text: Thursday, February 14, 2013 Therapy Cap Repeal Legislation Introduced in House and Senate Today, members of Congress reintroduced identical bills in the House and Senate that would permanently repeal the cap on outpatient physical therapy services. Sens Ben Cardin (D-MD) and Susan Collins (R-ME) introduced the Senate's measure. The House legislation is sponsored by Reps Jim Gerlach (R-PA) and Xavier Becerra (D-CA). With discussion on permanent reform of the sustainable growth rate (SGR) ramping up, Congress also must address long-term repeal of the therapy cap, an arbitrary limit on services that often are medically necessary for patients. Both flawed policies were created in 1997 as part of the Balanced Budget Act and should be repealed this year. Given the opportunity to act on both SGR and the therapy cap, this should be the last time cap repeal legislation should need to be introduced, says APTA. Access to physical therapist services has long enjoyed broad bipartisan support, with approximately 200 members of Congress supporting therapy cap repeal legislation every congressional session. If Congress does not act on legislation by December 31, the 2-tier exceptions process that was extended through 2013 by the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 (HR 8), will expire. Read comments from the bills' sponsors in APTA's press release. Comments I strongly support repeal of the therapy cap. I will graduate as a DPT in 2015 and think that the cap arbitrarely limits care and the provision of needed services. Posted by Emma stayduhar on 2/15/2013 4:34 PM It is obtuse to believe a singular Dollar figure can adequately provide any form of health to all individuals annually. Every person does heal at the same rate and each year may impose different health challenges for each person. Payment for physical therapy services should be based on documented skill treatment provided by the clincian and measurable process made by the patient. Anthony miller home health therapy manager. 10 years. Posted by Anthony P Miller on 2/16/2013 6:02 AM All of us should strongly support repeal of this arbitrary cap.All of us address VIPs(Very Individual Patients),with their unique individual set of impairments.It's totally absurd that a non-professional should ration the services for needy patients wihout keeping medical necessity,functional limitations and treatment outcomes into cosideration. Vinish,MHS,PT Posted by vinish manchanda on 2/16/2013 12:33 PM All insurance plans have their own version of a cap. The two tiered cap for Medicare holds therapists accountable for establishing realistic functional goals, to be accomplished in a reasonable time frame, factoring in all variables, including age, healing rates, comordities etc. At this point clinicians need to realize the US government health care budget is not going to give their clients more coverage. Therefore we should support/fight to uphold the provisions that are currently in place, such as the two tiered cap. The issue clinicians and the APTA should focus it's efforts on is the flawed fee for service billing model and flawed medicare calculation that annually reduces the amount clinicians are paid for services delivered. Posted by Paul Fitzgerald -> >ITaEH on 2/18/2013 12:54 PM response to Mr. Fitzgerald's comments: true, all insurances set limits. However there are at least 2 flaws in the current legislation. The first is a clerical error (omission of a coma between physical therapy and speech thereapy) that has led to a COMBINED cap for 2 different services. The second problem is setting a PER year cap rather than a per encounter guideline. Why should a patient who had total knee surgery in January be restricted in the number of visits he needs in Sepetember when he hurt his back or neck (or had a stroke, etc.)? Posted by Joyce Adams, MSPT on 2/19/2013 12:28 PM


text:
zh-CN:Mkinitcpio Template:Article summary start Template:Article summary text Template:Article summary heading Template:Article summary text Template:Article summary end mkinitcpio is the next generation of initramfs creation.
- 1 Overview
- 2 Installation
- 3 Image creation and activation
- 4 Configuration
- 5 Runtime customization
- 6 Troubleshooting
- 7 See also
- 8 References
mkinitcpio is a Bash script used to create an initial ramdisk environment. From the mkinitcpio man page:
- The initial ramdisk is in essence a very small environment (early userspace) which loads various kernel modules and sets up necessary things before handing over control to init. This makes it possible to have, for example, encrypted root filesystems and root filesystems on a software RAID array. mkinitcpio allows for easy extension with custom hooks, has autodetection at runtime, and many other features.
Traditionally, the kernel was responsible for all hardware detection and initialization tasks early in the boot process before mounting the root filesystem and passing control to
init. However, as technology advances, these tasks have become increasingly complex.
Nowadays, the root filesystem may be on a wide range of hardware, from SCSI to SATA to USB drives, controlled by a variety of drive controllers from different manufacturers. Additionally, the root filesystem may be encrypted or compressed; within a software RAID array or a logical volume group. The simple way to handle that complexity is to pass management into userspace: an initial ramdisk.
See also: /dev/brain0 » Blog Archive » Early Userspace in Arch Linux.
mkinitcpio is a modular tool for building an initramfs CPIO image, offering many advantages over alternative methods; these advantages include:
- The use of BusyBox to provide a small and lightweight base for early userspace.
- Support for udev for hardware auto-detection at runtime, thus preventing the loading of unnecessary modules.
- Using an extendable hook-based init script, which supports custom hooks that can easily be included in pacman packages.
- Support for LVM2, dm-crypt for both legacy and LUKS volumes, mdadm, and swsusp and suspend2 for resuming and booting from USB mass storage devices.
- The ability to allow many features to be configured from the kernel command line without needing to rebuild the image.
- Support for the inclusion of the initial ramdisk image in a kernel, thus making a self-contained kernel image possible.
mkinitcpio has been developed by the Arch Linux developers and from community contributions. See the public Git repository.
The mkinitcpio package is available in the official repositories and is installed by default as a member of the base group.
Advanced users may wish to install the latest development version of mkinitcpio from Git:
$ git clone git://projects.archlinux.org/mkinitcpio.git
Image creation and activation
By default, the mkinitcpio script generates two images after kernel installation or upgrades:
/boot/initramfs-linux.img and
/boot/initramfs-linux-fallback.img. The fallback image utilizes the same configuration file as the default image, except the autodetect hook is skipped during creation, thus including a full range of modules. The autodetect hook detects required modules and tailors the image for specific hardware, shrinking the initramfs.
Users may create any number of initramfs images with a variety of different configurations. The desired image must be specified for the bootloader, often in its configuration file. After changes are made to the configuration file, the image must be regenerated. For the stock Arch Linux kernel, linux, this is done by running this command with root privileges:
# mkinitcpio -p linux
-p switch specifies a preset to utilize; most kernel packages provide a related mkinitcpio preset file, found in
/etc/mkinitcpio.d (e.g.
/etc/mkinitcpio.d/linux.preset for
linux). A preset is a predefined definition of how to create an initramfs image instead of specifying the configuration file and output file every time.
Users can manually create an image using an alternative configuration file. For example, the following will generate an initramfs image according to the directions in
/etc/mkinitcpio-custom.conf and save it at
# mkinitcpio -c /etc/mkinitcpio-custom.conf -g /boot/linux-custom.img
If creating an image for a kernel other than the one currently running, add the kernel version to the command line. You can see available kernel versions in
# mkinitcpio -g /boot/linux.img -k 3.3.0-ARCH
The primary configuration file for mkinitcpio is
/etc/mkinitcpio.conf. Additionally, preset definitions are provided by kernel packages in the
/etc/mkinitcpio.d directory (e.g.
/etc/mkinitcpio.conf. Otherwise, the root device location may change between boots, resulting in kernel panics.
A more elegant alternative is to use persistent block device naming to ensure that the right devices are mounted.
Users can modify six variables within the configuration file:
- Kernel modules to be loaded before any boot hooks are run.
- Additional binaries to be included in the initramfs image.
- Additional files to be included in the initramfs image.
- Hooks are scripts that execute in the initial ramdisk.
- Used to compress the initramfs image.
- Command line options to pass to the
The MODULES array is used to specify modules to load before anything else is done.
Modules suffixed with a
? will not throw errors if they are not found. This might be useful for custom kernels that compile in modules which are listed explicitly in a hook or config file.
BINARIES and FILES
These options allow users to add files to the image. Both
BINARIES and
FILES are added before hooks are run, and may be used to override files used or provided by a hook.
BINARIES are auto-located within a standard
PATH and dependency-parsed, meaning any required libraries will also be added.
FILES are added as-is. For example:
For both,
BINARIES and
FILES, multiple entries can be added delimited with spaces.
HOOKS setting is the most important setting in the file. Hooks are small scripts which describe what will be added to the image. For some hooks, they will also contain a runtime component which provides additional behavior, such as starting a daemon, or assembling a stacked block device. Hooks are referred to by their name, and executed in the order they exist in the
HOOKS setting in the config file.
The default
HOOKS setting should be sufficient for most simple, single disk setups. For root devices which are stacked or multi-block devices such as LVM, mdadm, or LUKS, see the respective wiki pages for further necessary configuration.
Build hooks
Build hooks are found in
/usr/lib/initcpio/install. These files are sourced by the bash shell during runtime of mkinitcpio and should contain two functions:
build and
help. The
build function describes the modules, files, and binaries which will be added to the image. An API, documented by mkinitcpio(8), serves to facilitate the addition of these items. The
help function outputs a description of what the hook accomplishes.
For a list of all available hooks:
$ mkinitcpio -L
Use mkinitcpio's
-H option to output help for a specific hook, for example:
$ mkinitcpio -H udev
Runtime hooks
Runtime hooks are found in
/usr/lib/initcpio/hooks. For any runtime hook, there should always be a build hook of the same name, which calls
add_runscript to add the runtime hook to the image. These files are sourced by the busybox ash shell during early userspace. With the exception of cleanup hooks, they will always be run in the order listed in the
HOOKS setting. Runtime hooks may contain several functions:
run_earlyhook: Functions of this name will be run once the API filesystems have been mounted and the kernel command line has been parsed. This is generally where additional daemons, such as udev, which are needed for the early boot process are started from.
run_hook: Functions of this name are run shortly after the early hooks. This is the most common hook point, and operations such as assembly of stacked block devices should take place here.
run_latehook: Functions of this name are run after the root device has been mounted. This should be used, sparingly, for further setup of the root device, or for mounting other filesystems, such as
run_cleanuphook: Functions of this name are run as late as possible, and in the reverse order of how they are listed in the
HOOKS setting in the config file. These hooks should be used for any last minute cleanup, such as shutting down any daemons started by an early hook.
Common hooks
A table of common hooks and how they affect image creation and runtime follows. Note that this table is not complete, as packages can provide custom hooks.
|Sets up all initial directories and installs base utilities and libraries. Always add this hook as the first hook unless you know what you are doing.
|Adds udevd, udevadm, and a small subset of udev rules to your image.
|Starts the udev daemon and processes uevents from the kernel; creating device nodes. As it simplifies the boot process by not requiring the user to explicitly specify necessary modules, using the udev hook is recommended.
|Shrinks your initramfs to a smaller size by creating a whitelist of modules from a scan of sysfs. Be sure to verify included modules are correct and none are missing. This hook must be run before other subsystem hooks in order to take advantage of auto-detection. Any hooks placed before 'autodetect' will be installed in full.
|Loads modprobe configuration files from
/etc/modprobe.d and
|Adds all block device modules, formerly separately provided by fw, mmc, pata, sata, scsi , usb and virtio hooks.
|Adds the necessary modules for PCMCIA devices. You need to have pcmciautils installed to use this.
|Adds the necessary modules for a network device. For PCMCIA net devices please add the pcmcia hook too.
|Provides handling for an NFS based root filesystem.
|Provides support for fakeRAID root devices. You must have dmraid installed to use this.
|Locates and assembles fakeRAID block devices using
|Provides support for assembling RAID arrays from
/etc/mdadm.conf, or autodetection during boot. You must have mdadm installed to use this. The mdadm_udev hook is preferred over this hook.
|Locates and assembles software RAID block devices using
|Provides support for assembling RAID arrays via udev. You must have mdadm installed to use this.
|Locates and assembles software RAID block devices using
udev and
mdadm incremental assembly. This is the preferred method of mdadm assembly (rather than using the above mdadm hook).
|Adds the necessary modules for keyboard devices. Use this if you have an USB keyboard and need it in early userspace (either for entering encryption passphrases or for use in an interactive shell). As a side-effect modules for some non-keyboard input devices might be added to, but this should not be relied on.
|Adds keymap and consolefonts from
|Loads the specified keymap and consolefont from
/etc/vconsole.conf during early userspace.
|Adds the
dm_crypt kernel module and the
cryptsetup tool to the image. You must have cryptsetup installed to use this.
|Detects and unlocks an encrypted root partition. See #Runtime customization for further configuration.
|Adds the device mapper kernel module and the
lvm tool to the image. You must have lvm2 installed to use this.
|Enables all LVM2 volume groups. This is necessary if you have your root filesystem on LVM.
|Adds the fsck binary and filesystem-specific helpers. If added after the autodetect hook, only the helper specific to your root filesystem will be added. Usage of this hook is strongly recommended, and it is required with a separate
/usr partition.
|Runs fsck against your root device (and
/usr if separate) prior to mounting.
|Tries to resume from the "suspend to disk" state. Works with both swsusp and suspend2. See #Runtime customization for further configuration.
|This includes necessary filesystem modules into your image. This hook is required unless you specify your filesystem modules in MODULES.
|Adds shutdown initramfs support. Usage of this hook is strongly recommended if you have a separate
/usr partition or encrypted root.
|Unmounts and disassembles devices on shutdown.
|Add supports for
/usr on a separate partition.
|Mounts the
/usr partition after the real root has been mounted.
|Add the
systemd-timestamp binary to the image. Provides support for RD_TIMESTAMP in early userspace. RD_TIMESTAMP can be read by in example
systemd-analyze to determine boot time.
Deprecated hooks
As of mkinitcpio 0.13.0, the
usbinput hook is deprecated in favor of the
keyboard hook.
As of mkinitcpio 0.12.0, the following hooks are deprecated. If you use any of these hooks, you need to replace them with a single instance of the
block hook.
For more information, you can review Git commit 97368c0e78 or see the arch-projects mailing list.
The kernel supports several formats for compression of the initramfs - gzip, bzip2, lzma, xz (also known as lzma2), and lzo. For most use cases, gzip or lzop provide the best balance of compressed image size and decompression speed.
COMPRESSION="gzip" COMPRESSION="bzip2" COMPRESSION="lzma" COMPRESSION="lzop" COMPRESSION="xz"
Specifying no
COMPRESSION will result in a gzip compressed initramfs file. To create an uncompressed image, specify
COMPRESSION=cat in the config or use
-z cat on the command line.
Make sure you have the correct file compression utility installed for the method you wish to use.
These are additional flags passed to the program specified by
COMPRESSION, such as:
In general these should never be needed as mkinitcpio will make sure that any supported compression method has the necessary flags to produce a working image.
Runtime customization
Runtime configuration options can be passed to
init and certain hooks via the kernel command line. Kernel command line parameters are often supplied by the bootloader. The options discussed below can be appended to the kernel command line to alter default behavior. See Kernel parameters and Arch Boot Process for more information.
init in the initramfs environment. See
/usr/lib/initcpio/init for details.
- This is the most important parameter specified on the kernel command line, as it determines what device will be mounted as your proper root device. mkinitcpio is flexible enough to allow a wide variety of formats, for example:
root=/dev/sda1 # /dev node root=LABEL=CorsairF80 # label root=UUID=ea1c4959-406c-45d0-a144-912f4e86b207 # UUID root=/dev/disk/by-path/pci-0000:00:1f.2-scsi-0:0:0:0-part1 # udev symlink (requires the udev hook) root=801 # hex-encoded major/minor number
- If
break=premountis specified,
initpauses the boot process (after loading hooks, but before mounting the root filesystem) and launches an interactive shell which can be used for troubleshooting purposes. This shell can be launched after the root has been mounted by specifying
break=postmount. Normal boot continues after exiting from the shell.
- Disable hooks at runtime by adding
disablehooks=hook1{,hook2,...}. For example:
- Alter the order in which modules are loaded by specifying modules to load early via
earlymodules=mod1{,mod2,...}. (This may be used, for example, to ensure the correct ordering of multiple network interfaces.)
- Pause for
Nseconds before mounting the root file system by appending
rootdelay. (This may be used, for example, if booting from a USB hard drive that takes longer to initialize.)
See also: Debugging with GRUB and init
Using RAID
First, add the
mdadm hook to the
HOOKS array and any required RAID modules (raid456, ext4) to the
MODULES array in
Kernel Parameters:
Using the
mdadm hook, you no longer need to configure your RAID array in the GRUB parameters. The
mdadm hook will either use your
/etc/mdadm.conf file or automatically detect the array(s) during the init phase of boot.
Assembly via udev is also possible using the
mdadm_udev hook. Upstream prefers this method of assembly.
/etc/mdadm.conf will still be read for purposes of naming the assembled devices if it exists.
Using net
Required Packages:
net requires the mkinitcpio-nfs-utils package from the official repositories.
Kernel Parameters:
An interface spec can be either short form, which is just the name of an interface (eth0 or whatever), or long form. ( Kernel Documentation )
The long form consists of up to seven elements, separated by colons:
ip=<client-ip>:<server-ip>:<gw-ip>:<netmask>:<hostname>:<device>:<autoconf> nfsaddrs= is an alias to ip= and can be used too.
Parameter explanation:
<client-ip> IP address of the client. If empty, the address will either be determined by RARP/BOOTP/DHCP. What protocol is used depends on the <autoconf> parameter. If this parameter is not empty, autoconf will be used. <server-ip> IP address of the NFS server. If RARP is used to determine the client address and this parameter is NOT empty only replies from the specified server are accepted. To use different RARP and NFS server, specify your RARP server here (or leave it blank), and specify your NFS server in the `nfsroot' parameter (see above). If this entry is blank the address of the server is used which answered the RARP/BOOTP/DHCP request. <gw-ip> IP address of a gateway if the server is on a different subnet. If this entry is empty no gateway is used and the server is assumed to be on the local network, unless a value has been received by BOOTP/DHCP. <netmask> Netmask for local network interface. If this is empty, the netmask is derived from the client IP address assuming classful addressing, unless overridden in BOOTP/DHCP reply. <hostname> Name of the client. If empty, the client IP address is used in ASCII notation, or the value received by BOOTP/DHCP. <device> Name of network device to use. If this is empty, all devices are used for RARP/BOOTP/DHCP requests, and the first one we receive a reply on is configured. If you have only one device, you can safely leave this blank. <autoconf> Method to use for autoconfiguration. If this is either 'rarp', 'bootp', or 'dhcp' the specified protocol is used. If the value is 'both', 'all' or empty, all protocols are used. 'off', 'static' or 'none' means no autoconfiguration.
ip=127.0.0.1:::::lo:none --> Enable the loopback interface. ip=192.168.1.1:::::eth2:none --> Enable static eth2 interface. ip=:::::eth0:dhcp --> Enable dhcp protocol for eth0 configuration.
If you have multiple network cards, this parameter can include the MAC address of the interface you are booting from. This is often useful as interface numbering may change, or in conjunction with pxelinux IPAPPEND 2 or IPAPPEND 3 option. If not given, eth0 will be used.
BOOTIF=01-A1-B2-C3-D4-E5-F6 # Note the prepended "01-" and capital letters.
If the
nfsroot parameter is NOT given on the command line, the default
/tftpboot/%s will be used.
Parameter explanation:
<server-ip> Specifies the IP address of the NFS server. If this field is not given, the default address as determined by the `ip' variable (see below) is used. One use of this parameter is for example to allow using different servers for RARP and NFS. Usually you can leave this blank. <root-dir> Name of the directory on the server to mount as root. If there is a "%s" token in the string, the token will be replaced by the ASCII-representation of the client's IP address. <nfs-options> Standard NFS options. All options are separated by commas. If the options field is not given, the following defaults will be used: port = as given by server portmap daemon rsize = 1024 wsize = 1024 timeo = 7 retrans = 3 acregmin = 3 acregmax = 60 acdirmin = 30 acdirmax = 60 flags = hard, nointr, noposix, cto, ac
If you do not use the
nfsroot parameter, you need to set
root=/dev/nfs to boot from an NFS root via automatic configuration.
Using LVM
If your root device is on LVM, you must add the lvm2 hook. You have to pass your root device on the kernel command line in the following format:
root=/dev/mapper/<volume group name>-<logical volume name>
for example:
In addition, if your root device might initialize slowly (e.g. a USB device) and/or you receive a "volume group not found" error during boot, you might need to add the following to the kernel command line:
lvmwait=/dev/mapper/<volume group name><logical volume name>
for example:
This lets the boot process wait until LVM manages to make the device available.
Using encrypted root
If your root volume is encrypted, you need to add the
encrypt hook.
For an encrypted root, use something similar to:
root=/dev/mapper/root cryptdevice=/dev/sda5:root
In this case,
/dev/sda5 is the encrypted device, and we give it an arbitrary name of
root, which means our root device, once unlocked, is mounted as
/dev/mapper/root. On bootup, you will be prompted for the passphrase to unlock it.See LUKS#Configuration_of_initcpio for more details about using encrypted root.
/usr as a separate partition
If you keep
/usr as a separate partition, you must adhere to the following requirements:
- Add the
shutdownhook. The shutdown process will pivot to a saved copy of the initramfs and allow for
/usr(and root) to be properly unmounted from the VFS.
- Add the
fsckhook, mark
/usrwith a
/etc/fstab. While recommended for everyone, it is mandatory if you want your
/usrpartition to be fsck'ed at boot-up. Without this hook,
/usrwill never be fsck'd.
- Add the
usrhook. This will mount the
/usrpartition after root is mounted. Prior to 0.9.0, mounting of
/usrwould be automatic if it was found in the real root's
Extracting the image
If you are curious about what is inside the initrd image, you can extract it and poke at the files inside of it.
The initrd image is an SVR4 CPIO archive, generated via the
find and
bsdcpio commands, optionally compressed with a compression scheme understood by the kernel. For more information on the compression schemes, see #COMPRESSION.
mkinitcpio includes a utility called
lsinitcpio which will list and extract the contents of initramfs images.
You can list the files in the image with:
$ lsinitcpio /boot/initramfs-linux.img
And to extract them all in the current directory:
$ lsinitcpio -x /boot/initramfs-linux.img
You can also get a more human-friendly listing of the important parts in the image:
$ lsinitcpio -a /boot/initramfs-linux.img
See also
- Boot Debugging - Debugging with GRUB

subset: commoncrawl


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Principal Proposed Uses
Other Proposed Uses
Vinpocetine is a chemical derived from vincamine, a constituent found in the leaves of common periwinkle ( Vinca minor L.), as well as the seeds of various African plants. It is used as a treatment for memory loss and mental impairment.
Developed in Hungary over 20 years ago, vinpocetine is sold in Europe as a drug under the name Cavinton. In the United States it is available as a "dietary supplement," although the substance probably doesn't fit that category by any rational definition. Vinpocetine doesn't exist to any significant extent in nature. Producing it requires significant chemical work performed in the laboratory.
What Is Vinpocetine Used for Today?
Some evidence supports the idea that vinpocetine can enhance memory and mental function, especially in those with Alzheimer's disease and related conditions. It is also widely marketed for enhancing memory in healthy people, but there is no real evidence that it is helpful for this purpose.
It has been hypothesized that vinpocetine helps people with Alzheimer's disease by enhancing blood flow in the brain, safeguarding brain cells against damage, and inhibiting a substance known as phosphodiesterase. 1-3
Based on these proposed actions, vinpocetine has also been tried as a treatment for reducing brain damage following strokes .
What Is the Scientific Evidence for Vinpocetine?
Alzheimer's Disease and Related Conditions (Dementia)
A 16-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 203 individuals with mild to moderate dementia found significant benefit in the treated group. 4 Benefits have been seen in other studies as well. 5-10 However, a major review found that overall the evidence that it works remains too weak to rely upon, due to limitations in study quality. 19
In a single-blind , placebo-controlled trial, 30 individuals who had just experienced a stroke received either placebo or vinpocetine along with conventional treatment for 30 days. 11 The results showed that participants in the vinpocetine group experienced a significantly reduced level of residual disability as measured at 3 months.
A few other studies, some of poor design, also provide suggestive evidence that vinpocetine may be helpful for strokes. 12,16,17,20 However, much of the existing evidence is too preliminary to rely on, 18 and a recent review combining two relatively high quality studies involving 63 subjects was unable to determine whether or not vinpocetine provided any benefit for stroke patients. 21
Note : People who have had strokes are sometimes advised to take blood thinning drugs. There are concerns that vinpocetine may interact adversely with some medications of this type. See Safety Issues below.
The usual dose of vinpocetine is 10 mg capsules 3 times per day, although dosages ranging from half to twice that amount have been used in studies. Vinpocetine reportedly is better absorbed when taken with a meal. 13
Safety Issues
No serious side effects have been reported in any of the clinical trials. However, there is one case report of vinpocetine apparently causing agranulocytosis (loss of certain white blood cells). 15
Vinpocetine inhibits blood platelets from forming clots, 1 and for this reason it could cause problems if it is taken by individuals with bleeding problems, during the period immediately before or after surgery or labor and delivery, or in combination with medications or natural substances that also affect platelet activity, such as:
- Aspirin
- Clopidogrel (Plavix)
- Ticlopidine (Ticlid)
- Pentoxifylline (Trental)
- Garlic
- Ginkgo
- Policosanol
- High-dosage vitamin E
The drug warfarin (Coumadin) affects blood clotting, but not through actions on platelets. One study found only a minimal interaction between warfarin and vinpocetine. Interestingly, it was in the direction of decreased clotting. 14 Nonetheless, combination therapy with vinpocetine and warfarin should not be attempted except under the supervision of a physician.
Safety in pregnant or nursing women, young children, or those with severe liver or kidney disease has not been established.
Interactions You Should Know About
If you are taking:
- Blood-thinning drugs, such as aspirin , clopidogrel (Plavix), ticlopidine (Ticlid), or pentoxifylline (Trental): Simultaneous use of vinpocetine might cause bleeding problems.
- Natural substances with blood-thinning properties, such as garlic , ginkgo , policosanol , or high-dose vitamin E : Simultaneous use of vinpocetine might in theory cause bleeding problems.
- Warfarin (Coumadin): Vinpocetine might adversely affect the blood-thinning activity of warfarin (Coumadin).
Revision Information
- Reviewer: EBSCO CAM Review Board
- Review Date: 12/2015 -
- Update Date: 12/15/2015 -


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In the current version of systemd, the {{ic|Handle}} options will apply throughout the system unless they are "inhibited" (temporarily turned off) by a program, such as a power manager inside a desktop environment. If these inhibits are not taken, you can end up with a situation where systemd suspends your system, then when it wakes up the other power manager suspends it again.
In the current version of systemd, the {{ic|Handle}} options will apply throughout the system unless they are "inhibited" (temporarily turned off) by a program, such as a power manager inside a desktop environment. If these inhibits are not taken, you can end up with a situation where systemd suspends your system, then when it wakes up the other power manager suspends it again.
{{Warning|Currently, the power
{{Warning|Currently, the power in newest of [[KDE]] the only that the necessary "inhibited" commands. Until the others do, you will need to set the {{ic|Handle}} options to {{ic|ignore}} if you want your ACPI events to be handled by [[Xfce]], [[acpid]] or other programs. New versions are on the way that will include this functionality.}}
{{Note|Systemd can also use other suspend backends (such as [[Uswsusp]] or [[TuxOnIce]]), in addition to the default ''kernel'' backend, in order to put the computer to sleep or hibernate.}}
{{Note|Systemd can also use other suspend backends (such as [[Uswsusp]] or [[TuxOnIce]]), in addition to the default ''kernel'' backend, in order to put the computer to sleep or hibernate.}}
Revision as of 08:21, 10 November 2012
zh-CN:Systemd Template:Article summary start Template:Article summary text Template:Article summary heading Template:Article summary wiki Template:Article summary wiki Template:Article summary wiki Template:Article summary wiki Template:Article summary wiki Template:Article summary end From the project web page:
systemd is a system and service manager for Linux, compatible with SysV and LSB init scripts. systemd provides aggressive parallelization capabilities, uses socket and D-Bus activation for starting services, offers on-demand starting of daemons, keeps track of processes using Linux control groups, supports snapshotting and restoring of the system state, maintains mount and automount points and implements an elaborate transactional dependency-based service control logic. It can work as a drop-in replacement for sysvinit.
See also the Wikipedia article.
- 1 Things to consider before you switch
- 2 Installation
- 3 Native configuration
- 3.1 Hostname
- 3.2 Locale
- 3.3 Virtual console
- 3.4 Time zone
- 3.5 Hardware clock
- 3.6 Kernel modules
- 3.7 Filesystem mounts
- 3.8 ACPI power management
- 3.9 Temporary files
- 3.10 Units
- 4 Transitioning from initscripts to systemd
- 5 Basic systemctl usage
- 6 Running DEs under systemd
- 7 Writing custom .service files
- 8 Targets
- 9 Journal
- 10 Optimization
- 11 Troubleshooting
- 12 See also
Things to consider before you switch
- It is highly recommended to switch to the new initscripts configuration system described in the rc.conf article. Once you have this configuration established, you will have done most of the work needed to make the switch to systemd.
- Do some reading about systemd.
- Note the fact that systemd has a journal system that replaces syslog, although the two can co-exist. See the section on the journal below.
- While systemd can replace some of the functionality of cron, acpid, or xinetd, there is no need to switch away from using the traditional daemons unless you want to.
Systemd can be installed side-by-side with the regular Arch Linux initscripts package, and they can be toggled by adding/removing the
init=/usr/lib/systemd/systemd kernel parameter.
Mixed systemd/sysvinit/initscripts installation
It is possible to keep systemd and SysVinit both installed and using the same configuration files so you can move back and forth between them freely:
- Move away from the deprecated initscripts configuration format (there should be warnings at boot) to the native systemd configuration files, and reboot to verify that initscipts work as expected.
- Install systemd from the official repositories.
- Add
init=/usr/lib/systemd/systemdto the kernel parameters in your bootloader.
- Reboot.
Systemd will start the daemons listed in
/etc/rc.conf and run
/etc/rc.local and
/etc/rc.local.shutdown on boot/shutdown respectively (see #Initscripts emulation below). If the legacy support for
DAEMONS in
rc.conf or the scripts in
rc.local is not needed, the corresponding service files can be masked to disable them.
If you were starting a login manager (SLiM, GDM, etc.) using
/etc/inittab it will no longer start, because systemd doesn't use
inittab. The wiki page for the login manager should tell you how to add it as a systemd service.
DAEMONS array which have native systemd service files, the native service files will be used automatically. However, if the names of the rc script and the systemd service file do not match, this will not work and you should make sure that only one of the two (preferably the native one) is enabled.
DAEMONS startup. In particular,
network being a legacy service, may start too late to enable interfaces which are required by other services. You are advised to move to netcfg or NetworkManager before embarking to systemd.
Mixed systemd/initscripts installation
It is possible to replace sysvinit with systemd, but keep initscripts around in case there are some rc scripts which do not yet have systemd equivalents (see #Initscripts emulation below).
- Follow the instructions for a mixed systemd/sysvinit/initscripts installation.
- Enable daemons formerly listed in
systemctl enable daemonname. For a translation of the daemons from
/etc/rc.confto systemd services, see: List of Daemons and Services. Daemons that do not yet have equivalent systemd service files should be kept in the DAEMONS array so that systemd starts the legacy rc scripts.
- Install systemd-sysvcompat. This conflicts with sysvinit, and will prompt you to remove it.
- Remove the
init=...entry from the kernel parameters in your bootloader as
/sbin/initis now a symlink to systemd.
- Reboot.
The only difference between this and the keeping sysvinit around is that all the sysvinit binaries are replaced by symlinks to systemctl. However, the functionality should be unchanged.
Pure systemd installation
Finally, it is possible to remove initscripts and sysvinit entirely and use only systemd.
- Follow the instructions for a mixed systemd/initscripts installation.
- Make sure there are no longer any daemons being started by the DAEMONS array in
/etc/rc.confand that
/etc/rc.local.shutdownare both empty.
- Remove initscripts from your system.
Supplementary information
- If you have
quietin your kernel parameters, you might want to remove it for your first couple of systemd boots, to assist with identifying any issues during boot.
- Adding your user to groups (
scanner, etc.) is not necessary for most use cases with systemd. The groups can even cause some functionality to break. For example, the audio group will break fast user switching and allows applications to block software mixing. Every PAM login provides a logind session, which for a local session will give you permissions via POSIX ACLs on audio/video devices, and allow certain operations like mounting removable storage via udisks.
Native configuration
The hostname is configured in
/etc/hostname. The file should not contain the system's domain, if any. To set the hostname, do:
# hostnamectl set-hostname myhostname
man 5 hostname and
man 1 hostnamectl for details.
Here is an example file:
The default system locale is configured in
/etc/locale.conf. To set the default locale, do:
# localectl set-locale LANG="de_DE.utf8"
/etc/locale.gen and then executing
locale-gen as root. The locale set via
localectl must be one of the uncommented locales in
man 1 localectl and
man 5 locale.conf for details.
- For more information, see Locale.
Here is an example file:
Virtual console
The virtual console (keyboard mapping, console font and console map) is configured in
KEYMAP=us FONT=lat9w-16 FONT_MAP=8859-1_to_uni
KEYMAP= and
FONT= are empty or not set.
Another way to set the keyboard mapping (keymap) is doing:
# localectl set-keymap de
This has the advantage that it will also set the same keymap for use in X11.
man 1 localectl and
man 5 vconsole.conf for details.
- For more information, see console fonts and keymaps.
Time zone
The time zone is configured by creating an appropriate
/etc/localtime symlink, pointing to a zoneinfo file under
/usr/share/zoneinfo/. To do this automatically:
# timedatectl set-timezone America/Toronto
man 1 timedatectl and
man 5 localtime for more details.
Alternatively, create the symlink yourself:
# ln -sf ../usr/share/zoneinfo/America/Toronto /etc/localtime
Hardware clock
Systemd will use UTC for the hardware clock by default.
Hardware clock in localtime
If you want to change the hardware clock to use local time (STRONGLY DISCOURAGED) do:
# timedatectl set-local-rtc true
If you want to revert to the hardware clock being in UTC, do:
# timedatectl set-local-rtc false
Be warned that, if the hardware clock is set to localtime, dealing with daylight saving time is messy. If the DST changes when your computer is off, your clock will be wrong on next boot (there is a lot more to it). Recent kernels set the system time from the RTC directly on boot, assuming that the RTC is in UTC. This means that if the RTC is in local time, then the system time will first be set up wrongly and then corrected shortly afterwards on every boot. This is the root of certain weird bugs (time going backwards is rarely a good thing).
One reason for allowing the RTC to be in local time is to allow dual boot with Windows (which uses localtime). However, Windows is able to deal with the RTC being in UTC with a simple registry fix. There, it is recommended that Windows are changed to use UTC, rather than Linux to use localtime. If you make Windows use UTC, also remember to disable the "Internet Time Update" Windows feature, so that Windows don't mess with the hardware clock, trying to sync it with internet time. You should instead leave touching the RTC and syncing it to internet time to Linux, by enabling an NTP daemon, as suggested previously.
- For more information, see Time.
Kernel modules
Today, all necessary module loading is handled automatically by udev, so that, if you don't want/need to use any out-of-tree kernel modules, there is no need to put modules that should be loaded at boot in any config file. However, there are cases where you might want to load an extra module during the boot process, or blacklist another one for your computer to function properly.
Extra modules to load at boot
Extra kernel modules to be loaded during boot are configured as a static list in files under
/etc/modules-load.d/. Each configuration file is named in the style of
/etc/modules-load.d/<program>.conf. Configuration files simply contain a list of kernel module names to load, separated by newlines. Empty lines and lines whose first non-whitespace character is
# or
; are ignored.
# Load virtio-net.ko at boot virtio-net
man 5 modules-load.d for more details.
Module blacklisting works the same way as with initscripts since it is actually handled by kmod. See Module Blacklisting for details.
Filesystem mounts
The default setup will automatically fsck and mount filesystems before starting services that need them to be mounted. For example, systemd automatically makes sure that remote filesystem mounts like NFS or Samba are only started after the network has been set up. Therefore, local and remote filesystem mounts specified in
/etc/fstab should work out of the box.
man 5 systemd.mount for details.
- If you have a large
/homepartition, it might be better to allow services that do not depend on
/hometo start while
/homeis being fsck'ed. This can be achieved by adding the following options to the
/etc/fstabentry of your
This will fsck and mount
/home when it is first accessed, and the kernel will buffer all file access to
/home until it is ready.
- The same applies to remote filesystem mounts. If you want them to be mounted only upon access, you will need to use the
noauto,x-systemd.automountparameters. In addition, you can use the
x-systemd.device-timeout=#option to specify a timeout in case the network resource is not available.
- If you have encrypted filesystems with keyfiles, you can also add the
noautoparameter to the corresponding entries in
/etc/crypttab. Systemd will then not open the encrypted device on boot, but instead wait until it is actually accessed and then automatically open it with the specified keyfile before mounting it. This might save a few seconds on boot if you are using an encrypted RAID device for example, because systemd doesn't have to wait for the device to become available. For example:
data /dev/md0 /root/key noauto
If you have LVM volumes not activated via the initramfs, enable
lvm.service (provided by the lvm2 package):
# systemctl enable lvm
Similarly, if you have LVM on encrypted devices mounted later during boot (e.g. from
/etc/crypttab), enable
lvm-on-crypt.service (also provided by the lvm2 package):
# systemctl enable lvm-on-crypt
ACPI power management
Systemd handles some power-related ACPI events. They can be configured via the following options from
HandlePowerKey: specifies which action is invoked when the power key is pressed.
HandleSuspendKey: specifies which action is invoked when the suspend key is pressed.
HandleHibernateKey: specifies which action is invoked when the hibernate key is pressed.
HandleLidSwitch: specifies which action is invoked when the lid is closed.
The specified action can be one of
hibernate or
If these options are not configured, systemd will use its defaults:
HandleHibernateKey=hibernate, and
On systems which run no graphical setup or only a simple window manager like i3 or awesome, this may replace the acpid daemon which is usually used to react to these ACPI events.
In the current version of systemd, the
Handle options will apply throughout the system unless they are "inhibited" (temporarily turned off) by a program, such as a power manager inside a desktop environment. If these inhibits are not taken, you can end up with a situation where systemd suspends your system, then when it wakes up the other power manager suspends it again.
Handle options to
ignore if you want your ACPI events to be handled by Xfce, acpid or other programs. New versions are on the way that will include this functionality.
Sleep hooks
Systemd does not use pm-utils to put the machine to sleep when using
systemctl suspend or
systemctl hibernate; pm-utils hooks, including any custom hooks, will not be run. However, systemd provides a similar mechanism to run custom scripts on these events. Systemd runs all executables in
/usr/lib/systemd/system-sleep/, passing two arguments to each of them:
- Argument 1: either
post, depending on whether the machine is going to sleep or waking up
- Argument 2: either
hibernate, depending on which is being invoked
In contrast to pm-utils, systemd will run these scripts concurrently and not one after another.
The output of any custom script will be logged by
systemd-suspend.service or
systemd-hibernate.service. You can see its output in systemd's journal:
# journalctl -b -u systemd-suspend
Note that you can also use
suspend.target or
hibernate.target to hook units into the sleep state logic instead of using custom scripts.
An example of a custom sleep script:
#!/bin/sh case $1/$2 in pre/*) echo "Going to $2..." ;; post/*) echo "Waking up from $2..." ;; esac
man 7 systemd.special and
man 8 systemd-sleep for more details.
Temporary files
Systemd-tmpfiles uses configuration files in
/usr/lib/tmpfiles.d/ and
/etc/tmpfiles.d/ to describe the creation, cleaning and removal of volatile and temporary files and directories which usually reside in directories such as
/run or
/tmp. Each configuration file is named in the style of
/etc/tmpfiles.d/<program>.conf. This will also override any files in
/usr/lib/tmpfiles.d/ with the same name.
tmpfiles are usually provided together with service files to create directories which are expected to exist by certain daemons. For example the Samba daemon expects the directory
/var/run/samba to exist and to have the correct permissions. The corresponding tmpfile looks like this:
D /var/run/samba 0755 root root
However, tmpfiles may also be used to write values into certain files on boot. For example, if you use
/etc/rc.local to disable wakeup from USB devices with
echo USBE > /proc/acpi/wakeup, you may use the following tmpfile instead:
w /proc/acpi/wakeup - - - - USBE
The tmpfiles method is recommended in this case since systemd doesn't actually support
man 5 tmpfiles.d for details.
A unit configuration file encodes information about a service, a socket, a device, a mount point, an automount point, a swap file or partition, a start-up target, a file system path or a timer controlled and supervised by systemd. The syntax is inspired by XDG Desktop Entry Specification .desktop files, which are in turn inspired by Microsoft Windows .ini files.
man 5 systemd.unit for details.
Transitioning from initscripts to systemd
Initscripts emulation
Integration with Arch's classic configuration is provided by the initscripts package. When initscripts are installed in parallel with systemd, with the system running on systemd, systemd will do the following:
- Parse the
DAEMONSarray of
/etc/rc.confand start all listed daemons at boot
- Execute
/etc/rc.localduring boot
- Execute
/etc/rc.local.shutdownduring shutdown
Initscripts emulation is simply meant as a transitional measure to ease users' move to systemd, and will eventually go away. Native systemd does not rely on
rc.conf centralised configuration, so it is recommended to use native systemd configuration files, which will take precedence over
/etc/rc.local is to write the custom service files for any things you want to run on the system startup. See the corresponding section.
/etc/inittab, you will have to reconfigure this setting for systemd by running
systemctl mask ctrl-alt-del.target as root.
Moving away from the DAEMONS array
For a pure systemd setup, you should remove the
/etc/rc.conf file entirely and enable services only via
systemctl. For each
<service_name> in the
DAEMONS array in
/etc/rc.conf, run:
# systemctl enable <service_name>
<service_name>.service does not exist:
- Most probably, systemd uses a different name. For example,
cronie.servicereplaces the
crondinit daemon;
alsa-restore.servicereplace the
alsainit daemon. Another important instance is the
networkdaemon, which is replaced with another set of service files (see Configuring Network for more details.)
- Otherwise, a service file may not be available for systemd. In that case, you'll need to keep
rc.confto start the service during boot up.
$ pacman -Ql cronie [...] cronie /etc/rc.d/crond #Daemon initscript listed in the DAEMONS array (unused in a "pure" systemd configuration) [...] cronie /usr/lib/systemd/system/cronie.service #Corresponding systemd daemon service [...]
- Finally, some services do not need to be explicitly enabled by the user. For instance,
dbus.servicewill automatically be enabled when
dbus-coreis installed.
alsa-restore.serviceare also enabled automatically by systemd. Check the list of available services and their state using the
systemctlcommand like this:
systemctl status <service_name>.
Basic systemctl usage
The main command used to introspect and control systemd is
systemctl. Some of its uses are examining the system state and managing the system and services. See
man 1 systemctl for more details.
systemctl commands with the
-H <user>@<host> switch to control a systemd instance on a remote machine. This will use SSH to connect to the remote systemd instance.
systemadm is the official graphical frontend for
systemctl. It is provided by the systemd-ui-gitAUR package from the AUR.
Analyzing the system state
List running units:
$ systemctl
$ systemctl list-units
List failed units:
$ systemctl --failed
The available unit files can be seen in
/usr/lib/systemd/system/ and
/etc/systemd/system/ (the latter takes precedence). You can see list installed unit files by:
$ systemctl list-unit-files
Using units
Units can be, for example, services (
.service), mount points (
.mount), devices (
.device) or sockets (
When using
systemctl, you generally have to specify the complete name of the unit file, including its suffix, for example
sshd.socket. There are however a few shortforms when specifying the unit in the following
systemctl commands:
- If you don't specify the suffix, systemctl will assume
.service. For example,
netcfg.serviceare treated equivalent.
- Mount points will automatically be translated into the appropriate
.mountunit. For example, specifying
/homeis equivalent to
- Similiar to mount points, devices are automatically translated into the appropriate
.deviceunit, therefore specifying
/dev/sda2is equivalent to
man systemd.unit for details.
Activate a unit immediately:
# systemctl start <unit>
Deactivate a unit immediately:
# systemctl stop <unit>
Restart a unit:
# systemctl restart <unit>
Ask a unit to reload its configuration:
# systemctl reload <unit>
Show the status of a unit, including whether it is running or not:
$ systemctl status <unit>
Check whether a unit is already enabled or not:
$ systemctl is-enabled <unit>
Enable a unit to be started on bootup:
# systemctl enable <unit>
Install section, it usually means they are called automatically by other services. But if you need to install them manually, use the following command, replacing
foo with the name of the service.
# ln -s /usr/lib/systemd/system/foo.service /etc/systemd/system/graphical.target.wants/
Disable a unit to not start during bootup:
# systemctl disable <unit>
Show the manual page associated with a unit (this has to be supported by the unit file):
$ systemctl help <unit>
Power management
If you are in a local
systemd-logind user session and no other session is active, the following commands will work without root privileges. If not (for example, because another user is logged into a tty), systemd will automatically ask you for the root password.
Shut down and reboot the system:
$ systemctl reboot
Shut down and power-off the system:
$ systemctl poweroff
Shut down and halt the system:
$ systemctl halt
Suspend the system:
$ systemctl suspend
Put the system into hibernation:
$ systemctl hibernate
Running DEs under systemd
To enable graphical login, run your preferred Display Manager daemon (e.g. KDM). At the moment, service files exist for GDM, KDM, SLiM, XDM, LXDM and LightDM.
# systemctl enable kdm
This should work out of the box. If not, you might have a
default.target set manually or from a older install:
# ls -l /etc/systemd/system/default.target
/etc/systemd/system/default.target -> /usr/lib/systemd/system/graphical.target
Simply delete the symlink and systemd will use its stock
default.target (i.e.
# rm /etc/systemd/system/default.target
Using systemd-logind
In order to check the status of your user session, you can use
loginctl. All PolicyKit actions like suspending the system or mounting external drives will work out of the box.
$ loginctl show-session $XDG_SESSION_ID
Writing custom .service files
Handling dependencies
With systemd, dependencies can be resolved by designing the unit files correctly. The most typical case is that the unit
A requires the unit
B to be running before
A is started. In that case add
Requires=B and
After=B to the
[Unit] section of
A. If the dependency is optional, add
Wants=B and
After=B instead. Note that
Wants= and
Requires= do not imply
After=, meaning that if
After= is not specified, the two units will be started in parallel.
Dependencies are typically placed on services and not on targets. For example,
network.target is pulled in by whatever service configures your network interfaces, therefore ordering your custom unit after it is sufficient since
network.target is started anyway.
There are several different start-up types to consider when writing a custom service file. This is set with the
Type= parameter in the
[Service] section. See
man systemd.service for a more detailed explanation.
Type=simple: systemd considers the service to be started up immediately. The process must not fork. Do not use this type if other services need to be ordered on this service, unless it is socket activated.
Type=forking: systemd considers the service started up once the process forks and the parent has exited. For classic daemons use this type unless you know that it is not necessary. You should specify
PIDFile=as well so systemd can keep track of the main process.
Type=oneshot: This is useful for scripts that do a single job and then exit. You may want to set
RemainAfterExit=as well so that systemd still considers the service as active after the process has exited.
Type=notify: Identical to
Type=simple, but with the stipulation that the daemon will send a signal to systemd when it is ready. The reference implementation for this notification is provided by
Type=dbus: The service is considered ready when the specified
BusNameappears on DBus's system bus.
Replacing provided unit files
The unit files in
/etc/systemd/system/ take precedence over the ones in
To make your own version of a unit (which will not be destroyed by an upgrade), copy the old unit file from
/usr/lib/ to
/etc/ and make your changes there. Alternatively you can use
.include to parse an existing service file and then override or add new options. For example, if you simply want to add an additional dependency to a service file, you may use:
.include /usr/lib/systemd/system/<service-name>.service [Unit] Requires=<new dependency> After=<new dependency>
Then run the following for your changes to take effect:
# systemctl reenable <unit> # systemctl restart <unit>
systemd-delta to see which unit files have been overridden and what exactly has been changed.
Syntax highlighting for units within Vim
Syntax highlighting for systemd unit files within Vim can be enabled by installing vim-systemdAUR from the AUR.
Systemd uses targets which serve a similar purpose as runlevels but act a little different. Each target is named instead of numbered and is intended to serve a specific purpose with the possibility of having multiple ones active at the same time. Some targets are implemented by inheriting all of the services of another target and adding additional services to it. There are systemd targets that mimic the common SystemVinit runlevels so you can still switch targets using the familiar
telinit RUNLEVEL command.
Get current targets
The following should be used under systemd instead of
$ systemctl list-units --type=target
Create custom target
The runlevels that are assigned a specific purpose on vanilla Fedora installs; 0, 1, 3, 5, and 6; have a 1:1 mapping with a specific systemd target. Unfortunately, there is no good way to do the same for the user-defined runlevels like 2 and 4. If you make use of those it is suggested that you make a new named systemd target as
/etc/systemd/system/<your target> that takes one of the existing runlevels as a base (you can look at
/usr/lib/systemd/system/graphical.target as an example), make a directory
/etc/systemd/system/<your target>.wants, and then symlink the additional services from
/usr/lib/systemd/system/ that you wish to enable.
Targets table
|SysV Runlevel
|systemd Target
|runlevel0.target, poweroff.target
|Halt the system.
|1, s, single
|runlevel1.target, rescue.target
|Single user mode.
|2, 4
|runlevel2.target, runlevel4.target, multi-user.target
|User-defined/Site-specific runlevels. By default, identical to 3.
|runlevel3.target, multi-user.target
|Multi-user, non-graphical. Users can usually login via multiple consoles or via the network.
|runlevel5.target, graphical.target
|Multi-user, graphical. Usually has all the services of runlevel 3 plus a graphical login.
|runlevel6.target, reboot.target
|Emergency shell
Change current target
In systemd targets are exposed via "target units". You can change them like this:
# systemctl isolate graphical.target
This will only change the current target, and has no effect on the next boot. This is equivalent to commands such as
telinit 3 or
telinit 5 in Sysvinit.
Change default target to boot into
The standard target is
default.target, which is aliased by default to
graphical.target (which roughly corresponds to the old runlevel 5). To change the default target at boot-time, append one of the following kernel parameters to your bootloader:
.target extension can be left out.
systemd.unit=multi-user.target(which roughly corresponds to the old runlevel 3),
systemd.unit=rescue.target(which roughly corresponds to the old runlevel 1).
Alternatively, you may leave the bootloader alone and change
default.target. This can be done using
# systemctl enable multi-user.target
The effect of this command is outputted by
systemctl; a symlink to the new default target is made at
/etc/systemd/system/default.target. This works if, and only if:
[Install] Alias=default.target
is in the target's configuration file. Currently,
multi-user.target and
graphical.target both have it.
Since version 38, systemd has its own logging system, the journal. Therefore, running a syslog daemon is no longer required. To read the log, use:
# journalctl
By default (when
Storage= is set to
auto in
/etc/systemd/journald.conf), the journal writes to
/var/log/journal/. If the directory
/var/log/journal/ does not exist (e.g. if you or some program delete it), systemd will not create it automatically, but instead write its logs to
/run/systemd/journal. This means that logs will be lost on reboot.
Filtering output
journalctl allows you to filter the output by specific fields.
Show all messages by a specific executable:
# journalctl /usr/lib/systemd/systemd
Show all messages by a specific process:
# journalctl _PID=1
Show all messages by a specific unit:
# journalctl -u netcfg
man journalctl and
systemd.journal-fields for details.
Journal size limit
If the journal is persistent (non-volatile), its size limit is set to a default value of 10% of the size of the respective file system. E.g. with
/var/log/journal located on a 50 GiB root partition this would lead to 5 GiB of journal data. The maximum size of the persistent journal can be controlled by
SystemMaxUse in
/etc/systemd/journald.conf, so to limit it for example to 50 MiB uncomment and edit the corresponding line to:
Refer to
man journald.conf for more info.
Journald in conjunction with syslog
Compatibility with classic syslog implementations is provided via a socket
/run/systemd/journal/syslog, to which all messages are forwarded. To make the syslog daemon work with the journal, it has to bind to this socket instead of
/dev/log (official announcement). The syslog-ng package in the repositories automatically provides the necessary configuration.
# systemctl enable syslog-ng
Analyzing the boot process
Using systemd-analyze
Systemd provides a tool called
systemd-analyze that allows you to analyze your boot process so you can see which unit files are causing your boot process to slow down. You can then optimize your system accordingly. You have to install python2-dbus and python2-cairo to use it.
To see how much time was spent in kernelspace and userspace on boot, simply use:
$ systemd-analyze
timestamp hook to your
HOOKS array in
/etc/mkinitcpio.conf and as root, rebuild your initramfs with
mkinitcpio -p linux
To list the started unit files, sorted by the time each of them took to start up:
$ systemd-analyze blame
You can also create a SVG file which describes your boot process graphically, similiar to Bootchart:
$ systemd-analyze plot > plot.svg
Using bootchart
You could also use a version of bootchart to visualize the boot sequence. Since you are not able to put a second init into the kernel command line you won't be able to use any of the standard bootchart setups. However the bootchart2AUR package from AUR comes with an undocumented systemd service. After you've installed bootchart2 do:
# systemctl enable bootchart
Read the bootchart documentation for further details on using this version of bootchart.
Systemd comes with its own readahead implementation, this should in principle improve boot time. However, depending on your kernel version and the type of your hard drive, your mileage may vary (i.e. it might be slower). To enable, do:
# systemctl enable systemd-readahead-collect systemd-readahead-replay
Remember that in order for the readahead to work its magic, you should reboot a couple of times.
Early start for services
One central feature of systemd is D-Bus and socket activation. This causes services to be started when they are first accessed and is generally a good thing. However, if you know that a service (like UPower) will always be started during boot, then the overall boot time might be reduced by starting it as early as possible. This can be achieved (if the service file is set up for it, which in most cases it is) by issuing:
# systemctl enable upower
This will cause systemd to start UPower as soon as possible, without causing races with the socket or D-Bus activation.
Less output during boot
verbose to
quiet on the bootloader's kernel line. For some systems, particularly those with an SSD, the slow performance of the TTY is actually a bottleneck, and so less output means faster booting.
Shell shortcuts
Systemd daemon management requires a bit more text entry to accomplish tasks such as start, stopped, enabling, checking status, etc. The following functions can be added to one's
~/.bashrc file to help streamline interactions with systemd and to improve the overall experience.
# simplified systemd command, for instance "sudo systemctl stop xxx" - > "0.stop xxx" if ! systemd-notify --booted; then # for not systemd 0.start() { sudo rc.d start $@ } 0.restart() { sudo rc.d restart $@ } 0.stop() { sudo rc.d stop $@ } else # start systemd service 0.start() { sudo systemctl start $@ } # restart systemd service 0.restart() { sudo systemctl restart $@ } # stop systemd service 0.stop() { sudo systemctl stop $@ } # enable systemd service 0.enable() { sudo systemctl enable $@ } # disable a systemd service 0.disable() { sudo systemctl disable $@ } # show the status of a service 0.status() { systemctl status $@ } # reload a service configuration 0.reload() { sudo systemctl reload $@ } # list all running service 0.list() { systemctl } # list all failed service 0.failed () { systemctl --failed } # list all systemd available unit files 0.list-files() { systemctl list-unit-files } # check the log 0.log() { sudo journalctl } # show wants 0.wants() { systemctl show -p "Wants" $1.target } # analyze the system 0.analyze() { systemd-analyze $@ } fi
Shutdown/reboot takes terribly long
If the shutdown process takes a very long time (or seems to freeze) most likely a service not exiting is to blame. Systemd waits some time for each service to exit before trying to kill it. To find out if you are affected, see this article.
See also
- Official Web Site
- Manual Pages
- systemd Optimizations
- Tips And Tricks
- systemd for Administrators (PDF)
- About systemd on Fedora Project
- How to debug systemd problems
- Booting up: Tools and tips for systemd, a Linux init tool. In The H
- Lennart's blog story
- status update
- status update2
- status update3
- most recent summary
- Fedora's SysVinit to systemd cheatsheet


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Movie Label 2014 9.2 - Download Page
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The University of Lausanne expressly reserves the right to modify in part or in full the content of such websites, withdraw them, or temporarily suspend their availability, at any time and without notice.
The University of Lausanne shall not be liable for any material or consequential damage caused by access to information made available, or by its use or non-use, incorrect use of the connection or technical problems.
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References and links to other websites are informative only and the content, form and services offered by such websites are the sole responsibility of their authors. Access to such websites and their use is at the risk of those who consult them.
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Article 13 of the Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation and the law of the canton of Vaud on data protection and its implementing regulations state that every person has a right to the protection of privacy, and to protection from the misuse of personal and sensitive data concerning them. The University of Lausanne strictly observes these provisions.
Personal data is processed confidentially and is neither sold nor transmitted to third parties without the prior approval of the individual concerned.
No personal data is stored when accessing the home page. The University of Lausanne web server records only statistical data for non-personal use, by means of cookies, to analyse the perceived quality of its offer (files, logs). It uses Google Analytics and Google Tag Manager to analyse the traffic on some websites, and Hotjar temporarily on some pages in order to improve navigation and content. Operational data is not therefore associated with personal data. You can find more information concerning the rules of confidentiality of these systems on their websites: Google Analytics and Hotjar.
These rules do not apply however where contact is expressly made.
Email addresses or other data allowing individuals to be identified are under no circumstances transmitted to entities outside the University of Lausanne without the prior approval of those concerned. Only the site's webmaster retains emails received by the site. However complaints communicated by this method will be forwarded to the Legal Department of the UNIL and to the unit concerned so that further action may be taken.
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A9 Gmund Colors Matt Walnut Blank Cards - Folded, 111lb Cover
- Description
- /
- Specs
- /
- Reviews
Product Description
Category Description: Gmund Colors MATT Blank Cards
Gmund Colors - a brand name known around the world, a name synonomous with papers of utmost quality, beauty, and environmentally friendly practices. Gmund Colors blank cards feature a smooth, matte finish, fade-resistant and vibrant color, and are a nice, thick, heavy weight. Choose from a collection of popular sizes and from flat or folding cards. Cards come to you flat, pre-cut, and pre-scored, in the case of folding cards. Print your own stationery designs at home using a high end ink jet printer. Due to the very heavy 111lb weight of this paper, it does not work well with all home printers. We recommend ordering a sample to test print prior to purchase. Gmund Colors cards work well with conventional methods as well.
Cards are 10% Postconsumer, 25% Preconsumer recycled and 65% TCF Chlorine Free.


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Promotional Power Banks | Custom, Branded & Personalized Portable chargers
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Principal Proposed Uses
Other Proposed Uses
Maitake is a medicinal mushroom used in Japan as a general promoter of robust health. As with Coriolus versicolor , shiitake , and reishi (all fungi), innumerable healing powers have been attributed to maitake, ranging from curing cancer to preventing heart disease. Unfortunately, there hasn't been enough reliable research yet to determine whether any of these ancient beliefs are really true.
What Is Maitake Used for Today?
Contemporary herbalists classify maitake as an adaptogen, a substance said to help the body adapt to stress and resist infection (see the article on Ginseng for further explanation about adaptogens). However, we lack definitive scientific evidence to show us that maitake (or any other purported adaptogen) really functions in this way.
Most investigation has focused on the polysaccharide constituents of maitake. This family of substances is known to affect the human immune system in complex ways, and one in particular, beta-D-glucan, has been studied for its potential benefit in treating cancer and HIV . 1,2 Highly preliminary studies also suggest that maitake may be useful in treating diabetes , hypertension (high blood pressure), and high cholesterol . 3-4 However, there is no real evidence as yet that maitake is effective for these or any other illnesses.
Maitake is an edible mushroom that can be eaten as food or made into tea. A typical dosage of dried maitake in capsule or tablet form is 3 to 7 g daily.
Safety Issues
Maitake is widely believed to be safe, although formal safety studies have not been performed. Safety in young children, pregnant or nursing women, or those with severe liver or kidney disease has not been established.
Revision Information
- Reviewer: EBSCO CAM Review Board
- Review Date: 12/2015 -
- Update Date: 12/15/2015 -


text:
Gold Recycling (Dallas West)
2401 Vinson Street,
Tel: 214-819-9230,
Email: email@example.com
EMR wants your scrap metal
What do we buy? EMR buys all grades of metal. This metal includes ferrous grades such as iron and steel, as well as non-ferrous grades such as aluminium, brass, cable, copper, lead and stainless steel. We also buy end-of-life vehicles and catalytic converters.
Cast iron
End-of-Life vehicles
Catalytic converters
Stainless steel
Why EMR?
You can deliver to us, or for larger volumes, we can collect from you. Prices fluctuate according to the worldwide markets, but what you can guarantee is that EMR is always highly competitive on price, compared to other metal recyclers.
EMR can help you turn your waste metal into profit. We offer highly competitive prices even in low volumes. You also have to be confident that we're paying you correctly by weight, so we have accurate weighbridges with visible scales and CCTV monitoring.
- Best prices on all scrap metal
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- Delivery or collection
- Photo/video evidence and CoDs available
- Full paper trail if required
Who do we buy from?
- The short answer is everyone, but here are a few examples:
- General public
- Local trades and businesses
- Plumbers
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- Ground workers
- Farmers
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- Construction industry
- The motor trade
- Manufacturers
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- Scrap merchants
We also offer industrial services and total waste management services for businesses. We can adapt our service to your specific operation and compliance needs, and handle scrap metal you generate, in any quantity, from a one-off clearance project, to a waste disposal contract handling several thousand tonnes. We have a vast range of skips, bins, and containers and a fleet of vehicles for easy collection.
We are open to everyone and our opening hours are:
7am-5pm Monday to Friday
7am-12pm Saturdays
- 856-583-1830
- firstname.lastname@example.com


text:
Complex Beauties Color Line Tie Purple Green LightIdentifying your suitcase on the baggage claim conveyor belt is made easy with this luggage tag. Fastened with a leather strap (included), this aluminum tag is light and makes travelling hassle-free. Design images are covered in an enamel coating to prolong longevity. Measures approximately 2"(w) x 3.25"(h).
Real Product Video:
If you order more than 50 pcs items (can be combined), please click here to contact us for whole price quotation, please include the SKU# and the quantity you want for each of them. For order less than 50 pcs, please order directly from our website.


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Famous queen phrase song motivational phrase motif typographic seamless pattern design in red and blue colors
Never underestimate the power of collecting spare change. Over time, it can add up to a huge amount of savings and eventually clear some of your heavy debts. Our personalized coin purse is a fun and unique way to store your loose change, credit cards, bills or other small essentials. It is fully customizable on both sides with your designs and pictures. Chic and practical, our coin purses are the perfect alternative to your big coin jars or purses.
Made from durable polyester fabric
Genuine leather outer layer for added protection
Interior divided into two compartments
Image imprinted using dye sublimation process to ensure everlasting effect
Handmade coin purse can avoid white borders in finished products
Dimensions: 4.25" x 2.75" x 1.25"
Position of the zipper in product designer may vary from the actual product. If you have a specific request,please feel free to contact our customer service representative for assistance
If you order more than 50 pcs items (can be combined), please click here to contact us for whole price quotation, please include the SKU# and the quantity you want for each of them. For order less than 50 pcs, please order directly from our website.


text:
Idaho Governor Butch Otter has called a Special Session
Idaho Governor Butch Otter (R) has called a special session of the state's legislature. During the session, which convenes Monday, May 18, the legislature will consider changes to the state's child support program. The proposed bill, which was tabled shortly before the regular session adjourned, would amend existing laws relating to the Uniform Interstate Family Support Act (UISFA). State officials have stated that the passage of such legislation is imperative, as the state could potentially lose $16 million in federal funding for failing to maintain compliance with UIFSA. The full statement from the governor's office can be read here.
For related information, please see FiscalNote.com


text: 25% Off When You Spend $100 Terms and ConditionsSave 25% off a purchase of $100 or more on select merchandise purchased from L.L.Beanat LLBean.com, by phone, at retail stores, or on the L.L.BeanApp; not valid at L.L.BeanOutlets or through our global.LLBean.com website. To redeem offer, either click through your promotional email; enter promocode SAVE25 during online checkout; or provide the code to a phone representative. No code is required for retail store purchases. Offer applies to merchandise only and excludes shipping charges; return labels; taxes; license/stamps; gift cards; repairs; duty; engraving; monogramming; alterations; gift boxes; select boats, optics, electronics; car racks; firearms;Bean Boots by L.L.Beanand Maine Hunting Shoes; Outdoor Discovery Schools private lessons, custom adventures, adventure trips and youth programs; and Direct to Business orders. Not valid on previous purchases or with employee discounts. Cannot be combined with other percent-off or dollar-off discounts including Special Pricing promotions and other limited-time offers.All refunds will match the discounted amount on the purchase receipt. L.L.Beanreserves the right to deactivate promocode(s) in the event of fraud or technical issues and to limit quantities of individual items eligible for purchase with this discount. Offer valid from Wednesday, February 15, 2017, at 12:01 a.m. ET, to Tuesday, February 21, 2017, at 11:59 p.m. ET.


text:
Weiner's sexts take center stage on Broadway
'The Weiner Monologues' looks at what's public and what's private in modern era
Even well after his epic primary loss, Anthony Weiner still can't escape the headlines, and now the trials and tribulations of being Weiner are headed to the stage.
The ex-congressman is making his off-off Broadway debut, or at least the saga of his downfall is.
"The Weiner Monologues" -- the brainchild of two Hunter College alums -- comes together with transcripts from press conferences, interviews and of course, the now-infamous, sexually-explicit messages that made Weiner a hard name to forget.
"I think what we tried to do was to present what happened in the course of events as faithfully and weirdly we could, just to make this larger point of what's public and private," director and co-creator Jonathan Harper Schlieman told WPIX.
Schlieman along with co-creator John Oros say they had a bigger story to tell outside of the Weiner scandal.
"It kind of plays with the question of how we have Facebook and Twitter, and now with the NSA scandal -- [among the things] online, what's actually private?" Oros said. "Probably nothing."
It's a reality that Weiner himself is still learning. One thing many credit to the embattled politician was his handle -- or lack thereof -- of his smartphone, an element that will be incorporated in the Weiner Monologues.
"Instead of telling the audience to turn off their phone, we're going to tell [them] to keep the phone on," Schlieman revealed. "We'll be transmitting the pics that Weiner sent out… completely uncensored."
The big question on everyone's mind -- will Weiner himself rise to the occasion for opening night of the play?
"It would be great if Weiner would reach out and touch us," Schlieman joked. "He was asked earlier if he heard about us … and he said he never heard of us. So that's going to be one of our major reviews for us before we go up."
"Right on the poster."
The Weiner Monologues hits the stage next month at the Access Theater in lower Manhattan and it's safe to say, this play is for adults and adults only.


text:
Tendons are the cords that connect bones to muscles in the body. They are covered by a sleeve-like tissue. Tenosynovitis is an inflammation of this tissue. It occurs most often in the hand, wrist, or foot.
Most cases of tenosynovitis are caused by one of the following:
- Injury
- Infection
- Strain
Repetitive motions
such as those used for:
- Computer operation
- Assembly line work
- Cash register operation
- Sports that involve repetitive actions
- Sewing
- Playing musical instruments
Risk Factors
Factors that may increase your risk of tenosynovitis include:
- Repetitive actions with your hand, wrist, or foot during work or play
- Diseases that cause inflammation such as gout and rheumatoid arthritis
Tenosynovitis may cause:
- Joint pain, stiffness, or swelling
- Difficulty moving a joint
- Redness along the length of the tendon
Tenosynovitis is common in the tendons of the thumb. This is called de Quervain tenosynovitis. It causes pain and stiffness in the thumb side of the wrist.
The wrists, hands, and feet are also commonly affected. Tenosynovitis that affects tendons of the fingers can also make the finger stick in a bent position.
You will be asked about your symptoms and medical history. A physical exam will be done. It will include an assessment of the joint.
A blood test may also be done. It will be done to look for signs of bacterial infection or other conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis. You may be referred to a hand specialist.
Talk with your doctor about the best treatment plan for you. The goal of treatment is to reduce swelling and pain and to allow the tendon to move freely. Treatment options include the following:
Supportive Care
The tendon will need time to heal. Supportive care may include the following:
- Activities may need to be restricted. Normal activities will be gradually reintroduced.
- Ice therapy may help decrease pain and swelling. If ice is not helpful, heat therapy may be advised.
- A brace or splint may be used to help rest the joint.
Physical Therapy
A physical therapist will assess the tendon. An exercise program will be created to reduce discomfort and promote recovery. The therapist may also suggest modifications to your workplace to reduce stress to the area.
Several medications are used to treat tenosynovitis. These include:
- Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to help reduce inflammation and pain
- Topical pain medications, such as creams and patches, that are applied to the skin
- Corticosteroid injections to reduce swelling
- Antibiotics to treat infection
Surgery may be used for severe tenosynovitis. The surgery will release the tendon and allow it to move freely.
To prevent tenosynovitis, avoid overuse of your tendons. Take the following steps if you have a job or hobby that involves repetitive motions of the hand, wrist, or foot:
- Adjust your workspace to minimize the strain on your joints.
- Alternate activities when possible.
- Take breaks throughout the day.
- Exercise regularly.
Revision Information
- Reviewer: EBSCO Medical Review Board Teresa Briedwell, PT, DPT
- Review Date: 03/2018 -
- Update Date: 02/28/2014 -


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Friday, December 21, 2012
driving home for christmas
51 comments:
That top is beautiful! Definitely a post Christmas buy...!ReplyDelete
this top is so pretty, and i love your nail colour! xxReplyDelete
Oh this top is so cute! I like the whole outfit,all black is just so cool!ReplyDelete
I think I'm in love with your top xReplyDelete
Lovely outfit, perfect understated christmas outfit :) xReplyDelete
- AnonymousFriday, December 21, 2012 7:17:00 pm
I love that top! Your nails are gorgeous too xoReplyDelete
that top is beautiful!ReplyDelete
from helen at thelovecatsinc.com // @thelovecatsinc
ps. enter my brand new giveaway to win £50 to spend on shoes, click here!
Love this! That top is awesome!ReplyDelete
Love the combination of the dress and top! Have a safe journey home, I hear things are a bit crazy weather wise in the UK!ReplyDelete
Nina from little nomad
I love that top and your nails look lovely,, I love glittery nails a christmas time :) xReplyDelete
LOVE the top! Very cool! Happy Crimbo!ReplyDelete
That top is cute, looks great with the dress xxReplyDelete
- AnonymousFriday, December 21, 2012 7:54:00 pm
I love this top! xReplyDelete
In love with that top. The monki stores are unreal! they make me want to buy everythingReplyDelete
I love the top, I wish we had a Monki near us!ReplyDelete
Actually obsessed with your hair, lovely top too! Have a lovely Christmas :)ReplyDelete
Love the subtle hint of colour from the gems! And I do need that silver cuff!ReplyDelete
absolutely love it. one of the things I miss about europe is that a lot of people dress in mostly black without looking goth (i love wearing black clothes!)ReplyDelete
I am so in love with that top! have a lovely Christmas!xReplyDelete
Your hair is beautiful! And I love the socks!ReplyDelete
LOVE that tee! So cute. Lily i love your wardrobe but think you should experiment more with colour, think you would suit post-box red! But i get how much you love black :)ReplyDelete
Have a great Christmas
So excited for Christmas! Love your top and the socks are super cute! xReplyDelete
That top is so cute! And I love how you're working tights and frilly socks!ReplyDelete
Have a lovely time at home!
Bemsy x
I love that top! Have a nice christmas xReplyDelete
I saw a similar top today in Next. ..very cute. Have a great Christmas.ReplyDelete
Jackie @ Minerva Collection UK Handbags&Jewellery
Have a wonderful Christmas Lily and a safe trip back!ReplyDelete
enjoy your holiday time with your family!ReplyDelete
Lily you look gorgeous, enjoy your christmas have a ball and I hope Santas good to you!ReplyDelete
I love the american apparel dress! I need it in my life tehe :))ReplyDelete
my blog
I love the socks with the boots, it looks so cute!! :) Also, your nails look fab and you have reminded me that I majorly need to re-paint mine.ReplyDelete
Gem x
I love this whole outfit! really nice :) Hope you enjoy the holidays! :) xReplyDelete
not bad at all.ReplyDelete
stunning nailvarnish!ReplyDelete
i always looove your socks! you make me wanna shop for millions of fancy pairs ;) happy holidays!ReplyDelete
i have that jacket!!!xxReplyDelete
I love the top and the boots with socks ;)ReplyDelete
Alessandra ❤
FOLLOW ME ON The Glam Wok
CHECK THIS OUT MY LATEST POST: Shopping: Beauty, Beauty, Beauty!
Lovely outfit! Your t-shirt is gorgeous! xxxReplyDelete
Loving the nails.ReplyDelete
Lily, how are you so darlin'? Merry Christmas, love!ReplyDelete
PS: Head over to my blog if you love cat dresses, vintage, thrifting, clogs and whimsy!
Absolutely love this top!!!! So, so pretty! xxxReplyDelete
What tights do you wear on the majority of your posts? I'm after a pair of similar ones to this outfit post but can't quite find what I am looking for. Thanking you!ReplyDelete
Love that jacket! Happy Christmas xxReplyDelete
LOVE the outfit! your shirt is so pretty xxReplyDelete
Can't believe the jacket's from Primark! It's amazing!ReplyDelete
Hope you have a lovely time at home.
e x
That top is AMAZING!ReplyDelete
I need one haha.
Kassie xo
You look so cute sweetie!ReplyDelete
Always love your style!
Muchos Smiles and
Festive Cheers,
Beccy, xoxo
Cute top, love how festive it is.ReplyDelete
Katie xo
- AnonymousSunday, December 23, 2012 6:46:00 pm
great post! I love the color of the beading on your top. have a great christmas! :)ReplyDelete
Rebecca @ trbcca.blogspot.com
I on the other hand love Christmas, hope you have a nice time with your family. Merry Christmas! <3 xoReplyDelete
In love with that top! It's gorgeous! Merry Christmas to you and your family :) xxxxReplyDelete
I love love love the ring! Where is it from?ReplyDelete
Emily x
if you have any questions feel free to tweet me @llymlrs!
Note: only a member of this blog may post a comment.


text:
Types of Chokes
Your distance from the target determines the choke you need. The choke of a shotgun determines shot string only. It has no bearing on shot speed (velocity) or distance (range). That is, the choke does not alter the shotgun's power—it just controls how tight or spread out the pellets will be at a specific distance.


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The Boardwalk Bunkable Bed merges shabby chic cottage elements with the crisp contours of modern styling to deliver you a bed that will act as a stylish centerpiece to your bedroom, while affording you the option of expansion in the future. The Young America Boardwalk Collection combines contemporary charm with industrial hardware and clean lines to deliver you quality furniture that you will enjoy for generations to come. Expertly crafted and American made using only the safest materials, you can sleep soundly knowing that all paints and stains used are non-toxic and low-VOC.
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