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کتاب پنجم - فصل 01-01مجموعه: سه گانه ارباب حلقه ها / کتاب: بازگشت پادشاه / فصل 1
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کتاب پنجم - فصل 01-01
توضیح مختصر
- زمان مطالعه 26 دقیقه
- سطح خیلی سخت
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فایل صوتی
ترجمهی فصل
متن انگلیسی فصل
Chapter 1:
Minas Tirith
Pippin looked out from the shelter of Gandalf's cloak. He wondered if he was awake or still sleeping, still in the swift-moving dream in which he had been wrapped so long since the great ride began. The dark world was rushing by and the wind sang loudly in his ears. He could see nothing but the wheeling stars, and away to his right vast shadows against the sky where the mountains of the South marched past. Sleepily he tried to reckon the times and stages of their journey, but his memory was drowsy and uncertain.
There had been the first ride at terrible speed without a halt, and then in the dawn he had seen a pale gleam of gold, and they had come to the silent town and the great empty house on the hill. And hardly had they reached its shelter when the winged shadow had passed over once again, and men wilted with fear. But Gandalf had spoken soft words to him, and he had slept in a corner, tired but uneasy, dimly aware of comings and goings and of men talking and Gandalf giving orders. And then again riding, riding in the night. This was the second, no, the third night since he had looked in the Stone. And with that hideous memory he woke fully, and shivered, and the noise of the wind became filled with menacing voices.
A light kindled in the sky, a blaze of yellow fire behind dark barriers Pippin cowered back, afraid for a moment, wondering into what dreadful country Gandalf was bearing him. He rubbed his eyes, and then he saw that it was the moon rising above the eastern shadows, now almost at the full. So the night was not yet old and for hours the dark journey would go on. He stirred and spoke.
"Where are we, Gandalf?" he asked.
"In the realm of Gondor," the wizard answered. "The land of Anórien is still passing by."
There was a silence again for a while. Then, "What is that?" cried Pippin suddenly, clutching at Gandalf's cloak. "Look! Fire, red fire! Are there dragons in this land? Look, there is another!"
For answer Gandalf cried aloud to his horse. "On, Shadowfax! We must hasten. Time is short. See! The beacons of Gondor are alight, calling for aid. War is kindled. See, there is the fire on Amon Dîn, and flame on Eilenach; and there they go speeding west: Nardol, Erelas, Min-Rimmon, Calenhad, and the Halifirien on the borders of Rohan."
But Shadowfax paused in his stride, slowing to a walk, and then he lifted up his head and neighed. And out of the darkness the answering neigh of other horses came; and presently the thudding of hoofs was heard, and three riders swept up and passed like flying ghosts in the moon and vanished into the West. Then Shadowfax gathered himself together and sprang away, and the night flowed over him like a roaring wind.
Pippin became drowsy again and paid little attention to Gandalf telling him of the customs of Gondor, and how the Lord of the City had beacons built on the tops of outlying hills along both borders of the great range, and maintained posts at these points where fresh horses were always in readiness to bear his errand-riders to Rohan in the North, or to Belfalas in the South. "It is long since the beacons of the North were lit," he said; "and in the ancient days of Gondor they were not needed, for they had the Seven Stones." Pippin stirred uneasily.
"Sleep again, and do not be afraid!" said Gandalf. "For you are not going like Frodo to Mordor, but to Minas Tirith, and there you will be as safe as you can be anywhere in these days. If Gondor falls, or the Ring is taken, then the Shire will be no refuge."
"You do not comfort me," said Pippin, but nonetheless sleep crept over him. The last thing that he remembered before he fell into deep dream was a glimpse of high white peaks, glimmering like floating isles above the clouds as they caught the light of the westering moon. He wondered where Frodo was, and if he was already in Mordor, or if he was dead; and he did not know that Frodo from far away looked on that same moon as it set beyond Gondor ere the coming of the day.
Pippin woke to the sound of voices. Another day of hiding and a night of journey had fleeted by. It was twilight: the cold dawn was at hand again, and chill grey mists were about them. Shadowfax stood steaming with sweat, but he held his neck proudly and showed no sign of weariness. Many tall men heavily cloaked stood beside him, and behind them in the mist loomed a wall of stone. Partly ruinous it seemed, but already before the night was passed the sound of hurried labour could be heard: beat of hammers, clink of trowels, and the creak of wheels. Torches and flares glowed dully here and there in the fog. Gandalf was speaking to the men that barred his way, and as he listened Pippin became aware that he himself was being discussed.
"Yea truly, we know you, Mithrandir," said the leader of the men, "and you know the pass-words of the Seven Gates and are free to go forward. But we do not know your companion. What is he? A dwarf out of the mountains in the North? We wish for no strangers in the land at this time, unless they be mighty men of arms in whose faith and help we can trust."
"I will vouch for him before the seat of Denethor," said Gandalf. "And as for valour, that cannot be computed by stature. He has passed through more battles and perils than you have, Ingold, though you be twice his height; and he comes now from the storming of Isengard, of which we bear tidings, and great weariness is on him, or I would wake him. His name is Peregrin, a very valiant man."
"Man?" said Ingold dubiously; and the others laughed.
"Man!" cried Pippin, now thoroughly roused. "Man! Indeed not! I am a hobbit and no more valiant than I am a man, save perhaps now and again by necessity. Do not let Gandalf deceive you!"
"Many a doer of great deeds might say no more," said Ingold. "But what is a hobbit?"
"A Halfling," answered Gandalf. "Nay, not the one that was spoken of," he added seeing the wonder in the men's faces. "Not he, yet one of his kindred."
"Yes, and one who journeyed with him," said Pippin. "And Boromir of your City was with us, and he saved me in the snows of the North, and at the last he was slain defending me from many foes."
"Peace!" said Gandalf. "The news of that grief should have been told first to the father."
"It has been guessed already," said Ingold; "for there have been strange portents here of late. But pass on now quickly! For the Lord of Minas Tirith will be eager to see any that bear the latest tidings of his son, be he man or-"
"Hobbit," said Pippin. "Little service can I offer to your lord, but what I can do, I would do, remembering Boromir the brave."
"Fare you well!" said Ingold; and the men made way for Shadow fax, and he passed through a narrow gate in the wall. "May you bring good counsel to Denethor in his need, and to us all, Mithrandir!" Ingold cried. "But you come with tidings of grief and danger, as is your wont, they say."
"Because I come seldom but when my help is needed," answered Gandalf. "And as for counsel, to you I would say that you are over-late in repairing the wall of the Pelennor. Courage will now be your best defence against the storm that is at hand - that and such hope as I bring. For not all the tidings that I bring are evil. But leave your trowels and sharpen your swords!"
"The work will be finished ere evening," said Ingold. "This is the last portion of the wall to be put in defence: the least open to attack, for it looks towards our friends of Rohan. Do you know aught of them? Will they answer the summons, think you?"
"Yes, they will come. But they have fought many battles at your back. This road and no road looks towards safety any longer. Be vigilant! But for Gandalf Stormcrow you would have seen a host of foes coming out of Anórien and no Riders of Rohan. And you may yet. Fare you well, and sleep not!"
Gandalf passed now into the wide land beyond the Rammas Echor. So the men of Gondor called the out wall that they had built with great labour, after Ithilien fell under the shadow of their Enemy. For ten leagues or more it ran from the mountains' feet and so back again, enclosing in its fence the fields of the Pelennor: fair and fertile townlands on the long slopes and terraces falling to the deep levels of the Anduin. At its furthest point from the Great Gate of the City, north-eastward, the wall was four leagues distant, and there from a frowning bank it overlooked the long flats beside the river, and men had made it high and strong; for at that point, upon a walled causeway, the road came in from the fords and bridges of Osgiliath and passed through a guarded gate between embattled towers. At its nearest point the wall was little more than one league from the City, and that was south-eastward. There Anduin, going in a wide knee about the hills of Emyn Arnen in South Ithilien, bent sharply west, and the out-wall rose upon its very brink; and beneath it lay the quays and landings of the Harlond for craft that came upstream from the southern fiefs.
The townlands were rich, with wide tilth and many orchards, and homesteads there were with oast and garner, fold and byre, and many rills rippling through the green from the highlands down to Anduin. Yet the herdsmen and husbandmen that dwelt there were not many, and the most part of the people of Gondor lived in the seven circles of the City, or in the high vales of the mountain-borders, in Lossarnach, or further south in fair Lebennin with its five swift streams. There dwelt a hardy folk between the mountains and the sea. They were reckoned men of Gondor, yet their blood was mingled, and there were short and swarthy folk among them whose sires came more from the forgotten men who housed in the shadow of the hills in the Dark Years ere the coming of the kings. But beyond, in the great fief of Belfalas, dwelt Prince Imrahil in his castle of Dol Amroth by the sea, and he was of high blood, and his folk also, tall men and proud with sea-grey eyes.
Now after Gandalf had ridden for some time the light of day grew in the sky, and Pippin roused himself and looked up. To his left lay a sea of mist, rising to a bleak shadow in the East; but to his right great mountains reared their heads, ranging from the West to a steep and sudden end, as if in the making of the land the River had burst through a great barrier, carving out a mighty valley to be a land of battle and debate in times to come. And there where the White Mountains of Ered Nimrais came to their end he saw, as Gandalf had promised, the dark mass of Mount Mindolluin, the deep purple shadows of its high glens, and its tall face whitening in the rising day. And upon its out-thrust knee was the Guarded City, with its seven walls of stone so strong and old that it seemed to have been not builded but carven by giants out of the bones of the earth.
Even as Pippin gazed in wonder the walls passed from looming grey to white, blushing faintly in the dawn; and suddenly the sun climbed over the eastern shadow and sent forth a shaft that smote the face of the City. Then Pippin cried aloud, for the Tower of Ecthelion, standing high within the topmost walls' shone out against the sky, glimmering like a spike of pearl and silver, tall and fair and shapely, and its pinnacle glittered as if it were wrought of crystals; and white banners broke and fluttered from the battlements in the morning breeze' and high and far he heard a clear ringing as of silver trumpets.
So Gandalf and Peregrin rode to the Great Gate of the Men of Gondor at the rising of the sun, and its iron doors rolled back before them.
"Mithrandir! Mithrandir!" men cried. "Now we know that the storm is indeed nigh!"
"It is upon you," said Gandalf. "I have ridden on its wings. Let me pass! I must come to your Lord Denethor, while his stewardship lasts. Whatever betide, you have come to the end of the Gondor that you have known. Let me pass!"
Then men fell back before the command of his voice and questioned him no further, though they gazed in wonder at the hobbit that sat before him and at the horse that bore him. For the people of the City used horses very little and they were seldom seen in their streets, save only those ridden by the errand-riders of their lord. And they said: "Surely that is one of the great steeds of the King of Rohan? Maybe the Rohirrim will come soon to strengthen us." But Shadowfax walked proudly up the long winding road.
For the fashion of Minas Tirith was such that it was built on seven levels, each delved into the hill, and about each was set a wall, and in each wall was a gate. But the gates were not set in a line: the Great Gate in the City Wall was at the east point of the circuit, but the next faced half south, and the third half north, and so to and fro upwards; so that the paved way that climbed towards the Citadel turned first this way and then that across the face of the hill. And each time that it passed the line of the Great Gate it went through an arched tunnel, piercing a vast pier of rock whose huge out-thrust bulk divided in two all the circles of the City save the first. For partly in the primeval shaping of the hill, partly by the mighty craft and labour of old, there stood up from the rear of the wide court behind the Gate a towering bastion of stone, its edge sharp as a ship-keel facing east. Up it rose, even to the level of the topmost circle, and there was crowned by a battlement; so that those in the Citadel might, like mariners in a mountainous ship, look from its peak sheer down upon the Gate seven hundred feet below. The entrance to the Citadel also looked eastward, but was delved in the heart of the rock; thence a long lamp-lit slope ran up to the seventh gate. Thus men reached at last the High Court, and the Place of the Fountain before the feet of the White Tower: tall and shapely, fifty fathoms from its base to the pinnacle, where the banner of the Stewards floated a thousand feet above the plain.
A strong citadel it was indeed, and not to be taken by a host of enemies, if there were any within that could hold weapons; unless some foe could come behind and scale the lower skirts of Mindolluin, and so come upon the narrow shoulder that joined the Hill of Guard to the mountain mass. But that shoulder, which rose to the height of the fifth wall, was hedged with great ramparts right up to the precipice that overhung its western end; and in that space stood the houses and domed tombs of bygone kings and lords, for ever silent between the mountain and the tower.
Pippin gazed in growing wonder at the great stone city, vaster and more splendid than anything that he had dreamed of; greater and stronger than Isengard, and far more beautiful. Yet it was in truth falling year by year into decay; and already it lacked half the men that could have dwelt at ease there. In every street they passed some great house or court over whose doors and arched gates were carved many fair letters of strange and ancient shapes: names Pippin guessed of great men and kindreds that had once dwelt there; and yet now they were silent, and no footsteps rang on their wide pavements, nor voice was heard in their halls, nor any face looked out from door or empty window.
At last they came out of shadow to the seventh gate, and the warm sun that shone down beyond the river, as Frodo walked in the glades of Ithilien, glowed here on the smooth walls and rooted pillars, and the great arch with keystone carven in the likeness of a crowned and kingly head. Gandalf dismounted, for no horse was allowed in the Citadel, and Shadowfax suffered himself to be led away at the soft word of his master.
The Guards of the gate were robed in black, and their helms were of strange shape, high-crowned, with long cheek-guards close-fitting to the face, and above the cheek-guards were set the white wings of sea-birds; but the helms gleamed with a flame of silver, for they were indeed wrought of mithril, heirlooms from the glory of old days. Upon the black surcoats were embroidered in white a tree blossoming like snow beneath a silver crown and many-pointed stars. This was the livery of the heirs of Elendil, and none wore it now in all Gondor, save the Guards of the Citadel before the Court of the Fountain where the White Tree once had grown.
Already it seemed that word of their coming had gone before them: and at once they were admitted, silently, and without question. Quickly Gandalf strode across the white-paved court. A sweet fountain played there in the morning sun, and a sward of bright green lay about it; but in the midst. drooping over the pool, stood a dead tree, and the falling drops dripped sadly from its barren and broken branches back into the clear water.
Pippin glanced at it as he hurried after Gandalf. It looked mournful, he thought, and he wondered why the dead tree was left in this place where everything else was well tended.
Seven stars and seven stones and one white tree.
The words that Gandalf had murmured came back into his mind. And then he found himself at the doors of the great hall beneath the gleaming tower; and behind the wizard he passed the tall silent door-wardens and entered the cool echoing shadows of the house of stone.
They walked down a paved passage, long and empty, and as they went Gandalf spoke softly to Pippin. "Be careful of your words, Master Peregrin! This is no time for hobbit pertness. Théoden is a kindly old man. Denethor is of another sort, proud and subtle, a man of far greater lineage and power, though he is not called a king. But he will speak most to you, and question you much, since you can tell him of his son Boromir. He loved him greatly: too much perhaps; and the more so because they were unlike. But under cover of this love he will think it easier to learn what he witches from you rather than from me. Do not tell him more than you need, and leave quiet the matter of Frodo's errand. I will deal with that in due time. And say nothing about Aragorn either, unless you must."
"Why not? What is wrong with Strider?" Pippin whispered. "He meant to come here, didn't he? And he'll be arriving soon himself anyway."
"Maybe, maybe," said Gandalf. "Though if he comes, it is likely to be in some way that no one expects, not even Denethor. It will be better so. At least he should come unheralded by us."
Gandalf halted before a tall door of polished metal. "See, Master Pippin, there is no time to instruct you now in the history of Gondor; though it might have been better, if you had learned something of it, when you were still birds-nesting and playing truant in the woods of the Shire. Do as I bid! It is scarcely wise when bringing the news of the death of his heir to a mighty lord to speak over much of the coming of one who will, if he comes, claim the kingship. Is that enough?"
"Kingship?" said Pippin amazed.
"Yes," said Gandalf. "If you have walked all these days with closed ears and mind asleep, wake up now!" He knocked on the door.
The door opened, but no one could be seen to open it. Pippin looked into a great hall. It was lit by deep windows in the wide aisles at either side, beyond the rows of tall pillars that upheld the roof. Monoliths of black marble, they rose to great capitals carved in many strange figures of beasts and leaves; and far above in shadow the wide vaulting gleamed with dull gold, inset with flowing traceries of many colours. No hangings nor storied webs, nor any things of woven stuff or of wood, were to be seen in that long solemn hall; but between the pillars there stood a silent company of tall images graven in cold stone.
Suddenly Pippin was reminded of the hewn rocks of Argonath, and awe fell on him, as he looked down that avenue of kings long dead. At the far end upon a dais of many steps was set a high throne under a canopy of marble shaped like a crowned helm; behind it was carved upon the wall and set with gems an image of a tree in flower. But the throne was empty. At the foot of the dais, upon the lowest step which was broad and deep, there was a stone chair, black and unadorned, and on it sat an old man gazing at his lap. In his hand was a white rod with a golden knob. He did not look up. Solemnly they paced the long floor towards him, until they stood three paces from his footstool. Then Gandalf spoke.
"Hail, Lord and Steward of Minas Tirith, Denethor son of Ecthelion! I am come with counsel and tidings in this dark hour."
Then the old man looked up. Pippin saw his carven face with its proud bones and skin like ivory, and the long curved nose between the dark deep eyes; and he was reminded not so much of Boromir as of Aragorn. "Dark indeed is the hour," said the old man, "and at such times you are wont to come, Mithrandir. But though all the signs forebode that the doom of Gondor is drawing nigh, less now to me is that darkness than my own darkness. It has been told to me that you bring with you one who saw my son die. Is this he?"
"It is," said Gandalf. "One of the twain. The other is with Théoden of Rohan and may come hereafter. Halflings they are, as you see, yet this is not he of whom the omens spoke."
"Yet a Halfling still," said Denethor grimly, "and little love do I bear the name, since those accursed words came to trouble our counsels and drew away my son on the wild errand to his death. My Boromir! Now we have need of you. Faramir should have gone in his stead."
"He would have gone," said Gandalf. "Be not unjust in your grief! Boromir claimed the errand and would not suffer any other to have it. He was a masterful man, and one to take what he desired. I journeyed far with him and learned much of his mood. But you speak of his death. You have had news of that ere we came?"
"I have received this," said Denethor, and laying down his rod he lifted from his lap the thing that he had been gazing at. In each hand he held up one half of a great horn cloven through the middle: a wild-ox horn bound with silver.
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Introduction: Edible Bowl Candy Bowl
I grew up watching my mom make suckers and thought I could easily figure out how to make a sucker bowl without ever working with hard tack candy, it wasn't as easy as I thought! But the good news is that it only took 6 glass sugar batches to figure it out and with this instructable it will be A LOT easier for you to make it. I will warn you that shaping sugar glass takes practice and becomes very addicting.
What You Need:
2 cups sugar
3/4 cup light corn syrup
1/8 Tablespoon cream of tarter
1 package of koolaid ( I used cherry) or you can use food coloring and oil flavoring
1 springform pan or greased cookie sheet
Greased tin foil
Greased small glass bowl
Candy Thermometer
Your choice of candy and goodies to go in bowl.
Ribbon or decoration you want
Teacher Notes
Teachers! Did you use this instructable in your classroom?
Add a Teacher Note to share how you incorporated it into your lesson.
Step 1: Prepare
You want everything ready to go because you have to work quickly once your hot sugar is ready to go! Preheat your oven to 225 degrees if you are planning to make more than one bowl. There are two ways to make your bowl. One way is using a springform pan and the other is using more of your hands to mold it (I will explain that technique at the end). If you don't want to take a chance of burning your hands then this is the safest way.
Place your springform pan on top of a greased piece of tin foil.
Grease a glass bowl that will be able to take the heat and is the size you want your sugar bowl to be.
Step 2: Making Your Sugar Glass
Mix your sugar, corn syrup, and cream of tarter into a medium pot. Keep stirring until the sugar dissolves into syrup. Then use a candy thermometer and heat it until it reaches 310 degrees, which is hard tack stage. Then mix in the koolaid of your choice or the flavoring and dye into the sugar mixture. Then if making two bowls, pour half of your mixture into the ring from your springform pan. Pour the other half into an oven safe container and place it in the oven to stay warm. Wait until the sugar you are working with cools enough that it won't run once you lift the ring up but not so cool that it has already hardened. Then lift the ring and place your greased glass bowl on top of the candy. Then lift the foil by the edges and quickly flip it over. Quickly remove the foil and start patting the sugar around the bowl. This technique will leave extra around the edges, I shaped mine to look like flower petals. Work quickly!! Once it has cooled and it is hard carefully remove it off the glass bowl. If making two bowls you will need two greased glass bowls. Once you are done molding the first take your sugar out of the stove and repeat the process. Don't leave your sugar in the stove too long, you only want to keep in warm while making the first one.
Step 3: Optional Technique
There is another way if you want more control of how it will be molded. This way is harder because it is hard to keep your hands from getting too hot. For this technique you won't need a spring form pan. You will poor your sugar on to a greased cookie sheet. Very quickly you will keep scooping the sugar back to the middle, folding it over it self and trying to keep it in the middle forming a ball of sugar. Once it gets cool enough you will quickly scoop it up and place it on top your greased bowl. Don't let it too cool because you wont be able to mold it. Then quickly mold it around Your greased bowl. Let cool and decorate your bowl and fill it with candy!
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6 Discussions
Wow so cool... and sticky....;)
They won't get sticky if you keep it away from moisture. I guess I should have written it in the instructable ;) but yes you are correct :) I hope it didn't get too sticky for you!
This is crazy. I love it. :D
Thank you!!!!
Well done! It's very difficult to work with hard tack. It's very beautiful! Just one suggestion...you should have called it an "edi-bowl" ;) LOL
I need to be more creative with the name, that would have been a great one!

subset: commoncrawl


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- The recent past
- Medieval Berlin
- Reformation & thirty years war
- Road to a kingdom
- The age of Prussia
- Napoleon & reforms
- Revolution(s)
- Birth of an empire
- WWI & revolution (again)
- The Weimar republic
- The 'golden' twenties
- Hitler's rise to power
- Berlin under the Nazis
- The battle of Berlin
- The aftermath
- Politics of provocation
- The two German states
- The 1953 uprising
- The wall goes up
- Rapprochement
- Student unrest & terrorism
- The wall comes down
- Reunification
- The Berlin Republic
The recent past
Berlin had a rough entry into the 21st century. In 2001 the city finally plunged into the deep financial crisis that had been looming for years. Accused of mismanagement, excessive spending and corruption during his 15-year period in office, mayor Eberhard Diepgen of the centre-right CDU (Christian Democratic Union) was forced to resign. Klaus Wowereit, representing the centre-left SPD (Social Democrat Party), became his successor after the 2001 elections, and formed an unprecedented governing coalition with the postcommunist PDS (Party of Democratic Socialism, recently renamed Linkspartei or Left Party).
Even after five years in office, however, the so-called 'Red-Red Coalition' has not yet been able to improve Berlin's balance sheet. Painful, across-the-board spending cuts, federal subsidies and other measures have so far done little or nothing to kick-start the city's economic engine or bring down the unemployment rate. Some economic branches are blooming, though, such as fashion, design and tourism. It helps, but just not enough.
Multiculturalism and the integration of immigrants have been other hot topics around dinner tables in recent years. In early 2005, a wave of 'honour killings' of young Muslim women wishing to live a western lifestyle, shocked not only Berliners but the world as well. Schools in Kreuzberg where every single student is of Turkish descent have raised the spectre of Parallelgesellschaften (parallel societies) and challenged Berliners' legendary tolerance.
But the news isn't all dire. Berlin continues to take shape, with the opening of the Holocaust Memorial, the Akademie der Künste (Academy of Arts) and the Hauptbahnhof (Main Train Station) being just three of the most high- profile recent additions. And in 2006, the entire city was awash with World Cup fever, with Berliners ready to welcome the global community in with open arms and hearts, to put aside their worries for a month and do what they do best…party!
Medieval Berlin
Berlin is very much an accidental capital, whose birth was a mere blip on the map of history. Some time in the 13th century, itinerant merchants founded a pair of trading posts called Berlin and Cölln near today's Nikolaiviertel. It was a profitable spot along a major medieval trade route, about halfway between the fortified towns of Köpenick and Spandau. Supported by the local ruler, the Ascanian margrave of Brandenburg, the settlements flourished and, in 1307, decided to merge into a single town for political and security purposes.
Things looked good until 1319, when the death of the Ascanian ruler created a power vacuum. It left the fledgling town vulnerable to robber barons eager to fatten their coffers by attacking traders and cities. Despite such adversity, Berlin managed to expand its rights and independence, even becoming a player in the Hanseatic League in 1359.
Such confidence became a thorn in the side of Elector Friedrich of Hohenzollern, who was installed as Brandenburg's new ruler by Sigismund, one of the kings in the Holy Roman Empire, in 1417. Although he helped Berliners defeat the robber barons, he also eliminated many of their hard-won political and economic liberties. The Hohenzollern clan would remain in power, without interruption, until 1918.
Reformation & thirty years war
The Reformation, kick-started in 1517 by the monk Martin Luther in nearby Wittenberg, was slow to arrive in Berlin. Eventually, though, the wave of reform reached Brandenburg, leaving Elector Joachim II (ruled 1535-71) no choice but to subscribe to Protestantism. On 1 November 1539, the court celebrated the first Lutheran-style service in the Nikolaikirche in Spandau. The event is still celebrated as an official holiday in Brandenburg, the German state that surrounds Berlin, although not in the city state of Berlin itself.
Berlin prospered for the ensuing decades until drawn into the Thirty Years' War (1618-48), a conflict between Catholics and Protestants that left Europe's soil drenched with the blood of millions. Elector Georg Wilhelm (ruled 1620-40) tried to maintain a policy of neutrality, only to see his territory repeatedly pillaged and plundered by both sides. By the time the war ended, Berlin lay largely in shambles - broke, ruined and decimated by starvation, murder and disease.
Road to a kingdom
Stability finally returned during the long reign of Georg Wilhelm's son, Friedrich Wilhelm (ruled 1640-88). Also known as the Great Elector, he took several steps which helped chart Brandenburg's rise to the status of a European powerhouse. His first order of business was to increase Berlin's safety by turning it into a garrison town encircled by fortifications. He also levied a new sales tax, using the money to build three new neighbourhoods (Friedrichswerder, Dorotheenstadt and Friedrichstadt), a canal linking the Spree and the Oder rivers (thereby cementing Berlin's position as a trading hub), as well as the Lustgarten and Unter den Linden.
But the Great Elector's most lasting legacy was replenishing Berlin's population by encouraging the settlement of refugees. In 1671, 50 Jewish families arrived from Vienna, followed in 1685 by Huguenots from France, who had been expelled by Louis XIV's anti-Protestant regime. The Französischer Dom (French Cathedral) on Gendarmenmarkt serves as a tangible reminder of Huguenot influence. Between 1680 and 1710, Berlin saw its population nearly triple to 56, 000, making it one of the largest cities in the Holy Roman Empire.
The Great Elector's son, Elector Friedrich III, was a man of great ambition and had a penchant for the arts and sciences. Together with his beloved wife, Sophie Charlotte, he presided over a lively and intellectual court, founding the Academy of Arts in 1696 and the Academy of Sciences in 1700. One year later, he advanced his career by promoting himself to King Friedrich I (elector 1688-1701, king 1701-13) of Prussia, making Berlin a royal residence and the capital of the new state of Brandenburg-Prussia.
The age of Prussia
All cultural and intellectual life screeched to a halt under Friedrich's son, Friedrich Wilhelm I (ruled 1713-40). He was frugal, boorish and, frankly, a bit odd. His main obsession was building an army of 80,000, which earned him the nickname Soldatenkönig (Soldier King). His brutal conscription methods launched a mass exodus of thousands of able-bodied men and their families, seriously cramping Berlin's economic development until he rescinded the draft in 1730. Even the Lustgarten was turned into an exercise ground for the king's beloved soldiers, who never even saw action on the battlefield.
The army did, however, come in handy for his son and successor Friedrich II (ruled 1740-86), better known to English speakers as Frederick the Great and to his subjects as der alte Fritz (Old Freddy). He set his covetous eyes on Silesia, in today's Poland, and before long the new king was engaged in a series of wars with Russia and Austria before finally achieving his goal in 1763. When not busy on the battlefield, Freddy was actually quite a culturally sensitive fellow who sought greatness through building. His grand architectural masterplan for Unter den Linden, although never completed, gave Berlin the Staatsoper (State Opera House), Sankt-Hedwigs-Kathedrale, the Humboldt Universität (Humboldt University) and other major attractions.
Frederick also embraced the ideas of the Enlightenment, abolishing torture, guaranteeing religious freedom, and introducing legal reforms. Some of the brightest minds of the day flocked to town during his reign, including the philosopher Moses Mendelsohn, the poet Gotthold Emphraim Lessing, the all-around talent Wilhelm von Humboldt and his brother Alexander, a naturalist and explorer. Intellectual salons, organised by women such as Henriette Herz and Rahel Levin, provided an open forum of discussion for anybody, regardless of social standing or religious background. Berlin flourished as a great cultural centre and even became known as Spree-Athen (Athens on the Spree).
Napoleon & reforms
After the death of Frederick the Great, Prussia went into a downward spiral, culminating in its defeat by Napoleon's forces at Jena, around 400km southwest of Berlin, in 1806. On 27 October in 1806 Napoleon marched through the Brandenburg Gate (Brandenburger Tor), signalling the beginning of a three-year occupation of Berlin. The humiliation was compounded by the financial burden of astronomical war reparations and from citizens having to billet thousands of French troops in their homes. But Napoleon also provided the opportunity for Berliners to have their first taste of self-government, instituting a city administration with elected leaders.
When the French eventually left, it seemed there was no going back to the old system. Public servants, academics and merchants now questioned the right of the nobility to rule. Friedrich Wilhelm III (ruled 1797-1840) reacted with a string of token reforms - such as lifting restrictive guild regulations, abolishing bonded labour and granting Jews civic equality - but meaningful constitutional reform was not forthcoming, and power continued to be centred in the Prussian state.
The ensuing period of political stagnation was oddly paired with an intellectual flourishing in the cafés and salons. The newly founded Universität zu Berlin (Humboldt Universität) quickly grew in status, attracting such luminaries as Hegel and Ranke to its faculty. This was also the age of Karl Friedrich Schinkel, whose many projects - from the Neue Wache (New Guardhouse) to the Altes Museum (Old Museum) - still beautify Berlin.
The ascent of Friedrich Wilhelm IV (ruled 1840-61) to the throne in 1840 revived hopes for reform, but in the end he proved just as reactionary as his father. In 1848 Berlin got caught up in the region-wide bourgeois revolutions, calling for a national German state and demanding basic, democratic rights. Faced with demonstrations in his own backyard, the king made some concessions, including the right to assemble, and freedom of the press. However, the following day, soldiers opened fire on 10, 000 people who had gathered in celebration and all hell broke loose. Sheltered merely by barricades, people fought with pitchforks, axes, stones and other improvised weapons. After a night of hostilities that left over 200 dead, the king ordered his troops back and ostensibly proclaimed support for liberalism and nationalism. An elected Prussian national assembly met on 1 May but disagreements between the different factions kept it weak and ineffective, and it dissolved in December. The revolution was dead.
The political revolution may have failed, but the 'industrial revolution' certainly didn't. With manufacturing trades already well established by the 18th century, Berlin developed into a centre of technology and industry right from the dawn of the Industrial Age. The building of the German railway system (the first Berlin to Potsdam track opened in 1838) led to the founding of more than 1000 factories, including electrical giants AEG and Siemens. In 1841, August Borsig built the world's fastest locomotive, besting even the British in a race.
Birth of an empire
When Friedrich Wilhelm IV suffered a stroke in 1857, his brother Wilhelm became first regent and then, in 1861, King Wilhelm I (ruled 1861-88). Unlike his brother, Wilhelm had his finger on the pulse of the times and was less averse to progress. One of his key moves was to appoint Otto von Bismarck as Prussian prime minister in 1862.
Bismarck's big dream was to create a Prussian-led unified Germany. An old-guard militarist, he waged war against Denmark (with Austria as his ally) over Schleswig-Holstein in 1864, then beat Austria itself in 1866, forming the North German Confederation the following year. He isolated France, manoeuvred it into declaring war on Prussia in 1870, then surprised Napoleon III by securing the support of most southern German states. By 1871, Berlin stood as the proud capital of a unified Germany. On 18 January, the king was crowned Kaiser at Versailles, with Bismarck as his 'Iron Chancellor'. The German Empire ('Deutsches Reich'- Germany's official name until 1945) was born.
The early years of the German Empire - a period called Gründerzeit (Foundation Years) - were marked by major economic growth, fuelled in part by a steady flow of French reparation payments. The population boomed as hundreds of thousands of people poured into Berlin to find work in the factories. Housing shortages were solved by building countless Mietskasernen (literally 'rental barracks'), labyrinthine tenements built around successive courtyards, where entire families subsisted in tiny and poorly ventilated flats without indoor plumbing.
New political parties formed to give a voice to the proletariat, most prominently the Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands (SPD, Social Democratic Party of Germany). Founded in 1875, it captured 40% of the Berlin vote only two years later. Bismarck, who was no fan of democratic ideals, quickly passed a law making the party illegal, but this did nothing to diminish its popularity. In the end, the Iron Chancellor's deep-rooted aversion to real reform prompted his downfall. Soon after Wilhelm II (ruled 1888-1918) came to power, a rift arose between the Kaiser, who wanted to extend the social security system, and Bismarck, who wanted to enact ever-stricter antisocialist laws. Finally, in March 1890, the Kaiser excised his renegade chancellor from the political scene.
WWI & revolution (again)
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austrian throne, on 28 June 1914, triggered a series of diplomatic decisions which led to the bloodiest European conflict since the Thirty Years' War. In Berlin and elsewhere, initial euphoria and faith in a quick victory soon gave way to despair as casualties piled up in the battlefield trenches and stomachs grumbled on the home front. When peace came with defeat in 1918, it also ended domestic stability, ushering in a period of turmoil and violence.
On 9 November 1918, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated, bringing an inglorious end to the monarchy and 500 years of Hohenzollern rule. Power was transferred to the SPD, the largest party in the Reichstag, and its leader, Friedrich Ebert. This would not go unchallenged. Shortly after the Kaiser's exit, prominent SPD member Philipp Scheidemann stepped to a window of the Reichstag to announce the birth of the German Republic. Two hours later, Karl Liebknecht of the Spartakusbund (Spartacist League) proclaimed a socialist republic from a balcony of the royal palace on Unter den Linden. The struggle for power was on.
Founded by Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, the Spartacist League sought to establish a left-wing Marxist-style government; by year's end it had merged with other radical groups into the Communist Party of Germany. The SPD's goal, meanwhile, was to establish a parliamentary democracy.
Supporters of the SPD and Spartacist League took their rivalry to the streets, culminating in the Spartacist Revolt in early January. On the orders of Ebert, government forces quickly quashed the uprising. Liebknecht and Luxemburg were arrested and murdered en route to prison; their bodies were dumped in the Landwehrkanal.
The Weimar republic
In July 1919, the federalist constitution of the fledgling republic - Germany's first serious experiment with democracy - was adopted in the town of Weimar, where the constituent assembly had sought refuge from the chaos of Berlin. It gave women the vote and established basic human rights, but it also gave the chancellor the right to rule by decree - a concession that would later prove critical in Hitler's rise to power.
The so-called Weimar Republic (1920-33) was governed by a coalition of left and centre parties, headed by President Friedrich Ebert and later Paul von Hindenburg - both of the SPD, which remained Germany's largest party until 1932. The republic, however, pleased neither communists nor monarchists. Trouble erupted as early as March 1920 when right-wing militants led by Wolfgang Kapp forcibly occupied the government quarter in Berlin. The government fled to Dresden, but in Berlin a general strike soon brought the 'Kapp Putsch' to collapse.
The 'golden' twenties
The giant metropolis of Berlin as we know it today came into existence 1920 when the government amalgamated the region's towns and villages (Charlottenburg, Schöneberg, Spandau, etc) under a single administration. Overnight Berlin became one of the world's largest cities, with around 3.8 million inhabitants.
Otherwise, the 1920s began as anything but golden, marked by the humiliation of a lost war, social and political instability, hyperinflation, hunger and disease. Around 235, 000 Berliners were unemployed, and strikes, demonstrations and riots became nearly everyday occurrences. Economic stability gradually returned after the introduction of a new currency, the Rentenmark, in 1923, and the passage of the Dawes Plan in 1924, which limited the crippling reparation payments imposed on Germany after WWI.
For the next few years Berlin experienced a cultural and artistic heyday that rivalled, perhaps even exceeded, events in Paris. It became a cauldron of experimentation, a hub of hedonism, a centre of tolerance and, yes, decadence. Bursting with creative energy, it was a laboratory for anything new and modern, drawing giants of architecture (including Bruno Taut, Martin Wagner, Hans Scharoun and Walter Gropius), fine arts (George Grosz, Max Beckmann and Lovis Corinth) and literature (Bertolt Brecht, Kurt Tucholsky, WH Auden and Christopher Isherwood). In 1923, Germany's first radio broadcast hit the airwaves over Berlin, and in 1931 TV had its world premiere here.
The fun came to an instant end when the US stock market crashed in 1929, plunging the entire world into economic depression. Within weeks, half a million Berliners were jobless, and riots and demonstrations again ruled the streets. The volatile, increasingly polarised political climate led to frequent confrontations between communists and members of a party that had only just begun to gain momentum - the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist German Workers' Party, NSDAP, or Nazi Party), led by a failed Austrian artist named Adolf Hitler.
Hitler's rise to power
Hitler's NSDAP gained 18% of the national vote in the 1930 elections. Buoyed by his success, Hitler challenged President Paul von Hindenburg of the SPD in 1932, winning 37% of the second-round vote. A year later, on 30 January 1933, faced with failed economic reforms and persuasive right-wing advisors, Hindenburg appointed Hitler Reichskanzler (Reich chancellor). That evening, Nazi supporters celebrated their rise to power with a torch-lit procession through the Brandenburg Gate.
The following month, Hitler blamed the 27 February fire that had mysteriously broken out at the Reichstag on communists, and persuaded Hindenburg to grant him emergency powers so he could 'protect the people and the state'. On 24 March, parliament met at Berlin's Kroll Opera House (destroyed in WWII) to pass the 'Enabling Law' - essentially assigning Hitler dictatorial powers and making itself redundant. The Nazi dictatorship had officially begun.
Berlin under the Nazis
The totalitarian Nazi ethos had immediate, far-reaching consequences for the entire population. Left-leaning parties, including the SPD and communist groups, were banned, along with trade unions. Freedom of the press ceased to exist. Terror was the rule of the day.
Hitler's brown-shirted thugs of the Sturmabteilung (storm troopers; SA) went after opponents with a vengeance, arresting, torturing and murdering countless people. Improvised concentration camps sprang up almost immediately, such as the one at the Wasserturm in Prenzlauer Berg. North of Berlin, construction began on a large formal concentration camp in Sachsenhausen. The brutality of Hitler's henchmen knew no bounds: during the so-called Köpenick Blood Week alone, in June 1933, almost 100 people were murdered. On 10 May, right-wing students burned 'un-German' books on Bebelplatz, prompting countless intellectuals and artists to rush into exile.
Jews, of course, were a main target right from the start. In April 1933, Joseph Goebbels, Gauleiter (district leader) of Berlin and newly appointed Minister of Propaganda, announced a boycott of Jewish businesses. By autumn, hundreds of Jewish professors had lost their jobs and more than half of Berlin's 40 synagogues had closed. The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 revoked German citizenship for Jews and outlawed marriage between Jews and people deemed as 'Aryans'.
Hitler demanded absolute loyalty and had no qualms about turning against anyone even remotely perceived as wanting to challenge his authority. The SA, for instance, had grown into a huge organisation and become an obstreperous bunch by 1934. With rumours of revolt circulating, on 30 June the elite SS troops (Schutzstaffel, Hitler's personal guard) rounded up and executed scores of high-ranking SA officers, including their leader, Ernst Röhm, in the SS barracks in Lichterfelde - an event that went down in history as the 'Night of the Long Knives'. Later that year, after Hindenburg's death, Hitler merged the position of president and chancellor and made himself supreme Führer (leader).
The international community, meanwhile, turned a blind eye to the situation in Germany, perhaps because many leaders were keen to see some order restored to the country after decades of political upheaval. Hitler's success at stabilising the shaky economy, especially the eradication of unemployment through public works programmes, also garnered him some admirers. The 1936 Olympic summer games in Berlin were a PR triumph, as Hitler launched a charm offensive to distract the world from the everyday terror of his regime. On 1 August athletes from 49 nations marched into the imposing Olympiastadion in western Charlottenburg. Germany took home the lion's share of medals (42), beating the Americans by seven.
Terror and persecution resumed as soon as the closing ceremony's last fireworks had evaporated into the night sky. For Jews, the horror escalated on 9 November 1938, with the Reichspogromnacht (often called Kristallnacht, or Night of Broken Glass). Nazi thugs shattered the windows of Jewish businesses and shops throughout Berlin and all of Germany, looting and torching many of them. In the aftermath, all Jewish businesses were transferred to non-Jews through forced sale at below-market prices. Jews had begun to emigrate after 1933, but this event set off a stampede. Very few of those who remained in Berlin - about 60, 000 - were still alive in 1945.
On 1 September 1939 Germany invaded Poland, kicking off the 20th century's second pan- European conflict. This time the war was not greeted with pleasure in Berlin, whose people still remembered the hunger years of WWI and the early 1920s. Again the hostilities brought food shortages and increasing political oppression.
Belgium, the Netherlands and France fell quickly to Germany and, in June 1941, Hitler attacked the USSR, opening up a new front. Though successful at first, 'Operation Barbarossa' soon ran into problems, forcing Hitler's troops to retreat. With the defeat of the German 6th army at Stalingrad (today Volgograd) the following winter, morale flagged at home and on the fronts.
The fate of Jews deteriorated after the outbreak of war. At Hitler's request, a conference in January 1942 on Berlin's Wannsee came up with the Endlösung (Final Solution) : the decision to systematically annihilate all European Jews in what came to be known as the Holocaust. Gays, Roma and Sinti (commonly referred to as Gypsies), priests, dissidents and other regime opponents were targeted as well. In the end more than six million people perished in dozens of concentration camps, most of them in Eastern Europe. About 500, 000 survived to be freed by Soviet and Allied soldiers in 1945. In Berlin, the new Holocaust Memorial is one of many commemorating this grim period in history.
Resistance to Hitler was rare. The most famous act was the 20 July 1944 assassination attempt led by Claus Graf Schenk von Stauffenberg. A high-ranking officer in the military, Stauffenberg had access to the Wolfschanze (one of Hitler's military headquarters in Gierloz, near Ketryzyn in Poland), and personally placed a briefcase packed with explosives below the conference table near Hitler's seat. The bomb detonated but Hitler escaped with minor injuries thanks to the solid oak table which shielded him from the blast. Stauffenberg and his co-conspirators were shot that night at the army headquarters in the Bendlerblock in Berlin. Hundreds of others, many of them completely unaffiliated with the coup, were later executed at Plötzensee prison. Both locations are now memorial sites.
The battle of Berlin
With the Normandy invasion of June 1944, Allied troops arrived in formidable force on the European mainland, supported by unrelenting air raids on Berlin and most other German cities. In the last days of the war Hitler, broken and paranoid, ordered the destruction of all remaining German industry and infrastructure, a decree that was largely ignored.
The final Battle of Berlin began in mid-April 1945. More than 1.5 million Soviet soldiers barrelled towards the capital from the east, reaching Berlin on 21 April and encircling it on 25 April. Two days later they were in the city centre, fighting running street battles with the remaining troops, many of them boys and elderly men. On 30 April the fighting reached the government quarter where Hitler was ensconced in his bunker behind the Chancellery, with his long-time mistress Eva Braun - whom he'd married just a day earlier. That afternoon, Hitler shot Braun and then himself.
Two days later Berlin surrendered to the Soviets. Red Army soldiers stormed the Reichstag and set it alight. On 7 May 1945, Germany capitulated. Peace was signed at the US military headquarters in Reims (France) and at the Soviet military headquarters in Berlin-Karlshorst, now a museum.
The aftermath
WWII took an enormous toll on Berlin and its people, as the civilian population had borne the brunt of the bombings. Entire neighbourhoods lay in smouldering rubble, with more than half of all buildings and one-third of industry destroyed or damaged. At least 125, 000 Berliners had lost their lives. With around one million women and children evacuated, only 2.4 million people were left in the city in May 1945 (compared to 4.3 million in 1939), two-thirds of them women. It fell to them to do much of the initial clean-up, earning them the name Trümmerfrauen (rubble women). Over the following years, enormous amounts of debris were piled up into so-called Trümmerberge (rubble mountains), artificial hills such as the Teufelsberg in the Grunewald.
Some small triumphs came quickly after the shooting stopped: U-Bahn service resumed on 14 May 1945, newspaper printing presses began rolling again on 15 May, and the Berliner Philharmonie gave its first postwar concert on 26 May.
Politics of provocation
In line with agreements reached at the Yalta Conference in February 1945, Germany was divided into four zones of occupation. Berlin was sliced up into 20 administrative areas. The British sector encompassed Charlottenburg, Tiergarten and Spandau; the French got Wedding and Reinickendorf; and the Americans were in charge of Zehlendorf, Steglitz, Wilmersdorf, Tempelhof, Kreuzberg and Neukölln - all these areas later formed West Berlin. The Soviets, meanwhile, held on to eight districts in the east, including Mitte, Prenzlauer Berg, Friedrichshain, Treptow and Köpenick; the future East Berlin. The Soviets also occupied the zone surrounding Berlin, leaving West Berlin completely encircled by territories under Soviet control.
In July and August of that year, the victorious powers met in Schloss Cecilienhof in Potsdam to discuss the future of Germany. Friction between the Western Allies and the Soviets quickly emerged. For the Western Allies, a main priority was to help Germany get back on its feet by kick-starting the devastated economy. The Soviets, though, insisted on massive reparations and began brutalising and exploiting their own zone of occupation. Tens of thousands of able-bodied men and POWs ended up in labour camps deep in the Soviet Union. In the Allied zones, meanwhile, democracy was beginning to take root as Germany elected state parliaments in 1946-47.
An escalation of tensions led to a showdown in June 1948, when the Allies introduced the Deutschmark in their zones without having consulted the Soviets. Furious, the USSR issued its own currency, the Ostmark, and used the incident as a pretext for an economic blockade of West Berlin. The goal was to bring all of Berlin under its control but the Allies would have none of it. Led by Lucius D Clay, the US commander in Berlin, their response was quick and effective: Berlin would be supplied from the air. The Berlin Airlift miraculously saved the city from being absorbed into the Soviet empire.
The two German states
In 1949 the division of Germany - and Berlin - was formalised. The western zones evolved into the Bundesrepublik Deutschland (BRD, Federal Republic of Germany or FRG) with Konrad Adenauer as its first chancellor and Bonn on the Rhine River as its capital. The Marshall Plan pumped millions of dollars into reconstruction in West Germany, and helped usher in an economic boom called the Wirtschaftswunder (economic miracle) that began in the 1950s and lasted through most of the 1960s. The policies of its architect, economics minister Ludwig Erhard, encouraged investment and capital formation, and beckoned guests workers from southern Europe (mainly Turkey, Yugoslavia, and Italy) to address a manual labour shortage. This created many of the ethnic communities that characterise Berlin and other German cities today.
The Soviet zone, meanwhile, grew into the Deutsche Demokratische Republik (DDR, German Democratic Republic or GDR), making East Berlin its capital and Wilhelm Pieck its president. From the outset, though, the Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands (SED, Socialist Unity Party of Germany) led by party boss Walter Ulbricht dominated economic, judicial and security policy. In order to oppress any dissent, the notorious Ministry for State Security, or Stasi, was established in 1950 and had its headquarters in Lichtenberg. Regime 'enemies' were incarcerated at the super-secret Stasi Prison nearby.
Movement between the two Berlins remained fairly open; West Berliners went east to visit friends or see a play, East Berliners came across to stock up on consumer goods or catch a movie. Starting in 1951, however, the GDR imposed restrictions on West Berliners wanting to travel outside the city. Suddenly, visiting family in Leipzig or Magdeburg required applying for a permit.
The 1953 uprising
By 1953, the first signs of discontent had appeared in the GDR. Production bottlenecks stifled industrial output, heavy industry got priority over consumer goods, and increased demands on industrial workers bred bitterness. Furthermore, the death of Stalin that year had raised hopes of reform but brought no real changes. Poverty and economic tensions merely prompted the SED to raise production goals even higher.
Strikes and calls for reform turned to civil unrest in urban and industrial centres, culminating in violence on 17 June 1953. Construction workers on Berlin's Karl-Marx-Allee got the ball rolling, but demonstrations quickly spread, eventually involving at least 10% of the workforce. It didn't do any good, of course. Soviet tanks quickly quashed the uprising, leaving scores dead (many of them executed) or condemned to lifelong prison terms.
The wall goes up
As the GDR government became ever-more oppressive, the trickle of refugees to the West swelled into a stream. Eventually, the exodus of mostly young and well- educated people strained the GDR economy to such a degree that the SED built a wall to keep them in. Construction of the Berlin Wall, the Cold War's most potent symbol, began on the night of 13 August 1961. The inner-German border was fenced off, heavily guarded and mined.
This stealthy act left Berliners stunned. Formal protests from the Western Allies, as well as massive demonstrations in West Berlin, were ignored. Tension reached a boiling point on 25 October, as US and Soviet tanks faced off at Checkpoint Charlie. The Berlin Wall subsequently became the setting of countless escape attempts, of which the most spectacular are detailed in the Haus am Checkpoint Charlie Museum. By the time the Wall collapsed on 9 November 1989, almost 200 people had been killed trying to get across it.
The building of the Wall marked a new low in East-West relations worldwide, and tense times were to follow. In 1963, US President John F Kennedy made a visit to West Berlin, praising locals for their pro-freedom stance in his famous 'Ich bin ein Berliner' speech at the Rathaus Schöneberg, and putting the city firmly on the front line of the Cold War.
The era of Erich Honecker (1912-94), who succeeded Walter Ulbricht as general secretary of the SED in 1971, opened the way for rapprochement with the West and international recognition of the GDR. A major breakthrough came in September 1971, with the signing of the Four Power Agreement in the Kammergericht in Schöneberg. It charged the governments of West Berlin and the GDR with finding ways to regulate access between the rest of West Germany and West Berlin, and to secure the right of West Berliners to visit East Berlin and the GDR. Negotiations resulted in the Transit Agreement of 1972, which regulated the right of GDR citizens to visit West Germany, but only in family emergencies. Anyone visiting East Berlin, meanwhile, was saddled with a compulsory exchange of Deutschmarks for the weak Ostmark based on a 1:1 exchange rate.
Still, the talks had gone so well that both sides agreed to take things a step further and create a comprehensive treaty between the two Germanys. In the Basic Treaty, signed in December 1972, the two countries recognised each other's independence and sovereignty, accepted each others' borders, and committed to normalising their official relations by, among other things, setting up 'permanent missions' in Bonn and East Berlin, respectively.
Student unrest & terrorism
In West Germany the two major parties, the CDU and the SPD, formed a so-called 'grand coalition' in 1966. The absence of parliamentary opposition was among the factors fuelling an increasingly radical student movement with Berlin's Freie Universität (Free University; FU) at its centre. At sit-ins and protests, students demanded an end to the Vietnam War and a reform of Germany's dated university system and teaching programs. These demonstrations were a thorn in the side of the government and crack-downs sometimes turned violent.
On 2 June 1967 police shot and killed unarmed student Benno Ohnesorg near the Deutsche Oper in Charlottenburg, during a protest against the visit of the Shah of Iran. It was the first demonstration Ohnesorg had attended. His death was a key event in the history of the student movement and brought into the fold scores of people who had previously remained on the sidelines. Another pivotal moment came a year later, on 11 April 1968, when Rudi Dutschke - the movement's charismatic leader at the FU - was shot in the head by a young worker outside his organisation's office on Kurfürstendamm. He survived, but students blamed the right-wing publishing house of Axel Springer for inciting the event, having run such headlines as 'Stop Dutschke Now!'.
By 1970 the movement had fizzled, but not without having shaken up the country and bringing many changes, including university reforms, politicisation of the student body and, eventually, the formation of the Green Party (Dutschke was a founding member).
Some of the most radical students, though, felt these accomplishments hadn't gone far enough and went underground. Berlin became the germ cell of the terrorist Rote Armee Fraktion (RAF, Red Army Faction), led by Ulrike Meinhof, Andreas Baader and Gudrun Ensslin. Throughout the 1970s the RAF abducted and assassinated prominent business and political figures throughout Germany. By 1976, however, Meinhof and Baader had committed suicide (both in prison) and remaining members found themselves in jail, in hiding, or seeking refuge in the GDR. Eventually that country's demise would expose them to West German attempts to bring them to justice.
The wall comes down
The Wende (turning point) began in September 1989, when East Germans starting defecting to the West after Hungary opened its border with Austria. The SED responded by tightening travel restrictions, but nothing could stop the flow of people seeking refuge in West German consulates and embassies in East Berlin, Warsaw, Prague and Budapest.
Supported by church leaders, the Neues Forum (New Forum) of opposition groups emerged, leading calls for human rights and an end to the SED political monopoly. By this time East Germany was losing about 10, 000 citizens a day, and on 4 November 1989, about 500, 000 demonstrators gathered on Berlin's Alexanderplatz demanding political reform.
The replacement of Honecker by Egon Krenz did not stave off the day of reckoning. On 9 November 1989, SED spokesperson Günter Schabowski told GDR citizens in a televised press conference that all travel restrictions to the West had been lifted. Asked when exactly this move would take effect, Schabowsky stared at his notes, then stuttered, mistakenly, 'Right away'. The misunderstanding, however, was only with regard to the date, not the actual lifting of the restrictions.
Soon thereafter, tens of thousands rushed through border points in Berlin, watched by perplexed guards, who did nothing to intervene. West Berliners went into the streets to greet the visitors, and tears and champagne flowed. Amid scenes of wild partying, mile-long parades of Trabants (cars manufactured in the GDR) the two Berlins came together again, united to the sound of - would you believe it - David Hasselhoff crooning Looking for Freedom.
Government representation and opposition groups soon met for round-table discussions to hash out a course for the future. In March 1990, free elections in the GDR brought to power an alliance headed by the CDU's Lothar de Maizière. The SPD, which took an equivocal view of reunification, found itself punished by voters. The old SED administrative regions were abolished and the original states (Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt and Thuringia) revived. The newly united city of Berlin became a separate city-state. Economic union took force in mid-1990, and in August 1990 the Unification Treaty was signed in the Kronprinzenpalais on Unter den Linden. A common currency and economic union became realities in July 1990. Also in July, Pink Floyd replayed the original set of their 1980's album The Wall to a crowd of 200, 000 (and TV audiences of millions worldwide) on Potsdamer Platz.
In September 1990 the BRD and the GDR, the USSR, France, United Kingdom and the United States met in Moscow to sign the Two-Plus-Four Treaty, ending postwar occupation zones and paving the way for formal German reunification. One month later the East German state was dissolved; in December Germany held its first unified post-WWII elections.
In 1991, a small majority (338 to 320) of members in the Bundestag (German parliament) voted in favour of moving the government to Berlin and of making Berlin the German capital once again. On 8 September 1994 the last Allied troops stationed in Berlin left the city after a festive ceremony.
The Berlin Republic
In 1999 the German parliament moved from Bonn to Berlin, convening its first session in the restored Reichstag building on 19 April. The ministries quickly followed, as did diplomats, government agencies, industrial associations and lobbyists - an estimated total of 15, 000 people. A Regierungsviertel (government quarter) around the Reichstag sprang up, with new offices for parliamentarians, sleek embassies and, most notably, the striking Chancellery.
Elsewhere, too, the face of Berlin has greatly changed since reunification. An architectural frenzy has rejuvenated most of the central areas, restoring the Mitte district to its rightful place as the city's heart. The cultural vibrancy of the 1920s has returned with a vengeance, transforming Berlin from a political curiosity to a vital presence among European capitals. The city exudes a new sophistication and a greater internationalism than ever before, and signs of creative energy, construction and modernisation abound wherever you look.
But not everything is rosy in Berlin or the new Germany. Scandals surrounding the financial dealings of former chancellor, Helmut Kohl, and his unification government rocked the political establishment in 2000, and shook many people's faith in politicians, and the Berlin Senate's overenthusiastic investment has effectively bankrupted the city. Whatever its domestic problems, however, Berlin seems to have put its worst days firmly behind it.


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04 Apr Review, Makeup Trend 2017, 2018: MAC Cosmetics Next to Nothing Collection, Foundation, Pressed Powder
M∙A∙C Next to Nothing Face Color is an ultra-balmy fluid infused with nourishing ingredients and opalescent microspheres, bringing out skin's luminosity whether worn under makeup or alone. Smooth it on with a sponge or the new 140 Synthetic Full Fan Brush and 141 Synthetic Face Fan Brush to deliver the best professional results. M∙A∙C Next to Nothing Pressed Powder offers a creamy, transformative, lightweight formula for long-lasting, high-comfort wear. The silky-soft texture boasts micro-light boosters that guarantee the look of radiant skin — no filters needed!
Available in-store and online April 6, 2017 in the permanent line. #NextToNothing
Makeup Review, Photos,Trend 2017, 2018: MAC Cosmetics Future Forward, Justine Skye, Dua Lipa, Lee Hi
Review, Makeup Trend 2017, 2018: MAC Cosmetics Betty Boop Lipstick, Valentine's Day
You can purchase all reviewed and mentioned items on BeautyStat.com.
What do you think of the MAC Next To Nothing Collection?
Let us know by commenting below (you just might win a free sample)! Make sure to follow us on our Pinterest page by clicking HERE! And don't forget to get the latest beauty and skincare news by following us on Facebook, Twitter & Instagram @BeautyStat! #bstat
– Allycia Wilson, Editor in Chief
You can follow Allycia on Instagram and Twitter @lisalacquer
For more giveaways and contests, sign up for our newsletter HERE.


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Medical Studies
How SILIQ Works
Taking SILIQ
Everyone is different, but many patients who took part in medical studies became totally clear.
Almost 9 of 10 patients saw half of their psoriasis disappear in the first month of treatment with SILIQ. On average, patients were about 95% clear at 3 months and beyond.*
*Patients were evaluated for nearly 4 years in a medical study and had about 95% average clearance until the study ended.
SILIQ stops the action of a family of 4 proteins involved in psoriasis by blocking the gateway through which these proteins work. Other biologic medicines that work against this family of proteins target one protein from this group and have no effect on the other 3 proteins.
So even if you've been around the block with other treatments without the results you want, don't give up
Ask your doctor if
SILIQ may work for you.
If your healthcare provider decides that you or a caregiver can give the injections at home, you will need to be trained on the right way to inject SILIQ. Your healthcare provider will take you through the steps to prepare, inject, and dispose of SILIQ. Do not try to inject SILIQ before this training.
When your medicine arrives, please check to be sure that you have 4 syringes. Those will last for the first month of treatment. All of your refills after that will have 2 syringes per month.
Once your SILIQ arrives,
take one dose a week
for 3 weeks.
After that, take SILIQ once every 2 weeks. Consistent dosing gives you consistent results – your medicine works best when used on the right schedule.
It may take a few times before you're completely comfortable injecting SILIQ on your own. Refer back to these steps and the video below as often as you need. Pretty soon, injecting SILIQ will become just another routine in your life. Want an easy way to help remember how to take SILIQ?
Set Up, Select, Squeeze, and Inject SILIQ.
First, set up all your supplies.
Select an injection site, and with clean hands, wipe the site with an alcohol swab.
Squeeze the injection site to create a firm surface.
Inject the prefilled syringe into the site and press the plunger until all the medicine has been injected.
Once you have completed the injection and removed the
prefilled syringe, place it in your needle disposal container.
Treatment results with SILIQ can be dramatic. See how SILIQ is helping patients like you get totally clear.
These photos are of actual patients treated with SILIQ in clinical trials. Photos have not been retouched. Individual results may vary.
Ready to make an appointment, but don't have a dermatologist? We can help.
What is SILIQ?
SILIQ® injection is a prescription medicine used to treat adults with moderate to severe plaque psoriasis:
It is not known if SILIQ is safe and effective in children.
Suicidal thoughts or behavior:
Some patients taking SILIQ have had suicidal thoughts or ended their own lives. This risk is higher if you have a history of suicidal thoughts or depression. It is not known if SILIQ causes these thoughts or actions. Get medical help right away if you or a family member notices that you have any of the following symptoms:
Serious Infections:
SILIQ may lower the ability of your immune system to fight infections and may increase your risk of infections.
Who should not use SILIQ?
Do not use SILIQ if you have Crohn's disease. Tell your healthcare provider if you develop diarrhea, bloody stools, stomach pain or cramping, sudden or uncontrollable bowel movements, loss of appetite, constipation, weight loss, fever or tiredness as these may be symptoms of Crohn's disease.
Before starting SILIQ, tell your healthcare provider if you:
Tell your healthcare provider about all the medicines you take, including prescription and over-the-counter medicines, vitamins, and herbal supplements.
How should I use SILIQ?
See the detailed "Instructions for Use" that come with your SILIQ for information on the right way to store, prepare, and give your SILIQ injections at home, and how to properly throw away (dispose of) used SILIQ prefilled syringes. Use SILIQ exactly as your healthcare provider tells you to use it.
What are possible side effects of SILIQ?
SILIQ may cause serious side effects. See "What is the most important information I should know about SILIQ?" and "Who should not take SILIQ?"
The most common side effects of SILIQ include:
Call your doctor for medical advice on side effects. You are encouraged to report negative side effects of prescription drugs to FDA at www.fda.gov/MedWatch or call 1-800-FDA-1088.
Click here for full Prescribing Information, including Boxed Warning about suicidal ideation and behavior, and Medication Guide.
You are now entering a site that is for US healthcare professionals only. By selecting YES below, you certify that you are a US healthcare professional and wish to proceed to this section of the site. Products or treatments described on this site are available in the United States but may not be available in all other countries.
I certify that I am a licensed US healthcare professional and wish to proceed to the healthcare professional section of this site.
Thank you for visiting www.siliq.com. By clicking continue, you will be taken to a website or sites to which our Privacy Policy and other rules do not apply. Ortho Dermatologics does not possess editorial control over the content of the information provided in such website(s) and therefore does not warrant their accuracy and completeness. You are solely responsible for interactions with such website(s).
SILIQ® injection is a prescription medicine used to treat adults with moderate to severe plaque psoriasis:
who may benefit from injections or pills (systemic therapy) or phototherapy (treatment using ultraviolet light treatment) and who have tried another systemic therapy that didn't work or stopped working It is not known if SILIQ is safe and effective in children.
Some patients taking SILIQ have had suicidal thoughts or ended their own lives. This risk is higher if you have a history of suicidal thoughts or depression. It is not known if SILIQ causes these thoughts or actions. Get medical help right away if you or a family member notices that you have any of the following symptoms: who may benefit from injections or pills (systemic therapy) or phototherapy (treatment using ultraviolet light treatment) and who have tried another systemic therapy that didn't work or stopped working
have a history of mental health problems, including suicidal thoughts, depression, anxiety, or mood problems
have an infection that does not go away or keeps coming back
have TB or have been in close contact with someone with TB
have recently received or are scheduled to receive an immunization (vaccine). You should avoid getting live vaccines while being treated with SILIQ are or plan to become pregnant, or are breastfeeding or plan to do so. It is unknown if SILIQ can harm your unborn or newborn baby


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Products & Solutions
1 Gallon Plastic
RediRoot Plastic Air-Pruning Containers feature a slatted design that distinguishes it from a traditional solid wall containers. This design provides plant material with superior aeration and drainage while reducing circling roots.
32 Cell Propagation
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Benefits of RediRoot
Reduced Transplant Shock
Virtually eliminates transplant shock resulting in less plant loss and faster first year growth.
360˚ aeration produces a dense, fibrous root system ready to explode with new growth after transplant.
Rapid Nutrient Uptake
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Healthier Plants & Trees
RediRoot's unique design helps to maximize root health which translates into bigger, healthier plants and trees.
Popular Products
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Original 3 Gallon RediRoot Plastic
25 Gallon RediRoot Plastic
Learn About RediRoot
Get In Touch
Do you have a question about RediRoot? Perhaps you see potential for working with us on a project or you want information about becoming a distributor. Whatever it may be, please feel free to reach out and one of our team members will be in touch!
We look forward to talking with you!
Call us directly:
Mailing Address:
PO Box 191
Boring, OR 97009
Email Us:


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File under Instagram
Conjured by o~ SeMeN SPeRmS ~o on December 5, 2018
File under Instagram
Conjured by o~ SeMeN SPeRmS ~o on December 5, 2018
Free Snitch: France demands Twitter reveal IDs over hate speech
Tennessee police confuse Buckeye logo with pot icon
Did God Rods Cause A US Space Weapon, Not Meteors, To Hit Russia And Cuba?
Chevy Chase landlord used tiny cameras to peep on tenants
Chris Dorner Last Stand Survival Game [Video]
New Video Game Perversely Portrays Dorner as Hero
Sea slug's 'disposable penis' surprises
Teen mob covers commuter train with graffiti
Billionaires Secretly Funded Vast Climate Denial Network
Most Terrorist Plots in the US Aren't Invented by Al Qaeda — They're Manufactured by the FBI
Ewww! Mom busted passing convict son drugs during icky French Kiss
Indian Graffiti Artists Have Big Balls
Photos of Rappers Eating Burgers
Dougal Dixon – Man After Man : An Anthropology of the Future (1990)
Guy Dresses Up as Facebook Users and Sends them Friend Requests
JA Rolling Stone interview 1995
Teaching IBM's Watson the meaning of 'OMG'
Crooks Net Millions in Coordinated ATM Heists
Facebook owns up – admits network breached, blames "Java in the browser"
2 NJ men sue Subway over short footlong sandwiches
Please Rob Me: Newspaper 'Vacation Hold' Edition
UNESCO head 'deeply shocked' by fake Nazi rail car at Belgian Carnival
Submit Links:
File under Graffiti, SeMeN SPeRmS BLArRrG, SeMeN SPeRmS Links 'o Death, Sex
Conjured by o~ SeMeN SPeRmS ~o on February 20, 2013
Here's a made-for-TV movie that helped fuel my nightmares as a kid.
My fellow Americans… While the extent of damage to our country is still uncertain, and shall probably remain so for sometime. Preliminary reports indicate that principal weapons impact points included military and industrial targets in most sectors of the United States. There is at the present time a ceasefire with the Soviet Union, which sustained damage equally catastrophic. Many of you listening to me today have suffered personal injury, sudden separation from loved ones, and the tragic loss of your families. I share your grief for I too have suffered personal loss. During this hour of sorrow, I wish to assure you that America has survived this terrible tribulation. There has been no surrender, no retreat from the principles of liberty and democracy for which the free world looks to us for leadership. We remain undaunted before all but Almighty God… (sound of transistor radio adjustment)…offer our prayers…(static)…government functioning under certain extraordinary emergency options. We are prepared to make every effort to coordinate relief and recovery programs at the state and local level. During the next two weeks, my staff and Cabinet will relocate to the National Emergency Re-Construction Headquarters in Des Moines, Iowa. At the present time, and until radiation pattern reports are made available over the Emergency Broadcast band or through your local authorities, I urge you to remain in areas offering maximum shelter protection from radioactive fallout and obey all local curfews. We are counting on you, you see—on your strength, your patience, your will and your courage to help rebuild this great nation of ours. God bless you all – Post-Atomic Strike Presidential Speech
The Nuclear Attack Scene
The Full Movie
The Day After
Conjured by o~ SeMeN SPeRmS ~o on March 1, 2011


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A Stop-Motion animated Batman film retelling the story of Joker's origin. His journey from Red Hood, the leader of the Hood Gang, to pawn of Carmine Falcone, to deformed, insane clown. Set during the early years of Batman, possibly an alternate Year One, Ace of Knaves also tells of the corruption between in the Gotham PD.
This film has been in pre-production for almost four years now, going through so many different drafts, finally arriving at this one.
Bruce Waynes faithful butler, unlike most incarnations Alfred disapproves of Bruce's crusade against crime, however still stands firmly beside him.
No you are bloody well not fine!! You have been stabbed Master Bruce! STABBED!! I said from the beginning that this insane escapade was going to be the death of you! Didn't I say it!!
Batman is busy, Bruce Wayne however is an important man who has a free afternoon and a tidy mansion. So get out of that kevlar and I'll find you a suit. Italian?
Young Jim Gordon before he becomes Commissioner, he is the head of the taskforce charged with investigating the Hood Gang. He is highly bitter that Batman gets better results than he does.
I am aware. Is that what you brought me in here for? To prove to me that some citizen with a death wish is
Carmine Falcone, otherwise known as The Roman, is the king of the Gotham underworld. He keeps the GCPD in his pocket.
Well you better find out or I'll do more than just break your legs, Loeb! I'll start with your wife, then move onto your son
Lex Luthor is a minor role in the film, he runs LexCorp.
In terms of the work Applied Sciences would have on the project, I believe that we could share production. Perhaps create a shared space somewhere in Metropolis.


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Once you have determined that the wood look is correct on your dwelling, and that buying wood laminate flooring is the most suitable choice for you, you're most likely considering that you're finished with the toughest half. Certainly on the subject of vinyl flooring, the more you spend, the better the quality might be. Armstrong hardwood flooring consists of each engineered wood and solid hardwood merchandise. Finding the flooring that's best for you generally is a powerful task, and requires careful overview of the potential choices. The plies give engineered wooden flooring strength and stability and will also be put in directly to concrete. The addresses listed under are Armstrong distributor warehouses only and don't present flooring samples or a showroom for viewing merchandise. From the house age the fabric you describe may very well be non-asbestos (linoleum) or it might be asbestos-containing sheet flooring.
One of the greatest forms of flooring that you can get is Dupont laminate flooring, and there are numerous bases for this. Armstrong laminate floors feature a layered construction and have easy to scrub surface that protects the ground from stains, fading or wear. This is a welcome change and signifies the boldness Armstrong has in its products and in addition how a lot it need to hold its prospects satisfied.
One of the options is the flexibility to view a room and swap the flooring round to see varied selections you can also make. A newer type of flooring that they make is taken into account one of many thickest on the market and is known as the Natural Fusion assortment. All it is advisable do is sweep regularly and mop as needed with Armstrong Once 'N Done ground cleaner. Library of vinyl asbestos ground tile and flooring strip pictures from 1954 – 1980, Armstrong and others.
Vinyl tile: Emulates the looks of pure tile and can be used in virtually all rooms including bogs, kitchens and bedrooms. Unless you're an experienced DIYer we suggest sheet vinyl flooring be professionally put in by an Armstrong Certified Installer. Lancaster, Penn.-based Armstrong Flooring is the biggest manufacturer of resilient and wood flooring merchandise throughout North America. I contacted Armstrong and discovered the tile I had in my lavatory was produced in 1998 and didn't comprise any asbestos. The textual content about the photograph clarifies that the one who despatched the photo was confused about Armstrong and Congoleum. Armstrong laminate floors are available in several sorts – wooden and stone laminate.
But if you're in search of an Armstrong vinyl flooring, which add a new dimension to any room in your house, then why not take into account their natural fusionLibrary. Watch out: Because flooring products may have been produced in years earlier than the year of set up, do not assume that a ground installed in a building constructed shortly after 1980 couldn't possibly include vinyl-asbestos product.


text: Surfing fixes everything, I knew that much. You don't need to be a surfer or cyclist to read this book, but beware: it might make you want to pull on a wet suit and catch some waves! I usually enjoy reading about others' adventures - cycling across the country, hiking a months-long trail, sailing around … Continue reading Louisbourg or Bust: A Surfer's Wild Ride Down Nova Scotia's Drowned Coast by RC Shaw


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The Corn Roast…. Over the Bonfire
When I was a child it felt like the school year would never end. Days seemed to drag on and sometime the only thing that kept me going in school was the thought of our vacation at our beachfront rental in San Diego, right on the boardwalk in Mission Beach and sometimes in Pacific Beach. One of the special events dad would plan every year was called the corn roast. As a kid this was awesome to look forward to.
Dear Old Dad….
Dad would secure a beach fire pit right in front of our Mission Beach rental in the morning. We would play in the sand and on the Mission Beach boardwalk during the day and at about 5pm dad would light the bonfire and all the kids would help stack the wood in the fire pit with him. We would have a big ceremony surrounding the lighting of the bonfire on the night of the corn roast, dad and mom were always very excited and happy on this day. Dad would let the beach fire burn until there was nothing but coals burning then roast the corn in the fire pit. People from Mission Beach and Pacific Beach walking along the boardwalk would all stop by and dad was happy to hand them an ear of corn to eat. It was a great time and supplied me with a great childhood memory that will never be forgotten.
The City Removes The Fire Pits….
Today all the fire rings are gone from the beach. To fill the missing needs of those many people that vacation on the beachfront. We started MissionBeachBonfires.com to provide fire pit rentals that allow you to create special memories of your own. We supply the fire pit and wood to allow you to have a bonfire on the beach like we could when I was a kid. We also supply extras like chairs, tiki torches, and all the fixings for S'mores.
See a quick video of a guy showing you the process of roasting corn on the bonfire!
Create your own special memories with no hassle of having to clean up when you finish.
Our goal is to help you create special family memories!


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President advises Iraqi gov't to bolster national unity
EghtesadOnline: President Hassan Rouhani on Tuesday advised the Iraqi government to go ahead with national reconciliation in parallel with the military efforts to safeguard territorial integrity.
He made the remarks in a meeting with Chairman of Iraqi Shia National Coalition Ammar Hakim and accompanying delegation
President Rouhani said that unfortunately, statements and behavior of certain powers indicated they are still trying to sow discord among Iraqi people, according to IRNA.
President Rouhani said that political and military success of Iraqi forces, people and government to thwart foreign conspiracies and terrorism have been significant, adding that Iranian government and nation stand by the Iraqi and Syrian nations in campaign aganist terrorism.
Given the enemy's efforts to create dispute between ethnics and nations of the region, Rouhani said that those who oppose unity and territorial integrity in Iraq sow discord in Iraq.
In such atmosphere, formation of Iraqi Shia National Coalition has been effective to strengthen national solidarity is very valuable move, Rouhani added.
He said that political efforts of the national coalition, operation of Iraq armed forces and al-Hashd al-Sha'bi (popular voluteer forces) and fight against terrorism under guidelines of the grand religious leader of Iraq will make future promising.
President Rouhani called for strengthening Tehran-Baghdad relations in all fields of politics, economy and culture and removal of some existing obstacles on the route.
He said that Baghdad government served as successful host of Arbaeen procession indicating common ground the two nations have to promote role of Islam.
Ammar Hakim briefed President Rouhani on the current situation in Iraq and the process to form national coalition and its proposed plan to strengthen national unity in Iraq.
Chairman of Iraqi Shia National Coalition thanked Iranian government and nation for the support they render for Iraqi people.
Hakim said that considering interests of the two nations, Iraq wants relations with Iran to be a model for the region.


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Position Title
Assistant Professor
Position Title
Assistant Professor
Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine
Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine
CCAH Room 258 Davis, CA 95616
Research Interests
Cardiac Genetics and Pharmacogenomics
The Stern lab researches inherited heart disease in companion animals and pharmacogenomics of cardiac medications used in veterinary medicine. Comparative cardiology and genetics of congenital defects is also a research focus of the laboratory.
Grad Group Affiliations
- Comparative Pathology (Vet Med)
- Integrative Genetics and Genomics
Specialties / Focus
- Animal Genomics
- 2008 DVM The Ohio State University
- 2013 PhD Veterinary Cardiac Genetics Washington State University
- 2003 BS in Agriculture Animal Science The Ohio State University
See Website for recent publications: http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/faculty/results.cfm?fid=21351