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|Species information
Near-Human Intelligence
|Eye colour
|Skin colour
Yellow or white
|Hair colour
Mostly black
|Native range
|Height of average adult
Tall (possibly more than 7 feet)
|Length of average adult
Human almost
|MoM Classification
- "Never try an' get a straight answer out of a centaur. Ruddy stargazers. Not interested in anythin' closer'n the moon."
- —Rubeus Hagrid[src]
A centaur is a magical creature whose head, torso and arms appear to be human and are joined to a horse's body. However, they are their own species, and are not any kind of half-breed. Despite possessing 'human intelligence', centaurs are classified as Beasts by the Ministry of Magic, at their own request, as they were unhappy at having to share Being status with hags and vampires.
Physical descriptionEdit
Like horses, centaurs can come in a variety of colours, ranging from deep black to white. They have the body of a horse, and the torso, arms and head of a human man.
Centaurs are not in fact half-breeds, but an entirely different species on their own. They are not very pleased to be insulted, particularly where their lineage is concerned, as Professor Umbridge found out to her cost.
Centaurs may posses the ability to be clairvoyant, as Firenze taught alongside Sybill Trelawney.
Centaurs are forest-dwelling, and, in each country where colonies exist, the wizarding authority has set aside land exclusively for their use.[1] One such colony exists in the Forbidden Forest, at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. However, centaurs have their own methods of concealment, and avoid contact with both wizards and witches and Muggles. They generally live in herds of ten to fifty individuals.
Magical abilitiesEdit
Centaurs do not use wands for magic, but are known to be well-versed in magical healing, Divination, archery, and Astronomy. Centaurs burn herbs such as mallowsweet and sage to refine their stargazing findings. In fact, the centaur Firenze taught Divination at Hogwarts, starting in the 1995–1996 school year.[2]
Centaurs are known to be gifted in divining. Indeed, the centaurs of the Forbidden Forest regularly made vague allusions to seeing the future, as when the centaur Firenze told Harry Potter that they were fated to meet again, and when he and Bane spoke of the "intermission" of sorts, between the First and Second Wizarding Wars[3]. He also mentioned to his class at Hogwarts, that centaurs spend years trying to master their particular art of divining the fates.[2]
Centaurs on the whole seem also to be rather proud of their species, which was evident in their testiness whenever anyone even accidentally alluded to them being "used" or in any way employed by humankind, as when Firenze was chastised for allowing Harry Potter to ride to safety on his back, after the young wizard encountered Lord Voldemort in the Forbidden Forest-- his fellow centaurs considered allowing such a thing tantamount to becoming a 'common' mule[3]. In 1995, they attempted to murder Firenze for his decision to "enter into human servitude," which was seen as a great and base betrayal[2]. Centaurs also decided to be placed in the Beast Division instead of the Being Division in the British Ministry of Magic archives, because they wished to not be associated with hags and vampires, whom the Ministry designates "Beings"[1].
Centaurs also seem to favour nature over technology, the extent of their tools visibly in use being their bows and arrows. Instead, they cast their attention upon reading signs in nature, and living in forests appropriated by the Ministry of Magic.
They are territorial creatures by nature, as Rubeus Hagrid mentioned in 1995, upon seeing a herd of centaurs in the Forbidden Forest, whose land was being consistently reduced, and that they might revolt against the Ministry as a result. Later the same year, they proclaimed that even Hagrid was "no longer welcome" within "their" forest, as he had "forfeited the friendship of the centaurs," and that their "tolerance was waning" (in reference to Hagrid's half-brother, Grawp, whom Hagrid was hiding in the forest at the time)[2].
Relationship with wizardkindEdit
Starting in 1811, centaurs were offered "Being" status, when Grogan Stump decreed that a "being" was "any creature that has sufficient intelligence to understand the laws of the magical community and to bear part of the responsibility in shaping those laws." However, they declined because of the associations with other creatures, such as vampires and hags, that "being" status would give them. The merpeople made the same decision a year later.[1]
Despite being highly intelligent creatures, centaurs were still officially classified as of "near-human intelligence" by the Ministry of Magic in the mid-1990s, per the text of Law Fifteen B, as laid down by the Department for the Regulation and Control of Magical Creatures. Centaurs take this phrase to be a great insult, as Dolores Umbridge found out the hard way, as they find that "[their] intelligence, thankfully, far outstrips [humans']."[2]
A Centaur Liaison Office still exists in the Ministry of Magic's Department for the Regulation and Control of Magical Creatures, though no centaur has ever used it. In fact, the phrase "Being sent to the Centaur Office" has become an in-joke at the Ministry, meaning that the person in question is about to be sacked. A centaur was also represented in the Fountain of Magical Brethren at the Ministry of Magic, at least before the fountain's destruction during the battle between Albus Dumbledore and Lord Voldemort.
Centaurs have also been known to save wizards from harm, one instance being Firenze saving Harry Potter, when Lord Voldemort was in the forest, though this was highly looked down upon as centaurs were not supposed to interfere with "what is to come."When Harry Potter, Ronald Weasley, and Hermione Granger ended up leading Dolores Umbridge into the Forbidden Forest, a group of centaurs appeared with some of them carrying off Dolores while the rest were scared away by Grawp in an event known as the Skirmish in the Forbidden Forest. It was mentioned that Albus negotiated for Dolores' release when he was rehired by the Ministry of Magic.
The centaur herd in the Forbidden Forest also fought against the Death Eaters in the Battle of Hogwarts.
Known centaursEdit
Behind the scenesEdit
- In the books, Centaurs are described as they are in traditional Greek myths, with the back-end of a horse, but an ordinary human face and torso in their upper parts. In the films, however, their human faces are more equine-like, like an exact cross between horse and human. They are covered in hair, the same as their horse halves, with long protruded faces, and long pointy ears.
- Despite the fact that the Wizards' Ordinary Magic and Basic Aptitude Test establishes them to exist, female centaurs have yet to be physically seen in any Harry Potter media.
- Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (First appearance)
- Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (film)
- Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (video game) (GBC & PS1 versions only)
- Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix
- Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (film)
- Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (video game)
- Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince
- Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows
- Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them
- Harry Potter: A Pop-Up Book
- LEGO Harry Potter: Years 1-4
- LEGO Harry Potter: Years 5-7
- Harry Potter Trading Card Game
- Pottermore
Notes and referencesEdit
See alsoEdit


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~7 I 1 -1 '$ l ˘ A I National Park of Manu (Per P' pg Nomination and inclusion on
the World Heritage List What do the Pyramids of Egypt and the Grand Canyon of
the Colorado have in common? Or Mont SaintMichel and the Tai Mahal?
~7 I 1 -1 '$ l ˘ A I National Park of Manu (Per P' pg Nomination and inclusion on
the World Heritage List What do the Pyramids of Egypt and the Grand Canyon of
the Colorado have in common? Or Mont SaintMichel and the Tai Mahal?
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Tour update from Karli Thomas, Expedition Leader on board the Esperanza
Watch more videos from the tour
We popped along to a few North Face stores this week to ask them to "walk the outdoor talk" and take PFCs out of their water resistant gear.
Watch what happened …
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The Label My Fish Alliance is campaigning for more accurate seafood labelling in Australia, whenever we buy seafood, specifying: what the species is, where it was caught and the method used to catch or farm it. While most Australians think...
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Attention All Soldiers, Operation Fury needs you. You need to choose a side and sign up.
For more intel on Operation Fury Please click HERE
Please go to Special Event Forum (here), And sign up for allied or axis.
This will be a CRS Lead event on both sides. Xoom will be heading up the axis side and Heavy265 will be heading up the Allied side. This will be for bragging rights.
Why are we asking players to sign up you ask. We are trying for a role play experience. We want this to be a true realistic event.
So get up and sign up and let's make this the best event ever!!!!!!!!!!
Give me your war cry, grrrrrrrrrrrrr
Heavy265 **out**


text:
MTC & WGI Ink Partnership
Music Travel Consultants is so excited to be the new preferred travel partner of WGI! read more
Find out why MTC is the 1st choice in student music workshops. View our 2 minute intro video to see what we can do for your group.
Ready your students for a tailor-made tour to one or more of these great workshops. Here are some of the world's most popular student music workshops and clinics. Ready your students for a tailor-made tour to one or more of these educational experiences. If you don't see a certain workshop or clinic listed, feel free to contact us.
Music Directors, Staff, Chaperones and Students may use the information-packed, versatile Music Travel App before and during their trip - all free of charge!
Traveler Locator, Interactive Checklists, View Payments, Send Emergency Notifications.
Live Itineraries, Group Messaging, Photo Gallery, Make Trip Payments.
The Music Travel app is available for iPhone and Android.
Music Travel Consultants is so excited to be the new preferred travel partner of WGI! read more
Are your students ready for an international performance opportunity? Here are our most popular international destinations. read more
Is your marching band ready to perform in the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade? read more
Is your choir ready to take its performance to the next level? But you can't decide on a venue or destination? read more
Over 60 years, the IPL 500 Festival Parade has grown to be one of the signature events held in the United States. read more
Finding the perfect destination for your group can be a bigger challenge than you expect. read more
When a group is focused on its performance, it is easy to overlook issues with accessibility. read more
Music education is critical to students' development of skills necessary for thriving in school and beyond. read more
The only blind marching band in the world travels to Chicago with MTC read more
With the world full of fascinating music performance destinations, just choosing the perfect spot for your students can present quite a challenge. Here are some of our cleints' must popular top European performance destinations. read more
It is important that MTC's clients and travelers know that their safety and security... read more
Here's how to get the band through security, smoothly and efficiently... read more
Music Travel Consultants and the Ronald Reagan Marching Band have partnered to make an educational video on what a BOA Grand Nationals trip entails.... read more
When a student gets to experience to new locations, new cultures and new people with music being the focus, the revelations and the eye-opening impact that develop are priceless... read more
Music Travel Consultants has orchestrated a list of "Popular Student Marching Bands Parades" to help Band Directors choose the right parade for their group… read more
Breathtaking! Amazing! Phenomenal! These are words you have probably heard time and time again from friends, family, and others when seeing a musical on Broadway... read more
ollow Bands of America Honor Band with Music Travel Consultants to the Tournament of Roses Parade ... read more
Have you ever wondered why opportunities involving band trips to Disney are so abundant? The significance of music brought feeling and heart into... read more
Contact MTC today for Music for All's BOA Grand Nationals Rehearsal Space, Home Room, Saturday Pre-Finals Dinner and Additional Group Meals… read more
Time for some heavy lifting. Before your trip becomes a reality, some homework has to be done. Don't worry, Music Travel Consultants is here to help… read more


text:
Another reason against it: security. You could be lulled in a feeling of false security if you have magic_quotes=On on a test server and Off on production server.
And another: readability of the code. If you want to be portable you need to resort to some weird solution, outlines on these pages (if (get_magic_quotes())...).
Let's hope magic_quotes soon goes to history together with safe_mode and similar "kind-of-security" (but in reality just a nuisance) inventions.


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|For other uses of the name Bellic, see Bellic.
- "Life is complicated. I killed people. Smuggled people. Sold people. Perhaps here...things will be different."
- ―Niko Bellic in GTA IV's first trailer, Things Will Be Different.
Niko Bellic (Serbian: Нико Белић, Niko Belić) is the protagonist of Grand Theft Auto IV and a supporting character in The Lost and Damned and The Ballad of Gay Tony. He is also mentioned by Lester Crest and Patrick McReary in Grand Theft Auto V. The player can choose Niko Bellic as their parent model in Grand Theft Auto Online.
Niko grew up in Yugoslavia, where he fought in the Yugoslav Wars. He later worked for organized crime syndicates as a hired-gun in Liberty City. Ever since the Yugoslav Wars ended, Niko's main goal in life was to find and kill one of two men: Florian Cravic or Darko Brevic, for one of them betrayed and nearly killed him during the Wars. Niko is the younger cousin of Roman Bellic and the son of Milica Bellic.
Grand Theft Auto series
Early life and family
Niko was born in Yugoslavia in 1978. It was implied that his father was an abusive alcoholic. His mother, Milica Bellic, was unhappy that her son grew up in such a harsh place. In a conversation with Patrick McReary, Niko reveals that he had a brother who died during the Bosnian War. According to the dialogue in the mission Taking in the Trash, Niko dreamed of becoming an astronaut when he was a child. In a conversation with Dwayne Forge, Niko mentions the house where he grew up in did not have electricity until he was twelve. In a conversation with Kate McReary, Niko says that he found out his aunt (Roman's mother) was raped and murdered, some time after Roman's departure to the United States. Knowing Roman would be even more devastated if he knew the true circumstances of his mother's death, Niko covered up what happened, telling him that she died in a house fire.
Bosnian Wars
Niko grew up in the harsh environment of the Yugoslav Wars, and was a teenage soldier of presumably the Serb-controlled Yugoslav People's Army or its many aligned Serbian paramilitary forces and militias fighting against the government forces of the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Bosnian Croat Croatian Defence Council. (The Yugoslav Wars were fought between 1991 and 2001, which means that Niko was only 13-21 years old at the time). Niko says that he was betrayed "ten years ago", making it closer to 1997 or 1998 (although Florian claims that it was "twelve or thirteen years ago" in a phone call after the mission That Special Someone). He served as a helicopter pilot and an infantryman during the war, and during the mission Easy Fare, Roman alludes to him driving a tank.
During the war, Niko both witnessed and committed numerous atrocities, which led to his cynical perspective on life, and a certain degree of regret, depression, and emotional detachment. Eventually, Niko's unit of fifteen men (most of them friends from his hometown) were ambushed by enemy forces, but Darko Brevic, Florian Cravic, and Niko himself survived. Niko concluded that either Florian or Darko had sold the group out, and he vowed to uncover and kill the culprit, not only to gain revenge, but also to hopefully 'close the book' on the incident, and move on with his life.
Post-war life
Niko had trouble finding steady work after the war. Niko's cousin, Roman, had already moved to America to start a new life in Liberty City while Niko spends the next decade working in the European criminal underworld, leading to a period of incarceration in a European penitentiary. After his release from prison, he began working for a human trafficking ring led by Ray Bulgarin; when a boat involved in the operation sank in the Adriatic Sea during a smuggling run into Italy, Niko swam to safety, but everything and everyone else was lost. Bulgarin believed that Niko had intentionally scuttled the ship and stole his money; the gangster's reach was too great within Europe, so Niko joined the merchant navy to escape Bulgarin's influence. During Roman's Sorrow, Niko reminds Roman of an occasion in Europe where they encountered a bar which had burned down and there was only one bottle of vodka left, so they sat down and finished it off.
Events of GTA IV
- "More people want me dead than alive. I'm working for the Mafia. The police and a government agency are both on my case. I kill and steal to scrape together a living so my cousin can fritter it away online and pay off debts...and all the while? People are trying to kill us! What is fun?"
- ―Niko Bellic
Niko spent seven months on the cargo ship Platypus, which eventually smuggled Niko into Liberty City.
During the game, Niko says he moved to Liberty City because he wanted a new life by living the American Dream, but when he does arrive in Liberty City, he has nothing except Roman. Niko parted ways with Hossan and the Platypus crew there, partly to reunite with his cousin, and partly to track down Florian Cravic, who had moved to Liberty City after the war. Roman had been boasting of great success in Liberty City, but in truth, his assets amounted to a small, gritty taxi depot and a derelict apartment, and he was saddled with heavy debts due to his gambling habit. Niko would assist Roman in his taxi business, and protect his cousin from the loan sharks who were harassing him. Roman's connections eventually led to Niko making friends with Little Jacob, and taking work from the Russian Mafia, setting in motion the events of the game.
After killing Vladimir Glebov, Niko is spared by Mikhail Faustin, although Dimitri Rascalov wanted him and Roman killed. After killing Mikhail, Dimitri reveals his connections with Ray Bulgarin and turns against him, even trying to kill him. Niko and Roman flee Hove Beach when their apartment and Roman's taxi depot were burned down. It is at this point that Niko becomes a hitman and an associate of many. Mallorie Bardas, Roman's girlfriend, introduce him to two contacts, Manny Escuela and Elizabeta Torres. Niko develops affiliations and becomes a worker of the McReary Family, Playboy X, Dwayne Forge, and the Pegorino Family, to name a few, over the course of the game. Maximizing his hatred of Dimitri, Rascalov gets Roman kidnapped.
Niko eventually becomes in forced contact with an International Affairs Agency front under the name of United Liberty Paper, who blackmails him into doing some "country-protecting" work. Also, Ray Boccino managed to help Niko find Florian Cravic. When Niko confronts him, Florian, who nows calls himself Bernie Crane, begs for forgiveness and claims he is not only a homosexual but that he is not the one who betrayed Niko (despite escaping). Niko forgives him and actually begins helping Bernie with his life.
As a sign of gratitude towards Niko for his work with them, the U.L.P. locate Darko Brevic in Romania and smuggle him into Liberty City. Niko confronts Brevic, who confesses that he sold Niko's army unit out for $1,000, which he used to fund his heroin addiction. Enraged at the fact his unit were betrayed for such a paltry sum, Niko holds Brevic at gunpoint. Whether Niko kills Brevic or not depends on the player's actions.
After his confrontation with Brevic, Niko meets Jimmy Pegorino again. Pegorino asks Niko to do a heroin deal with Dimitri Rascalov. Niko is reluctant to do so, because of the bitterness between himself and Rascalov. The conclusion of the storyline depends on the player's decision.
If the player chooses to do the deal with Rascalov, he will betray Niko again and send a hitman to assassinate Niko at his cousin's wedding. Niko survives and eventually kills the assassin, though his cousin Roman is killed during the shootout. Enraged by this, Niko chases Rascalov, who killed Jimmy Pegorino, throughout the city before confronting and killing him on Happiness Island.
If the player chooses to take revenge on Rascalov, Niko fights his way onto the Platypus ship, which Rascalov is loading with heroin, and confronts Rascalov over his earlier betrayal of Niko. Niko executes Rascalov, which leads to the downfall of the Pegorino family. Angered at Niko's betrayal, Pegorino attempts to assassinate him in a drive-by shooting at Roman Bellic's wedding, but instead kills Niko's girlfriend Kate McReary. To avenge Kate's death, Niko, along with his friend Jacob Hughes, chases Pegorino throughout the city before confronting and killing him on Happiness Island.
At the end of the game, a Weazel News report states that Niko is wanted for questioning by the police (although not as a suspect) for the events of his cousin's wedding.
Niko's immigrant status is uncertain, and arouses the suspicion of the LCPD and FIB. Although Niko often protests that he "has his papers" while fleeing police, Roman says that Niko does not have a visa. This is further evidenced in a Liberty Tree article about the death of the Platypus's captain, Zorba Philippidis, which states that none of the crew possess visas.
If Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend is played after Pest Control, Niko tells Packie that he intends to go after Ray Bulgarin, although Ray would be killed by Luis Lopez.
Life Post-GTA IV
This article, or parts of it, are Speculation and may not turn out to be correct.
If Niko chooses to do the deal with Dimitri, Niko likely gives up his life of crime and stays close to his friends as they are there for him. Also, Niko says to Mallorie that her child will need not to worry about being fatherless, hinting Niko will help take care of her child and assume a fatherly role.
If Niko chooses to seek Revenge on Dimitri, Niko's possible love interest, Kate is killed though he is still able to have an date such as Alexandra Chilton, Carmen Ortiz or Kiki Jenkins and keep in contact with his cousin and friends. He most likely gives up his life of crime and tries to live a normal one with Roman, as is hinted by the comments made about him in Grand Theft Auto V.
Grand Theft Auto V
- "There was a, an eastern European guy making moves in Liberty City, but... nah, he went quiet."
- ―Lester Crest to Michael De Santa about Niko.
Not much is known about Niko's life during the events of Grand Theft Auto V. It is hinted that he has completely given up a life of crime, and has now retired. While setting up for the first heist, Lester Crest mentioned to Michael De Santa that he knew "an Eastern European guy making moves in Liberty City", but dismissed the idea as "he went quiet". This would hint that he'd continued his life as a career criminal for a few more years before leaving it, especially if he was able to gain such notoriety as recently as of 2013.
Later while on a heist, if Packie was chosen for the job, he begins talking about his most successful job in Liberty City, and then mentions Niko, revealing that he doesn't even know what became of him, and that he is "probably dead". It is possible though that Niko has cut all ties to his previous criminal lifestyle and is retired.
If Michael survives the game, one potential scenario in his house sees his family gathered around the dining room table. Jimmy, Michael's son, is viewing a Lifeinvader page on a laptop. By using a camera to zoom in, the page is revealed to be that of Niko Bellic, complete with an image of the character. He now lives in Broker, still working as a taxi driver for Bellic Cab Service, and still in contact with Mallorie Bardas, Little Jacob, and Brucie Kibbutz who all liked his latest status, and a Happy Birthday note for Roman which was posted recently. Either the Revenge ending was the canonical ending of GTA IV, or this was simply an easter egg.
A wanted poster for Niko can be seen on the porch of a house just west of Sandy Shores. This, with his Lifeinvader activity, leaves the possibility that Niko may still be alive.
During the "Got Your Back" private taxi fare, an Emperor sedan may spawn with the license plate "NIKOB".
Niko has brown hair and hazel eyes. He has facial hair that resembles a "scruffy" looking 5 o'clock shadow, which fits his 'thug' appearance very well. Niko isn't as heavily muscled as Luis or Johnny and he's more slender than both of them. Still, Niko has enough physical strength to hold his own in a fistfight and he's capable of pulling himself up on a ledge after hanging by his straight arms. Several characters throughout the story call Niko "big guy" or "big man", which likely means that he is of tall stature and/or heavy build. Niko has a scar running through his left brow. He most likely got the scar during the war, however, this has not been confirmed. Niko's body is of 'average' build, but characters like Bernie Crane mention that "Niko is still in great shape." Later, Bernie asks if Niko works out, to which Niko answers he doesn't work out but his dangerous lifestyle keeps him active. People consider him to be "above average" build despite his slender appearance.
In artworks and earlier screenshots, Niko had often been seen wearing finger-less gloves. The files still remain in the PC version and can only be used with an in-game trainer. Obtaining them in the game without modding is impossible. The reason why they have been removed from the final version of the game is unknown, but it is likely due to the fact that they are not very inconspicuous.
In early beta versions of GTA IV, Niko had slightly thicker hair and sometimes he can be seen with a buzz cut, neither of which appear in GTA IV, but still exist in the game files.
Personality and traits
- Niko: "I'm not cold."
- Roman: "You're cold... all you care about is revenge and getting your own way."
- ―Roman giving his opinion on Niko.
Niko is very protective of his family and loved ones, particularly his cousin Roman, whom Niko constantly has to worry about due to his gambling habit. Roman has an indiscrete nature of frequently getting the pair into trouble. He is withdrawn among strangers, but has good manners, and shows a softer side with love interests like Kate McReary and Michelle. That said, the horrors of war, both witnessed and perpetrated by Niko, have given him a great sense of guilt, and an ambivalence about the value of human life — he warns away pursuers and expresses regret over his past violence, but also feels that killing is all that he can do, readily taking on jobs which necessarily involve murder. Niko is prone to violence after being angered and he has an explosive temper when he is betrayed, manipulated, or his loyalty is questioned, but he is also quick to help the defenseless and unfortunate, even those he merely meets in passing; he apparently possesses a sense of idealism which was wounded by his wartime experiences. Unfortunately, such a split attitude leads to hypocrisy — Niko, for example, appears to genuinely sympathize with the McRearys' grief over the demise of one of their brothers (either Derrick McReary or Francis McReary), despite having secretly committed that murder himself. This makes it highly possible that Niko is a pessimist.
Niko's bitterness at the murder of his friends during the war has consumed him, and he is unable to let it go, taking on several highly dangerous jobs merely to enable his quest for vengeance. Several of his friends, most notably Roman, urge him to find a new reason to live, and there are many morality choices for Niko to emphasize his trait.
Niko's business-like manner usually leads him to behave more maturely and cautiously than his acquaintances, although with acquaintances like Brucie Kibbutz, Bernie Crane and Roman, this is no surprise. He has an apparent distaste for illegal drugs, much like Carl Johnson and Victor Vance. He frequently turns down Little Jacob's offers for marijuana and warns Packie about his cocaine habit. He also finds it distasteful to traffic in cocaine and particularly heroin, although this may be due to the heavy jail sentences they attract as much as any moral qualms. He is skeptical of American mainstream culture, which he sees as "shallow" and "hypocritical" and has trouble relating to Roman's fascination with the country. However, he reasons that being in America is far better than back in Serbia due to the country's instability and misery.
Niko also exhibits dislike for American conservative politicians, whom he considers to be hypocrites. An example is Bryce Dawkins, whom Niko says is a "bullshitter" for giving homophobic speeches and preaching about family values to gain political power when he himself is bisexual. However, a conversation between Niko and Kiki Jenkins reveals he considers himself neither liberal nor conservative, and that the war gave him a highly cynical view of politicians in general.
Niko has a certain degree of empathy for other people, even random strangers, and feels obliged to help others who cannot help themselves. Most missions involve Niko doing jobs for money, particularly one occasion. After meeting a troubled young girl, Marnie Allen, he even gives her some of his own money multiple times to help her out. He is also surprisingly calm when speaking to authority figures, even those as powerful as Francis McReary, who he simply asks for more money from, much to the disappointment and frustration of McReary. He is usually never emotionally disturbed by anyone besides figures from his past, such as Darko Brevic. If Niko kills Brevic, Niko will hesitate for a moment before unloading 12 shots (one for every member of Niko's army unit who was killed) into Brevic's body uncontrollably, even after Brevic's death after about the sixth shot. The only other figure that has visibly disturbed Niko is Eddie Low, who Niko is understandably creeped out by. This can even horrify the player to an extent, such as when Low makes comments about all the people he has murdered in gruesome ways, or Low's clinginess towards Niko for being his 'friend'. During his encounters with Low, Niko's eyebrows are raised and his mouth is open in disbelief. Otherwise, Niko's face is usually very serious.
Niko almost always refuses alcohol when it is offered to him (he asks for water in the mission Ivan The Not So Terrible) except for the mission The Holland Play where Playboy X pours him a glass. Niko goes to drink it, but changes his mind and puts the glass on a table. There is a scene where Niko does drink a glass of vodka (on the rocks) in the mission One Last Thing, while talking to Jimmy Pegorino, but this is understandable considering what he had just been through. Niko does seem to enjoy a drink, but knows the time and place for it. He refuses alcohol outright in instances where he needs to keep a sharp mind, such as during missions.
Without the player's control, Niko will never hit female pedestrians. For example, when Niko carjacks someone, the animation can sometimes see him punch or kick the occupant of the car, but he only does this to male drivers. If the driver is female, Niko will just pull her out of the car and not harm her.
LCPD Database record
Naming, errors and languageThe name "Niko" means nobody or nothing in the Serbo-Croatian language. The surname "Bellic" would not exist in that language, as it does not allow consecutive consonants (i.e., the double-L in "Bellic"); "Bellic" is also pronounced with a hard 'c' (/bel-lik/) throughout the game — Niko himself uses the incorrect pronunciation when introducing himself to the receptionist at Goldberg, Ligner and Shyster in the mission Final Interview. A proper pronunciation would use a hard 'ch' (/belich/, as used in-game with the names "Darko Brevic" and "Florian Cravic"); a more authentic rendering of Niko's surname would be 'Belic'. At one point, Florian, speaking in his native Serbo-Croatian, pronounces the name correctly; "Bellic" may simply be an Anglicised version of "Belic". Going by that custom, Niko's real name may be Nikola Belić. The surname "Bellic" is likely derived from Russian rather than Serbian, which is incorrect.
The first name "Niko" is distinctively of Croatian origin rather than Serbian, the latter one preferring the name "Nikola". In the mission Final Interview, Tom Goldberg refers to Niko as "Nikolai", although this is an assumption on his part — he begins their interview by saying, "Hello, Niko! What's that short for? Nikolai?" Niko does not respond and no one else calls him "Nikolai" in the game.
Niko's voice actor, Michael Hollick, is American, and the accent he assumes for Niko is not a Serbian one; Niko's spoken Serbo-Croatian is frequently mispronounced or wrongly emphasised.
Additionally, Niko's mother writes in a language similar to Serbo-Croatian.
In Other Media
Initial InspirationNiko appears to be visually inspired by Sasha from the 2001 movie Behind Enemy Lines, which takes place in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the war. Sasha's clothes are even available to buy in the Russian Shop.
Sasha's actor Vladimir Mashkov later confirmed in an interview that he was asked to play "a man with a dark past, with a slightly rumpled appearance" in an unnamed video game, whose producers liked his performance as Sasha. Given few details about what he was being asked to do or what for, Mashkov thought it was a questionable proposal and not very interesting, and he turned it down. Only later did he learn that the game was GTA IV.
Niko was voted 13th in the 2011 edition of the Guinness World Records for the Top 50 favorite game characters. His name was incorrectly spelled "Nico Bellic."
Grand Theft Auto Online
Niko Bellic is available as a special parent, used in creating the player's custom character, alongside Misty, Claude and John Marston from Red Dead Redemption.
Grand Theft Auto IV
- As the protagonist, he appears in all missions.
The Lost and Damned
- Clean and Serene
- Buyer's Market
- Collector's Item
- Knowing Me, Knowing You (Voice; Optional)
- Credits
The Ballad of Gay Tony
GTA Online
- The player can choose Niko Bellic as a parent in Grand Theft Auto Online if they purchased the Collectors Edition or transferred their GTA Online progress to a next-gen console.
Characters murdered by Niko Bellic
Main Article: Murders Committed by Niko Bellic
Heinous crimes committed by Niko Bellic
- Blowing up Kenny Petrovic's garage
- Doing a deal with Johnny Klebitz and Playboy X
- Stealing coke from the Old Hospital on Colony Island
- Robbing a bank in Chinatown
- Murdering Tom Goldberg
- Murdering Tony Spoleto and many other Ancelotti family members via car bomb
- Smuggling fake notes into the country
- Breaking Aiden o' Malley out of prison and later killing him
- Murdering Derrick McReary or Francis McReary
- Murdering four union leaders of a construction site in Castle Gardens
- Assaulting the Triangle Club and killing the Trunchez Brothers
- Rescuing Roman Bellic from the Russian Mafia
- Murdering Eduard Borodin
- Killing Isaac Roth and many of his allies
- Murdering three of Dimitri Rascalov's henchmen on a speed boat chase
- Killing Charles Matteo, many of his Russian bodyguards and blowing up the Old Sprunk Factory
- Escaping from a police sting operation set up by the FIB and the LCPD
- Murdering Kim-Young Guk
Other Crimes Committed (player-determinant)
- Grand Theft Auto
- Carjacking
- Manslaughter
- Resisting Arrest
- Robbery
- Burglary
- Mass Homicide
- Violating Gun Control laws
- Looting
- Dangerous Driving
- Driving under the Influence
- Assault
Grand Theft Auto IV Artwork
Grand Theft Auto IV Screenshots
Grand Theft Auto V
Character trailer
- Niko is referenced in an episode of the TV Series Criminal Minds. In the episode, a missing child is reported as being named "Niko Bellic". The senior agent Rossi immediately catches on: "Niko Bellic is the name of the main character of Grand Theft Auto IV". His co-workers stare at him in disbelief, to which he replies, "What? I know things".
- Niko has unique quotes for when failing missions. He will say things like "Fuck, Fuck, Fuck!" or "Roman, I should have never read your fucking emails and stayed away!". Based on some of his comments, Niko seems to blame the country for failing missions.
- According to some dialogue, many characters think Niko is a sociopath. This however was not proven, but it is debatable because of how Niko -- at least until his phone call with Roman after Pest Control -- seems to show no remorse whatsoever for all his murders. This is most likely untrue as Niko is shown to have a firm grasp of right and wrong pertaining to some of his more morally questionable actions. It is much more likely that Niko is indifferent to bloodshed given his violent upbringing.
- Niko had a childhood crush on a girl from his village, named Mila Tadic. Roman will confirm this during friend activities.
- Vladimir Glebov calls Niko "yokel" multiple times in the game. Yokel is a slang term for people who grow up in rural areas.
- Niko was a reckless driver before he even left his home country, as Roman comments that he is still a crazy driver. When destroying Roman's cab during Easy Fare, Roman will joke on how Niko always blows up normal cars but doesn't crash "the tanks from back home".
- In a conversation with Manny Escuela during Escuela of the Streets, he claims that he stalked a woman in Europe (and knows the right distance to keep behind the target vehicle). The reason for this is never stated, but he could've been joking.
- One of Niko's girlfriends, Alexandra Chilton, frequently reveals on her blog that Niko has a very large penis, comments refer to his "bulging package" and how "well-hung" he is. After Niko sleeps with her for the first time, she writes on her blog that she is to discuss this with her friends, Heidi and Paige. Alex also comments that he can be rough and kinky, including a session where he "bullfrogged" her over a washing machine, which she recorded and spanked her with a frying pan, among others. She also writes how she once had to steam clean her whole flat after he left. Alex wonders if all Europeans are like that, which also ties in with Niko's cousin, Roman, and his attitude towards sex, as someone is often on the prowl for young college girls.
- Niko is seen a couple times on the commercial for VIP Luxury Ringtones. As he is seen wearing a yellow Perseus jacket, the Russian cap from the Russian Shop, and a pair of white sunglasses, which never made it into the game.
- Apparently Niko was arrested in 2008 for Grand Theft Auto, this is a nod to when GTA IV was released and obviously a nod to the title of the series.
- His file will remain in the database even if the player goes the whole game without getting arrested at all.
- In GTA V, one can find a wanted poster for Niko on a table near a trailer in the Grand Senora Desert.
- Niko's favorite radio stations are Liberty Rock Radio and Vladivostok FM. Niko also will comment on any radio station the player choose while in a taxi, saying it's great music. Niko also mentions that he "likes rap a bit", but is not a "crazy fan" during Pathos' random encoutner. During friendship activities with Little Jacob, Niko mentions that "this city has some powerful music", and tells Jacob that he likes Bobby Konders, the DJ on Massive B Soundystem. However, Niko's favorite station will ultimately be down to the player.
- After stealing money from the cash registers found in various places around Liberty City, there will be a delay before Niko says something like "forgive me" for stealing the cash.
- In GTA V, inside the Yellow Jack Inn, one can find a picture that appears to be Niko driving a Tow Truck.
- Niko is the most combat trained protagonist of the entire series at the start of a game.
- In GTA V, a homeless man can be found holding a sign that begs for money and it says that "some Serbian men" robbed him, this could be a reference to Niko.
- The surname Belić is derived from the word "belo", which means "white" in the Serbo-Croatian languages; if Niko's name is directly translated into English, it would be "Nicholas White".
- Lester Crest's mention of Niko "going quiet" could be a reference to Niko's voice actor Michael Hollick's dispute with Rockstar Games, which likely means he will never do the voice of Niko again.


text:
Organisation Wiki
More and more organisations take action on cybercrime.
It is essential that organisations cooperate to make best possible use of resources available. International organisations are therefore invited to complete a fiche through which they share their approach on cybercrime, resources and tools.
To update/edit information on an organisation fiche please click on the title of the organisation and then edit.
To add an organisation wiki, please select "add organisation" below.
Council of Europe
The Council of Europe is based in Strasbourg, France, and comprises 47 member States. The primary objectives are to promote human rights, democracy and the rule of law.
Website: www.coe.int
Web Content Display Web Content Display
- Cybercrime website
- Homepage
- Contact form
- Template: Mutual Legal Assistance Request for subscriber information (Art. 31 Budapest Convention). Available in Albanian, Bosnian,
Macedonian, Montenegrin,
Serbian and Turkish
- Template: Data Preservation Request (Articles 29 and 30 Budapest Convention). Available in Albanian, Bosnian,
Macedonian, Montenegrin,
Serbian and Turkish


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Other Proposed Natural Treatments
- Acupuncture
- Alanine
- Antioxidant Vitamins
- Arginine
- Branched-chain Amino Acids (BCAAs)
- Caffeine
- Carnitine
- Chromium
- Citrulline
- Ciwujia
- Coenzyme Q 10
- Cordyceps
- Cystoseira canariensis
- Deer Antler
- Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)
- Dihydroxyacetone Pyruvate (DHAP)
- Galactose
- Gamma Oryzanol
- Ginseng
- Glutamine
- Guarana
- Human Growth Hormone Enhancers
- Inosine
- Iron
- Lipoic Acid
- Low Glycemic Index Diet
- Magnesium
- Ma Huang (Ephedra)
- Medium-Chain Triglycerides (MCTs)
- Methoxyisoflavone
- Multivitamin
- Policosanol
- Ornithine Alpha-Ketoglutarate (OKG)
- Panax notoginseng
- Pantothenic Acid/Pantethine
- Phosphate
- Phosphatidylserine
- Rhodiola rosea
- Ribose
- Schisandra
- Suma
- Tribulus terrestris
- Whey Protein
Herbs and Supplements to Use Only With Caution
In the competitive world of sports, the smallest advantage can make an enormous difference in the outcome of a contest. A substance that improves an athlete's strength, speed, or endurance is called an ergogenic aid.
The most effective ergogenic aids are both dangerous and illegal: stimulants, anabolic steroids, and human growth hormone. Numerous natural options are marketed as alternatives. In this article, we explore the many supplements used in the hopes of improving sports performance.
For additional sports-related articles, see Sports and Fitness Support: Enhancing Recovery and Sports Injuries .
Principal Proposed Natural Treatments
Two natural supplements have shown meaningful promise as ergogenic aids: creatine and HMB .
Creatine, one of the best-selling and best-documented supplements for enhancing athletic performance, is a naturally occurring substance that plays an important role in the production of energy in the body. The body converts creatine to phosphocreatine, a form of stored energy used by muscles. In theory, taking supplemental creatine will build up a reserve of phosphocreatine in the muscles to help them perform on demand. Supplemental creatine may also help the body make new phosphocreatine faster when it has been used up by intense activity.
However, the balance of current evidence suggests that that if creatine supplements have any benefit for sports performance, it is slight and limited to highly specific forms of exercise.
Several small double-blind studies have found that creatine can improve performance in exercises that involve repeated short bursts of high-intensity activity with intervening rest periods of adequate length.
For example, a double-blind, placebo-controlled study investigated creatine and swimming performance in 18 men and 14 women. 1 Men taking the supplement had significant increases in speed when doing six bouts of 50-meter swims started at 3-minute intervals, compared to men taking placebo. However, their speed did not improve when swimming 10 sets of 25-yard lengths started at 1-minute intervals. Researchers theorize that the shorter rest time between laps was not enough for the swimmers' bodies to resynthesize phosphocreatine.
Interestingly, none of the women enrolled in the study showed any improvement with the creatine supplement. The authors of this study noted that women normally have more creatine in their muscle tissue than men do, so perhaps creatine supplementation (at least at this level) is not of benefit to women, as it appears to be for men. Further research is needed to fully understand the difference between the genders in response to creatine.
In an earlier double-blind study, 16 physical education students carried out ten 6-second bursts of extremely intense exercise on a stationary bicycle, separated by 30 seconds of rest. 2 The results showed that the students who took 20 g of creatine for 6 days were better able to maintain cycle speed throughout the repetitions. Many other studies showed similar improvements in performance capacity involving repeated bursts of action. 2-4 However, there have been negative results as well; in general, minimal to no benefits have been seen in studies involving athletes engaged in normal sports rather than contrived laboratory tests. 2-7,143-146
In contrast, studies of endurance or nonrepetitive aerobic burst exercise generally have not shown benefits from creatine supplementation. 6,8-11,147-148 Therefore, creatine probably will not help you with marathon running or single sprints.
Besides repetitive burst exercise, creatine has also shown promise for increasing isometric exercise capacity (pushing against a fixed resistance), in some, but not all studies. 4,12-13,149-151 In addition, two double-blind, placebo-controlled studies, each lasting 28 days, provide some evidence that creatine as well as creatine plus hydroxymethyl butyrate (HMB) (see below) can increase lean muscle and bone mass. 14 However, one double-blind trial failed to find creatine helpful for enhancing general fitness, including resistance exercise performance, in male seniors. 125
The contradictory results seen in these small trials suggest that creatine offers at most a very modest sports performance benefit. For more information, including dosage and safety issues, see the full Creatine article.
Hydroxymethyl Butyrate
Technically beta-hydroxy beta-methylbutyric acid, HMB is a chemical that occurs naturally in the body when the amino acid leucine breaks down. Leucine is found in particularly high concentrations in muscles. During athletic training, damage to the muscles leads to the breakdown of leucine as well as increased HMB levels. Some evidence suggests that taking HMB supplements might signal the body to slow down the destruction of muscle tissue. 15 On this basis, HMB has been studied as a sports performance supplement for enhancing strength and muscle mass.
According to many (but not all) of the small double-blind trials that have been reported, HMB appears to improve muscle-growth response to weight training. 14-20
For example, in a controlled study, 41 male volunteers aged 19 to 29 were given either 0, 1.5, or 3 g of HMB daily for 3 weeks. 17 The participants also lifted weights 3 days a week according to a defined (rather severe) schedule. The results suggested that HMB can enhance strength and muscle mass in direct proportion to intake.
In another controlled study reported in the same article, 32 male volunteers took either 3 g of HMB or placebo daily, and then lifted weights for 2 or 3 hours daily, 6 days a week for 7 weeks. The HMB group saw a significantly greater increase in bench-press strength than the placebo group. However, there was no significant difference in body weight or fat mass by the end of the study.
Similarly, a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 39 men and 36 women found that over 4 weeks, HMB supplementation improved response to weight training. 19
Two placebo-controlled studies of women found that 3 g of HMB had no effect on lean body mass and strength in sedentary women, but it did provide an additional benefit when combined with weight training. 18 In addition, a double-blind study of 31 men and women, all 70 years old and undergoing resistance training, found significant improvements in fat-free mass attributable to the use of HMB (3 g daily). 21
However, there have been negative studies as well. 14,20,22
All of these studies were small and therefore, their results are ultimately not terribly reliable. Larger studies will be necessary to truly establish whether HMB is helpful for power athletes working to enhance strength and muscle mass.
For more information, including dosage and safety issues, see the full HMB article.
Other Proposed Natural Treatments
Numerous other supplements are marketed as ergogenic aids, said to improve speed, strength, or endurance. Unfortunately, the evidence that they work is marginal at best, and in many cases the best available evidence indicates that these substances are not effective.
There are three different herbs commonly called ginseng : Asian or Korean ginseng ( Panax ginseng ), American ginseng ( Panax quinquefolius ), and Siberian "ginseng" ( Eleutherococcus senticosus ). The latter is actually not ginseng at all, but the Russian scientists responsible for promoting it believe that it functions identically. According to some experts, a fourth herb, ciwujia, is actually Eleutherococcus , while others claim it is a related but different species.
Panax ginseng has shown some promise as a mild ergogenic aid, but published evidence remains at best incomplete and contradictory. Other forms of ginseng generally lack any meaningful supporting evidence.
For example, an 8-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial evaluated the effects of Panax ginseng with and without exercise in 41 people. 24 The participants were given either ginseng or placebo, and then underwent exercise training or remained untrained throughout the study. The results showed that ginseng improved aerobic capacity in people who did not exercise, but offered no benefit in those who did exercise.
In a 9-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 30 highly trained athletes, treatment with Panax ginseng or Panax ginseng plus vitamin E produced significant improvements in aerobic capacity. 25 Another double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 37 participants also found some benefit. 26 Also, a double-blind, placebo-controlled study of 120 people found that ginseng gradually improved reaction time and lung function over a 12-week treatment period among participants from 40 to 60 years old. 27 (No benefits were seen in younger people.)
On the other hand, in an 8-week, double-blind trial that followed 60 healthy men in their 20s, no benefit with Panax ginseng could be demonstrated. 179 Many other small trials of Panax ginseng have failed to find evidence of benefit. 28-36,126
These mixed outcomes suggest that Panax ginseng is only slightly effective at best.
A double-blind study of 20 endurance athletes over an 8-week period failed to find evidence of benefit with a standard eleutherococcus formulation. 37 Lack of benefit was also seen in another small double-blind crossover trial. 38 Furthermore, in a small double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of endurance athletes, use of eleutherococcus actually increased physiologic signs of stress during intensive training. 36 Ciwujia has not yet been studied in meaningful double-blind trials.
For more information, including dosage and safety issues, see the full Ginseng and Eleutherococcus articles.
Medium-chain Triglycerides
Medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) are fats with an unusual chemical structure that allows the body to digest them easily. Most fats are broken down in the intestine and reassembled into a special form that can be transported in the blood. However, MCTs are absorbed intact and taken to the liver, where they are used directly for energy. In this sense, they are processed very similarly to carbohydrates. For that reason, MCTs have been proposed as an alternative to "carbo-loading" (consumption of a large quantity of carbohydrates prior to intense physical exercise) for providing a concentrated source of easily utilized energy.
A number of double-blind studies have evaluated MCTs' effects on high-intensity or endurance exercise performance, but the results have been thoroughly inconsistent. 39-44 This is not surprising because all of the studies were too small to properly eliminate the effects of chance.
For more information, including dosage and safety issues, see the full MCTs article.
The majority of athletes are probably not iron-deficient, and you should not take iron supplements if you already have enough iron in your body. However, if you are deficient in this essential mineral, iron supplements may enhance athletic training.
A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 42 nonanemic women with evidence of slightly low iron reserves found that iron supplements significantly increased the benefits gained from exercise. 45 Participants were put on a daily aerobic training program for the latter 4 weeks of this 6-week trial. At the end of the trial, those receiving iron showed significantly greater gains in speed and endurance than those given placebo.
In addition, a double-blind, placebo-controlled study of 40 nonanemic elite athletes with mildly low iron stores found that 12 weeks of iron supplementation enhanced aerobic performance. 46
Benefits with iron supplementation for marginally iron-depleted athletes were observed in other double-blind trials as well. 127,128 However, several other studies failed to find significant improvements. 129-131 These contradictory results suggest that the benefits of iron supplements for nonanemic, iron-deficient athletes is small at most.
For more information, including dosage and safety issues, see the full Iron article.
Colostrum is the fluid that new mothers' breasts produce during the first day or two after birth. Colostrum contains growth factors, such as IGF-1, that could enhance muscle development, and on this basis, it has been tried as a sports supplement.
An 8-week, double-blind study found that use of colostrum enhanced sprinting performance. 132 Other double-blind studies found improvements in rowing performance and vertical jump, respectively. 133
In addition, a small double-blind study found that colostrum, as compared to whey protein, increased lean mass in healthy men and women undergoing aerobic and resistance training. 47 However, no improvements in performance were seen in this trial.
Finally, in a double-blind, placebo-controlled study, use of colostrum over an 8-week training period did not improve performance on an exercise-to-exhaustion test; however, it did improve performance on a repeat bout 20 minutes later. 48
Interestingly, research suggests that the growth factor IGF-1 in colostrum is not directly absorbed into the body, 134 yet consumption of colostrum nonetheless increases IGF-1 levels in the blood, perhaps by stimulating its natural release. 134,135
For more information, including dosage and safety issues, see the full Colostrum article.
Pyruvate , also called dihydroxyacetone pyruvate (DHAP), supplies the body with pyruvic acid, a natural compound that plays important roles in the manufacture and use of energy. Pyruvate supplements have become popular with bodybuilders and other athletes based on slim evidence that pyruvate can improve body composition. 49-52 However, at the present time, the evidence regarding pyruvate as an ergogenic aid is weak and contradictory at best. 53-56 One study failed to find that pyruvate supplements improved body composition or exercise performance; furthermore, pyruvate appeared to negate the beneficial effect of exercise on cholesterol profile . 152
For more information, including dosage and safety issues, see the full Pyruvate article.
Policosanol is a mixture of waxy substances manufactured from sugarcane. It contains octacosanol, which is also made from wheat germ oil. Both are marketed as performance-enhancing dietary supplements said to increase muscle strength and endurance and improve reaction time and stamina. However, the only evidence for policosanol as a performance enhancer comes from one small double-blind trial with marginal results. 57
Phosphatidylserine (PS) is a phospholipid and a major component of cell membranes. Good evidence suggests that PS can improve mental function, especially in the elderly. However, PS has also been marketed as a sports supplement, said to help bodybuilders and power athletes develop larger and stronger muscles.
This claim is based on modest evidence indicating that PS slows the release of cortisol following heavy exercise. 58-60 Cortisol is a hormone that causes muscle tissue to break down. For reasons that are unclear, the body produces increased levels of cortisol after heavy exercise. Strength athletes who believe natural cortisol release works against their efforts to rapidly build muscle mass hope that PS will help them advance more quickly. However, only two double-blind, placebo-controlled studies of PS as a sports supplement have been reported, and neither one found effects on cortisol levels. Of these small trials, one found a possible ergogenic benefit, and the other did not. 153-154
Another study evaluated use of phosphatidylserine for improving the performance of golfers. 184 While improvement in perceived stress levels failed to reach statistical significance , participants who were given phosphatidylserine did tee-off successfully at a greater rate than those given placebo.
For more information, including dosage and safety issues, see the full Phosphatidylserine article.
Branched-chain Amino Acids: Leucine, Isoleucine, and Valine
Amino acids are molecules that form proteins when joined together. Three of them—leucine, isoleucine, and valine—are called branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) , describing the shape of the molecules. Muscles have a particularly high BCAA content.
Both strength training and endurance exercise use greater amounts of BCAAs than normal daily activities, 61 perhaps increasing an athlete's need for dietary intake of these amino acids. Sports such as mountaineering and skiing may cause even greater depletion of BCAAs because of metabolic changes that occur at higher altitudes. Athletes have tried BCAA supplements to build muscle, improve performance, postpone fatigue, and cure overtraining syndrome (prolonged fatigue and other symptoms caused by excessive exercise). However, most of the evidence suggests that BCAAs are not helpful for these purposes. 62-69,155
Whey protein is rich in BCAAs, and on this basis, it has also been proposed as a bodybuilding aid. However, there is little evidence that whey protein is more effective for this purpose than any other protein. One small double-blind study found evidence that both casein and whey protein were more effective than placebo at promoting muscle growth after exercise, but whey was no more effective than the far less expensive casein. 156 Another study failed to find benefits with combined whey and soy protein supplementation. 174 However, a single small study did find ergogenic benefits with whey as compared to casein. 175
For more information, including dosage and safety issues, see the full Branched-chain Amino Acids article.
Other Amino Acids
Besides BCAAs, athletes use a number of other amino acids, sometimes individually and sometimes in combination. Amino acids believed by some to have ergogenic effects include arginine , glutamine , and ornithine (ornithine and glutamine combined form ornithine alpha-ketoglutarate , or OKG), as well as the branched-chain amino acids leucine, isoleucine, and valine, discussed above.
However, evidence supporting the use of amino acids as ergogenic aids is sparse to nonexistent. The few clinical trials performed generally do not show positive results. 69,70-72
Carnitine , a substance closely related to amino acids, is used by the body to convert fat into energy. Even though the body can manufacture all it needs, supplemental carnitine could, in theory, improve the ability of certain tissues to produce energy, leading to its promotion as a sports performance enhancer. To date, however, there is no meaningful evidence that this is the case. 187
The mineral chromium has been sold as a "fat burner" and is also said to help build muscle tissue. However, studies evaluating its benefits as a performance enhancer or an aid to bodybuilding have yielded almost entirely negative results. 73-82
Coenzyme Q 10
Coenzyme Q 10 (CoQ 10 ubiquinone) is a natural substance that plays a fundamental role in the mitochondria, the parts of the cell that produce energy from food. On this basis, CoQ 10 has been proposed as a performance enhancer for athletes. However, most clinical trials have found no significant improvement with CoQ 10 . 83-89,157
For more information, including dosage and safety issues, see the full Coenzyme Q 10 article.
Inosine is an important chemical found throughout the body. It plays many roles, one of which is helping to make ATP, the body's main form of usable energy. Based primarily on this fact, inosine supplements have been proposed as an energy booster for athletes. However, most of the available evidence suggests that it does not work. 90-94
For more information, including dosage and safety issues, see the full Inosine article.
Ribose is a carbohydrate that is also vital for the manufacture of ATP. Ribose has shown some promise for improving exercise capacity in people with certain enzyme deficiencies and other rare conditions that cause muscle pain during exertion. 95,96 On this basis, it has been touted as an athletic performance enhancer; however, six small double-blind, placebo-controlled trials in humans failed to find any benefit. 97,136-137,158-159,173 In one of these studies, dextrose (a form of ordinary sugar), proved effective while ribose did not. 160
For more information, including dosage and safety issues, see the full Ribose article.
Gamma Oryzanol
Very preliminary evidence suggests that gamma oryzanol , a substance derived from rice bran oil, may increase endorphin release and aid muscle development. 98,99 These findings have created interest in using gamma oryzanol as a sports supplement. However, a 9-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 22 weight-trained males found no difference between placebo or 500 mg daily of gamma oryzanol in terms of performance, body composition, or hormone levels. 100
For more information, including dosage and safety issues, see the full Gamma Oryzanol article.
Trimethylglycine (TMG) is a naturally occurring compound that may help to prevent atherosclerosis and is, therefore, sometimes taken as a supplement. In the course of its metabolism in the body, TMG is turned into another substance, dimethylglycine (DMG).
In Russia, DMG is used extensively as an athletic performance enhancer, and it has recently become popular among American athletes. TMG is cheaper, and it may have the same effects as DMG as it changes into DMG in the body. However, there is no evidence that DMG is effective, and some evidence that it is not. 101
For more information, including dosage and safety issues, see the full Trimethylglycine article.
Athletes have used DHEA on the belief that (like phosphatidylserine) it might limit the body's response to cortisol and thereby cause an increase in muscle tissue growth. However, study results have conflicted on whether or not DHEA really interferes with cortisol. 106,107 Furthermore, studies of DHEA as an aid to increasing muscle mass or enhancing sports performance have produced mixed results at best. 108-110,161,182
For more information, including dosage and safety issues, see the full DHEA article.
Tribulus Terrestris
Tribulus terrestris is a tropical plant with a long history of medicinal use. It has been tried for low libido in both men and women, and for impotence and female infertility.
One theory regarding how T. terrestris might help with sexual problems is that a component from the plant called protodioscine is converted to the hormone DHEA in our bodies. 102 DHEA is used by the body as a building block for both testosterone and estrogen (as well as other hormones). This finding has led bodybuilders and strength athletes to try T. terrestris for increasing muscular development. So far, however, the scientific evidence seems to be against it. This is not surprising because DHEA itself has not been found effective as a sports supplement.
One study involving 15 men compared the effects of T. terrestris (3.21 mg per kilogram of body weight—for example, 292 mg daily for a 200-pound man) against placebo on body composition and endurance among men engaged in resistance training. 103 At the end of the 8-week study, the only significant difference between the treatment and placebo groups was that the placebo group showed greater gains in endurance.
Another double-blind, placebo-controlled study, which enrolled 22 athletes and followed them for five weeks, failed to find benefit. 178 The dose used in this trial was fixed at 450 mg daily for all participants.
For more information, including dosage and safety issues, see the full Tribulus terrestris article.
Because phosphate plays a fundamental role in the body's energy-producing pathways, it has been suggested that taking high doses of phosphate (phosphate loading) prior to athletic activities might enhance performance. Phosphate-containing chemicals are also part of the process that allows oxygen release from hemoglobin, and this too has intrigued researchers looking for ergogenic aids. However, while some studies have found that phosphate loading improves maximum oxygen utilization, others have not. Flaws in study design cast doubt on the positive results. 104,105,171,172
For more information, including dosage and safety issues, see the full Phosphorus article.
Commercial Preparations
A small double-blind study of a mixture of various herbs and supplements marketed as SPORT® found no evidence that it can improve sports performance in trained athletes. 111
Stimulants: Ma Huang and Caffeine
A number of plant-derived stimulants are used by some athletes to improve their performance, including ephedrine from the Chinese herb ma huang (also called ephedra) and caffeine from coffee, tea, maté , cola, or guarana (a plant native to South America). Both ephedrine and caffeine are central nervous system stimulants. Caffeine also appears to change the way your body burns calories, possibly allowing it to burn fats first and preserve muscle glycogen for later in the competition—sort of like "saving the best for last." 112
Caffeine does appear to improve performance during endurance-type exercises. 112
Note: The International Olympic Committee has set a tolerance limit for caffeine in the urine at 12 mcg/ml. If you are competing in a sport that follows similar regulations, you may want to have a cup of coffee or tea, but do not drink the whole pot.
Ephedrine's value in enhancing sports performance has not been established; at the same time, there are serious safety issues associated with its use. 138 (See the Safety Issues section in the full article on Ephedra .) Some sports federations have determined that specific amounts of ephedrine in an athlete's system are grounds for disqualification.
One small double-blind trial found that use of the herb Rhodiola rosea improved endurance exercise performance. 162 However, another study failed to find benefit with a combination of cordyceps and rhodiola. 163
A variety of antioxidants have been proposed for enhancing recovery after heavy exercise . One study found weak evidence that a combination of vitamin E (400 mg daily) and vitamin C (1,000 mg daily) taken for 3 weeks can improve aerobic performance. 185
Heavy exercise causes increased calcium loss through sweat, and the the body does not compensate for this by reducing calcium loss in the urine. 180 The result can be a net calcium loss great enough so that it presents health concerns for menopausal women, who are already at risk for osteoporosis. One study found that use of an inexpensive calcium supplement (calcium carbonate), taken at a dose of 400 mg twice daily, is sufficient to offset this loss. 180
A small study found endurance exercise benefits with the herb Panax notoginseng . 164
One small trial suggests that acupuncture may enhance peak performance capacity. 139 Weak evidence hints that arachidonic acid supplements might enhance response to resistance training. 183
Use of a low-glycemic-index snack three hours prior to endurance running may be more helpful than a high-glycemic index (carbohydrate) snack. 176 However, another study failed to find benefit. 177
Galactose is a type of sugar that the body combines with glucose to create lactose ("milk sugar"). For various theoretical reasons, it has been hypothesized that use of galactose might enhance endurance exercise performance. However, the one small study designed to test this hypothesis found, instead, that consumption of galactose prior to endurance exercise actually proved detrimental. 181
A small, double-blind study failed to find any performance or training-enhancing benefits with a newly marketed silicate product. 140 Astaxanthin, fish oil , N-acetylcysteine (NAC) , soy isoflavones , and tyrosine have also failed to show benefit in preliminary trials. 141,165-168
Numerous other natural substances have been marketed as ergogenic aids, despite essentially an absolute absence of evidence that they help, including cordyceps , Cystoseira canariensis , deer antler , ipriflavone , lipoic acid , methoxyisoflavone , NADH , and suma . One study found that L-citrulline , another purported ergogenic aid, actually decreases exercise capacity. 169
Many websites advertise products that they claim act like human growth hormone, often called HGH enhancers. However, these products are entirely speculative because there are no natural treatments proven to raise human growth hormone levels.
Similarly, there are no herbs or supplements known to act as "natural anabolic steroids." (See also the discussion of androstenedione in the Not Recommended Treatments section.)
One small study failed to find benefit with a liquid multivitamin/mineral supplement . 170
The amino acid beta-alanine is said to raise levels of carnosine , which in turn is hypothesized to enhance performance in athletes undergoing resistance training. However, a double blind study of 26 athletes failed to find benefit with 6 g of alanine daily. 186
Not Recommended Treatments
Three commonly recommended supplements fall in the "not recommended for athletes" category: vanadium , boron , and androstenedione .
The mineral vanadium has been suggested for use by bodybuilders based on its effects on insulin, but there is no evidence that it helps. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study involving 31 weight-trained athletes found no benefit of supplementation at more than 1,000 times the nutritional dose. 113 Furthermore, there are serious safety concerns about taking vanadium at such high doses. See the full article on Vanadium for more information.
The mineral boron has been proposed as a sports supplement because it is thought to increase testosterone levels. However, studies performed thus far have failed to provide meaningful evidence that it helps increase muscle mass or enhances performance. 114,115 Furthermore, clinical studies suggest that boron supplementation is more likely to increase estrogen than testosterone. 116-118 Increased estrogen is not likely to have a sports performance benefit in men, while in women it might increase risk of breast cancer. Therefore, we do not recommend taking supplemental boron as a sports supplement. See the full article on boron for more information.
The hormone androstenedione is said to enhance athletic performance and strength by increasing testosterone production, thereby building muscle. However, in double-blind studies, when androstenedione was given to men, it neither altered total testosterone levels, nor improved sports performance, strength, or lean body mass. 109,119-123 It did, however, increase estrogen levels, an effect that would not be considered favorable. Interestingly, androstenedione does appear to raise testosterone levels in women, but it is not clear whether this would produce favorable results. 23,142 For more information, see the full Androstenedione article.
Revision Information
- Reviewer: EBSCO CAM Review Board
- Review Date: 12/2015 -
- Update Date: 12/15/2015 -


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Scutellaria baicalensis , also called Chinese skullcap, is a member of the mint family and has long been used in traditional Chinese herbal medicine . Chinese skullcap has been incorporated in herbal formulas designed to treat such widely varying conditions as cancer, liver disease, allergies, skin conditions, and epilepsy. The root is the part used medicinally.
Note: Chinese skullcap is substantially different from American skullcap ( Scutellaria lateriflora ).
What is Chinese Skullcap Used for Today?
The root of Chinese scullcap contains the flavonoids baicalin, wogonin, and baicalein, and most studies have involved these substances rather than the whole herb.
Highly preliminary evidence suggest that baicalin can enhance the activity of antibiotics against antibiotic-resistant staph bacteria. 1-3 Other highly preliminary evidence suggests that baicalin, wogonin, and baicalein may have anti-cancer , 4-8 anti-inflammatory, 9,10liver-protective , 11anti-anxiety , 12 and antihypertensive effects . 13 However, for none of these uses does the evidence approach the level necessary to truly establish a treatment as effective.
Chinese skullcap ( Scutellaria baicalensis ) combined with Acacia catechu was found to provide short-term relief of pain, stiffness, and range of motion similar to naproxen. The 79 participants of the trial were overweight or obese, aged 40-90 years old, and were randomized to either the herbal supplement or naproxen. No placebo group was tested. 16
Research involving combination herbal therapies containing Chinese skullcap are discussed in the Traditional Chinese Herbal Medicine article.
The optimum doses, if any, of baicalin, wogonin, and baicalein have not been established. Chinese skullcap is typically taken at a dose of 3-9 grams daily as part of an herbal combination.
Safety Issues
Baicalin, wobogin, and baicalein appear to have a low order of toxicity, though comprehensive safety studies have not been performed. There have been case reports of liver injury associated with use of skullcap products, but these may have been due to adulteration by the herb germander.
One animal study found worrisome evidence that baicalin might markedly reduce the absorption of drug cyclosporine , used to prevent organ transplant rejection. 14 Another study found that baicalin might reduce blood levels of drugs in the statin family , used to improve cholesterol profile. 15
Safety in young children, pregnant or nursing women, or people with severe liver or kidney disease has not been established.
Interactions You Should Know About
If you are taking:
- Cyclosporine : Do not use Chinese skullcap or its constituents.
- Cholesterol-lowering drugs in the statin family : Use of Chinese skullcap might reduce its effectiveness.
Revision Information
- Reviewer: EBSCO CAM Review Board
- Review Date: 12/2015 -
- Update Date: 12/15/2015 -


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President Barack Obama on Monday nominated Tom Perez, head of the Justice Department's Civil Rights Division, as the next Secretary of Labor, replacing Hilda Solis, who announced her resignation in early January.
In comments from the White House, Obama said that Perez "as a civil rights attorney, an aide to Sen. Ted Kennedy, a member of the Montgomery, Maryland County Council, Tom fought for a level playing field where hard work and responsibility are rewarded and working families can get ahead."
Obama also noted that this is not the first time that Perez has been chosen to be a labor secretary, as Gov. Martin O'Malley of Maryland appointed Perez to that post in his state, "where he helped implement the country's first statewide living-wage law, because he understood that a minimum wage should be a wage that you can live on."
In his current role as the head of the U.S. Justice Department's Civil Rights Division, Perez, Obama said, "has fought to open pathways into the work force for everyone willing to contribute, including people with disabilities, LGBT Americans and immigrants. And he has helped settle some of the largest cases ever on behalf of families targeted by unfair mortgage lending."
While Perez has "tackled plenty of tough issues," Obama continued, he "has also spent a career as a consensus-builder," working with CEOs and labor leaders, and at the federal, state and local government levels.
Perez "understands that our economy works best when the middle class and those working to get into the middle class have the security they need on the job, a democratic voice in the workplace, everybody playing by the same set of rules," Obama said.
Reuters reported that the Harvard-educated civil rights attorney is expected to face opposition from some Republican senators "who say he has been too aggressive on certain immigration issues, and too political."


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20 July 2010 - China. Two oil firefighters Zhang Liang (R) and Han Xiaoxiong (L), attempt to fix an underwater pump during oil spill cleanup operations in Dalian. One of the men, Zhang Liang, later drowned in the oily water, despite desperate efforts to rescue both workers. The spill was caused by a pipeline blast at the Dalian Port.
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DAC Collection Object Information
Westminster Abbey—The South Transept,
Photographic stereo view mounted on card
Dimensions (Card (general for group)): 86 x 175 mm (3.4 x 6.9 in.)
Collection: The Marvin Housworth '60 Collection of Geo. Washington Wilson Stereoviews
Accession number: 2009.20.384
Gift of Marvin Housworth from The Marvin Housworth '60 Collection of Geo. Washington Wilson Stereoviews, 2009
Bibliography: The University of Aberdeen Photographic Archive's George Washington Wilson and Co. Photographic Collection at http://www.abdn.ac.uk/historic/gww has general information about George Washington Wilson, as well as online images of many works that also are represented in the Davison Art Center Collection.
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Sworn translation is the most official kind of translation that is possible. The procedure for creating sworn translations vary greatly from country to country. In the UK for example, a sworn translation from French to English is in fact, no different to a certified translation.
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