the observer reduced the filter links and phase compensation links that achieved a simplification in traditional SMO [21].\n
A simplified vector control model of PMSM with NNPID controller is created. Automatic tuning of variables could be achieved by using BP NNPID. The overswing phenomenon is eliminated to the maximum extent possible [22].\n
The feasibility of feedback linearization of PMSM model is shown by MIMO nonlinear system example and then it was combined with vector control method. For handling the nonlinear system, it is showed that feedback linearization is a better method and has better control capability [23].\n
To estimate the initial position of rotor, a start-up strategy is proposed to overcome the drawback of back emf based control at zero and low speed ranges. The NN based controller is employed to control the current and speed of back emf based FOC of PMSM. The dynamic response of surface mounted type PMSM is improved [24].\n
A model of IPMSM is developed based on intelligent control method maximum torque per ampere (MTPA) principle in order to achieve the dynamic response characteristics for high precision position servo systems. The shakeless fuzzy controller is proposed with a new control method which is based on single neuron that tunes the output scaling factor of the controller [25].\n
To estimate the rotor position, speed and stator resistance, an interconnected higher order sliding mode observer (HOSMO) for IPMSM is developed [26].\n
The traditional backstepping control is improved by adding integral control at each step of the tracking and regulation strategies. This permits to reject uncertainties and disturbances.\n
The stator resistance is influenced by temperature variation that varies randomly. An improved method based on variable parameter PI to compensate the stator resistance is proposed. By constructing the stator flux observer mathematical model of direct torque control (DTC), the problem of error existing in stator flux is solved [27].\n
An ILC controller is implemented along with a PI speed controller to minimize the periodic ripples in speed. When the learning algorithm is implemented in frequency domain, it showed better performance in minimizing the ripples in speed than time domain implementation. This is due to the elimination of forgetting factor (FF), in time domain learning method [28].\n
A new novel method "Intelligent sensor bearing" is implemented by modifying the feedback information that comes from sensor. An Iterative Learning Control (ILC) is used to deal with the periodical errors for reducing ripples in speed [29].\n
A novel technique "Instantaneous torque control" based on fuzzy logic controller (FLC) with SVPWM is proposed to reduce the torque ripples in PMSM. The simulation results are presented in Section 5.2.3 [30].\n
To minimize the torque ripples of PMSM, the instantaneous field oriented torque control schemes (a) ILC with hysteresis pulse width modulation (HPWM), (b) ILC with SVPWM are proposed. The simulation results showed that ILC with SVPWM has better control over torque ripples [31].\n
The speed torque ripple minimization of PMSM is achieved by using neural networks (NN). The conventional PI-controller based vector control method was compared with feed forward NN (FFNN). The simulation showed that NN controller has better control than PI controller [32].\n
In high speed traction applications, the motor speed range of IPMSM is extended by single current regulator flux-weakening control strategy which results in steady operation of motor with high speed [29].\n
We thankful to the management and School of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering of Addiss Ababa Science and Technology University, Addiss Ababa, Ethiopia for their encouragement, support and facilities provided for our book chapter work.\n
|Rated power\n
|1 HP\n
|Rated torque\n
|8 Nm\n
|Rated voltage\n
|300 V\n
|Rated current\n
|2.5 A\n
|Stator resistance\n
|0.9585 Ω\n
|Inductance Ld\n\n
|0.00525 H\n
|Inductance Lq\n\n
|0.00525 H\n
|Magnetic flux\n
|0.1827 weber\n
|No. of poles\n
|Moment of inertia\n
|0.0006329 kg m2\n\n
|Friction factor\n
|0.0003035 Nm/(rad/s)\n
crossover frequency\n
d-axis current\n
d-axis magnetizing inductance\n
d-axis self-inductance\n
d-axis voltage\n
derivative operator\n
develop electromagnetic torque\n
direct or polar axis\n
direct torque control\n
electrical speed\n
equivalent permanent magnet field current\n
equivalent self-inductance per phase\n
flux linkage due d axis\n
flux linkage due q axis\n
flux linkage due to rotor magnets linking the stator\n
fuzzy logic controller\n
integral control gain\n
load torque\n
motor rated speed\n
motor torque\n
number of poles\n
peak value of supply current\n
PM flux linkage or field flux linkage\n
proportional control gain\n
q-axis current\n
q-axis magnetizing inductance\n
q-axis self-inductance\n
q-axis voltage\n
quadrature or interpolar axis\n
reference motor torque\n
rotor position\n
rotor speed\n
stator leakage inductance\n
stator resistance\n
three phase currents\n
three phase voltage\n
Content alerts",metaTitle:"Content alerts",metaDescription:"Content alerts",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/content-alerts",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
Content alerts\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"
Content alerts\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5394},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:4906},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1520},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:9515},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:839},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:14934}],offset:12,limit:12,total:111309},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"10"},books:[{type:"book",id:"7724",title:"Climate Issues in China",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f5642f989826772a94001c51e2030ea1",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7724.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8113",title:"Ocean Wave Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f7eaf28497842d73eb2ce64a1415aec2",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Marcello Di Risio, Dr. Daniele Celli and Dr. Davide Pasquali",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8113.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"15209",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcello",surname:"Di Risio",slug:"marcello-di-risio",fullName:"Marcello Di Risio"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8485",title:"Weather Forecasting",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"01daf31ddded5641c4ed88eca67b4284",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8485.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8491",title:"Tornado",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"664a4b333a67ead81f3a9c3858c2c831",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8491.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8556",title:"Mars Exploration",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"44538d785d8dfcc0d4f809e3a62b0035",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Giuseppe Pezzella and Prof. Antonio Viviani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8556.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"14939",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppe",surname:"Pezzella",slug:"giuseppe-pezzella",fullName:"Giuseppe Pezzella"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9250",title:"Precipitation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2967fbe4624336bf8caccbe397cf28f7",slug:null,bookSignature:"Mr. Shakeel Mahmood",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9250.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"232797",title:"Mr.",name:"Shakeel",surname:"Mahmood",slug:"shakeel-mahmood",fullName:"Shakeel Mahmood"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9862",title:"Solar Radiation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"590d0557a59bc05fc103e37ae9bc4d13",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9862.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9870",title:"Geodetic Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e4cfa6fbb4850237c4319a99f850d7de",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9870.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9879",title:"Geochemistry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"aebccc07f8ffdf8a0043efc454024292",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Miloš René",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9879.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"142108",title:"Dr.",name:"Miloš",surname:"René",slug:"milos-rene",fullName:"Miloš René"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9890",title:"Urban Agglomeration",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9b4f6ab9197301f0e1c5cf434a709e78",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9890.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9906",title:"Wetlands",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6457c0ae8ecc203a48f6495b054a2246",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Murat Eyvaz, Prof. Ebubekir Yüksel and Dr. Ercan Gürbulak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9906.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9920",title:"Sedimentary Basins",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d42e717eb1f26105605642ee2174138d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Gemma Aiello",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9920.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"100661",title:"Dr.",name:"Gemma",surname:"Aiello",slug:"gemma-aiello",fullName:"Gemma Aiello"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:23},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:22},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:22},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:51},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:94},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:4}],offset:12,limit:12,total:31},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9290",title:"Applied Electromechanical Devices and Machines for Electric Mobility Solutions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2e50c2d9cf3922f5f8fff01aaef1053e",slug:"applied-electromechanical-devices-and-machines-for-electric-mobility-solutions",bookSignature:"Adel El-Shahat and Mircea Ruba",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9290.jpg",editors:[{id:"193331",title:"Dr.",name:"Adel",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shahat",slug:"adel-el-shahat",fullName:"Adel El-Shahat"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7194",title:"Methods for Film Synthesis and Coating Procedures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0278e5a9a9d429a23692d1ce9bae2c2c",slug:"methods-for-film-synthesis-and-coating-procedures",bookSignature:"László Nánai, Aneeya Samantara, László Fábián and Satyajit Ratha",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7194.jpg",editors:[{id:"61978",title:"Prof.",name:"Laszlo",middleName:null,surname:"Nanai",slug:"laszlo-nanai",fullName:"Laszlo Nanai"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9108",title:"Medicinal Plants",subtitle:"Use in Prevention and Treatment of Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d0c52af195da3322be63610d6567019",slug:"medicinal-plants-use-in-prevention-and-treatment-of-diseases",bookSignature:"Bassam Abdul Rasool Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9108.jpg",editors:[{id:"155124",title:"Dr.",name:"Bassam",middleName:"Abdul Rasool",surname:"Hassan",slug:"bassam-hassan",fullName:"Bassam Hassan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7073",title:"Lupus",subtitle:"New Advances and Challenges",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"72a1c80811ab9ff742c3d3ebefada247",slug:"lupus-new-advances-and-challenges",bookSignature:"Sophia Lionaki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7073.jpg",editors:[{id:"213115",title:"M.D.",name:"Sophia",middleName:null,surname:"Lionaki",slug:"sophia-lionaki",fullName:"Sophia Lionaki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8590",title:"Macrophage Activation",subtitle:"Biology and Disease",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e15abd1b0e08f1b67d33592999c52c32",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",bookSignature:"Khalid Hussain Bhat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8590.jpg",editors:[{id:"162478",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalid Hussain",middleName:null,surname:"Bhat",slug:"khalid-hussain-bhat",fullName:"Khalid Hussain Bhat"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7664",title:"Introduction to Data Science and Machine Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6934476897c6a728296ecd1ec1e69a61",slug:"introduction-to-data-science-and-machine-learning",bookSignature:"Keshav Sud, Pakize Erdogmus and Seifedine Kadry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7664.jpg",editors:[{id:"202929",title:"Dr.",name:"Keshav",middleName:null,surname:"Sud",slug:"keshav-sud",fullName:"Keshav Sud"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8724",title:"Gas Sensors",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc4be4b954b559709aaace45f70adcd0",slug:"gas-sensors",bookSignature:"Sher Bahadar Khan, Abdullah M. Asiri and Kalsoom Akhtar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8724.jpg",editors:[{id:"245468",title:"Dr.",name:"Sher Bahadar",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"sher-bahadar-khan",fullName:"Sher Bahadar Khan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8422",title:"Metagenomics",subtitle:"Basics, Methods and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"82c6409553747ffccd6075f9420e3175",slug:"metagenomics-basics-methods-and-applications",bookSignature:"Wael N. Hozzein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8422.jpg",editors:[{id:"189233",title:"Prof.",name:"Wael",middleName:"Nabil",surname:"Hozzein",slug:"wael-hozzein",fullName:"Wael Hozzein"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9135",title:"Rare Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"607a44edc1c494df4d5d126af71ca89c",slug:"rare-diseases",bookSignature:"Zhan He Wu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9135.jpg",editors:[{id:"226446",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhan He",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"zhan-he-wu",fullName:"Zhan He Wu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8007",title:"Estuaries and Coastal Zones",subtitle:"Dynamics and Response to Environmental Changes",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec140486c42d62e69ef428e6cf71b6d7",slug:"estuaries-and-coastal-zones-dynamics-and-response-to-environmental-changes",bookSignature:"Jiayi Pan and Adam Devlin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8007.jpg",editors:[{id:"179303",title:"Prof.",name:"Jiayi",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"jiayi-pan",fullName:"Jiayi Pan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"6865",title:"Becoming Human with Humanoid",subtitle:"From Physical Interaction to Social Intelligence",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e208316a62e4ab5b042486aea682ee18",slug:"becoming-human-with-humanoid-from-physical-interaction-to-social-intelligence",bookSignature:"Ahmad Hoirul Basori, Ali Leylavi Shoushtari and Andon Venelinov Topalov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6865.jpg",editors:[{id:"13394",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmad Hoirul",middleName:null,surname:"Basori",slug:"ahmad-hoirul-basori",fullName:"Ahmad Hoirul Basori"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8680",title:"Advances in Rehabilitation of Hearing Loss",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"068c9f4790e4843b9cbb8dcf86002bea",slug:"advances-in-rehabilitation-of-hearing-loss",bookSignature:"Diego Zanetti and Federica Di Berardino",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8680.jpg",editors:[{id:"219687",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",middleName:null,surname:"Zanetti",slug:"diego-zanetti",fullName:"Diego Zanetti"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4498},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9290",title:"Applied Electromechanical Devices and Machines for Electric Mobility Solutions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2e50c2d9cf3922f5f8fff01aaef1053e",slug:"applied-electromechanical-devices-and-machines-for-electric-mobility-solutions",bookSignature:"Adel El-Shahat and Mircea Ruba",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9290.jpg",editors:[{id:"193331",title:"Dr.",name:"Adel",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shahat",slug:"adel-el-shahat",fullName:"Adel El-Shahat"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7194",title:"Methods for Film Synthesis and Coating Procedures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0278e5a9a9d429a23692d1ce9bae2c2c",slug:"methods-for-film-synthesis-and-coating-procedures",bookSignature:"László Nánai, Aneeya Samantara, László Fábián and Satyajit Ratha",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7194.jpg",editors:[{id:"61978",title:"Prof.",name:"Laszlo",middleName:null,surname:"Nanai",slug:"laszlo-nanai",fullName:"Laszlo Nanai"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9108",title:"Medicinal Plants",subtitle:"Use in Prevention and Treatment of Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d0c52af195da3322be63610d6567019",slug:"medicinal-plants-use-in-prevention-and-treatment-of-diseases",bookSignature:"Bassam Abdul Rasool Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9108.jpg",editors:[{id:"155124",title:"Dr.",name:"Bassam",middleName:"Abdul Rasool",surname:"Hassan",slug:"bassam-hassan",fullName:"Bassam Hassan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7073",title:"Lupus",subtitle:"New Advances and Challenges",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"72a1c80811ab9ff742c3d3ebefada247",slug:"lupus-new-advances-and-challenges",bookSignature:"Sophia Lionaki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7073.jpg",editors:[{id:"213115",title:"M.D.",name:"Sophia",middleName:null,surname:"Lionaki",slug:"sophia-lionaki",fullName:"Sophia Lionaki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8590",title:"Macrophage Activation",subtitle:"Biology and Disease",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e15abd1b0e08f1b67d33592999c52c32",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",bookSignature:"Khalid Hussain Bhat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8590.jpg",editors:[{id:"162478",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalid Hussain",middleName:null,surname:"Bhat",slug:"khalid-hussain-bhat",fullName:"Khalid Hussain Bhat"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7664",title:"Introduction to Data Science and Machine Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6934476897c6a728296ecd1ec1e69a61",slug:"introduction-to-data-science-and-machine-learning",bookSignature:"Keshav Sud, Pakize Erdogmus and Seifedine Kadry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7664.jpg",editors:[{id:"202929",title:"Dr.",name:"Keshav",middleName:null,surname:"Sud",slug:"keshav-sud",fullName:"Keshav Sud"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8724",title:"Gas Sensors",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc4be4b954b559709aaace45f70adcd0",slug:"gas-sensors",bookSignature:"Sher Bahadar Khan, Abdullah M. Asiri and Kalsoom Akhtar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8724.jpg",editors:[{id:"245468",title:"Dr.",name:"Sher Bahadar",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"sher-bahadar-khan",fullName:"Sher Bahadar Khan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8422",title:"Metagenomics",subtitle:"Basics, Methods and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"82c6409553747ffccd6075f9420e3175",slug:"metagenomics-basics-methods-and-applications",bookSignature:"Wael N. Hozzein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8422.jpg",editors:[{id:"189233",title:"Prof.",name:"Wael",middleName:"Nabil",surname:"Hozzein",slug:"wael-hozzein",fullName:"Wael Hozzein"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9135",title:"Rare Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"607a44edc1c494df4d5d126af71ca89c",slug:"rare-diseases",bookSignature:"Zhan He Wu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9135.jpg",editors:[{id:"226446",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhan He",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"zhan-he-wu",fullName:"Zhan He Wu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8007",title:"Estuaries and Coastal Zones",subtitle:"Dynamics and Response to Environmental Changes",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec140486c42d62e69ef428e6cf71b6d7",slug:"estuaries-and-coastal-zones-dynamics-and-response-to-environmental-changes",bookSignature:"Jiayi Pan and Adam Devlin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8007.jpg",editors:[{id:"179303",title:"Prof.",name:"Jiayi",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"jiayi-pan",fullName:"Jiayi Pan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8724",title:"Gas Sensors",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc4be4b954b559709aaace45f70adcd0",slug:"gas-sensors",bookSignature:"Sher Bahadar Khan, Abdullah M. Asiri and Kalsoom Akhtar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8724.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"245468",title:"Dr.",name:"Sher Bahadar",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"sher-bahadar-khan",fullName:"Sher Bahadar Khan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7194",title:"Methods for Film Synthesis and Coating Procedures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0278e5a9a9d429a23692d1ce9bae2c2c",slug:"methods-for-film-synthesis-and-coating-procedures",bookSignature:"László Nánai, Aneeya Samantara, László Fábián and Satyajit Ratha",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7194.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"61978",title:"Prof.",name:"Laszlo",middleName:null,surname:"Nanai",slug:"laszlo-nanai",fullName:"Laszlo Nanai"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8484",title:"Non-tubal Ectopic Pregnancy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f3168b3b6a134f1664b6dfa5e15368e2",slug:"non-tubal-ectopic-pregnancy",bookSignature:"Julio Elito Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8484.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"35132",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio",middleName:null,surname:"Elito Jr.",slug:"julio-elito-jr.",fullName:"Julio Elito Jr."}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7973",title:"Current Treatment of Cleft Lip and Palate",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1ea8bb8925e069ffefa169997727a53f",slug:"current-treatment-of-cleft-lip-and-palate",bookSignature:"Ayşe Gülşen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7973.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9265",title:"Strength of Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1ec891200aebef4dc2b19461e0ee4068",slug:"strength-of-materials",bookSignature:"Héctor Jaramillo S., Julian Arnaldo Avila and Can Chen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9265.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255849",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hector",middleName:"Enrique",surname:"Jaramillo S.",slug:"hector-jaramillo-s.",fullName:"Hector Jaramillo S."}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7998",title:"Advances in Cotton Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1314df548efed081946065c425eb56b7",slug:"advances-in-cotton-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7998.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur-Rahman Ansari"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8007",title:"Estuaries and Coastal Zones",subtitle:"Dynamics and Response to Environmental Changes",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec140486c42d62e69ef428e6cf71b6d7",slug:"estuaries-and-coastal-zones-dynamics-and-response-to-environmental-changes",bookSignature:"Jiayi Pan and Adam Devlin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8007.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179303",title:"Prof.",name:"Jiayi",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"jiayi-pan",fullName:"Jiayi Pan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9290",title:"Applied Electromechanical Devices and Machines for Electric Mobility Solutions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2e50c2d9cf3922f5f8fff01aaef1053e",slug:"applied-electromechanical-devices-and-machines-for-electric-mobility-solutions",bookSignature:"Adel El-Shahat and Mircea Ruba",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9290.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193331",title:"Dr.",name:"Adel",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shahat",slug:"adel-el-shahat",fullName:"Adel El-Shahat"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9324",title:"Dynamical Systems Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"413cbcf9c048bb251eca1b5e32bbc640",slug:"dynamical-systems-theory",bookSignature:"Jan Awrejcewicz and Dariusz Grzelczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9324.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68338",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Awrejcewicz",slug:"jan-awrejcewicz",fullName:"Jan Awrejcewicz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7028",title:"Bryophytes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"726b3024a0b404565b418ec0f13c8845",slug:"bryophytes",bookSignature:"Marko S. Sabovljević and Aneta D. Sabovljević",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7028.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"261414",title:"Dr.",name:"Marko",middleName:null,surname:"Sabovljević",slug:"marko-sabovljevic",fullName:"Marko Sabovljević"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1055",title:"Neurodiversity",slug:"neurodiversity",parent:{title:"Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System",slug:"mental-and-behavioural-disorders-and-diseases-of-the-nervous-system"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:31,numberOfWosCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11,numberOfDimensionsCitations:20,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"neurodiversity",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"5498",title:"Autism",subtitle:"Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7a4a04bc1ec60da290315a53de5043b8",slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Michael Fitzgerald and Jane Yip",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5498.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"205005",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Fitzgerald",slug:"michael-fitzgerald",fullName:"Michael Fitzgerald"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"52787",doi:"10.5772/65906",title:"The Clinical Gestalts of Autism: Over 40 years of Clinical Experience with Autism",slug:"the-clinical-gestalts-of-autism-over-40-years-of-clinical-experience-with-autism",totalDownloads:896,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Michael Fitzgerald",authors:[{id:"191313",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Fitzgerald",slug:"michael-fitzgerald",fullName:"Michael Fitzgerald"}]},{id:"54644",doi:"10.5772/67624",title:"Impact of Infant Feeding Methods on the Development of Autism Spectrum Disorder",slug:"impact-of-infant-feeding-methods-on-the-development-of-autism-spectrum-disorder",totalDownloads:1194,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Touraj Shafai, Monika Mustafa, Jeffrey Mulari and Antonio Curtis",authors:[{id:"192429",title:"M.D.",name:"Touraj",middleName:null,surname:"Shafai",slug:"touraj-shafai",fullName:"Touraj Shafai"}]},{id:"53550",doi:"10.5772/66680",title:"Physical Activity in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): A Review",slug:"physical-activity-in-individuals-with-autism-spectrum-disorders-asd-a-review",totalDownloads:1316,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Sara M. Scharoun, Kristen T. Wright, Jennifer E. Robertson-Wilson,\nPaula C. Fletcher and Pamela J. Bryden",authors:[{id:"190972",title:"Dr.",name:"Pamela",middleName:null,surname:"Bryden",slug:"pamela-bryden",fullName:"Pamela Bryden"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"53550",title:"Physical Activity in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): A Review",slug:"physical-activity-in-individuals-with-autism-spectrum-disorders-asd-a-review",totalDownloads:1316,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Sara M. Scharoun, Kristen T. Wright, Jennifer E. Robertson-Wilson,\nPaula C. Fletcher and Pamela J. Bryden",authors:[{id:"190972",title:"Dr.",name:"Pamela",middleName:null,surname:"Bryden",slug:"pamela-bryden",fullName:"Pamela Bryden"}]},{id:"52480",title:"Mindfulness and Autism Spectrum Disorder",slug:"mindfulness-and-autism-spectrum-disorder",totalDownloads:1374,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Renee L. Cachia",authors:[{id:"190422",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Renee",middleName:null,surname:"Cachia",slug:"renee-cachia",fullName:"Renee Cachia"}]},{id:"52521",title:"A Different Point of View: The Neurodiversity Approach to Autism and Work",slug:"a-different-point-of-view-the-neurodiversity-approach-to-autism-and-work",totalDownloads:1132,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Timo Lorenz, Nomi Reznik and Kathrin Heinitz",authors:[{id:"190954",title:"Dr.",name:"Timo",middleName:null,surname:"Lorenz",slug:"timo-lorenz",fullName:"Timo Lorenz"},{id:"195124",title:"Ms.",name:"Nomi",middleName:null,surname:"Reznik",slug:"nomi-reznik",fullName:"Nomi Reznik"},{id:"195125",title:"Prof.",name:"Kathrin",middleName:null,surname:"Heinitz",slug:"kathrin-heinitz",fullName:"Kathrin Heinitz"}]},{id:"53764",title:"Migration and Autism Diagnosis",slug:"migration-and-autism-diagnosis",totalDownloads:720,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Daina Crafa",authors:[{id:"192110",title:"Dr.",name:"Daina",middleName:null,surname:"Crafa",slug:"daina-crafa",fullName:"Daina Crafa"}]},{id:"54644",title:"Impact of Infant Feeding Methods on the Development of Autism Spectrum Disorder",slug:"impact-of-infant-feeding-methods-on-the-development-of-autism-spectrum-disorder",totalDownloads:1194,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Touraj Shafai, Monika Mustafa, Jeffrey Mulari and Antonio Curtis",authors:[{id:"192429",title:"M.D.",name:"Touraj",middleName:null,surname:"Shafai",slug:"touraj-shafai",fullName:"Touraj Shafai"}]},{id:"52764",title:"Sociocultural Perspective on Autism Intervention",slug:"sociocultural-perspective-on-autism-intervention",totalDownloads:1188,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Elizabeth Hughes Fong and Helen Lee",authors:[{id:"195244",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Elizabeth",middleName:null,surname:"Hughes Fong",slug:"elizabeth-hughes-fong",fullName:"Elizabeth Hughes Fong"},{id:"195269",title:"Dr.",name:"Helen",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"helen-lee",fullName:"Helen Lee"}]},{id:"52787",title:"The Clinical Gestalts of Autism: Over 40 years of Clinical Experience with Autism",slug:"the-clinical-gestalts-of-autism-over-40-years-of-clinical-experience-with-autism",totalDownloads:897,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Michael Fitzgerald",authors:[{id:"191313",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Fitzgerald",slug:"michael-fitzgerald",fullName:"Michael Fitzgerald"}]},{id:"52453",title:"Constructing Healthy Experiences through Human-Animal Interactions for Autistic Children and Their Families: Implications for Research and Education",slug:"constructing-healthy-experiences-through-human-animal-interactions-for-autistic-children-and-their-f",totalDownloads:644,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Alina S. Rusu",authors:[{id:"191006",title:"Dr.",name:"Alina",middleName:"Simona",surname:"Rusu",slug:"alina-rusu",fullName:"Alina Rusu"}]},{id:"52566",title:"Joint Attention Impairment in Autism: Clinical Picture, Rationale and Functional MRI Findings",slug:"joint-attention-impairment-in-autism-clinical-picture-rationale-and-functional-mri-findings",totalDownloads:948,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Marwa Saleh and Aya Adel",authors:[{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"marwa-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Saleh"},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel"}]},{id:"54098",title:"Sex Bias in Autism",slug:"sex-bias-in-autism",totalDownloads:602,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Felwah S. Al-Zaid",authors:[{id:"191157",title:"Dr.",name:"Felwah",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Zaid",slug:"felwah-al-zaid",fullName:"Felwah Al-Zaid"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"neurodiversity",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10174",title:"Recent Advances in Image Restoration with Applications to Real World Problems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2560704db46fe41ee9255a15cd75521b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Chiman Kwan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10174.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"214181",title:"Dr.",name:"Chiman",middleName:null,surname:"Kwan",slug:"chiman-kwan",fullName:"Chiman Kwan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10167",title:"Forest Biomass - From Trees to Energy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"44e2683e29770ccb1462894a48e2afb5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ana Cristina Gonçalves, Prof. Adélia Sousa and Prof. Isabel Malico",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10167.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"194484",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-cristina-goncalves",fullName:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9282",title:"Electromagnetic Pulse",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2490571de83f738e057b994f9e745394",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Steven Voldman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9282.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"207997",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven",middleName:null,surname:"Voldman",slug:"steven-voldman",fullName:"Steven Voldman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9294",title:"Fluorescent Methods for Investigation of Living Cells and Microorganisms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a97a566a3a19eb9e0c9ba61042bb06c5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Natalia Yu. Grigoryeva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9294.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"239430",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia",middleName:"Yu.",surname:"Grigoryeva",slug:"natalia-grigoryeva",fullName:"Natalia Grigoryeva"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10125",title:"Clinical Applications of Tai Chi",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4d83cf3e19d5ba6dea45cba1386b5f27",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Wei-Zen Sun and Dr. Raymond Chang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10125.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"310791",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei-Zen",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",slug:"wei-zen-sun",fullName:"Wei-Zen Sun"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10224",title:"Safety and Risk Assessment of Civil Aircraft during Operation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d966066f4fa44f6b320cd9b40ed66bbd",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Li Longbiao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10224.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"260011",title:"Dr.",name:"Li",middleName:null,surname:"Longbiao",slug:"li-longbiao",fullName:"Li Longbiao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10177",title:"Advances in Differential Privacy-Protected Data Sharing & Privacy-Preserving Machine Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bf30fcb3624ab9bbb9aee57efd21aff5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Douglas McNair",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10177.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"219757",title:"Dr.",name:"Douglas",middleName:null,surname:"McNair",slug:"douglas-mcnair",fullName:"Douglas McNair"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10152",title:"Solar Thermal Vacuum Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6ad2ad590a8ca10a19bcca19a2f451eb",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Saim Memon",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10152.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"235606",title:"Dr.",name:"Saim",middleName:null,surname:"Memon",slug:"saim-memon",fullName:"Saim Memon"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:9},humansInSpaceProgram:{},teamHumansInSpaceProgram:{},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/154145/hikmet-y.-cogun",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"154145",slug:"hikmet-y.-cogun"},fullPath:"/profiles/154145/hikmet-y.-cogun",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()