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British Church Architecture Through the Years: The Definitive Guide for Travellers
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British Churches Through the Years
"How old is this church?" asks Mary-Ann Ochota in a chapter of her book, Hidden Histories: A Spotter's Guide to the British Landscape (Francis Lincoln, 2016, p. 250). In this article, we will look at British churches and their architecture and how it evolved during the era of Anglo-Saxons and the profound changes during and after the Norman Conquest. Knowing this history will help you spot era-specific features in churches and make an informed guess regarding a church's age–short of asking a resident historian or architectural expert. We will also look at features of graveyards, which can be found next to churches. Ochota's book will be a reference, as well as other resources which will be cited and linked throughout this piece.
Pre-Norman Period: Romans, Celts, Anglo-Saxons
When we study churches in Britain, we also study Christianity and its long history. In the 1st century AD, Christianity "was just one cult amongst many" (BBC, 2011) brought to Britain from polytheistic Rome, except that this new religion from the east required exclusive allegiance to one god. Its followers refused to sacrifice to Roman gods, and to the emperor. According to Dr Sophie Lunn-Rockliffe, "This was an insult to the gods and potentially endangered the empire which they deigned to protect. Furthermore, the Christian refusal to offer sacrifices to the emperor, a semi-divine monarch, had the whiff of both sacrilege and treason about it."
This led to the persecution of its followers. Dr Lunn-Rockliffe said the persecution were sparked by turmoil as Romans looked for someone to blame for their troubles. Nero blamed Christians for the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD and, according to historian Tacitus, had a number of them torn to death by dogs. Christian persecution was at a fever pitch during the reign of Diocletian in the 3rd century AD, which also coincided with a chaotic political crisis within the Roman Empire. (You can read more about the Roman Empire in our previous article here.) Christians were beheaded, fed to wild animals, or burned to death.
This changed with the conversion of Constantine to Christianity in 312 AD. The new Christian emperor (who, says Dr Lunn-Rockliffe, still included pagan customs in his religious practice) announced in the 313 Edict of Milan his–and the Roman Empire's–acceptance of Christianity and the decriminalisation of the religion. In 380, the Edict of Theodosius announced that the Empire now recognised Christianity as the state religion.
Thus ended the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire, but Christianity remained a minority faith in Britain in the 4th century. The Romans left in 410 AD and were replaced by new invaders, the Anglo-Saxons, who brought their own faith. The Germanic Anglo-Saxon pantheon shares similarities with the Scandinavian Viking pantheon, featuring gods like Woden (Odin, god of wisdom) and Thunor (Thor, god of thunder).
Britain was then cut off from Christian continental Europe. However, Christian missionary activity continued primarily in places where Anglo-Saxons did not settle, like Wales, Ireland, and Western Scotland. St Columba came from Ireland and established a monastic community on the Isle of Iona in 563 (Ochota, 2016, p. 252) and stamped a Celtic identity on Christianity by way of its austere church architecture. Early Celtic churches were usually just one long, narrow room with high walls (p. 252), as simple as the monastic lifestyle.
Things were a little different in the south of England. St Augustine came from Rome and arrived in Kent in 595 AD with a mission to convert the Anglo-Saxon pagans. He later founded a church in Canterbury. The churches that were eventually built in southern England took the Roman basilica as inspiration and were bigger and grander (p. 252) than their Celtic counterparts.
The word "basilica" now denotes a title of honour to church buildings, but in ancient Rome it was used to describe any large roofed public building: market, meeting halls, courthouses, etc. Later, it came to denote a specific form of this building, an open hall with side aisles and a raised platform at one or both ends. In pre-Christian Roman architecture, the basilica also featured an apse, or a semicircular recess in a wall, to contain the raised platform. In a temple it would hold the statue of a deity; in a judicial building it would contain the magistrate. This form was adopted by early Christians for their place of worship.
The "basilica" took over northern England as well following the Synod of Whitby, where the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria decided to follow Christianity as practised in Rome instead of the way it was practised by the Celtic missionaries on Iona. (For one, the two "Christianities" had different methods for determining Easter.)
The agrarian Anglo-Saxons did not have a stone building tradition, and so their churches were originally built from timber. This unfortunately meant most of these early wooden structures did not survive time and the elements. The remaining Anglo-Saxon timber church still standing is St Andrew's Church in Greensted, Essex, with planks dating back to 1060 but with some older excavated structures found dating from the 6th and 7th centuries. It is still used for regular Sunday services.
When the Anglo-Saxons started building using stone, they simply reused the bricks left behind by the Romans. One of the earliest stone churches built in England was St Augustine's Abbey in Canterbury (597 AD) and was constructed in this manner. The largest stone Anglo-Saxon church in Britain is All Saints Church in Brixworth, Northamptonshire (circa 9th century).
Several Anglo-Saxon churches were built as towers (turriform churches), combining "ecclesiastical, residential, and defensive functions".
Since Anglo-Saxons were not stone masons and in fact just reusing old materials, the cruder the masonry, the more likely it was the work of Anglo-Saxons (Ochota, 2016, p. 255). Their windows were usually triangular-headed with no glass and separated by a round pillar (baluster). Oddly enough, unlike their windows, Anglo-Saxons used round arches, which were not strong enough for load-bearing. You'd see additional structures (such as voussoirs, or arch stones) added through the years in order to strengthen the arch. You can see this in the south door of Brixworth Church, with the original Anglo-Saxon arch reinforced by a bigger, thicker Norman arch.
Norman or "Romanesque" Architecture
The Normans' victory against the Anglo-Saxons at the Battle of Hastings greatly changed life in Britain, primarily in England and much of Wales. For one, William the Conqueror claimed the land for himself and redistributed parcels to his own followers. (You can read more about it here.) They believed God was on their side, and built a church–called Battle Abbey–on their site of victory. The church was dedicated to the Trinity, the Virgin, and St Martin of Tours, and also served as a memorial to those who died in battle and as the Normans' atonement for the bloodshed.
Their style of architecture was also called "Romanesque" as they derived inspiration from the Romans. Romanesque architecture developed simultaneously in the Normans' native Normandy (now part of modern-day France) and England in the 11th to 12th centuries, with early buildings in both countries looking similar.
The Normans worked in stone and started building castles and replacing the Anglo-Saxon wooden churches with stone churches. They continued the Anglo-Saxon tradition of round arches and turriform churches, but as skilled masons, Norman walls were thicker, the nave (the room were the congregation gathered) wider, and the round arches stronger and decorated with patterns carved into the stone. They erected enormous load-bearing pillars within the churches and added carved stone fonts to hold water for baptisms. They added corbel tables below the eaves for extra support. Corbel tables are a continuous row of corbels, which are decorative architectural structures that projected from a wall and supported weight.
What is said to be a definitive example of the early Norman style is the Church of Saint-Étienne in Caen, Normandy (also known as Abbaye aux Hommes or "Men's Abbey"), founded by William the Conqueror. Construction began around 1066-67. The English cathedrals of Ely (circa 1090), Norwich (circa 1096), and Peterborough (circa 1118) were modelled on this church.
Gothic Period
Around 1140, a new style of architecture emerged in northern France, initially called Opus Francigenum or "French Work" or "The French Style", and which in the 16th century was derisively described by art critics as "Gothic", referring to the "barbaric" Goths who they said destroyed the classical (and more tasteful) architecture of ancient Rome. It was this term of derision that we continue to use to this day, but stripped of the insult.
A main characteristic of Gothic design is the pointed arch, a design change from the rounded arch favoured by the Anglo-Saxons and the Normans. This shape is seen in Gothic windows and ceilings. The years 1160 to 1200 is also called the Transitional period, during which churches were built with a mix of the rounded Norman arch and the Gothic pointed arch (Ochota, 2016, p. 260). Durham Cathedral, constructed beginning 1093, features what is believed to be the world's first structural pointed arch in its nave.
Church design in Britain increasingly became ornate as time passed and as the British adopted more of the elaborate style evolving in Europe. Thomas Rickman in his early 19th century book An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of English Architecture (1817) divided medieval church architecture in England into three phases of Gothic (Ochota, 2016, p. 260):
- Early English Gothic (1200-1300)
- Decorated Gothic (1300-1400)
- Perpendicular Gothic (1400-1500 in London, but lasting into the 1600s in other parts of Britain)
To tell the difference between phases, you can look at the windows and buttresses (p. 263). Early English windows are also called "lancet" because they look like a lance, narrow and sharply pointed. Decorated Gothic windows are wider, less pointed, with, as the name suggests, decorative tracery. Also as the name suggests, Perpendicular Gothic windows have vertical tracery and framing, cutting the window into uniform panes.
A notable church built in the Perpendicular style was St Mary's Church in Fairford, Gloucestershire, England. It was rebuilt at the end of the 15th century by John Tame, a wealthy local wool merchant, and according to Robert Winder in his book The Last Wolf: The Hidden Springs of Englishness (Abacus, 2018) has "the largest expanse of medieval stained glass in the country…the nearest thing in England to the Sistine Chapel" (p. 169). Fairford in the 16th century was home to a community of Flemish craftsmen, and St Mary's stained glass was the work of a Flemish glazier, Barnard Flower (p. 170).
Norman buttresses, or structures of stone or brick built against a wall to strengthen or support it, were thick and shallow, but through the years they became slimmer and projected further from the walls, until churches sported "flying buttresses" starting around the 1400s.
These and other structural elements (spires, vaulted ceilings) allowed the British to build taller churches with thinner walls that were still structurally sound, and larger windows that would allow in more natural light. (Early Norman churches, with their smaller windows, would have been quite dark in comparison.)
The Gothic style made a comeback in the 19th century, the style called neo-Gothic or Victorian Gothic, using the more elaborate Perpendicular style or, as the Victoria & Albert Museum says, exaggerations of the Gothic's key architectural elements.
In the introduction to his book, At Home: A Short History of Private Life (Doubleday, 2010), Bill Bryson mentions a friend, retired county archaeologist Brian Ayers, who tells him how country churches appear to be sinking–but only because the churchyard has risen from all the bodies buried there. As Ochota (2016, p. 270) confirms, "centuries of interments progressively raise the earth surface". So the higher the graveyard, the older it is.
In Roman times, there were strict rules against having the necropolis ("city of the dead") within the boundaries of a settlement throughout the empire, according to the United Kingdom's Natural History Museum. This meant they had to be set up outside the city limits. Bodies were either cremated and the ashes interned in an urn, or buried with possessions that could help them in the afterlife.
The oldest example of an Anglo-Saxon Christian burial was unearthed in 2003 during roadworks in Prittlewell, near Southend, Essex. Found between a pub and an Aldi supermarket, the timber structure also housed rare and precious artefacts such as gold coins and gold-decorated drinking vessels, leading researchers to believe the burial must have belonged to an Anglo-Saxon prince. Gold-foil crosses were found at the head of the coffin, which means, according to the Museum of London Archeology, "the person buried can be identified with certainty as a Christian but he was also buried with funerary customs that reflect pre-Christian beliefs and traditions, including the burial mound, the chamber and the grave goods." MOLA provides more information on their website about the excavation. In 2019, the chamber items were moved to the Southend Central Museum to be placed on permanent display.
In the Christian tradition, the bodies of the faithful had to be buried in the hallowed ground of the churchyard. This posed overcrowding problems during the Middle Ages, which led parishes to build charnel houses, or a vault to store human skeletons. As space is at a premium, bones would be exhumed from a grave and placed in the charnel house (that might be in or near the church) and the now-empty grave reused for the next burial.
Yew trees are found in Christian churchyards, but they have been planted since pre-Christian times. The yew was considered by native Britons to be a sacred tree and co-opted by Christians as a symbol of eternal life (Ochota, 2016, p. 272).
According to the National Churches Trust, graves in the churchyard face east–with the head to the west and the feet to the east–so the resurrected will face Jesus, who will be approaching from the east at the final Day of Judgement. Most burials traditionally took place on the south side of the church; the north side was seen as sinister (Ochota, 2016, p. 273) and used to bury unbaptised infants, criminals, or suicides. Priests, royals, and other people of equal standing were buried within the church; everyone else was buried outside in the churchyard.
Some English graveyards have lych-gates (from Old English lich=corpse) though most that survive date from Victorian times as medieval lych-gates were made of timber and had long since fallen. Lych-gates were where the corpse was brought and the priest approached to receive it for initial prayers, before moving on to the churchyard for the burial.
If you want to learn more, please read Mary-Ann Ochota's Hidden Histories: A Spotter's Guide to the British Landscape (Francis Lincoln, 2016), Bill Bryson's At Home: A Short History of Private Life (Doubleday, 2010), and Robert Winder's The Last Wolf: The Hidden Springs of Englishness (Abacus, 2018), as well as the many online resources linked throughout this piece.
You may also consider joining one of Odyssey Traveller's many tours to the British Isles, such as the Villages of England tour, a 19-day fully escorted tour that will let you explore the history and culture of the British countryside; the Prehistoric Britain tour, which visits Skara Brae and other historic sites in Orkney, Shetland, and Wales; and the tour of the Scottish Isles which includes a stop in Iona. We specialise in small groups for senior travellers. Just click through to see each tour's full itinerary and sign up!
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Reservations made via a third party booking site such as Expedia or Booking.com should reference the deposit/pre-payment and cancellation policies outlined in the reservation details on those sites. These polices are different to those stated below.
For a third-party booking, cancellations must be made directly with the third party. Please contact their customer support team and they will contact Hale 'Ohu B&B before processing your request.
Rates, Deposits and Cancellations for Direct Bookings
The best rate is found when you book directly with Hale 'Ohu. Be sure to view our promotional offers.
Standard Room or Promotional Rates
Deposit/Payments - The total amount of your reservation will be due at the time of booking.
Cancellation Schedule:
Cancellations received 31 days or more before arrival: 100% refund less a $25 processing charge.
Cancellations received 15-30 days before arrival: 100% refund less the rate of one-night plus taxes.
Cancellations received 14 days or less before arrival: No refund.
Cancellation/Early Departure Policy for Special Circumstances
Since Volcano is a remote destination, cancellations are challenging for a small property like Hale 'Ohu. Guests are encouraged to purchase travel insurance to cover cancellation fees if your travel plans change. Learn more about travel insurance.
Guests agree to the cancellation policy at the time of booking whether the reservation was made directly with Hale 'Ohu or via an Online Travel Agency (OTA) site such as Expedia or Booking.com. If you booked with an OTA, review the confirmation from the OTA for the cancellation policy. You will need to contact the OTA to cancel your reservation.
If you wish to cancel your reservation for any of the following reasons, please be aware the cancellation policy agreed to will be enforced:
Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park closure
Flight(s) cancelled or changed
Change in your travel plans
Health issues
Weather related
Thecancellation penalty will only be waivedfor reservations booked directly with Hale 'Ohu and re-booked. New dates must be selected at the time of cancellation and must occur within one year of your original date of arrival.
Hale 'Ohu will refund reservations (less a $25 processing charge) for any of the following situations that occur on your arrival date or during your reservation:
Hilo or Kona airport is closed due to severe weather conditions.
Flooding is occurring at Hale 'Ohu's property or along Old Volcano Road between Pearl and Haunani Streets.
Wind damage at Hale 'Ohu's property.
Driving conditions from Hilo or Kona are deemed unsafe by a Civil Defense official notification.
Local authorities order a mandatory evacuation of Volcano Village.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issues an advisory for travelers to avoid all nonessential travel to Hawai'i.
Office Hours
Open daily from 8 to 11 a.m. and from 3 to 6 p.m.
Room Capacity
Each room is limited to two (2) adults only. We cannot accommodate additional occupants including children.
Each room is equipped with one (1) queen sized bed.
This property is not suitable for children. Children under 18 years of age are not allowed at this adults-only property.
We welcome service animals only and require prior notice. We do reserve the right to full reimbursement for damage caused by service animals. When outdoors, service animal should be leashed at all times.
We are a non-smoking property. Smoking (of any kind) is not allowed in the room, on the patio or in the garden area. This policy is enforced, so that we can provide a smoke-free environment to all guests. Your credit card on file will be charged $250 for violating this policy.
Food in Room
You are welcome to bring back restaurant food to the room. However, food preparation is strictly not allowed. Do not use the water kettle for anything but heating water. You will be charged if the kettle needs to be replaced. Please be sure to dispose of your food waste in the garbage bin; not recycling bin.
Cookie Policy
Learn more about Hale 'Ohu's website cookie policy.


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GreenLight Workshop: Alcoa
How can a major corporate foundation shift its environmental strategy as its parent company evolves?
Join the Alcoa Foundation's Tricia Napor (Director, Foundation Programs and Campus Partnerships) and Yale GreenLight for an interactive, fast-paced innovation workshop designed to help the foundation explore creative new ideas for generating impact while taking advantage of Alcoa's distinct and evolving competencies.
Who will participate?: A multidisciplinary team of workshop participants
How can I participate?: Interested participants must:
- Be excited about attending and actively participating for the entire event
- Commit to carefully reviewing a set of preparation materials distributed in advance
- Register by clicking on the button below and filling out the form
- Email any questions about the session to Eitan Hochster (firstname.lastname@example.com) and Robert Kimball (email@example.com)
Space is limited – register today!
What is GreenLight?
GreenLight is a series of innovation workshops hosted by the Yale Center for Business and the Environment. These fast-paced, interactive workshops are designed to help Yale students practice and learn rapid ideation techniques, while helping leading companies and organizations tap into the creative thinking of a multidisciplinary team of students.
Photo from Steve Jurvetson/flickr


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Software developer, data scientist
Russia, Rostov-on-Don
Hello! My name is Alexander Gusarin.
I work as a software developer for 5+ years. Have working experience as a desktop programmer, web programmer, and data scientist. I really like to work as a programmer to create new software which can help people in their needs.


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Panache Porcelain Elan T-Shirt Bra
This convertible style from the Porcelain Elan collection gives a more modern appearance with its seamless T-shirt styling and wide-set straps. Perfect for full-busted women.
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- Our best tip is to take your bra in the shower with you, give it a quick wash with some cheap shampoo and hang over the door.
- Washing in boiling hot water can damage fabrics such as lace, embroidery and elastic.
- Avoid pegs as they can damage delicate fabrics.
- Hang bras in half, not from the shoulder strap or back strap.


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ORONO – The Emera Astronomy Center is now offering family-friendly shows to give kids a fun way to learn science.
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"It's the next generation that is going to go off back to the moon and onto Mars. It's important to get them thinking about science in their early years," said Tristan Underwood, a lecturer at the astronomy center.
He said shows for adults are held throughout the week and the shows for kids are scheduled for every Sunday.
For future schedules for the planetarium, go to astro.umaine.edu.


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April 15 – 17, 2019, (Hollywood, FL):
The worlds of AML and compliance are undergoing rapid transformation, impacted by everything from new and complex regulations, technological disruptions such as artificial intelligence and cryptocurrencies and malicious threats including cybercrime and data breaches. These issues and more will be examined in depth at the 2019 ACAMS conference in Hollywood, FL. Join us for this dynamic three-day gathering with more than 2,000 attendees and experts from the government, finance and law enforcement sector, who will share invaluable insights on the issues at hand, while outlining strategies for putting that knowledge to practical use in the ongoing fight against financial crime.
Latest posts by Ken Bui (see all)
- EU Fifth AML Directive: How Banks Can Prepare for Five Key Changes - November 18, 2019
- AI Best Practices to Improve Enterprise Risk Outcomes - October 22, 2019
- Why It's So Hard for Challenger Banks to Fight Financial Crime - September 24, 2019


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System Performance C++ Software Developer - Trinamics
Eindhoven, NB 5611
Over de vacature
System Performance C++ Software Developer
(Bachelor, Master, Software Engineering, Computer Science, C++)
For our client, a high grade technical company in the Netherlands,we are looking for several Software Engineers with a great skill in C++ and want to push their knowledge to the next level. You will be part of a small a team, you will be working on providing and improving software that enables access to system data of our clients machine.
Function Description
As our clients machine is an extremely complex, it is crucial that there is data available which will indicate system performance that can be monitored and measured. The team you will be part of provides the mechanisms to do this in a controlled, structured way while keeping security and performance (data load) in mind.
As a software engineer you will work in a small team where your own input is highly valued. Our client expects you to be pro-active and that you have problem solving attitude. Communication in the team is key,you will have close collaboration with your architect and peers. To come to the right solutions, you are also required to discuss requirements with our stakeholders, for this you need to be able open to work and learn from others. Next to creating new functionalities, the work consists of troubleshooting and refactoring existing software.
In this role you will have multi-faceted activities within a small team, financially backed by a larger company!
Main responsibilities
- Develop and maintain software in C++,
- Perform Software Impact Analysis for proposed changes
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- Implement and test accepted changes
Bachelor, Master or PhD degree in Computer Science or equivalent
- Minimum 2 years experience in a technical product development environment.
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- Main experience with C++
- Background in complex systems is a big plus
Personal skills
- Good communicative skills
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There is a large potential available for generating solar power using unutiiized space on rooftops and wastelands around buildings. Small quantities of power generated by each individual household. industrial buildings commercial buildings or any other type of building can be used to partly fulfill the requirement of the building occupants and surplus. if any. can be fed into the grid. The distribution companies will allow power to feed into the grid and extending net metering facility to the consumers.
In grid interactive rooftop or small SPV systems. the DC power generated from SPV panel is converted to AC power using power conditioning unit and is led to the grid. The generated power during the day time can be utilized fully by powering captive loads and excess power can be fed to the grid as long as grid is available. In case where Solar Power is not sufficient due to cloud cover or during the night hours, the captive loads are served by drawing power from the grid. The grid interactive roof top solar system can work on net metering basis wherein the beneficiary pays to the utility on net meter reading basis only.
Energy settlement shall be done on a monthly basis. Group of persons / societies setting up Solar Roof top Project (SRP) will be treated as collective generation for supply of power to the households of each society /group member. In ease of Apartments / Group Houses. common meter may be used for net metering. The Developer/Consumer has to choose either for Net Metering/ Gross Metering at the time of registering the application.
The energy generated from solar Rooftop Project (SRP) shall be adjusted against the consumption of energy from the DISCOM by the Eligible Developer / consumer every month. In ease of Groups/ Societies. the energy generated shall be prorated as per the installed capacity share indicated in the Agreement between the group/society and DISCOM. This computed energy share shall be adjusted against the consumption of energy for each consumer every month.
In case of Gross metering. the SPV generator shall pay for the energy utilized in a billing month as per applicable retail supply tariff decided by regulatory commission to the concerned DISCOM and energy supplied to DISCOM by the Developer] Consumer will be paid on monthly. basing on ACoS as determined by APERC from time to time.(net amount will be credited).
|System Cost (in Rs.)
|1 KWp
|2 KWp
|3 KWp
|4 Kwp
|5 Kwp
6-500 KWp Capacities
|System Cost Per KWp (in Rs.)
|6-10 KWp
|11-50 KWp
|51-100 KWp
|101-500 KWp
Source : New and Renewable Energy Development Corporation of Andhra Pradesh (NREDCAP)]]>
Atal Bhujal Yojana (ATAL JAL) is a Central Sector Scheme of the Ministry of Jal Shakti to improve ground water management through community participation. The scheme has a total outlay of Rs.6000 crore and is to be implemented over a period of 5 years (2020-21 to 2024-25).
Atal Bhujal Yojana (ATAL JAL)is an initiative for ensuring long term sustainability of ground water resources in the country. The Department of Water Resources, River Development & Ganga Rejuvenation, Ministry of Jal Shakti is adopting a mix of 'top down' and 'bottom up' approaches in identified ground water stressed blocks in seven states, representing a range of geomorphic, climatic and hydrogeologic and cultural settings. ATAL JAL has been designed with the principal objective of strengthening the institutional framework for participatory ground water management and bringing about behavioral changes at the community level for sustainable ground water resource management. The scheme envisages undertaking this through various interventions, including awareness programmes, capacity building, convergence of ongoing/new schemes and improved agricultural practices etc.
The scheme aims to improve ground water management through community participation in identified priority areas in seven States, viz. Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. Implementation of the scheme is expected to benefit nearly 8350 Gram Panchayats in 78 districts in these States.
ATAL JAL has two major components:
ATAL JAL will result in:
Water conservation needs to be ingrained in not only the consciousness but also practices of every citizen and system. Higher education institutions (HEIs) have to make unremitting efforts through faculty, staff and students to make the Jal Shakti Abhiyan successful.
Key water challenges include Water Conservation, Water Quality Management, Watershed Management, Storm water Management and Wastewater Management.
Water Conservation
Rainwater Harvesting
Renovation of Traditional and other Water Bodies/Tanks
Other Interventions
Every Higher Education Institution needs to prepare a water budget
Water Quantity and Quality monitoring and annual targets on identified indicators of
What is measured gets monitored. What is monitored gets managed.
Monitor overhead tanks
Motor metering method
Estimate the source of the campus water
Start water conservation
Manage water
Introduce Recycling
Plugging leakages
To know more information about Jal Shakti Campus click here
Role of Higher Education Institutions in Jal Shakti Village
To know more information about Jal Shakti Gram Click here
Source: Ministry of Human Resource Development]]>
Springs are the primary source of water for the rural households in the hilly region. Despite the key role that they play, springs have not received their due attention and are today facing the threat of drying up. Spring discharge is reported to be declining due to Increased water demand, changing land use patterns, ecological degradation and erratic trends in precipitation. These springs are known as dhara, mool, kuan in the central and eastern Himalayas and Chashma and naula in the western Himalayas.
There is, hence, an urgent need to restore, revive and sustain springs. Lack of knowledge, understanding and awareness on springs has further compounded the problem while also inducing elements of conflicts and haphazard development. Land-use changes, rapid urban expansion and growing commercial consumption are affecting forests and impacting spring water availability.
The water from the Himalayan rivers is not readily accessible to the densely populated villages and towns in the mid-hills (900-2000m). These fast flowing rivers cut deep gorges and flow several hundred meters below, while the glaciers are far above this critical eco-zone of the mid-hills. In mid-hills of the Himalayas, communities depend on rain-fed springs and streams for meeting their water requirements.
What is even more important to note is the fact that while glaciers are easily considered to be the source of the mighty Himalayan rivers, most of them are fed by springs. Any significant depletion in such spring flows at river origins' will surely impact the flow of rivers. Hence, a high dependency on one hand and an increasing sensitivity to depletion on the other, make Himalayan springs a source that has become greatly vulnerable in the current context, despite their being part of a strong heritage, tradition and culture in the region. It becomes important to recognise spring water depletion as a nationally pertinent problem and to address it straightaway through preventive and corrective measures.
At a larger national scale, a gross estimate of nearly 200 million Indians depending upon spring water across the Himalayas, Western Ghats, Estern Ghats, Aravallis and other such mountain ranges - implies that more than 15% of India's population depends on spring water.
Recently, efforts have been made to preserve and save springs from drying up; consequently, efforts to recharge them are also gaining momentum. Initiatives have been taken by a few State governments, Civil Society Organizations / NGOs who are actively contributing towards programmes to promote awareness of the importance of springs, and to build capacities to protect, develop and manage 'springsheds' across the country.
The first systematic initiative was undertaken through the Dhara Vikas Programme by the Rural Management & Development Department (RM&DD), Government of Sikkim. This initiative was geographically targeted in the drought- prone rain-shadow areas of South and West districts of Sikkim. With funding support from MGNREGS, a spring revival initiative (Dhara Vikas) was launched in the State, an initiative that was built on the foundations of building capacity, implementing the concept of recharge and conservation through a scientific process and through a community participation model. Supplementing the natural groundwater recharge, by first identifying the recharge area of the aquifers feeding the springs and then taking up artificial recharge works like digging trenches and ponds to catch the surface flow and enhance the infiltration formed the core component of this programme. This has resulted in recharging 1035 million litres of groundwater annually covering 637 ha and revival of 60 springs and 4 lakes in 20 drought-prone Gram Panchayats.
Other Interventions:
Though the task of revival of Himalayan springs is gigantic, it can be achieved through a systematically coordinated, combined national, state and local level initiatives involving all possible stakeholders and partners including governments, community and people at large.
Studies conducted by RM&DD, Government of Sikkim have showed that revival of springs is possible by taking up artificial ground water recharge works in the recharge area (springshed) of the aquifer. Based on the experiments, an eight-step action plan was designed which provides a step-by-step procedure for reviving Himalayan springs. These eight steps are as follows:
Springs being groundwater, the principles of groundwater management and Common Pool Resources (CPR) applies to them as well. A strong infusion of hydrogeology was introduced through some of the early pilots stated in sections above. A hydrogeological approach to spring-revival and springshed management, complimented by socio- ecological inputs, engineering surveys and a strong decentralised governance in mountain water security makes springs resilient to climate variability and helps communities access water throughout the year and manage it better. Demystification of knowledge, embedding the understanding of water as a common pool resource and management of the resource by local communities and community resource persons through appropriate institutional levels, forms the core aspects of this approach. Water security plans which include recharge augmentation, demand management and resource governance are developed through a consultative process with all stakeholders and the community. A community that understands the scientific and governance aspects of springshed management can take responsibility over its resource and plan long-term management protocols to ensure safe and adequate water for both lifeline and livelihood activities.
In addition, there is also a need to address the demand side challenge in times of limited resource availability, by augmenting the efficiency of water use. At a local scale, this implies the involvement of the community, educating various stakeholders, especially the communities depending on spring water as well as those located in the recharge zone about resource protection, preventing contamination of the aquifer that supplies water to springs and land use management and control. Hence, social, economic and ecological sciences must also compliment hydrology and hydrogeology in the management of the precious spring water resource in the mountains.
Spring rejuvenation/development may broadly involve the following sets of activities:
Some of the common challenges in programmes are the following:
Spring rejuvenation should allow for design and execution autonomy but converge on the outcomes. Several states have already initiated programmes/initiatives in their respective states. While there are commonalities, the solutions and methodologies are unique to the local hydrogeological, social, cultural and capabilities of the respective states. Basically, spring rejuvenation calls for mapping of the springshed, identification of recharge areas, pinpointing sites for appropriate recharge structures, construction of recharge structures through convergence of activities under MGNREGS, PMKSY-WDC and related Schemes of State Governments. Experience from Sikkim and Nagaland shows that leveraging of MGNREGS funds is sufficient for construction of recharge structures.
Sustainability should be the core focus in the programme design to solve for water security for a long term. This means:
Source: Ministry of Jal Shakti]]>
A Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) Water Pumping System consists of :
PV Array should be mounted on a suitable structure with a provision for manual tracking.
Solar PV Water Pumps with PV Panel capacity in the range of 200 Wp to 500 Wp may be installed on a suitable bore-well / open well / Water Reservoir / Water stream etc.
Under the "Average Daily Solar Radiation" condition of 7.15 KWh / sq.m.on the surface of PV array (i.e. coplanar with the PV Modules), the minimum water output from a Solar PV Water Pumping System at different "Total Dynamic Heads" should be as specified below:
Under the "Average Daily Solar Radiation" condition of 7.15 KWh / sq.m.on the surface of PV array (i.e. coplanar with the PV Modules), the minimum water output from a Solar PV Water Pumping System at different "Total Dynamic Heads" should be as specified below :
The actual duration of pumping of water on a particular day and the quantity of water pumped could vary depending on the solar intensity, location, season, etc.
Indicative performance specifications for the Shallow and Deep well SPV Water Pumping Systems are given in the below table:
|Model - I
|Model - II
|Model - III
|Model - IV
|Model - V
|Model - VI
|PV array
|300 Wp
|300 Wp
|300 Wp
|500 Wp
|500 Wp
|500 Wp
|Motor capacity
|0.25 hp
|0.25 hp
|0.25 hp
|0.5 hp
|0.5 hp
|0.5 hp
|Shut Off Dynamic Head
|12 metres
|30 metres
|45 metres
|12 metres
|30 metres
|45 metres
|Water output*
|10,000 litres per day from a total head of 10 metres
|5,000 litres per day from a total head of 20 metres
|3,000 litres per day from a total head of 30 metres
|20,000 litres per day from a total head of 10 metres
|10,000 litres per day from a total head of 20 metres
|6,000 litres per day from a total head of 30 metres
Water output figures are on a clear sunny day with three times tracking of SPV panel, under the "Average Daily Solar Radiation" condition of 7.15 KWh/ sq.m. on the surface of PV array (i.e. coplanar with the PV Modules).
The SPV water pumping system should be operated with a PV array capacity in the range of 200 Watts peak to 500 Watts peak, measured under Standard Test Conditions (STC). Sufficient number of modules in series and parallel could be used to obtain the required PV array power output. The power output of individual PV modules used in the PV array, under STC, should be a minimum of 75 Watts peak, with adequate provision for measurement tolerances. Use of PV modules with higher power output is preferred.
Indigenously produced PV module (s) containing mono/ multi crystalline silicon solar cells should be used in the PV array for the SPV Water Pumping systems.
The SPV water pumping systems may use any of the following types of motor pump sets:
The "Motor Pump Set" should have a capacity in the range of 0.2 hp to 0.5 hp and should have the following features:
It is recommended that all parts of the pump and the motor of the submersible pumps should be made of stainless steel or suitable grade of plastic. The impellers and other internal parts can be of suitable grade of modified PPE resins (example Noryl) or Polycarbonate or equivalent.
The following details should be marked indelibly on the motor pump set
The suction/ delivery pipe (GI/HDPE), electric cables, floating assembly, civil work and other fittings required to install the Motor Pump set.
The PV modules should be mounted on metallic structures of adequate strength and appropriate design, which can withstand load of modules and high wind velocities up to 150 km per hour. The support structure used in the pumping system should be hot dip galvanized iron with minimum 80 micron thickness.
To enhance the performance of SPV water pumping systems, manual or passive or auto tracking system must be used. For manual tracking, arrangement for seasonal tilt angle adjustment and three times manual tracking in a day should be provided.
A good reliable switch suitable for DC use is to be provided. Sufficient length of cable should be provided for inter-connection of the PV array, Controller / Inverter and the motor pump set.
The PV Modules must be warranted for output wattage, which should not be less than 90% at the end of 10 years and 80% at the end of 25 years. The whole system including submersible/ surface pumps shall be warranted for 5 years. Required Spares for trouble free operation during the Warrantee period should be provided along with the system.
An Operation and Maintenance Manual, in English and the local language, should be provided with the solar PV pumping system. The Manual should have information about solar energy, photovoltaic, modules, DC/AC motor pump set, tracking system, mounting structures, electronics and switches. It should also have clear instructions about mounting of PV module, DO's and DONT's and on regular maintenance and Trouble Shooting of the pumping system. Name and address of the person or Centre to be contacted in case of failure or complaint should also be provided. A warranty card for the modules and the motor pump set should also be provided to the beneficiary.
Source: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy]]>


text:
Environ is a globally recognised and loved professional skincare brand that is built on science, beauty and care.
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BRIGHT RECOVERY COOL PEEL – This gentle lactic acid cool peel assists with reducing the appearance of premature ageing, fine lines and uneven toned skin complexion as a result of excessive sun exposure.
BLEMISH CONTROL COOL PEEL – This powerful cool peel therapy assists with the management of blemish prone, distressed skin, by purifying, cleansing and assisting to unclog pores and dissolve impurities. Our hero treatment for problematic skin conditions.
VIBRANT-C MICRO PEEL £55 – A concentrated, vitamin C infused peel that is freshly mixed before application to ensure optimal freshness and efficacy. Proven to deliver a healthy complexion with an even skin tone and texture because vitamin C is essential for the skin to function at its best. Excellent choice for sun-damaged, pigmented and mature skins.
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On August 1, 2015, James began his journey to lose 100 pounds and gain his health and life back. He sent me an email last year that went straight to my heart, and I'm looking forward to him sharing more of his story with you today.
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In this Ask Me Anything, you'll learn how to kick-start fat-burning, tips on getting quality sleep, how to incorporate deep breathing, why jumping rope isn't just for little girls, and tons more.
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Though she is at the forefront of functional medicine, what sets Dr. Wahls apart is her experience using nutrition and lifestyle interventions to treat progressive health problems and heal her own MS, and later that of others.
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Ready to get in the best shape of your life? Join the Wild30 Challenge today and you'll get 30 days of videos, tips and tools, along with a 30-Day Wild Meal Plan, Quick-Start Guide, and Motivation Journal. Everything has been planned out for you.
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Now that we all carry cameras in our pockets, it can feel like we're in the spotlight pretty much all the time, especially considering the new pressures of social media. And with that comes public scrutiny, and the dreaded trolls. Shaun T is back on the show and he's got one critical piece of advice that I think will really help you out.
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My friend needed to lose 25 pounds in a month without dieting. He had to lose at least 20 pounds in less than 30 days or he would be off the team. Here is what he did.
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Learn how Dr. Sarah lost 120 pounds by focusing on nutrition, why eating Paleo-ish is backed by cutting edge nutritional research, and how the immune system affects weight and health.
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If you're looking to lean down quickly to prepare for a photoshoot, competition, or swimsuit season, here are a few tips that can speed your fat loss.
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steaknight.com home page
Steak Houses
Home Grilling
Steak 101
Dive Bars
About Us
The amount of time a steak is cooked is based upon personal preference; shorter cooking times retain more juice, whereas longer steak cooking times result in drier, tougher meat but reduce concerns about disease. A vocabulary has evolved to describe the degree to which a steak is cooked. The following terms are in order from least cooked to most cooked:
Raw — Uncooked. Used in dishes like steak tartare, Carpaccio, gored gored, tiger meat and kitfo.
Seared, Blue rare or very rare — Cooked very quickly; the outside is seared, but the inside is usually cool and barely cooked. The steak will be red on the inside and barely warmed. Sometimes asked for as "blood rare" or "bloody as hell". In the United States, this is also sometimes referred to as 'Black and Blue' or 'Pittsburgh Rare'. It is common for chefs to place the steak in an oven to warm the inside of the steak. This method generally means 'blue' steaks take longer to cook than any other degrees.
Rare — (52 °C [125 °F] core temperature) The outside is gray-brown, and the middle of the steak is red and slightly warm.
Medium rare — (55 °C [130 °F] core temperature) The steak will have a fully red, warm center. This is the standard degree of cooking at most steakhouses, unless specified otherwise.
Medium — (60 °C [140 °F] core temperature) The middle of the steak is hot and red with pink surrounding the center. The outside is gray-brown.
Medium well done — (65 °C [150 °F] core temperature) The meat is light pink surrounding the center.
Well done — (71 °C [160 °F] and above core temperature) The meat is gray-brown throughout and slightly charred.
Overcook — (much more than 71 °C [160 °F] core temperature) The meat is dark throughout and slightly bitter.


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An ER Euthanizes a Beloved Pet. This is What You Should Know:
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Would You Buy a Genetically Modified Pet?
Would You Buy a Genetically Modified Pet? They intend to sell these micro-pigs for $ 1,600, and eventually BGI hopes that customers will be able to "order pigs with customized coat colors and patterns." The company's goal is to bring … Continue reading
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MapleBear's child-focused learning system prepares your child for primary school and beyond.
As a parent, you want a strong educational foundation for your kids – one that prepares them for life and ignites their passion for learning beyond their primary school years.
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Like Singapore, Canada is consistently ranked among the top countries for early childhood education. European educators such as Friedrich Froebel, Maria Montessori and Margaret McMillan all helped shape early education in Canada.
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