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We report on the temporally and spatially resolved detection of the precursory stages that lead to the formation of an unmagnetized, supercritical collisionless shock in a laser-driven laboratory experiment. The measured evolution of the electrostatic potential associated with the shock unveils the transition from a current free double layer into a symmetric shock structure, stabilized by ion reflection at the shock front. Supported by a matching particle-in-cell simulation and theoretical considerations, we suggest that this process is analogous to ion reflection at supercritical collisionless shocks in supernova remnants.
We report on the experimental observation of the instability of a plasma shell, which formed during the expansion of a laser-ablated plasma into a rarefied ambient medium. By means of a proton radiography technique, the evolution of the instability is temporally and spatially resolved on a timescale much shorter than the hydrodynamic one. The density of the thin shell exceeds that of the surrounding plasma, which lets electrons diffuse outward. An ambipolar electric field grows on both sides of the thin shell that is antiparallel to the density gradient. Ripples in the thin shell result in a spatially varying balance between the thermal pressure force mediated by this field and the ram pressure force that is exerted on it by the inflowing plasma. This mismatch amplifies the ripples by the same mechanism that drives the hydrodynamic nonlinear thin-shell instability (NTSI). Our results thus constitute the first experimental verification that the NTSI can develop in colliding flows.
Sustaining a plasma in a magnetron discharge requires energization of the plasma electrons. In this work, Ohmic heating of electrons outside the cathode sheath is demonstrated to be typically of the same order as sheath energization, and a simple physical explanation is given. We propose a generalized Thornton equation that includes both sheath energization and Ohmic heating of electrons. The secondary electron emission yield gamma(SE) is identified as the key parameter determining the relative importance of the two processes. For a conventional 5 cm diameter planar dc magnetron, Ohmic heating is found to be more important than sheath energization for secondary electron emission yields below around 0.1.
The combined processes of self-sputter (SS)-recycling and process gas recycling in high power impulse magnetron sputtering (HiPIMS) discharges are analyzed using the generalized recycling model (GRM). The study uses experimental data from discharges with current densities from the direct current magnetron sputtering range to the HiPIMS range, and using targets with self-sputter yields Y-SS from approximate to 0.1 to 2.6. The GRM analysis reveals that, above a critical current density of the order of J(crit) approximate to 0.2 A cm(-2), a combination of self-sputter recycling and gas-recycling is generally the case. The relative contributions of these recycling mechanisms, in turn, influence both the electron energy distribution and the stability of the discharges. For high self-sputter yields, above Y-SS approximate to 1, the discharges become dominated by SS-recycling, contain few hot secondary electrons from sheath energization, and have a relatively low electron temperature T-e. Here, stable plateau values of the discharge current develop during long pulses, and these values increase monotonically with the applied voltage. For low self-sputter yields, below Y-SS approximate to 0.2, the discharges above J(crit) are dominated by process gas recycling, have a significant sheath energization of secondary electrons and a higher T-e, and the current evolution is generally less stable. For intermediate values of YSS the discharge character gradually shifts between these two types. All of these discharges can, at sufficiently high discharge voltage, give currents that increase rapidly in time. For such cases we propose that a distinction should be made between unlimited runaway and limited runaway: in unlimited runaway the current can, in principle, increase without a limit for a fixed discharge voltage, while in limited runaway it can only grow towards finite, albeit very high, levels. For unlimited runway Y-SS amp;gt; 1 is found to be a necessary criterion, independent of the amount of gas-recycling in the discharge.
The hierarchy of unstable modes when two counter-streaming pair plasmas interact over a flow-aligned magnetic field has been recently investigated [Phys. Plasmas 23, 062122 (2016)]. The analysis is here extended to the case of an arbitrarily tilted magnetic field. The two plasma shells are initially cold and identical. For any angle θ ∈ [0, π/2] between the field and the initial flow, the hierarchy of unstable modes is numerically determined in terms of the initial Lorentz factor of the shells γ0, and the field strength as measured by a parameter denoted σ. For θ = 0, four different kinds of mode are likely to lead the linear phase. The hierarchy simplifies for larger θ's, partly because the Weibel instability can no longer be cancelled in this regime. For θ > 0.78 (44°) and in the relativistic regime, the Weibel instability always govern the interaction. In the non-relativistic regime, the hierarchy becomes θ-independent because the interaction turns to be field-independent. As a result, the two-stream instability becomes the dominant one, regardless of the field obliquity.
When two collisionless plasma shells collide, they interpenetrate and the overlapping region may turn Weibel unstable for some values of the collision parameters. This instability grows magnetic filaments which, at saturation, have to block the incoming flow if a Weibel shock is to form. In a recent paper (Bret, J. Plasma Phys., vol. 82, 2016b, 905820403), it was found by implementing a toy model for the incoming particle trajectories in the filaments, that a strong enough external magnetic field 𝘽𝘽0 can prevent the filaments blocking the flow if it is aligned with them. Denoting by Bf the peak value of the field in the magnetic filaments, all test particles stream through them if 𝛼𝛼=B0/Bf>1/2 . Here, this result is extended to the case of an oblique external field B0 making an angle 𝜃𝜃 with the flow. The result, numerically found, is simply 𝛼𝜅𝜃𝜃𝛼>𝜅(𝜃)/cos𝜃 , where 𝜅𝜃𝜅(𝜃) is of order unity. Noteworthily, test particles exhibit chaotic trajectories.
Particle-in-cell simulations are widely used as a tool to investigate instabilities that develop between a collisionless plasma and beams of charged particles. However, even on contemporary supercomputers, it is not always possible to resolve the ion dynamics in more than one spatial dimension with such simulations. The ion mass is thus reduced below 1836 electron masses, which can affect the plasma dynamics during the initial exponential growth phase of the instability and during the subsequent nonlinear saturation. The goal of this article is to assess how far the electron to ion mass ratio can be increased, without changing qualitatively the physics. It is first demonstrated that there can be no exact similarity law, which balances a change in the mass ratio with that of another plasma parameter, leaving the physics unchanged. Restricting then the analysis to the linear phase, a criterion allowing to define a maximum ratio is explicated in terms of the hierarchy of the linear unstable modes. The criterion is applied to the case of a relativistic electron beam crossing an unmagnetized electron-ion plasma.
Beam-plasma instabilities are a key physical process in many astrophysical phenomena. Within the fireball model of Gamma ray bursts, they first mediate a relativistic collisionless shock before they produce upstream the turbulence needed for the Fermi acceleration process. While non-relativistic systems are usually governed by flow-aligned unstable modes, relativistic ones are likely to be dominated by normally or even obliquely propagating waves. After reviewing the basis of the theory, results related to the relativistic kinetic regime of the poorly-known oblique unstable modes will be presented. Relevant systems besides the well-known electron beam-plasma interaction are presented, and it is shown how the concept of modes hierarchy yields a criterion to assess the proton to electron mass ratio in Particle in cell simulations.
The interest in relativistic beam-plasma instabilities has been greatly rejuvenated over the past two decades by novel concepts in laboratory and space plasmas. Recent advances in this long-standing field are here reviewed from both theoretical and numerical points of view. The primary focus is on the two-dimensional spectrum of unstable electromagnetic waves growing within relativistic, unmagnetized, and uniform electron beam-plasma systems. Although the goal is to provide a unified picture of all instability classes at play, emphasis is put on the potentially dominant waves propagating obliquely to the beam direction, which have received little attention over the years. First, the basic derivation of the general dielectric function of a kinetic relativistic plasma is recalled. Next, an overview of two-dimensional unstable spectra associated with various beam-plasma distribution functions is given. Both cold-fluid and kinetic linear theory results are reported, the latter being based on waterbag and Maxwell–Jüttner model distributions. The main properties of the competing modes (developing parallel, transverse, and oblique to the beam) are given, and their respective region of dominance in the system parameter space is explained. Later sections address particle-in-cell numerical simulations and the nonlinear evolution of multidimensional beam-plasma systems. The elementary structures generated by the various instability classes are first discussed in the case of reduced-geometry systems. Validation of linear theory is then illustrated in detail for large-scale systems, as is the multistaged character of the nonlinear phase. Finally, a collection of closely related beam-plasma problems involving additional physical effects is presented, and worthwhile directions of future research are outlined.
In plasmas where the mean-free-path is much larger than the size of the system, shock waves can arise with a front much shorter than the mean-free path. These so-called "collisionless shocks" are mediated y collective plasma interactions. Studies conducted so far on these shocks found that although binary collisions are absent, the distribution functions are thermalized downstream by scattering on the fields, so that magnetohydrodynamic prescriptions may apply. Here we show a clear departure from this pattern in the case of Weibel shocks forming over a flow-aligned magnetic field. A micro-physical analysis of the particle motion in the Weibel filaments shows how they become unable to trap the flow in the presence of too strong a field, inhibiting the mechanism of shock formation. Particle-in-cell simulations confirm these results.
Collisionless shocks are shocks in which the mean-free path is much larger than the shock front. They are ubiquitous in astrophysics and the object of much current attention as they are known to be excellent particle accelerators that could be the key to the cosmic rays enigma. While the scenario leading to the formation of a fluid shock is well known, less is known about the formation of a collisionless shock. We present theoretical and numerical results on the formation of such shocks when two relativistic and symmetric plasma shells (pair or electron/proton) collide. As the two shells start to interpenetrate, the overlapping region turns Weibel unstable. A key concept is the one of trapping time τp, which is the time when the turbulence in the central region has grown enough to trap the incoming flow. For the pair case, this time is simply the saturation time of the Weibel instability. For the electron/proton case, the filaments resulting from the growth of the electronic and protonic Weibel instabilities, need to grow further for the trapping time to be reached. In either case, the shock formation time is 2τp in two-dimensional (2D), and 3τp in 3D. Our results are successfully checked by particle-in-cell simulations and may help designing experiments aiming at producing such shocks in the laboratory.
We look here at a three-wave interaction process involving only electrostatic waves in an electron plasma with stationary ions. Special attention is given to the case with an upper-hybrid wave as a pump wave, where a new decay channel is pointed out. The corresponding growth rate is calculated.
Considering a class of solutions where the density perturbations are functions of time, but not of space, we derive a new exact large amplitude wave solution for a cold uniform electron plasma. This result illustrates that most simple analytical solutions can appear even if the density perturbations are large. (C) 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
We study the influence of collisions on the dynamics of a cold non-relativistic plasma. It is shown that even a comparatively small collision frequency can significantly change the large amplitude wave solution. Published by AIP Publishing.
In this article, we discuss the idea of a hierarchy of instabilities that can rapidly couple the disparate scales of a turbulent plasma system. First, at the largest scale of the system, L, current carrying flux ropes can undergo a kink instability. Second, a kink instability in adjacent flux ropes can rapidly bring together bundles of magnetic flux and drive reconnection, introducing a new scale of the current sheet width, ℓ, perhaps several ion inertial lengths (δ i ) across. Finally, intense current sheets driven by reconnection electric fields can destabilize kinetic waves such as ion cyclotron waves as long as the drift speed of the electrons is large compared to the ion thermal speed, v D ≫v i . Instabilities such as these can couple MHD scales to kinetic scales, as small as the proton Larmor radius, ρ i .
Quantification and control of the fraction of ionization of the sputtered species are crucial in magnetron sputtering, and in particular in high-power impulse magnetron sputtering (HiPIMS), yet proper definitions of the various concepts of ionization are still lacking. In this contribution, we distinguish between three approaches to describe the degree (or fraction) of ionization: the ionized flux fraction F-flux, the ionized density fraction F-density, and the fraction a of the sputtered metal atoms that become ionized in the plasma (sometimes referred to as probability of ionization). By studying a reference HiPIMS discharge with a Ti target, we show how to extract absolute values of these three parameters and how they vary with peak discharge current. Using a simple model, we also identify the physical mechanisms that determine F-flux, F-density, and a as well as how these three concepts of ionization are related. This analysis finally explains why a high ionization probability does not necessarily lead to an equally high ionized flux fraction or ionized density fraction.
We study with a one-dimensional particle-in-cell simulation the expansion of a pair cloud into a magnetized electron–proton plasma as well as the formation and subsequent propagation of a tangential discontinuity that separates both plasmas. Its propagation speed takes the value that balances the magnetic pressure of the discontinuity against the thermal pressure of the pair cloud and the ram pressure of the protons. Protons are accelerated by the discontinuity to a speed that exceeds the fast magnetosonic speed by the factor of 10. A supercritical fast magnetosonic shock forms at the front of this beam. An increasing proton temperature downstream of the shock and ahead of the discontinuity leaves the latter intact. We create the discontinuity by injecting a pair cloud at a simulation boundary into a uniform electron–proton plasma, which is permeated by a perpendicular magnetic field. Collisionless tangential discontinuities in the relativistic pair jets of x-ray binaries (microquasars) are in permanent contact with the relativistic leptons of their inner cocoon, and they become the sources of radio synchrotron emissions.
Recently, a filamentation instability was observed when a laser-generated pair cloud interacted with an ambient plasma. The magnetic field it drove was strong enough to magnetize and accelerate the ambient electrons. It is of interest to determine if and how pair cloud-driven instabilities can accelerate ions in the laboratory or in astrophysical plasma. For this purpose, the expansion of a localized pair cloud with the temperature 400 keV into a cooler ambient electron-proton plasma is studied by means of one-dimensional particle-in-cell simulations. The cloud's expansion triggers the formation of electron phase space holes that accelerate some protons to MeV energies. Forthcoming lasers might provide the energy needed to create a cloud that can accelerate protons.
The expansion of a radial blast shell into an ambient plasma is modeled with a particle-in-cell simulation. The unmagnetized plasma consists of electrons and protons. The formation and evolution of an electrostatic shock is observed, which is trailed by ion-acoustic solitary waves that grow on the beam of the blast shell ions in the post-shock plasma. In spite of the initially radial symmetric outflow, the solitary waves become twisted and entangled and, hence, they break the radial symmetry of the flow. The waves and their interaction with the shocked ambient ions slow down the blast shell protons and bring the post-shock plasma closer to equilibrium.
We present the results from a particle-in-cell (PIC) simulation that models the interaction between a spatially localized electron-positron cloud and an electron-ion plasma. The latter is permeated by a magnetic field that is initially spatially uniform and aligned with the mean velocity vector of the pair cloud. The pair cloud expels the magnetic field and piles it up into an electromagnetic piston. Its electromagnetic field is strong enough to separate the pair cloud from the ambient plasma in the direction that is perpendicular to the cloud propagation direction. The piston propagates away from the spine of the injected pair cloud and it accelerates the protons to a high nonrelativistic speed. The accelerated protons form an outer cocoon that will eventually become separated from the unperturbed ambient plasma by a fast magnetosonic shock. No electromagnetic piston forms at the front of the cloud and a shock is mediated here by the filamentation instability. The final plasma distribution resembles that of a hydrodynamic jet. Collisionless plasma jets may form in the coronal plasma of accreting black holes and the interaction between the strong magnetic field of the piston and the hot pair cloud may contribute to radio emissions by such objects.
We compare with one-dimensional particle-in-cell simulations the aperiodically growing instabilities driven by a bi-Maxwellian velocity distribution in unmagnetized electron plasma (Weibel instability) and in pair plasma. The simulation box is aligned with the cool direction. The waves in both simulations evolve towards a circularly polarized non-propagating magnetic structure. Its current and magnetic field are aligned and the structure is in a force-free state. We examine how a background magnetic field B 0, which is parallel to the simulation direction, affects the waves in the pair plasma. A weak B 0 cannot inhibit the growth of the aperiodically growing instability but it prevents it from reaching the force-free stable state. The mode collapses and seeds a pair Alfvén waves. An intermediate B 0 couples the thermal anisotropy to the pair Alfvén mode and propagating magnetowaves grow. The phase speed of the pair of Alfvén waves is increased by the thermal anisotropy. Its growth is suppressed when B 0 is set to the value that stabilizes the mirror mode.
The expansion of a dense plasma into a dilute plasma across an initially uniform perpendicular magnetic field is followed with a one-dimensional particle-in-cell simulation over magnetohydrodynamics time scales. The dense plasma expands in the form of a fast rarefaction wave. The accelerated dilute plasma becomes separated from the dense plasma by a tangential discontinuity at its back. A fast magnetosonic shock with the Mach number 1.5 forms at its front. Our simulation demonstrates how wave dispersion widens the shock transition layer into a train of nonlinear fast magnetosonic waves.
The expansion of a thermal pressure-driven radial blast shell into a dilute ambient plasma is examined with two-dimensional PIC simulations. The purpose is to determine if laminar shocks form in a collisionless plasma which resemble their magnetohydrodynamic counterparts. The ambient plasma is composed of electrons with the temperature of 2 keV and cool fully ionized nitrogen ions. It is permeated by a spatially uniform magnetic field. A forward shock forms between the shocked ambient medium and the pristine ambient medium, which changes from an ion acoustic one through a slow magnetosonic one to a fast magnetosonic shock with increasing shock propagation angles relative to the magnetic field. The slow magnetosonic shock that propagates obliquely to the magnetic field changes into a tangential discontinuity for a perpendicular propagation direction, which is in line with the magnetohydrodynamic model. The expulsion of the magnetic field by the expanding blast shell triggers an electron-cyclotron drift instability.
The expansion of a magnetized high-pressure plasma into a low-pressure ambient medium is examined with particle-in-cell simulations. The magnetic field points perpendicular to the plasmas expansion direction and binary collisions between particles are absent. The expanding plasma steepens into a quasi-electrostatic shock that is sustained by the lower-hybrid (LH) wave. The ambipolar electric field points in the expansion direction and it induces together with the background magnetic field a fast E cross B drift of electrons. The drifting electrons modify the background magnetic field, resulting in its pile-up by the LH shock. The magnetic pressure gradient force accelerates the ambient ions ahead of the LH shock, reducing the relative velocity between the ambient plasma and the LH shock to about the phase speed of the shocked LH wave, transforming the LH shock into a nonlinear LH wave. The oscillations of the electrostatic potential have a larger amplitude and wavelength in the magnetized plasma than in an unmagnetized one with otherwise identical conditions. The energy loss to the drifting electrons leads to a noticeable slowdown of the LH shock compared to that in an unmagnetized plasma. Published by AIP Publishing.
By modelling the expansion of a cloud of electrons and positrons with the temperature of 400 keV which propagates at the mean speed of 0.9c (c: speed of light) through an initially unmagnetized electron-proton plasma with a particle-in-cell simulation, we find a mechanism that collimates the pair cloud into a jet. A filamentation (beam-Weibel) instability develops. Its magnetic field collimates the positrons and drives an electrostatic shock into the electron-proton plasma. The magnetic field acts as a discontinuity that separates the protons of the shocked ambient plasma, known as the outer cocoon, from the jet's interior region. The outer cocoon expands at the speed of 0.15c along the jet axis and at 0.03c perpendicularly to it. The filamentation instability converts the jet's directed flow energy into magnetic energy in the inner cocoon. The magnetic discontinuity cannot separate the ambient electrons from the jet electrons. Both species rapidly mix and become indistinguishable. The spatial distribution of the positive charge carriers is in agreement with the distributions of the ambient material and the jet material predicted by a hydrodynamic model apart from a dilute positronic outflow that is accelerated by the electromagnetic field at the jet's head.
The filamentation instability of counterpropagating symmetric beams of electrons is examined with 1D and 2D particle-in-cell simulations, which are oriented orthogonally to the beam velocity vector. The beams are uniform, warm and their relative speed is mildly relativistic. The dynamics of the filaments is examined in 2D and it is confirmed that their characteristic size increases linearly in time. Currents orthogonal to the beam velocity vector are driven through the magnetic and electric fields in the simulation plane. The fields are tied to the filament boundaries and the scale size of the flow aligned and the perpendicular currents are thus equal. It is confirmed that the electrostatic and the magnetic forces are equally important, when the filamentation instability saturates in 1D. Their balance is apparently the saturation mechanism of the filamentation instability for our initial conditions. The electric force is relatively weaker but not negligible in the 2D simulation, where the electron temperature is set higher to reduce the computational cost. The magnetic pressure gradient is the principal source of the electrostatic field, when and after the instability saturates in the 1D simulation and in the 2D simulation.
The expansion of a charge-neutral cloud of electrons and positrons with the temperature 1 MeV into an unmagnetized ambient plasma is examined with a 2D particle-in-cell simulation. The pair outflow drives solitary waves in the ambient protons. Their bipolar electric fields attract electrons of the outflowing pair cloud and repel positrons. These fields can reflect some of the protons, thereby accelerating them to almost an MeV. Ion acoustic solitary waves are thus an efficient means to couple energy from the pair cloud to protons. The scattering of the electrons and positrons by the electric field slows down their expansion to a nonrelativistic speed. Only a dilute pair outflow reaches the expansion speed expected from the cloud's thermal speed. Its positrons are more energetic than its electrons. In time, an instability grows at the front of the dense slow-moving part of the pair cloud, which magnetizes the plasma. The instability is driven by the interaction of the outflowing positrons with the protons. These results shed light on how magnetic fields are created and ions are accelerated in pair-loaded astrophysical jets and winds.
A pair of curved shocks in a collisionless plasma is examined with a two-dimensional particle-in-cell simulation. The shocks are created by the collision of two electron-ion clouds at a speed that exceeds everywhere the threshold speed for shock formation. A variation of the collision speed along the initially planar collision boundary, which is comparable to the ion acoustic speed, yields a curvature of the shock that increases with time. The spatially varying Mach number of the shocks results in a variation of the downstream density in the direction along the shock boundary. This variation is eventually equilibrated by the thermal diffusion of ions. The pair of shocks is stable for tens of inverse ion plasma frequencies. The angle between the mean flow velocity vector of the inflowing upstream plasma and the shock's electrostatic field increases steadily during this time. The disalignment of both vectors gives rise to a rotational electron flow, which yields the growth of magnetic field patches that are coherent over tens of electron skin depths.
The filamentation instability (FI) of counter-propagating beams of electrons is modelled with a particle-in-cell simulation in one spatial dimension and with a high statistical plasma representation. The simulation direction is orthogonal to the beam velocity vector. Both electron beams have initially equal densities, temperatures and moduli of their non-relativistic mean velocities. The FI is electromagnetic in this case. A previous study of a small filament demonstrated that the magnetic pressure gradient force (MPGF) results in a nonlinearly driven electrostatic field. The probably small contribution of the thermal pressure gradient to the force balance implied that the electrostatic field performed undamped oscillations around a background electric field. Here, we consider larger filaments, which reach a stronger electrostatic potential when they saturate. The electron heating is enhanced and electrostatic electron phase space holes form. The competition of several smaller filaments, which grow simultaneously with the large filament, also perturbs the balance between the electrostatic and magnetic fields. The oscillations are damped but the final electric field amplitude is still determined by the MPGF.
We examine with a particle-in-cell (PIC) simulation the collision of two equally dense clouds of cold pair plasma. The clouds interpenetrate until instabilities set in, which heat up the plasma and trigger the formation of a pair of shocks. The fastest-growing waves at the collision speed $c/5$, where $c$ is the speed of light in vacuum, and low temperature are the electrostatic two-stream mode and the quasi-electrostatic oblique mode. Both waves grow and saturate via the formation of phase space vortices. The strong electric fields of these nonlinear plasma structures provide an efficient means of heating up and compressing the inflowing upstream leptons. The interaction of the hot leptons, which leak back into the upstream region, with the inflowing cool upstream leptons continuously drives electrostatic waves that mediate the shock. These waves heat up the inflowing upstream leptons primarily along the shock normal, which results in an anisotropic velocity distribution in the post-shock region. This distribution gives rise to the Weibel instability. Our simulation shows that even if the shock is mediated by quasi-electrostatic waves, strong magnetowaves will still develop in its downstream region.
The non-linear thin-shell instability (NTSI) may explain some of the turbulent hydrodynamic structures that are observed close to the collision boundary of energetic astrophysical outflows. It develops in non-planar shells that are bounded on either side by a hydrodynamic shock, provided that the amplitude of the seed oscillations is sufficiently large. The hydrodynamic NTSI has a microscopic counterpart in collisionless plasma. A sinusoidal displacement of a thin shell, which is formed by the collision of two clouds of unmagnetized electrons and protons, grows and saturates on time-scales of the order of the inverse proton plasma frequency. Here we increase the wavelength of the seed perturbation by a factor of 4 compared to that in a previous study. Like in the case of the hydrodynamic NTSI, the increase in the wavelength reduces the growth rate of the microscopic NTSI. The prolonged growth time of the microscopic NTSI allows the waves, which are driven by the competing ion acoustic instability, to grow to a large amplitude before the NTSI saturates and they disrupt the latter. The ion acoustic instability thus imposes a limit on the largest wavelength that can be destabilized by the NTSI in collisionless plasma. The limit can be overcome by binary collisions. We bring forward evidence for an overstability of the collisionless NTSI.
Two counterpropagating cool and equally dense electron beams are modeled with particle-in-cell simulations. The electron beam filamentation instability is examined in one spatial dimension, which is an approximation for a quasiplanar filament boundary. It is confirmed that the force on the electrons imposed by the electrostatic field, which develops during the nonlinear stage of the instability, oscillates around a mean value that equals the magnetic pressure gradient force. The forces acting on the electrons due to the electrostatic and the magnetic field have a similar strength. The electrostatic field reduces the confining force close to the stable equilibrium of each filament and increases it farther away, limiting the peak density. The confining time-averaged total potential permits an overlap of current filaments with an opposite flow direction.
Context. Plasma processes close to supernova remnant shocks result in the amplification of magnetic fields and in the acceleration of electrons, injecting them into the diffusive acceleration mechanism.
Aims. The acceleration of electrons and the magnetic field amplification by the collision of two plasma clouds, each consisting of electrons and ions, at a speed of 0.5c is investigated. A quasi-parallel guiding magnetic field, a cloud density ratio of 10 and a plasma temperature of 25 keV are considered.
Methods. A relativistic and electromagnetic particle-in-cell simulation models the plasma in two spatial dimensions employing an ion-to-electron mass ratio of 400.
Results. A quasi-planar shock forms at the front of the dense plasma cloud. It is mediated by a circularly left-hand polarized electromagnetic wave with an electric field component along the guiding magnetic field. Its propagation direction is close to that of the guiding field and orthogonal to the collision boundary. It has a frequency too low to be determined during the simulation time and a wavelength that equals several times the ion inertial length. These properties would be indicative of a dispersive Alfvén wave close to the ion cyclotron resonance frequency of the left-handed mode, known as the ion whistler, provided that the frequency is appropriate. However, it moves with the super-alfvénic plasma collision speed, suggesting that it is an Alfvén precursor or a nonlinear MHD wave such as a Short Large-Amplitude Magnetic Structure (SLAMS). The growth of the magnetic amplitude of this wave to values well in excess of those of the quasi-parallel guiding field and of the filamentation modes results in a quasi-perpendicular shock. We present evidence for the instability of this mode to a four wave interaction. The waves developing upstream of the dense cloud give rise to electron acceleration ahead of the collision boundary. Energy equipartition between the ions and the electrons is established at the shock and the electrons are accelerated to relativistic speeds.
Conclusions. The magnetic fields in the foreshock of supernova remnant shocks can be amplified substantially and electrons can be injected into the diffusive acceleration, if strongly magnetised plasma subshells are present in the foreshock, with velocities an order of magnitude faster than the main shell.
Plasma processes close to astrophysical shocks result in the amplification of magnetic fields and in the acceleration of electrons.We examine with PIC simulations the magnetic field amplification by the collision of two plasma clouds at a speed 0.5c, each consisting of electrons and ions. A quasi-parallel guiding magnetic field, a cloud density ratio of 10 and a plasma temperature of 25 keV are considered.We demonstrate that the magnetic energy density reaches that of the ions and that electrons are accelerated to highly relativistic speeds.
The growth of magnetic fields in the density gradient of a rarefaction wave has been observed in simulations and in laboratory experiments. The thermal anisotropy of the electrons, which gives rise to the magnetic instability, is maintained by the ambipolar electric field. This simple mechanism could be important for the magnetic field amplification in astrophysical jets or in the interstellar medium ahead of supernova remnant shocks. The acceleration of protons and the generation of a magnetic field by the rarefaction wave, which is fed by an expanding circular plasma cloud, is examined here in form of a 2D particle-in-cell simulation. The core of the plasma cloud is modeled by immobile charges, and the mobile protons form a small ring close to the cloud's surface. The number density of mobile protons is thus less than that of the electrons. The protons of the rarefaction wave are accelerated to 1/10 of the electron thermal speed, and the acceleration results in a thermal anisotropy of the electron distribution in the entire plasma cloud. The instability in the rarefaction wave is outrun by a TM wave, which grows in the dense core distribution, and its magnetic field expands into the rarefaction wave. This expansion drives a secondary TE wave.
The collision of two plasma clouds at a speed that exceeds the ion acoustic speed can result in the formation of shocks. This phenomenon is observed not only in astrophysical scenarios, such as the propagation of supernova remnant (SNR) blast shells into the interstellar medium, but also in laboratory-based laser-plasma experiments. These experiments and supporting simulations are thus seen as an attractive platform for small-scale reproduction and study of astrophysical shocks in the laboratory. We model two plasma clouds, which consist of electrons and ions, with a 2D particle-in-cell simulation. The ion temperatures of both clouds differ by a factor of ten. Both clouds collide at a speed that is realistic for laboratory studies and for SNR shocks in their late evolution phase, like that of RCW86. A magnetic field, which is orthogonal to the simulation plane, has a strength that is comparable to that of SNR shocks. A forward shock forms between the overlap layer of both plasma clouds and the cloud with cooler ions. A large-amplitude ion acoustic wave is observed between the overlap layer and the cloud with hotter ions. It does not steepen into a reverse shock because its speed is below the ion acoustic speed. A gradient of the magnetic field amplitude builds up close to the forward shock as it compresses the magnetic field. This gradient gives rise to an electron drift that is fast enough to trigger an instability. Electrostatic ion acoustic wave turbulence develops ahead of the shock, widens its transition layer, and thermalizes the ions, but the forward shock remains intact.
The formation of unmagnetized electrostatic shock-like structures with a high Mach number is examined with one-and two-dimensional particle-in-cell (PIC) simulations. The structures are generated through the collision of two identical plasma clouds, which consist of equally hot electrons and ions with a mass ratio of 250. The Mach number of the collision speed with respect to the initial ion acoustic speed of the plasma is set to 4.6. This high Mach number delays the formation of such structures by tens of inverse ion plasma frequencies. A pair of stable shock-like structures is observed after this time in the 1D simulation, which gradually evolves into electrostatic shocks. The ion acoustic instability, which can develop in the 2D simulation but not in the 1D one, competes with the nonlinear process that gives rise to these structures. The oblique ion acoustic waves fragment their electric field. The transition layer, across which the bulk of the ions change their speed, widens and their speed change is reduced. Double layer-shock hybrid structures develop.
Context. The jets of compact accreting objects are composed of electrons and a mixture of positrons and ions. These outflows impinge on the interstellar or intergalactic medium and both plasmas interact via collisionless processes. Filamentation (beam-Weibel) instabilities give rise to the growth of strong electromagnetic fields. These fields thermalize the interpenetrating plasmas.
Aims. Hitherto, the effects imposed by a spatial non-uniformity on filamentation instabilities have remained unexplored. We examine the interaction between spatially uniform background electrons and a minuscule cloud of electrons and positrons. The cloud size is comparable to that created in recent laboratory experiments and such clouds may exist close to internal and external shocks of leptonic jets. The purpose of our study is to determine the prevalent instabilities, their ability to generate electromagnetic fields and the mechanism, by which the lepton micro-cloud transfers energy to the background plasma.
Methods. A square micro-cloud of equally dense electrons and positrons impinges in our particle-in-cell (PIC) simulation on a spatially uniform plasma at rest. The latter consists of electrons with a temperature of 1 keV and immobile ions. The initially charge- and current neutral micro-cloud has a temperature of 100 keV and a side length of 2.5 plasma skin depths of the micro-cloud. The side length is given in the reference frame of the background plasma. The mean speed of the micro-cloud corresponds to a relativistic factor of 15, which is relevant for laboratory experiments and for relativistic astrophysical outflows. The spatial distributions of the leptons and of the electromagnetic fields are examined at several times.
Results. A filamentation instability develops between the magnetic field carried by the micro-cloud and the background electrons. The electromagnetic fields, which grow from noise levels, redistribute the electrons and positrons within the cloud, which boosts the peak magnetic field amplitude. The current density and the moduli of the electromagnetic fields grow aperiodically in time and steadily along the direction that is anti-parallel to the cloud's velocity vector. The micro-cloud remains conjoined during the simulation. The instability induces an electrostatic wakefield in the background plasma.
Conclusions. Relativistic clouds of leptons can generate and amplify magnetic fields even if they have a microscopic size, which implies that the underlying processes can be studied in the laboratory. The interaction of the localized magnetic field and high-energy leptons will give rise to synchrotron jitter radiation. The wakefield in the background plasma dissipates the kinetic energy of the lepton cloud. Even the fastest lepton micro-clouds can be slowed down by this collisionless mechanism. Moderately fast charge- and current neutralized lepton micro–clouds will deposit their energy close to relativistic shocks and hence they do not constitute an energy loss mechanism for the shock.
The localized deposition of the energy of a laser pulse, as it ablates a solid target, introduces high thermal pressure gradients in the plasma. The thermal expansion of this laser-heated plasma into the ambient medium (ionized residual gas) triggers the formation of non-linear structures in the collisionless plasma. Here an electron–proton plasma is modelled with a particle-in-cell simulation to reproduce aspects of this plasma expansion. A jump is introduced in the thermal pressure of the plasma, across which the otherwise spatially uniform temperature and density change by a factor of 100. The electrons from the hot plasma expand into the cold one and the charge imbalance drags a beam of cold electrons into the hot plasma. This double layer reduces the electron temperature gradient. The presence of the low-pressure plasma modifies the proton dynamics compared with the plasma expansion into a vacuum. The jump in the thermal pressure develops into a primary shock. The fast protons, which move from the hot into the cold plasma in the form of a beam, give rise to the formation of phase space holes in the electron and proton distributions. The proton phase space holes develop into a secondary shock that thermalizes the beam.
Nanomaterials are important tools for enabling technological progress as they can provide dramatically different properties as compared to the bulk counterparts. The field of nanoparticles is one of the most investigated within nanomaterials, thanks to the existing, relatively simple, means of manufacturing. In this thesis, high-power pulsed hollow cathode sputtering is used to nucleate and grow magnetic nanoparticles in a plasma. This sputtering technique provides a high degree of ionization of the sputtered material, which has previously been shown to aid in the growth of the nanoparticles. The magnetic properties of the particles are utilized and makes it possible for the grown particles to act as building blocks for self-assembly into more sophisticated nano structures, particularly when an external magnetic field is applied. These structures created are termed "nanowires" or "nanotrusses", depending on the level of branching and inter-linking that occurs.
Several different elements have been investigated in this thesis. In a novel approach, it is shown how nanoparticles with more advanced structures, and containing material from two hollow cathodes, can be fabricated using high-power pulses. The dual-element particles are achieved by using two distinct and individual elemental cathodes, and a pulse process that allows tuning of individual pulses separately to them. Nanoparticles grown and investigated are Fe, Ni, Pt, Fe-Ni and Ni-Pt. Alternatively, the addition of oxygen to the process allows the formation of oxide or hybrid metal oxide – metal particles. For all nanoparticles containing several elements, it is demonstrated that the stoichiometry can be easily varied, either by the amount of reactive gas let into the process or by tuning the amount of sputtered material through adjusting the electric power supplied to the different cathodes.
One aim of the presented work is to find a suitable material for the use as a catalyst in the production of H2 gas through the process of water splitting. H2 is a good candidate to replace fossil fuels as an energy carrier. However, rare elements (such as Ir or Pt) needs to be used as the catalyst, otherwise a high overpotential is required for the splitting to occur, leading to a low efficiency. This work demonstrates a possible route to avoid this, by using nanomaterials to increase the surface-to-volume ratio, as well as optimizing the elemental ratio between different materials to lower the amount of noble elements required.
Tunable nanostructures that feature a high surface area are firmly attached to a conducting substrate and can be fabricated efficiently over significant areas, which are of interest for a wide variety of applications in, for instance, energy storage and catalysis. We present a novel approach to fabricate Fe nanoparticles using a pulsed-plasma process and their subsequent guidance and self-organization into well-defined nanostructures on a substrate of choice by the use of an external magnetic field. A systematic analysis and study of the growth procedure demonstrate that nondesired nanoparticle agglomeration in the plasma phase is hindered by electrostatic repulsion, that a polydisperse nanoparticle distribution is a consequence of the magnetic collection, and that the formation of highly networked nanotruss structures is a direct result of the polydisperse nanoparticle distribution. The nanoparticles in the nanotruss are strongly connected, and their outer surfaces are covered with a 2 nm layer of iron oxide. A 10 mu m thick nanotruss structure was grown on a lightweight, flexible and conducting carbon-paper substrate, which enabled the efficient production of H-2 gas from water splitting at a low overpotential of 210 mV and at a current density of 10 mA/cm(2).
Anisotropic heterogenous Ni/NiO nanoparticles with controlled compositions are grown using a high-power pulsed hollow cathode process. These novel particles can be tuned to consist of single-phase Ni via two-phase Ni/NiO to fully oxidized NiO, with a size range of 5-25 nm for individual crystals. A novelty of this approach is the ability to assemble multiple particles of Ni and NiO into a single complex structure, increasing the Ni-NiO interface density. This type of particle growth is not seen before and is explained to be due to the fact that the process operates in a single-step approach, where both Ni and O can arrive at the formed nanoparticle nuclei and aid in the continuous particle growth. The finished particle will then be a consequence of the initially formed crystal, as well as the arrival rate ratio of the two species. These particles hold great potential for applications in fields, such as electro- and photocatalysis, where the ability to control the level of oxidation and/or interface density is of great importance.
Funding Agencies|Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation [KAW 2014.0276]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Functional Materials at Linkoping University [2009 00971]; Tokyo Metropolitan University; Linkoping University
Magnetic nanoparticles with average size 30 nm were utilized to build three-dimensional framework structures—nanotrusses. In dual-phase Ni/NiO nanoparticles, there is a strong correlation between the amount of magnetic Ni and the final size and shape of the nanotruss. As it decreases, the length of the individual nanowires within the trusses also decreases, caused by a higher degree of branching of the wires. The position and orientation of the non-magnetic material within the truss structure was also investigated for the different phase compositions. For lower concentrations of NiO phase, the electrically conducting Ni-wire framework is maintained through the preferential bonding between the Ni crystals. For larger concentrations of NiO phase, the Ni-wire framework is interrupted by the NiO. The ability to use nanoparticles that are only partly oxidized in the growth of nanotruss structures is of great importance. It opens the possibility for using not only magnetic metals such as pure Ni, Fe, and Co, but also to use dual-phase nanoparticles that can strongly increase the efficiency of e.g. catalytic electrodes and fuel cells.
Funding agencies
AEgIS is an experiment at CERN where the goal is to directly measure the gravitational force on antimatter by producing antihydrogen. The antihydrogen will be produced by a charge exchange reaction using laser excited positronium and cold antiprotons. Having a well-characterized positron plasma with at least 108 positrons and knowing how it can be controlled is essential for the positronium production. This thesis is based on the goals of AEgIS experiment and describes the positron plasma manipulations being used in AEgIS in order to achieve the required plasma properties for the experiment. The positron system is made up by a source, a Surko trap and a Penning-Malmberg trap. This system was first optimized to increase the number of positrons. The plasma was then moved to the main traps of the experiment where it was systematically characterized in terms of lifetime, cooling efficiency and compression. Positron plasma compression in time, trapping and cooling was tested for the first time in AEgIS using a buncher and Penning-Malmberg traps respectively. In this thesis, it is shown that a compression of more than 50 % in time of the positron cloud using a buncher can be achieved. It is also shown that trapping and cooling with an efficiency of nearly 100 % in the main traps using a "V" shaped potential trap was successful. On top of that, the lifetime inside this "V" shaped potential trap was observed to be longer than 30 minutes.
The nonlinear properties of surface charges are here analyzed under ideal conditions. We thus deduce a new single equation from the wellknown equations which govern the cold electron plasma motion. Simple formulas that describe the propagation of surface charge perturbations along the plasma boundary are also found. (C) 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
A new reactive ionization region model (R-IRM) is developed to describe the reactive Ar/O-2 high power impulse magnetron sputtering (HiPIMS) discharge with a titanium target. It is then applied to study the temporal behavior of the discharge plasma parameters such as electron density, the neutral and ion composition, the ionization fraction of the sputtered vapor, the oxygen dissociation fraction, and the composition of the discharge current. We study and compare the discharge properties when the discharge is operated in the two well established operating modes, the metal mode and the poisoned mode. Experimentally, it is found that in the metal mode the discharge current waveform displays a typical non-reactive evolution, while in the poisoned mode the discharge current waveform becomes distinctly triangular and the current increases significantly. Using the R-IRM we explore the current increase and find that when the discharge is operated in the metal mode Ar+ and Ti+ -ions contribute most significantly (roughly equal amounts) to the discharge current while in the poisoned mode the Ar+ -ions contribute most significantly to the discharge current and the contribution of O+ -ions, Ti+ -ions, and secondary electron emission is much smaller. Furthermore, we find that recycling of atoms coming from the target, that are subsequently ionized, is required for the current generation in both modes of operation. From the R-IRM results it is found that in the metal mode self-sputter recycling dominates and in the poisoned mode working gas recycling dominates. We also show that working gas recycling can lead to very high discharge currents but never to a runaway. It is concluded that the dominating type of recycling determines the discharge current waveform.
The time-dependent plasma discharge ionization region model (IRM) has been under continuous development during the past decade and used in several studies of the ionization region of high-power impulse magnetron sputtering (HiPIMS) discharges. In the present work, a complete description of the most recent version of the IRM is given, which includes improvements, such as allowing for returning of the working gas atoms from the target, a separate treatment of hot secondary electrons, addition of doubly charged metal ions, etc. To show the general applicability of the IRM, two different HiPIMS discharges are investigated. The first set concerns 400 mu s long discharge pulses applied to an Al target in an Ar atmosphere at 1.8 Pa. The second set focuses on 100 mu s long discharge pulses applied to a Ti target in an Ar atmosphere at 0.54 Pa, and explores the effects of varying the magnetic field strength. The model results show that Al2+-ions contribute negligibly to the production of secondary electrons, while Ti2+-ions effectively contribute to the production of secondary electrons. Similarly, the model results show that for an argon discharge with Al target the contribution of Al+-ions to the discharge current at the target surface is over 90% at 800 V. However, at 400 V the Al+-ions and Ar+-ions contribute roughly equally to the discharge current in the initial peak, while in the plateau region Ar+-ions contribute to roughly 2/3 of the current. For high currents the discharge with Al target develops almost pure self-sputter recycling, while the discharge with Ti target exhibits close to a 50/50 combination of self-sputter recycling and working gas-recycling. For a Ti target, a self-sputter yield significantly below unity makes working gas-recycling necessary at high currents. For the discharge with Ti target, a decrease in the B-field strength, resulted in a corresponding stepwise increase in the discharge resistivity.
The mechanisms of energy/momentum exchange in rotating and compressing plasma flows have been discussed. It has been shown that such flows are capable of transforming the energy of different degrees of freedom into the energy of one degree owing to the interaction of the coupled nonlinear radial, axial and azimuthal electron-ion oscillations. These processes may lead to the additional acceleration of the flow in azimuthal or axial direction so they might be instrumental for the creation of space thrusters employing pulse transformations for propulsion.
A new class of exact solutions of the Vlasov-Poisson equations based on the Jeans theorem is considered. The self-consistent solutions for the evolution of the system from given initial particle distributions make use of particular invariants of particle motion with predetermined spatial structure. The relation between the time-dependent coefficients of the latter and the macroscopic plasma quantities, or moments of the distribution function, are obtained. As an illustration, the evolution of an expanding plasma with oscillations of the electron and ion expansion fronts is presented.
A new class of exact electrostatic solutions of the Vlasov-Maxwell equations based on the Jeanss theorem is proposed for studying the evolution and properties of two-dimensional anisotropic plasmas that are far from thermodynamic equilibrium. In particular, the free expansion of a slab of electron-ion plasma into vacuum is investigated.
The effects of a positive pulse following a high-power impulse magnetron sputtering (HiPIMS) pulse are studied using energy-resolved mass spectrometry. This includes exploring the influence of a 200 mu s long positive voltage pulse (U-rev = 10-150 V) following a typical HiPIMS pulse on the ion-energy distribution function (IEDF) of the various ions. We find that a portion of the Ti+ flux is affected and gains an energy which corresponds to the acceleration over the full potential U-rev. The Ar+ IEDF on the other hand illustrates that a large fraction of the accelerated Ar+, gain energies corresponding to only a portion of U-rev. The Ti+ IEDFs are consistent with the assumption that practically all the TO-, that are accelerated during the reverse pulse, originates from a region adjacent to the target, in which the potential is uniformly increased with the applied potential U-rev while much of the Ar+ originates from a region further away from the target over which the potential drops from U-rev to a lower potential consistent with the plasma potential achieved without the application of U-rev. The deposition rate is only slightly affected and decreases with U-rev, reaching 90% at U-rev = 150 V. Both the Ti IEDF and the small deposition rate change indicate that the potential increase in the region close to the target is uniform and essentially free of electric fields, with the consequence that the motion of ions inside the region is not much influenced by the application of U-rev. In this situation, Ti will flow towards the outer boundary of the target adjacent region, with the momentum gained during the HiPIMS discharge pulse, independently of whether the positive pulse is applied or not. The metal ions that cross the boundary in the direction towards the substrate, and do this during the positive pulse, all gain an energy corresponding to the full positive applied potential U-rev.


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Apprenticeship Applications
Local Union 43 Plumbers & Steamfitters Joint Apprenticeship Training Committee will have applications available for the 5-year apprenticeship program during March 2018. Applications may be picked up on Tuesdays & Thursdays only at 3013 Riverside Drive, Chattanooga, TN.
Applications will be available each Tuesday & Thursday from 8:00 a.m. until 11:00 a.m. and from 1:00 p.m. until 3:00 p.m. (Please be aware that it takes approximately one hour to complete the application process.) The office is closed from 12 noon until 1:00 p.m. each day. Please do not come before or after the hours listed.
Requirements: In order to receive an application, applicants must bring copies of high school diploma and high school transcript or copy of GED with test scores included, and a copy of valid photo driver's license. Minimum age of 18 years.
An Equal Opportunity Employer

subset: commoncrawl


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The Contrast of Tuxedo Black and Machined Aluminum Revealed on High-Impact Accessories
MILWAUKEE (August, 2012) The new hard-edged Burst Collection from Harley-Davidson Genuine Motor Accessories presents a combination of tuxedo black and machined-aluminum finishes to create contrasting edges and light-enhancing machined patterns. The result is a visual statement that complements both classic and contemporary customizing styles. The Burst Collection components create an impact all by themselves, but can also be seamlessly combined with Harley-Davidson Edge Cut and other gloss black accessories to complete the look.
The Burst Collection components include:
Burst Collection Cam Cover (P/N 25700249, $199.95)Burst Collection Derby Cover (P/N 25700250, $149.95)
Burst Collection Rocker Box Covers (P/N 25700251, $269.95)
Burst Collection Screamin' Eagle Performance Air Cleaner Kit (P/N 29000066, $369.95)
Burst Collection Shifter Peg (P/N 33600032, $29.95)
Burst Collection Brake Pedal Pad (P/N 50600104, $59.95)
Burst Collection Footboard Kits
(P/N 50500244 Rider $399.95)
(P/N 50500245 Passenger $289.95)
Burst Collection Fork Cover Medallions (P/N 14100434, $49.95)
Burst Collection Headlamp Trim Ring (P/N 61400149, $129.95)
Burst Collection Speaker Trim (P/N 76000307, $129.95)
Burst Collection Saddlebag Latch Kit (P/N 90200821, $159.95)
Burst Collection Screamin' Eagle 3.5-Inch Exhaust End Caps (P/N 65100035, $159.95)
The Burst Collection accessories fit a wide number of Harley-Davidson motorcycle models. See an Authorized Harley-Davidson dealer for fitment details.
Harley-Davidson Motor Company produces heavyweight custom, cruiser and touring motorcycles and offers a complete line of Harley-Davidson motorcycle parts, accessories, riding gear and apparel, and general merchandise. For more information, visit Harley-Davidson's Web site at www.harley-davidson.com.


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The gambling dens and casinos of EVE Online are being shut down in a sweep of bans by developers CCP. This is because the game's new terms of service – introduced to get the MMO ready for its upcoming free-to-play era – now include a direct prohibition against "games of chance". This means gambling is now effectively outlawed. More interestingly, remember all those kingpins who…
Posts tagged "Eve's Northern War"
Feature: Special report
A War In Space: The Banker Who Gambled Everything And Brought Eve's Greatest Empire To Its Knees
A brigade of pirates, a gambling kingpin, a temperamental fleet commander and the financier who brought them all together. How one very rich man and his cartel of allies dethroned the most notorious leader in EVE Online [official site] and scattered his once-unstoppable army of 'Goons'.
Feature: Space feuds
Eve's new war is a mess. It's such a mess that the combatants can't even decide on a name for it. The forces on one side are calling it "World War Bee", referring to the bee icon the Goons have used as a mascot. While the leader of the Goons has called for it to be dubbed "The Casino War" referring to the money-men behind…


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Welcome to the TRUMAN Duplexes in REDSTONE!These stunning duplexes feature 3 beds, 2.5 bath and offer optional Legal Revenue suites (Secondary suite subject to approval and permitting by the city/municipality). The homes feature spacious family rooms with massive windows leading to a chef inspired kitchen with gas range, soft close kitchen hardware, quartz counter tops with custom set brick back splashes. Off the kitchen one finds a large dining room and large back entry mudroom Upstairs one finds 3 bedrooms and 2 baths. The huge master bedroom features a coffer ceiling, massive walk in closet and the ensuite features dual vanities and large shower. Standard features includes: wide plank laminate floors on the main and upper floors, custom porcelain tiles in all bathrooms and front and back entry, LED pots 9 ft ceilings on main, included washer and dryer, window coverings and front sod. Don't cut yourself short and Live Better with Truman. Visit our Sales Centre Showhome for additional details.
Ceiling 9 ft., Vacuum System-Roughed-In, Vinyl Windows
Disclaimer: Information herein deemed reliable but not guaranteed by CREB®.
Listing information last updated on June 1st, 2020 at 11:15pm MDT.


text: The rebuilding era in Chippewa looks more like reloading time as the Chipps downed host Norton to highlight girls soccer.Chippewa 4, Norton 1Having a stout defense, potent offense and loading the field with athletes has helped Chippewa gain statewide recognition. That same attitude was evidenced as the Chipps limited the Panthers to four shots and fired 21 onto the host goal."We played well as a team," said Chippewa coach Ruth Coney. "The defense played well at times but had their moments. We are rebuilding, but I was pleased with our efforts."The Chipps were led offensively by Emily Steele with two goals, while Heather Shipley and Jesse Reeves netted one goal each. Kay Young, Meagan Shipley and Sarah Butcher all took turns dishing out one assist each.Rita Eisenhaur anchored the defense from her position between the pipes with three saves. West Holmes 3, Dover 2A 2-0 deficit proved to be nothing for West Holmes as it rallied back against Dover to notch its first win of the season."The girls were freaking out when we were down early," said Knights coach Ramon Valenzuela. "When we won the game, they were just pumped up."With just four minutes left in regulation, Knights striker Laurel Hanna found the back of the net with her second scoring strike of the game, while the locals' other goal came from Iva Boyd.West Holmes outshot the Tornadoes 14-8 and saw its defense stiffen up at the right time. Ayla Uhl recorded six saves between the pipes for the Knights.Western Reserve 7, Hiland 0Western Reserve used a overwhelming offensive attack to throttle Hiland and cruise to the shutout win."They took it to us tonight," said Hawks coach Patrick Miller. "They moved the ball really well and we did a pretty poor job defensively as a team. I give them a lot of credit. They're a solid program and they played with a lot of class."Hiland was outshot 26-0.


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We're really excited to announce that we will be working with the amazing brand Brompton on their digital overhaul! It's going to be a great partnership and a fantastic project that will really help the Brompton's customers to fully engage with cycling and the Brompton brand for years to come.
Cycling is becoming an ever more popular form of transport and Brompton is riding the crest of this wave, having seen rapid growth in recent years. The company is now looking at their next step as a business exporting to more than 40 countries around the world – how they position themselves digitally on a global scale.
A driving philosophy for Brompton is "made for you", a concept at the heart of their innovative transport solution loved by customers worldwide. Applying this principle online, they chose a user-centred design approach to ensure customers are at the centre of their marketing and digital design too.
Trenton Moss, Webcredible CEO & cycling enthusiast commented:
"We're extremely excited to have been chosen to work with Brompton, a truly innovative brand. Working with Brompton to deliver a world-class end-to-end customer experience strategy and digital offering is an opportunity we'll relish and hope to have an impact on cyclists and potential cyclists the world over."
The project will be based on robust user-centred design principles spanning the 3 distinct stages of research, strategy and design. Webcredible will ensure that Brompton's digital touchpoints provide people-centred, efficient & delightful experiences that also work hard for the business as it enters its next stage of growth.
There's going to be loads of research and design activity which we will share with all of you on our blog - where regular posts will document this exciting project as it happens.
Pay now by credit card or later by invoice (invoice payments only possible if all courses are 3+ weeks in advance)


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Grow Deep - My Church Edition - Week 3
Week 3: February 3-9
My Church Edition – My Body
Memory Verse: "So in
When I was younger, I was the last person to be picked for most sports teams. I was not very athletic and was a little on the heavy side. Most of my life, I felt that almost every job could be done better by anyone else … except the job of caring for others. My calling was that of Mercy. Many years have passed since then, and I have discovered other hidden gems with which God has gifted me. Still, Mercy continues to be one of my "natural" abilities.
Have you thought about how God made you
You aren't too little. You aren't too old. You aren't too slow. You aren't too fast. You are enough because it isn't you, and it isn't me. It isn't YOUR body. It is the church. It is God in us. The Body of Christ works because we are willing to accept others with their gifts and in turn, participate with our gifts for the sake of the whole Body.
We need each other! So what can we do? We can encourage each other, pray for one another, and celebrate our differences! All of us have gifts that are unique. We cannot all be the same or there would be something vital missing. So, let's all be like the little child who asks, "What can I do?" and then be ready for a BIG answer from God!
Taking Jesus to the Streets: Gather with family or friends and share the ways God has gifted you. Pray together about possible ways that you can use your gift within the Body of Christ.
Sunday, February 3
Read: 1 Corinthians 12:12-27
Just as each body part has a specific role in the body's overall function, we each have a specific role in the Body of Christ.
Reflect: How are you challenged by the knowledge that you are an integral part of ONE living Body, the church? How has Paul challenged the prideful? How has he encouraged the insecure? Where do you see yourself in these verses?
Monday, February 4
Read: Galatians 6:1-6
As the church, we are to restore each other gently, carry each other's burdens, and contribute for the benefit of all.
Reflect: Why does Paul tell us to restore a brother caught in sin gently? What is the effect of that brother's sin on the whole Body of Christ? How are we like our physical bodies (described in yesterday's reading) when we carry each other's burdens? How does that encourage the person whose burdens we are carrying?
Tuesday, February 5
Read: 2 Timothy 3:16-17
God uses His Word to train us as His disciples and members of His Body, the church.
Reflect: What are the four ways that we benefit from
Wednesday, February 6
Read: Colossians 3:12-17
We are chosen and encouraged to emulate Christ-like traits, including love which binds us together as the church under Him.
Reflect: What is the effect of wearing "Christ's clothes" listed in verses 12-14 in your relationships with others in the Body of Christ? What is the one principle that Paul shares with the Colossian Christians that should rule all of what we do in our lives?
Thursday, February 7
Read: Ecclesiastes 4:9-12
People bound together under Christ help and encourage one another, making each other stronger.
Reflect: What
Friday, February 8
Read: 1 Thessalonians 5:9-15
As members of the Body of Christ, we are called to comfort and edify each other, to encourage others and live at peace with one another.
Reflect: How does Paul describe the community of faith in these verses? How does that compare/contrast with your understanding of the church? What do these verses call you to do as a member of the Body?
Saturday, February 9
Read: Romans 12:3-8
God gives each of us spiritual gifts that are vital to support and sustain the Body of Christ, the church. We do not all have the same gifts but are called to use the gifts that we have within the Body.
Reflect: How do these verses impact the way you see yourself as a member of the Body of Christ? How do they impact how you see the church? What do you think Paul means when he says that each member belongs to all the others? How do you feel about that?


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Johnson Charles has been named as Darren Bravo's replacement in West Indies' squad for the World T20 to be played in India from March 8 to April 3.
Bravo, who didn't sign the central contracts offered by the West Indies Cricket Board last week, cited Test cricket as his top priority at this stage.
Charles, 27, played the last of his 23 T20Is during the series in Sri Lanka in November. He was also part of the squad that lifted the title in Sri Lanka in 2012; his swashuckling 84 earning him the Man of the Match award in the quarter-final against England.
Charles will head into the tournament on the back of a good showing for St Lucia Zouks in the Caribbean Premier League, where he finished as the third-highest run-getter for his side.
West Indies have been drawn in Group 1 of the Super 10 stage where they will play alongside England, South Africa, Sri Lanka, and one of the qualifiers from the first round.Squad: Darren Sammy (Captain), Samuel Badree, Sulieman Benn, Carlos Brathwaite, Dwayne Bravo, Johnson Charles, Andre Fletcher, Chris Gayle, Jason Holder, Ashley Nurse, Denesh Ramdin Andre Russell, Marlon Samuels, Lendl Simmons, Jerome Taylor


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University College Cork is pleased to offer Lauritzon Research Scholarship in food science and food-related disciplines. International students are eligible to apply for this scholarship programme.These scholarships aim to support students and integrate them into the academic, social and cultural aspects of University College Cork.UCC was established in 1845 as one of three Queen's Colleges – at Cork, Galway and Belfast. These new colleges were established in the reign of Queen Victoria and named after her. Queen's College, Cork (QCC) was established to provide access to higher education in the Irish province of Munster.Students who have attained at least at least Second Class Honours, Grade 1 (or equivalent) in an appropriate degree are eligible to apply for a PhD or MSc Research degree at UCC. The scholarship consists of student stipend of €16,000 and €12,000 towards tuition fees and laboratory consumables. The scholarship is tenable for two or four years; depending on the course of study (i.e. MSc or PhD.
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DISCLAIMER: Jeduka.com is not affiliated with all of the universities/colleges listed on the website. The site is for information purpose only. The actual details may vary.


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Finland is keen to put the sustainability crisis and its possible solutions at the heart of EU policymaking. That is why climate change, the circular economy and the loss of biodiversity will be high on the agenda during Finland's Presidency of the Council of the European Union and the informal meeting of environment/climate ministers on 11–12 July in Helsinki.
The informal Environment Council meeting is the second informal meeting of ministers organised during Finland's Presidency of the Council of the EU. The meeting will be chaired by Minister of the Environment and Climate Change Krista Mikkonen.
"It is imperative for the future of Europe that we tackle the climate crisis and halt the loss of biodiversity. Solving the sustainability crisis will require international cooperation and versatile actions, such as transitioning to a circular economy. We need an EU economy that is increasingly based on sustainability, that is, on climate change mitigation and efficient, long-term utilisation of renewable natural resources through reuse and recycling. Europe is expected to show leadership, and Finland's Presidency wants to contribute to finding joint solutions to the challenges ahead," says Minister Mikkonen.
The first day of the meeting, Thursday 11 July, will be dedicated to the EU's climate objectives and messages with regard to the UN Climate Action Summit 2019 to be held in New York in September. The ministers will also discuss means to drive international climate objectives forward. The day's second topic is biodiversity. The introduction to the topic will be given by Cristiana Pașca Palmer, United Nations Assistant Secretary General and Executive Secretary of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity. The ministers will discuss the EU's plan and timeframe for halting the loss of biodiversity. In 2020, countries around the world are set to agree new targets for stopping global biodiversity loss and improving the state of the environment.
Friday 12 July will be dedicated to the circular economy. The topic will be introduced by Per Klevnäs, a specialist in sustainable economy, and Commissioner Jyrki Katainen, European Commission Vice-President for Jobs, Growth, Investment and Competitiveness. The first working session will focus on the potential of circular economy solutions to tackle the climate crisis and biodiversity loss. The meeting will end with a discussion on how the circular economy should be expanded, and into which sectors.
Finland will hold the Presidency of the Council of the European Union from 1 July to 31 December 2019. Finland chairs the formal Council meetings in Brussels and Luxembourg and the informal meetings of ministers held in Finland. Six informal meetings of ministers and a number of meetings of working groups and experts will be held in Finlandia Hall in Helsinki.
Sustainable development forms a common thread throughout the meeting arrangements for Finland's Presidency. Meetings have been centralised in the capital, Helsinki, to minimise emissions from transport. Finland will produce very little physical material just for the Presidency and has decided on a no-gifts policy. The money earmarked for Presidency gifts will be used in full to offset carbon dioxide emissions from air travel by delegates.
The presidency of the Council takes forward the Council's work on EU legislation and policy initiatives and ensures the continuity of the EU agenda. In addition, the presidency represents the Council in relations with the other EU institutions, particularly with the European Commission and the European Parliament.
Media representatives covering the informal meetings of ministers held in Helsinki must complete their accreditation via the online accreditation system at the latest two weeks before the meeting starts. Accreditation for the Informal Meeting of Environment/Climate Ministers will close on 27 June 2019.
Liisi Klobut, Head of EU Cooperation, tel. +358 295 250 131, email@example.com (informal meeting of environment/climate ministers)
Outi Honkatukia, Senior Environmental Adviser, tel. +358 50 341 1758, email@example.com (climate change)
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We recently began digitizing the Louis XVI Trial and Execution Collection, a collection of more than 500 pamphlets on the imprisonment, trial, and execution of King Louis XVI of France. The pamphlets were collected at the time of their publication (primarily 1792-1793), and are housed in contemporary bindings with boards covered in pink pastepaper and blue paper spine labels. The pamphlets contain evidence against the king, defense of the king, public opinion on both sides of the issue, and moral and political reflections on judging and executing a king. As a whole, the collection provides a balanced view of a tumultuous period during the French Revolution, as France transitioned from a monarchy to a republic. Read all of the pamphlets in the Louis XVI Trial and Execution Collection on Internet Archive. They are always free to download, read, and repurpose!Share
Vow of Louis XVI to the Sacred Heart
9 hours ago


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Artificial Intelligence driven Marketing Communications
Global "Dinotefuran Market" 2019 Industry Research Report is a professional and in-depth study on the current state of the Global Dinotefuran industry. Moreover, research report categorizes the global Dinotefuran market by top players/brands, region, type and end user. This report studies the global market size of Dinotefuran, especially focuses on the key regions like United States, European Union, China, and other regions (Japan, Korea, India and Southeast Asia).
Get a sample copy of the report at https://www.researchreportsworld.com/enquiry/request-sample/14499108
The Global Dinotefuran market 2019 research provides a basic overview of the industry including definitions, classifications, applications and industry chain structure. The Global Dinotefuran market analysis is provided for the international markets including development trends, competitive landscape analysis, and key regions development status. Development policies and plans are discussed as well as manufacturing processes and cost structures are also analyzed. This report also states import/export consumption, supply and demand Figures, cost, price, revenue and gross margins.
Global Dinotefuran Industry 2019 Market Research Report is spread across 112 pages and provides exclusive vital statistics, data, information, trends and competitive landscape details in this niche sector.
Enquire before purchasing this report https://www.researchreportsworld.com/enquiry/pre-order-enquiry/14499108
Global Dinotefuran market competition by top manufacturers, with production, price, and revenue (value) and market share for each manufacturer; the top players including
The report also focuses on global major leading industry players of Global Dinotefuran market providing information such as company profiles, product picture and specification, capacity, production, price, cost, revenue and contact information. Upstream raw materials and equipment and downstream demand analysis is also carried out. The Global Dinotefuran market development trends and marketing channels are analyzed. Finally the feasibility of new investment projects are assessed and overall research conclusions offered. With tables and figures helping analyze worldwide Global Dinotefuran market, this research provides key statistics on the state of the industry and is a valuable source of guidance and direction for companies and individuals interested in the market.
Purchase this report (Price 3280 USD for single user license) https://www.researchreportsworld.com/purchase/14499108
Market Segment by Product Type
Market Segment by Application
Major Points from Table of Contents:
1 Report Overview1.1 Research Scope1.2 Major Manufacturers Covered in This Report1.3 Market Segment by Type1.3.1 Global Dinotefuran Market Size Growth Rate by Type (2019-2025)1.3.2 Aquatic acute1.3.3 Aquatic chronic1.4 Market Segment by Application1.4.1 Global Dinotefuran Market Share by Application (2019-2025)1.4.2 Crop Fields1.4.3 Residential and Commercial Buildings1.4.4 Turf Farms1.4.5 Ornamental Plants1.4.6 Others1.5 Study Objectives1.6 Years Considered2 Global Growth Trends2.1 Production and Capacity Analysis2.1.1 Global Dinotefuran Production Value 2014-20252.1.2 Global Dinotefuran Production 2014-20252.1.3 Global Dinotefuran Capacity 2014-20252.1.4 Global Dinotefuran Marketing Pricing and Trends2.2 Key Producers Growth Rate (CAGR) 2019-20252.2.1 Global Dinotefuran Market Size CAGR of Key Regions2.2.2 Global Dinotefuran Market Share of Key Regions2.3 Industry Trends2.3.1 Market Top Trends2.3.2 Market Drivers3 Market Share by Manufacturers3.1 Capacity and Production by Manufacturers3.1.1 Global Dinotefuran Capacity by Manufacturers3.1.2 Global Dinotefuran Production by Manufacturers3.2 Revenue by Manufacturers3.2.1 Dinotefuran Revenue by Manufacturers (2014-2019)3.2.2 Dinotefuran Revenue Share by Manufacturers (2014-2019)3.2.3 Global Dinotefuran Market Concentration Ratio (CR5 and HHI)3.3 Dinotefuran Price by Manufacturers3.4 Key Manufacturers Dinotefuran Plants/Factories Distribution and Area Served3.5 Date of Key Manufacturers Enter into Dinotefuran Market3.6 Key Manufacturers Dinotefuran Product Offered3.7 Mergers and Acquisitions, Expansion Plans4 Market Size by Type4.1 Production and Production Value for Each Type4.1.1 Aquatic acute Production and Production Value (2014-2019)4.1.2 Aquatic chronic Production and Production Value (2014-2019)4.2 Global Dinotefuran Production Market Share by Type4.3 Global Dinotefuran Production Value Market Share by Type4.4 Dinotefuran Ex-factory Price by Type5 Market Size by Application5.1 Overview5.2 Global Dinotefuran Consumption by Application6 Production by Regions6.1 Global Dinotefuran Production (History Data) by Regions 2014-20196.2 Global Dinotefuran Production Value (History Data) by Regions6.3 United States6.3.1 United States Dinotefuran Production Growth Rate 2014-20196.3.2 United States Dinotefuran Production Value Growth Rate 2014-20196.3.3 Key Players in United States6.3.4 United States Dinotefuran Import and Export6.4 European Union6.4.1 European Union Dinotefuran Production Growth Rate 2014-20196.4.2 European Union Dinotefuran Production Value Growth Rate 2014-20196.4.3 Key Players in European Union6.4.4 European Union Dinotefuran Import and Export6.5 China6.5.1 China Dinotefuran Production Growth Rate 2014-20196.5.2 China Dinotefuran Production Value Growth Rate 2014-20196.5.3 Key Players in China6.5.4 China Dinotefuran Import and Export6.6 Rest of World6.6.1 Japan6.6.2 Korea6.6.3 India6.6.4 Southeast Asia7 Dinotefuran Consumption by Regions7.1 Global Dinotefuran Consumption (History Data) by Regions7.2 United States7.2.1 United States Dinotefuran Consumption by Type7.2.2 United States Dinotefuran Consumption by Application7.3 European Union7.3.1 European Union Dinotefuran Consumption by Type7.3.2 European Union Dinotefuran Consumption by Application7.4 China7.4.1 China Dinotefuran Consumption by Type7.4.2 China Dinotefuran Consumption by Application7.5 Rest of World7.5.1 Rest of World Dinotefuran Consumption by Type7.5.2 Rest of World Dinotefuran Consumption by Application7.5.1 Japan7.5.2 Korea7.5.3 India7.5.4 Southeast Asia
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To view the original version on The Express Wire visit Dinotefuran Market 2019 â Business Revenue, Future Growth, Trends Plans, Top Key Players, Business Opportunities, Industry Share, Global Size Analysis by Forecast to 2025 | Research Reports World


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Lady Zamar, what an artist, what a woman and what an album Monarch is. To be honest, I've never been into South African music as much. There are a few exceptions like Nasty C and Casper Nyovvest but that's as far as my like for South African music goes. Lady Zamar, however, has changed my mind with Monarch, a beautiful album that I can't stop listening to.
Monarch is the second studio album by Lady Zamar. Once again, I question myself why I began reviewing songs just the other day. I really have been missing out on great music. The album itself is 20 tracks long spanning one hour and 32 minutes (more on this later) and it's what I would call African House music.
Now, I should point out that I might be biased about how I review this album but IDC and I certainly DGAF. This album is amazing and it should be considered an African treasure.
Also Read: Top 40 Songs Kenya 25th June 2019
Lyrical Themes
Lady Zamar has pointed out in a recent radio interview that this is the most personal album she has ever put out. She talks about love, life and herself; which are all encapsulated in the form of Dance music. Here's where I find it interesting, she hopes the audience can be able to relate to her message and at the same time enjoy the good music.
My first listening experience was more of enjoying the great beats (God bless those producers). I appreciated Lady Zamar's voice in my second listen because she is such an angel and delivers her parts effortlessly. The third listen was when I started to actually hear what she was talking about in the songs.
For starters, she appreciates the show Being Mary Jane in the song Mary Jane but I wouldn't be surprised if people mistook it for something else. Say Yes is an Afro-techno song which surprised me to find out that it is actually a gospel song. Lady Zamar confirmed this herself so I have no reason to doubt her. She also goes to uncomfortable territories with the song Fat Girl. I actually commend her for talking about her body because guys nowadays are fat-shaming each other.
This and much more is covered in a span of 20 tracks. Yes, it is quite lengthy given the run time of one and a half hours. Yes, it has taken me a week or so to come up with the review but I have no regrets, Monarch has great replay value. That's why I won't rant about it being so long (even though it is). Besides, no song feels out of place. All I can tell you is that if you want to enjoy the whole album, you better be sitting somewhere because it will require your whole body and soul to digest what she has to offer.
Monarch is a beautiful album released by Lady Zamar. It may be my first time listening to her but I'm already in love. Great album. 9/10.


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CFC – 15 Years of Dedicated Service
Computer Forensics CONSULT Ltd. (CFC) is a pioneer company providing disaster recovery, computer forensics, electronic discovery and litigation support services in the growing area of Cyber Security.
We have over 15 years experience providing consultancy services in the public and private sector including the Financial Services Sector in Uganda. We have regularly been engaged by the Law enforcement arm of Government in a leading role on numerous cyber crime and computer forensics investigations and prosecutions.
We also provide forensics and Cyber Security training, often featuring in specialized capacity building efforts, for example to members of the Justice Law and Order Sector in Uganda, the Judicial Studies Institute, Financial Services Sector, Office of the Auditor General and many more.
We have since expanded our portfolio to include a host of products and services, and are constantly researching and innovating in novel technologies. For example, we have designed and developed customized systems that incorporate recent advancements in machine learning, artificial intelligence and more.
Computer Forensics Consult Ltd. was fully registered in 2004 as a pioneer in the field of ICT Security & Forensics by the Registrar of Companies in Kampala, Uganda. CFC is also registered as an ICT solutions provider in Rwanda as of March 2010.
We are currently located on Plot 63 Bukoto Street Kamwokya. P.O. Box 40098 Kampala Uganda. If you have any Questions please do not hesitate to get in touch.


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Our Mission
Our Mission is to give individuals an opportunity to get involved together, do GOOD together and learn more about their community. We will accomplish these goals by:
- Building awareness of local causes and those in need by offering fun and entertaining Community Rides for like-minded folks to work together to make a difference. As a fun twist, the destination is usually a mystery, which helps keep everyone open-minded.
- Creating a unique community of new friends, teammates, students or employees by harnessing the power of working together, team-building and fun and games.
- Encouraging riders to make a difference in the future by continuing to support the causes we visit.
Whether it is small disaster relief, homeless issues, helping kids and animals, or improving your neighborhood…we are here to give you access to causes in your community – all you have to do is hop on the bus!
While the name implies we simply "do good", there is much more the Do Good Bus offers. Our number one goal on the bus is to ensure everyone has a good experience — from the passenger to the non-profit. That includes: feeling accomplished, feeling informed about the cause's mission, keeping energy and spirits high and having an organized and efficient experience. Secondly, our goal is to create new bonds and strengthen existing ones through unique team building with a "do good" twist. Our experience working with over 100 non-profits across the country has given us expertise in ensuring both the non-profit and the volunteer end their day feeling inspired and connected. For us, it's more than doing good…it's creating community.


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Keeping you updated – Please click here for our latest ordering and dispatch information. (Please note that our retail nursery at Hints, Tamworth will remain closed whilst we make alterations to our site to comply with social distancing guidelines. Online orders can be placed as normal)
Home > Vegetable Plants > Vegetable Seed > Salad Leaves
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The dark green leaves change to red-tinged leaves as the plant matures but the baby leaves are excellent when harvested young.
This variety has an RHS Award of Garden Merit. It has excellent flavour, is easy grow and has good disease resistance. The dark green leaves change to red-tinged leaves as the plant matures but the baby leaves are excellent when harvested young.
Pak Choi has been grown in China for about 1500 years. It can be used whole when it grows to about 10cm tall or grown larger so that the individual leaves can be used. Pak Choi can be used raw in salads, but has a more spicy flavour when cooked.
See the tabs above or click these links for information on: Delivery and Advice.
Brand: Brookside NurseryEventual Height: 25cm (10")Position: Full SunHarvesting Period: July to SeptemberSpacing: 20cm (8") Apart
For orders containing seed only, we make a one-off Postage and Packing charge of £0.95 for the entire order. If you order other items as well as seeds the maximum postage and packing charge will be £3.95 per order. Delivery is free for all orders over £40 in value.
We normally dispatch orders containing seed only within 2-3 working days of ordering.
Seed only orders are dispatched via Royal Mail 2nd Class post.
If your order contains a mixture of seed and other items we will normally dispatch both items together if they are due within a couple of weeks of ordering, if not we will dispatch the seeds separately via Royal Mail 2nd Class post within 2-3 working days and the remaining items will be dispatched according to their individual delivery times.
Outdoors: sow thinly where they are to crop, 1.5cm (½") deep, directly into finely-prepared soil. Sow from May for baby leaf, June onwards for full-size plants. Allow 40cm (16in) between rows. Can also be sown into modules filled with seed sowing compost and transplanted out , filling vacant spaces on the plot.
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Cauliflower All Year Round| Tray of 20 Plug Plants£5.99
Cauliflower Amazing is a really versatile Cauliflower. You can harvest either as delicious 'baby-head' sized heads or as full heads as they mature.
Broccoli (Calabrese) Marathon | Tray of 20 Plug Plants£5.99
Broccoli Marathon is a medium late variety producing large, very attractive, fine grained blue-green heads with good cold and disease resistance and excellent holding ability.
Brussels Sprout Evesham Special | Tray of 20 Plug Plants£5.99
The result of recent breeding work to produce a better sweeter flavour, Brussels Sprout Trafalgar produces firm, medium sized buttons with a suburb flavour.
Cabbage F1 Stonehead | Tray of 20 Plug Plants£5.99
Cabbage F1 Stonehead The heads are so solid you could stand on them! Lovely crisp texture to the creamy white hearts.
Radish Mixed - 1000 Seeds£1.25
Radish growing is great for the impatient gardener and has a long history of being an ideal starter crop for children.


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Martial arts builds a foundation of respect, discipline, confidence and self defense that us handle the stresses and dangers of our modern world. We have classes for kids and adults 7 days a week that will help everyone meet their fitness and self defense goals. Our instructors are dedicated to helping every students be their best and get the most out of every class.
We offer traditional martial arts classes 7 days a week as well as summer camps through June, July, and August. We also provide exciting birthday parties that give your child lasting memories.
Martial arts has a long heritage of building character through exercise and self defense training. The core is a foundation in self development that lasts a lifetime.