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20 common Mac OS X problems solved
Lost files, startup bugs, slow downs and Mac crashes fixed
The trouble with Macs is that they lull you into a false sense of security. If you spend your day using PCs, dealing with infuriating glitches becomes second nature. But Apple has made things so straightforward that you get used to stuff just working. When it doesn't, it comes as a nasty shock.
It's quite hard to identify the most common Mac problems, because most problems aren't all that common. They can range from minor annoyances that we'll all see once in a while, like applications slowing down or files behaving oddly, to the almost mythical calamities that many users will never encounter, like disk failures and kernel panics.
Sometimes it may seem obvious where to look for the solution; other times, you won't have a clue. Fortunately, the brick walls you may occasionally run up against will generally turn out, on closer inspection, to be mere ha-has in the garden of Mac.
Here are some of the daily hiccups you're most likely to suffer...
1. Persistent beachball
Quite often, the pointer turns into a spinning beach ball while your Mac has a think. Occasionally it stays that way.
First, try pressing Cmd+. to cancel whatever process is afoot. If that has no effect, switch to Finder or another app (using Option+Tab), and carry on working. If you wait, the app will finish what it's doing and give you its full attention.
If you're convinced the app isn't going to recover, force it to quit by holding Option or by pressing Cmd+Option+Esc. Rarely, it refuses to die, or its windows may disappear while its Dock icon retains its open indicator.
Restarting your Mac will get rid of it, but could give a message saying the app failed to quit. Hold down the power button to force shutdown.
You can also use a Unix command for this: run Terminal – found in Utilities within the Applications folder – and type sudo shutdown –h. Close other apps first to avoid losing data.
2. Lost a file
The first thing to do when you think you've mislaid an important file is to ask Spotlight. Press Cmd+[Space] to open the search bar, and type as much of the filename as you remember; pause after each letter to see what comes up.
If you've overwritten your work with a new file of the same name, or emptied the Trash, you've got a problem. Time Machine users can feel smug, as Spotlight will find files that don't currently exist but have been backed up. The software is built into OS X 10.5 and later, and the only hardware you need is a USB or FireWire hard disk.
If you haven't set it up yet, you may need a disk-recovery utility such as Data Rescue 2. This detects and restores deleted files as well as tackling more general disk problems.
It's wise to stop using the disk as soon as you realise you're missing something; the likelihood of rescuing a deleted file depends on whether new data has been saved over it.
3. Switching is slow
Modern Macs are happy for you to run lots of apps at the same time – in fact, there's no limit. Yet your Mac has a finite amount of memory (RAM), so what gives?
It's done with 'virtual memory'. When Mac OS X runs out of space in RAM for all the programs and data you're using at once, it moves some of them to a hidden temporary file on the hard disk. This works so seamlessly that you don't notice it.
But with a lot of apps on the go, it can end up happening each time you switch between them, and with major apps and large files this can take a little time.
A solution is to close some programs. Deleting files from your hard disk won't help; it's the space in RAM that's the issue. So the answer is more RAM. To check how much your Mac can take, select the model in the Memory Advisor at www.crucial.com/uk.
Upgrading may mean adding more memory modules or replacing the existing ones with higher-capacity chips.
4. Safari is slow
A solution to a troublesome Safari is to choose Reset Safari from its menu and reset everything. If there's a regular delay before pages load, perhaps Safari isn't looking for them efficiently.
Go to the Network pane of System Preferences, click your internet connection (Ethernet or AirPort), then Advanced, and go to the DNS tab. Under DNS Servers, you'll see nothing or the IP address of your router, greyed out.
This leaves Mac OS X to find a default DNS (domain name server) that translates the web addresses you type into the actual IP addresses where sites are hosted. Pointing it to a specific DNS could speed things up.
Choose OpenDNS. Click + and enter 184.108.40.206, repeat and enter 18.104.22.168. See www.opendns.com/start/computer for more details.
5. Documents open in the wrong app
Although hardly a catastrophe, this can be an ongoing source of vexation. Yet it's easy to fix once you know how. For example, when you download a JPEG file, double-clicking it will normally open Preview. But if you habitually use Photoshop to work with photos, Preview may be irrelevant.
To change this, select any JPEG and press Cmd+I (Get Info). Under Open with, select your preferred app, such as Photoshop, and click Change All. Confirm this and all JPEGs will always open in Photoshop.
This works for any combination of file type and compatible application. The files themselves aren't changed; you're just altering the Mac OS's list of file associations.
Current page: Everyday OS X annoyancesNext Page The serious stuff
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Applied Micro lifted the curtain on its 64-bit ARM-based server platform at the Hot Chips conference this week and ignited a debate about whether ARM is the right architecture for the data center.
Pat Gelsinger, a former Intel CTO who is now president and COO of EMC, said he doesn't think ARM chips are right for servers. "I don't think the math makes sense," he said.
Applied disagrees, contending that for certain workloads, including big data and Web-scale cloud-computing applications, its server chips will lead to dramatically lower ownership costs, largely through reduced power consumption.
Applied said it's on track to ship samples of its system-on-chip, called X-Gene, in the second half of the year. It will eventually be offered in servers with 128, 256 and 512 processor cores, President and CEO Paramesh Gopi said in a presentation Wednesday.
Several vendors are working on server products based on 32-bit ARM designs, but Applied may be the first to release a server product based on the new ARMv8, whose 64-bit architecture is more suited to server workloads.
According to Applied, integration is key. Its SOC will be offered with eight or 16 CPU cores, packaged on the same silicon die as the I/O, networking and interconnect fabric. That's built into a small server module with up to 256GB of DDR memory.
"This has never happened in the history of our industry," Gopi said. "For once we're not talking about CPUs, we're talking about a complete server-on-a-chip platform, and that is going to change the fundamental equation" for the cost of server ownership.
Applied won't say yet how much power its platform consumes or discuss the speed of its CPUs, saying product announcements will follow. And while Gopi held up a server module on stage and declared dramatically, "This is real," another Applied engineer admitted later that the SOC was a mock up, since the company is still awaiting its first samples.
Still, Applied said it's on track to deliver the first parts by the end of the year, and it says they'll run software written for 32-bit ARM devices without compromising performance. It's platform will also support virtualization and enterprise-class RAS (reliability, availability and serviceability), it said.
Earlier in the day, Gelsinger said that while the shift to smartphones and tablets means ARM will dominate client computing -- "I don't see that changing any time soon, with all deference to my x86 roots" -- he believes the data center will remain "an all x86 world."
Asked what he thinks of analyst predictions that ARM will account for 25 percent of server shipments a few years from now, Gelsinger said he doesn't buy it. "I don't believe those numbers," he said flatly.
Processors based on the x86 architecture are getting to as low as 2 or 3 watts per core, he said. Reducing the power of the CPU any further doesn't make sense when taking into account the power needed to run the other components in a server platform, such as the I/O and memory, he argued.
"I don't think the math makes sense," he said.
Add to that the overhead of trying to virtualize and manage a data center with a mix of ARM and x86 servers, and ARM makes even less sense. "The cost of heterogeneity in a cloud computing model is very high," he said.
Applied disagreed. Gelsinger's argument holds true for traditional x86 servers that have their own individual chassis, power and cooling supply, but the industry is heading toward a shared infrastructure, and even shared components such as I/O and memory, said Gaurav Singh, Applied's vice president for engineering and product development
"In the new systems, the math makes a lot more sense," he said.
Analyst Nathan Brookwood of Insight64 sided with the ARM camp. "Why I believe ARM makes sense is because it allows you to innovate at the CPU-level in a way that you can't with x86, because Intel and AMD are the only guys who have access to those cores," he said.
Applied, by contrast, was able to build a highly integrated SOC by innovating around ARM's CPU core.
SeaMicro, the server startup bought this year by AMD, has been selling even denser servers than Applied is proposing, based on Intel's Atom and Xeon processors. But SeaMicro had to use a two-chip solution, with its networking fabric on a separate piece of silicon, because it couldn't modify Intel's chips, he noted.
Now that it owns SeaMicro, AMD has hinted that it will integrate the company's technology onto its own Opteron server chips. "But that's a couple of years away," Brookwood said.
Gelsinger isn't an unbiased observer, of course. In two days he's scheduled to take over as CEO of VMware, which is mostly owned by EMC, and VMware has built its business on the x86 architecture. It's software, at least for now, does not virtualize ARM servers.
But while Gelsinger has serious doubts about ARM, he's apparently not religiously opposed to it. "If they emerge, if they're really good, of course we'll make our software support them as well, but I'm very skeptical," he said.
James Niccolai covers data centers and general technology news for IDG News Service. Follow James on Twitter at @jniccolai. James's e-mail address is email@example.com


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Product review: VMware pumps up VI3
ESX Server 3.5 and VirtualCenter 2.5 upgrades boost scalability and add handy new features; integrated tools for capacity planning, VM patching, and storage management fill important gaps, but wrinkles and loose ends remain
In the year or so since VMware released VMware Infrastructure 3.0 (VI3), it has come to be viewed as a watershed event in virtualization. Building upon the reliability of the VMware ESX 2.5 hypervisor, VI3 and its sophisticated VM management tools brought virtualization firmly into the IT mainstream. The recent upgrade to ESX Server 3.5 and VirtualCenter 2.5 doesn't equal the leap to VI3 (see my review, "Deep dive into VMware's virtual infrastructure"), but it does add a few features that will definitely come in handy for any virtualization implementation.
[ View our screencast demos of VMware Infrastructure 3's live VM migration using VMotion using VMotion and dynamic load balancing using Distributed Resource Scheduler ]
These features are generally focused on easing the maintenance burden imposed by a virtualized infrastructure. Virtualization promises to make server management intrinsically simpler, but as with many things in IT, it doesn't hit every target. Addressing some important pain points, VMware has added features such as patch management (Update Manager), live migration of VM disks (Storage VMotion), and a capacity planning wizard (Guided Consolidation) to the suite. Each of these new features fills a gap in the overall picture, and for the most part, does so quite well.
It's certainly true that many IT shops will build their first VMware implementation on ESX 3.5 and VirtualCenter 2.5, and will never have seen their predecessors, but by the same token, many current VI3 shops will be upgrading to the new revs as soon as possible to leverage the new features. To that end, my testing included not only brand-spanking-new ESX installations, but also -- the best possible test of any software release -- production upgrades.
The upgrade dance
Building VMware ESX hosts from scratch is as simple as it gets. Burn an ISO, insert into a server, boot from the CD, click OK a few times, and then add that host in the VMware Infrastructure Client. Configure the network, storage, and licensing, and that's essentially it. You can even reduce those steps if you PXE boot the VMware installer. Upgrading a host from ESX 3.0 to ESX 3.5 is actually simpler than building a new host, and requires very little downtime for the host. If your existing infrastructure is built properly, it means zero downtime for production VMs.
The first overall step to upgrading the whole infrastructure is to upgrade VirtualCenter (VC). Previous versions of VirtualCenter used MSDE (Microsoft SQL Desktop Engine) as the default database, but VMware's recommendation was to use the full-blown Microsoft SQL Server or Oracle Database to handle the database tasks. VC2.5 does away with the legacy MSDE, instead bundling Microsoft SQL Server 2005 Express Edition. This is a better database platform than MSDE, but is still designed for smaller implementations. In many production VMware environments, this is all that's necessary -- a welcome change from the previous iteration.
The upgrade to VC2.5 on a production VC2.0 server went cleanly, with a simple installation wizard pulling the strings. At the end of the process, the VC2.5 server was running, and using the new VC2.5 client, I could log in and view the production farm – except there wasn't one. The upgrade process didn't migrate the previous database to the new installation, and I had to redefine the clusters, hosts, and even templates that existed on the farm. In a small environment, this is simple. In a large environment, this could be a big problem. This gotcha, and many others in this upgrade, can be dodged by careful planning and research on the process, not to mention a thorough reading of the release notes. But VMware could have done more to smooth the way. I really would have liked to see a straightforward database migration process with validity checking during the upgrade to minimize problems in this area.
Following the upgrade, and the subsequent redefinition of some farm parameters, VC2.5 was running against an ESX 3.0 farm without issue. Next step: Upgrade the hosts.
The easiest way to upgrade an ESX host to ESX 3.5 is to download the ESX upgrade package from VMware. Customers with an existing support agreement can download the updates for free, and existing 3.0 licenses should work with 3.5 hosts. There are other methods of performing this upgrade, but using the upgrade packages is by far the simplest.
The ESX 3.5 upgrade package is essentially an archive containing RPM packages and some supporting scripts. Using SCP, I moved this archive to a folder on the central farm datastore, and began updating each host from that package. It's a relatively time-consuming process but still surprisingly simple. I first placed each host in Maintenance Mode, which forces the active VMs on that host to VMotion to other hosts in the farm, then ran esxupdate on that host, specifying the directory containing the ESX 3.5 upgrade packages. A few minutes and dozens of RPM updates later, the host was upgraded.
I then rebooted the host and took it out of Maintenance Mode in VirtualCenter. It was then just a normal host in the farm, and VMs began to migrate to it in accordance with the DRS (Distributed Resource Scheduler) rules present on the farm. The whole process took about 15 to 20 minutes per host, with most of that time spent waiting for the host to enter Maintenance Mode, and waiting for the host to come back up following the reboot. After the last host was done, the whole farm was up to ESX 3.5 with no ill effects.
Many software packages have the ability to be upgraded rather than re-installed. Most of the time, admins opt for the latter. The reason is that upgrades can bring about problems that aren't seen with bare-metal re-installations. Anyone who upgraded to Windows XP from Windows 2000 knows that this is true -- but in the case of ESX 3.5, the upgrade procedure seems to be very thorough. Several weeks since, it has not caused any problems at all.
Fun with virtual servers
VMware admins will notice a few new things right off the bat with VirtualCenter 2.5. First on that list are the annoying splash screens that now adorn most of the elements in the VMware Infrastructure Client. They're designed to be large, friendly displays with links to the most common tasks, but for anyone who's used VI3, they're not useful. Thankfully, it's possible to turn these off.
Beyond that annoyance, the new VirtualCenter is almost identical to the previous iteration in form and function, with some new buttons linking to the new features. There is one significant departure from the previous version that's worth noting: a new plug-in architecture. By implementing this, VMware has broadened the scope of what VirtualCenter can accomplish, and potentially opened the door to integrating third-party tools into the overall management infrastructure.
The big Consolidation button at the top of the new VC client is an obvious starting point. VMware has integrated its Capacity Planner code into VC2.5, allowing admins to gauge the impact of virtualizing existing physical servers without leaving the console. Coupled with VMware's physical-to-virtual (P2V) conversion tools, this is a built-in method of doing either piecemeal or wholesale migrations of an existing datacenter. Although plenty of third-party tools do P2V and migration planning, having these tools built into VC2.5 is handy for many smaller infrastructures. This feature, which requires administrator-level credentials for Windows systems, will discover servers on specified subnets and monitor their utilization and performance over time. Following this period, reports can be produced that will provide guidance in selecting physical servers ripe for virtualization, and provide a better picture of the overall utilization of an existing infrastructure. Although too much data can be a bad thing, it's generally not a bad idea to get as many viewpoints on actual server performance as possible when making these decisions. These new consolidation tools will be welcome in many IT departments.
Update Manager, descended from Shavlik's HFNetChkPro, is another big addition to VC2.5. Update Manager not only provides a control panel for applying updates and patches to ESX Server and groups of VMs, either ad hoc or on a scheduled basis, but can automate the entire process, taking a snapshot of the VM prior to patch application and retaining those snapshots for a configurable time period. So even if the patch makes a mess of your server infrastructure, you can quickly roll back to the snapshots and get things back up and running.
As with all patch management tools, Update Manager is subject to the vagaries of any automated system that attempts to make fundamental changes at the OS layer. Some patches will error, and some will work, but the display and configuration of Update Manager make that dicey reality tolerable to some extent. It's unlikely that we'll ever see a smooth and truly elegant multi-platform patch management solution in our lifetimes, but Update Manager is functional enough to be used on a regular basis, even when dealing with Linux patches -- which should be simpler than Windows and may be why it doesn't get the attention it deserves.
The other major feature addition is Storage VMotion. Traditional VMotion required that the host servers be connected to the same shared storage, be that iSCSI, NFS, or Fibre Channel, and when a VM transitioned from one physical host server to another, the storage remained in the same location -- only the VM's RAM footprint and network connections were moved. With Storage VMotion, everything can move from one host to another, including the disk. As with traditional VMotion, this happens live, without rebooting the VM.
Storage VMotion can be a slow process, especially if the storage isn't terribly speedy, but it does work. This functionality can be a lifesaver in a number of situations, such as during storage migrations and upgrades. It further reduces the management and maintenance tasks that require a VM reboot, which ultimately helps service uptime and further extends the number of tricks that VMs can do that physical servers can't. Working in concert with Storage VMotion and DRS is the new DPM (Distributed Power Management) capability that can be used to power off dormant hosts if load drops. This nice green feature requires Wake On LAN (WOL) support on the physical servers.
The halfway point
VMware did some nice things in this combo dot-five release but could have taken it further. There are still plenty of issues with VI3 that haven't been addressed, not the least of which are the truly obtuse error reporting and logging mechanisms. In one instance, trying to create a RDM (Raw Device Mapping) for a VM to directly interface with an iSCSI LUN would continually fail at the last step with a "General Error" statement that was thoroughly unhelpful. It turns out that the nature of RDM mappings require that pointer files be created on a VMFS file system that reference the iSCSI LUN mapped to the host. If the datastore in use happened to be NFS, then RDM pointers can't be created, and thus can't be used.
Seeing an error message with that information anywhere along the line would have been extremely helpful.
A number of other common functions still need work. For instance, if you rename a VM in the client, it renames the VM in the display, but it doesn't rename the folders and files related to the VM. Thus, you can't create a VM using the old name. Further, if you migrate the "renamed" VM to another datastore while it's powered off, some of the files get renamed to the new VM name, but some don't -- notably snapshots. In this instance, you're left with a nonfunctional VM after the migration. This seemingly simple step can be highly frustrating, and there's really no excuse for it. Simply renaming a VM shouldn't cause so much trouble.
Networking is still more complex than it perhaps needs to be, with service consoles, VMkernel interfaces, multiple default routes, and so on. It would be nice to see a consolidation of sorts there, with clearer definitions of networking functions and certainly clearer interpretations of commonly used networking terms. Configuring EtherChannel NIC bonding requires navigating a labyrinth of dialog boxes that becomes tiresome very quickly, although the addition of CDP (Cisco Discovery Protocol) support in ESX 3.5 goes a long way toward untying some knots by making it far simpler to identify connected switchports on each ESX host, provided you're using CDP-compliant switches. In some instances, though, this new feature turned up blank even when connected to a Cisco 6509 with CDP enabled. Speaking of networking, one of the more welcome hardware support updates is for selected 10-gigabit cards from Neterion and NetXen.
There are more new features to be found in ESX 3.5, such as IPv6 support for VMs, increases to host logical CPU counts and RAM counts (32 CPUs and 256GB, respectively), and support for as much as 64GB of RAM per VM. VirtualCenter 2.5 is more scalable as well, able to manage as many as 200 ESX hosts and 2,000 VMs. Another welcome improvement to VirtualCenter: VM client tool installations can now be automated on both Linux and Windows, thank you.


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Growing homeless camps contrast with West Coast tech wealth
Housing prices are soaring here thanks to the tech industry, but the boom comes with a consequence: A surge in homelessness marked by 400 unauthorized tent camps in parks, under bridges, on freeway medians and along busy sidewalks. The liberal city is trying to figure out what to do.
"I've got economically zero unemployment in my city, and I've got thousands of homeless people that actually are working and just can't afford housing," said Seattle City Councilman Mike O'Brien. "There's nowhere for these folks to move to."
That struggle is not Seattle's alone. A homeless crisis is rocking the entire West Coast, pushing abject poverty into the open like never before.
Public health is at risk, several cities have declared states of emergency, and cities and counties are spending millions — in some cases billions — in a search for solutions.
San Diego now scrubs its sidewalks with bleach to counter a deadly hepatitis A outbreak. In Anaheim, 400 people sleep along a bike path in the shadow of Angel Stadium. Organizers in Portland lit incense at an outdoor food festival to cover up the stench of urine in a parking lot where vendors set up shop.
Homelessness is not new on the West Coast. But interviews with local officials and those who serve the homeless in California, Oregon and Washington — coupled with an Associated Press review of preliminary homeless data — confirm it's getting worse.
People who were once able to get by, even if they suffered a setback, are now pushed to the streets because housing has become so expensive. All it takes is a prolonged illness, a lost job, a broken limb, a family crisis. What was once a blip in fortunes now seems a life sentence.
Among the findings:
—Official counts taken earlier this year in California, Oregon and Washington show 168,000 homeless people in the three states, according to an AP tally of every jurisdiction in those states that reports homeless numbers to the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. That is 19,000 more than were counted in 2015, although the numbers may not be directly comparable because of factors ranging from the weather to new counting methods.
—During the same period, the number of unsheltered people in the three states climbed 18 percent to 105,000.
—Rising rents are the main culprit. The median one-bedroom apartment in the San Francisco Bay Area is more expensive than it is in the New York City metro area, for instance.
—Since 2015, at least 10 cities or municipal regions in California, Oregon and Washington have declared emergencies due to the rise of homelessness, a designation usually reserved for natural disasters.
The West Coast's newly homeless are people who were able to survive on the margins — until those margins moved.
For years, Stanley Timmings, 62, and his 61-year-old girlfriend, Linda Catlin, were able to rent a room in a friend's house on their combined disability payments.
Last spring, that friend died of colon cancer and the couple was thrust on Seattle's streets.
Timmings used their last savings to buy a used RV for $300 and spent another $300 to register it. Now, the couple parks the RV near a small regional airport.
They have no running water and no propane for the cook stove. They go to the bathroom in a bucket and dump it behind a nearby business.
After four months, the stench of human waste inside the RV is overwhelming. They are exhausted, scared and defeated, with no solution in sight.
"Between the two of us a month, we get $1,440 in disability," he said. "We can't find a place for that."
Nationally, homelessness has been trending down, partly because governments and nonprofit groups have gotten better at moving people into housing. That's true in many West Coast cities, too, but the flow the other direction is even faster.
"So everybody who was just hanging on because they had cheap rent, they're losing that ... and they wind up outside," said Margaret King, director of housing programs for the nonprofit DESC in Seattle. "It's just exploded."
Above all, the West Coast lacks long-term, low-income housing for people like Ashley Dibble and her 3-year-old daughter.
Dibble, 29, says she has been homeless off and on for about a year, after her ex-boyfriend squandered money on his car and didn't pay the rent for three months. She sent her toddler to live with the girl's paternal grandparents in Florida. She and her new boyfriend were sleeping under tarps near Safeco Field, home of the Seattle Mariners, when an outreach team referred them to a new shelter.
With an eviction on her record and little income, no one will rent to her.
"I've had so many doors slammed in my face, it's ridiculous," Dibble said, wiping away tears.
All along the West Coast, local governments are scrambling for answers — and taxpayers are footing the bill.
Voters have approved more than $8 billion in spending since 2015 on affordable housing and other anti-homelessness programs, mostly as tax increases. Los Angeles voters, for example, approved $1.2 billion to build 10,000 units of affordable housing to address a homeless population that's reached 34,000 people within city limits.
Jeremy Lemoine, an outreach case manager with REACH in Seattle, called it the situation a refugee crisis.
"I don't mean to sound hopeless," he said. "I generate hope for a living for people — that there is a future for them — but we need to address it now."
Associated Press writers Janie Har in San Francisco, Amy Taxin in Anaheim, Julie Watson in San Diego and Chris Weber in Los Angeles contributed to this report. AP photographer Ted Warren and AP videographer Manuel Valdes in Seattle also contributed.
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electrostatics, the study of electromagnetic phenomena that occur when there are no moving charges—i.e., after a static equilibrium has been established. Charges reach their equilibrium positions rapidly, because the electric force is extremely strong. The mathematical methods of electrostatics make it possible to calculate the distributions of the electric field and of the electric potential from a known configuration of charges, conductors, and insulators. Conversely, given a set of conductors with known potentials, it is possible to calculate electric fields in regions between the conductors and to determine the charge distribution on the surface of the conductors. The electric energy of a set of charges at rest can be viewed from the standpoint of the work required to assemble the charges; alternatively, the energy also can be considered to reside in the electric field produced by this assembly of charges. Finally, energy can be stored in a capacitor; the energy required to charge such a device is stored in it as electrostatic energy of the electric field.
Coulomb's law
Static electricity is a familiar electric phenomenon in which charged particles are transferred from one body to another. For example, if two objects are rubbed together, especially if the objects are insulators and the surrounding air is dry, the objects acquire equal and opposite charges and an attractive force develops between them. The object that loses electrons becomes positively charged, and the other becomes negatively charged. The force is simply the attraction between charges of opposite sign. The properties of this force were described above; they are incorporated in the mathematical relationship known as Coulomb's law. The electric force on a charge Q1 under these conditions, due to a charge Q2 at a distance r, is given by Coulomb's law,
The bold characters in the equation indicate the vector nature of the force, and the unit vector r̂ is a vector that has a size of one and that points from charge Q2 to charge Q1. The proportionality constant k equals 10−7c2, where c is the speed of light in a vacuum; k has the numerical value of 8.99 × 109 newtons-square metre per coulomb squared (Nm2/C2). Figure 1 shows the force on Q1 due to Q2. A numerical example will help to illustrate this force. Both Q1 and Q2 are chosen arbitrarily to be positive charges, each with a magnitude of 10−6 coulomb. The charge Q1 is located at coordinates x, y, z with values of 0.03, 0, 0, respectively, while Q2 has coordinates 0, 0.04, 0. All coordinates are given in metres. Thus, the distance between Q1 and Q2 is 0.05 metre.
The magnitude of the force F on charge Q1 as calculated using equation (1) is 3.6 newtons; its direction is shown in Figure 1. The force on Q2 due to Q1 is −F, which also has a magnitude of 3.6 newtons; its direction, however, is opposite to that of F. The force F can be expressed in terms of its components along the x and y axes, since the force vector lies in the xy plane. This is done with elementary trigonometry from the geometry of Figure 1, and the results are shown in Figure 2. Thus,in newtons. Coulomb's law describes mathematically the properties of the electric force between charges at rest. If the charges have opposite signs, the force is attractive; the attraction is indicated in equation (1) by the negative coefficient of the unit vector r̂. Thus, the electric force on Q1 has a direction opposite to the unit vector r̂ and points from Q1 to Q2. In Cartesian coordinates, this results in a change of the signs of both the x and the y components of the force in equation (2).
How can this electric force on Q1 be understood? Fundamentally, the force is due to the presence of an electric field at the position of Q1. The field is caused by the second charge Q2 and has a magnitude proportional to the size of Q2. In interacting with this field, the first charge, some distance away, is either attracted to or repelled from the second charge, depending on the sign of the first charge.
Calculating the value of an electric field
In the example, the charge Q1 is in the electric field produced by the charge Q2. This field has the valuein newtons per coulomb (N/C). (An electric field can also be expressed in volts per metre [V/m], which is the equivalent of newtons per coulomb.) The electric force on Q1 is given byin newtons. This equation can be used to define the electric field of a point charge. The electric field E produced by charge Q2 is a vector. The magnitude of the field varies inversely as the square of the distance from Q2; its direction is away from Q2 when Q2 is a positive charge and toward Q2 when Q2 is a negative charge. Using equations (2) and (4), the field produced by Q2 at the position of Q1 isin newtons per coulomb.
When there are several charges present, the force on a given charge Q1 may be simply calculated as the sum of the individual forces due to the other charges Q2, Q3,…, etc., until all the charges are included. This sum requires that special attention be given to the direction of the individual forces since forces are vectors. The force on Q1 can be obtained with the same amount of effort by first calculating the electric field at the position of Q1 due to Q2, Q3,…, etc. To illustrate this, a third charge is added to the example above. There are now three charges, Q1 = +10−6 C, Q2 = +10−6 C, and Q3 = −10−6 C. The locations of the charges, using Cartesian coordinates [x, y, z] are, respectively, [0.03, 0, 0], [0, 0.04, 0], and [−0.02, 0, 0] metre, as shown in Figure 3. The goal is to find the force on Q1. From the sign of the charges, it can be seen that Q1 is repelled by Q2 and attracted by Q3. It is also clear that these two forces act along different directions. The electric field at the position of Q1 due to charge Q2 is, just as in the example above,in newtons per coulomb. The electric field at the location of Q1 due to charge Q3 isin newtons per coulomb. Thus, the total electric field at position 1 (i.e., at [0.03, 0, 0]) is the sum of these two fields E1,2 + E1,3 and is given by
The fields E1,2 and E1,3 as well as their sum, the total electric field at the location of Q1, E1 (total), are shown in Figure 3. The total force on Q1 is then obtained from equation (4) by multiplying the electric field E1 (total) by Q1. In Cartesian coordinates, this force, expressed in newtons, is given by its components along the x and y axes by
The resulting force on Q1 is in the direction of the total electric field at Q1, shown in Figure 3. The magnitude of the force, which is obtained as the square root of the sum of the squares of the components of the force given in the above equation, equals 3.22 newtons.
Superposition principle
This calculation demonstrates an important property of the electromagnetic field known as the superposition principle. According to this principle, a field arising from a number of sources is determined by adding the individual fields from each source. The principle is illustrated by Figure 3, in which an electric field arising from several sources is determined by the superposition of the fields from each of the sources. In this case, the electric field at the location of Q1 is the sum of the fields due to Q2 and Q3. Studies of electric fields over an extremely wide range of magnitudes have established the validity of the superposition principle.
The vector nature of an electric field produced by a set of charges introduces a significant complexity. Specifying the field at each point in space requires giving both the magnitude and the direction at each location. In the Cartesian coordinate system, this necessitates knowing the magnitude of the x, y, and z components of the electric field at each point in space. It would be much simpler if the value of the electric field vector at any point in space could be derived from a scalar function with magnitude and sign.
Electric potential
The electric potential is just such a scalar function. Electric potential is related to the work done by an external force when it transports a charge slowly from one position to another in an environment containing other charges at rest. The difference between the potential at point A and the potential at point B is defined by the equation
As noted above, electric potential is measured in volts. Since work is measured in joules in the Système Internationale d'Unités (SI), one volt is equivalent to one joule per coulomb. The charge q is taken as a small test charge; it is assumed that the test charge does not disturb the distribution of the remaining charges during its transport from point B to point A.
To illustrate the work in equation (5), Figure 4 shows a positive charge +Q. Consider the work involved in moving a second charge q from B to A. Along path 1, work is done to offset the electric repulsion between the two charges. If path 2 is chosen instead, no work is done in moving q from B to C, since the motion is perpendicular to the electric force; moving q from C to D, the work is, by symmetry, identical as from B to A, and no work is required from D to A. Thus, the total work done in moving q from B to A is the same for either path. It can be shown easily that the same is true for any path going from B to A. When the initial and final positions of the charge q are located on a sphere centred on the location of the +Q charge, no work is done; the electric potential at the initial position has the same value as at the final position. The sphere in this example is called an equipotential surface. When equation (5), which defines the potential difference between two points, is combined with Coulomb's law, it yields the following expression for the potential difference VA − VB between points A and B:where ra and rb are the distances of points A and B from Q. Choosing B far away from the charge Q and arbitrarily setting the electric potential to be zero far from the charge result in a simple equation for the potential at A:
The contribution of a charge to the electric potential at some point in space is thus a scalar quantity directly proportional to the magnitude of the charge and inversely proportional to the distance between the point and the charge. For more than one charge, one simply adds the contributions of the various charges. The result is a topological map that gives a value of the electric potential for every point in space.
Figure 5 provides three-dimensional views illustrating the effect of the positive charge +Q located at the origin on either a second positive charge q (Figure 5A) or on a negative charge −q (Figure 5B); the potential energy "landscape" is illustrated in each case. The potential energy of a charge q is the product qV of the charge and of the electric potential at the position of the charge. In Figure 5A, the positive charge q would have to be pushed by some external agent in order to get close to the location of +Q because, as q approaches, it is subjected to an increasingly repulsive electric force. For the negative charge −q, the potential energy in Figure 5B shows, instead of a steep hill, a deep funnel. The electric potential due to +Q is still positive, but the potential energy is negative, and the negative charge −q, in a manner quite analogous to a particle under the influence of gravity, is attracted toward the origin where charge +Q is located.
The electric field is related to the variation of the electric potential in space. The potential provides a convenient tool for solving a wide variety of problems in electrostatics. In a region of space where the potential varies, a charge is subjected to an electric force. For a positive charge the direction of this force is opposite the gradient of the potential—that is to say, in the direction in which the potential decreases the most rapidly. A negative charge would be subjected to a force in the direction of the most rapid increase of the potential. In both instances, the magnitude of the force is proportional to the rate of change of the potential in the indicated directions. If the potential in a region of space is constant, there is no force on either positive or negative charge. In a 12-volt car battery, positive charges would tend to move away from the positive terminal and toward the negative terminal, while negative charges would tend to move in the opposite direction—i.e., from the negative to the positive terminal. The latter occurs when a copper wire, in which there are electrons that are free to move, is used to connect the two terminals of the battery to each other.
Deriving electric field from potential
The electric field has already been described in terms of the force on a charge. If the electric potential is known at every point in a region of space, the electric field can be derived from the potential. In vector calculus notation, the electric field is given by the negative of the gradient of the electric potential, E = −grad V. This expression specifies how the electric field is calculated at a given point. Since the field is a vector, it has both a direction and a magnitude. The direction is that in which the potential decreases most rapidly, moving away from the point. The magnitude of the field is the change in potential across a small distance in the indicated direction divided by that distance.
To aid in becoming more familiar with the electric potential, a numerically determined solution is presented for a two-dimensional configuration of electrodes. A long circular conducting rod is maintained at an electric potential of −20 volts. Next to the rod, a long L-shaped bracket, also made of conducting material, is maintained at a potential of +20 volts. Both the rod and the bracket are placed inside a long hollow metal tube with a square cross section; this enclosure is at a potential of zero (i.e., it is at "ground" potential). Figure 6 shows the geometry of the problem. Because the situation is static, there is no electric field inside the material of the conductors. If there were such a field, the charges that are free to move in a conducting material would do so until equilibrium was reached. The charges are arranged so that their individual contributions to the electric field at points inside the conducting material add up to zero. In a situation of static equilibrium, excess charges are located on the surface of conductors. Because there are no electric fields inside the conducting material, all parts of a given conductor are at the same potential; hence, a conductor is an equipotential in a static situation.
In Figure 7, the numerical solution of the problem gives the potential at a large number of points inside the cavity. The locations of the +20-volt and −20-volt electrodes can be recognized easily. In carrying out the numerical solution of the electrostatic problem in the figure, the electrostatic potential was determined directly by means of one of its important properties: in a region where there is no charge (in this case, between the conductors), the value of the potential at a given point is the average of the values of the potential in the neighbourhood of the point. This follows from the fact that the electrostatic potential in a charge-free region obeys Laplace's equation, which in vector calculus notation is div grad V = 0. This equation is a special case of Poisson's equation div grad V = ρ, which is applicable to electrostatic problems in regions where the volume charge density is ρ. Laplace's equation states that the divergence of the gradient of the potential is zero in regions of space with no charge. In the example of Figure 7, the potential on the conductors remains constant. Arbitrary values of potential are initially assigned elsewhere inside the cavity. To obtain a solution, a computer replaces the potential at each coordinate point that is not on a conductor by the average of the values of the potential around that point; it scans the entire set of points many times until the values of the potentials differ by an amount small enough to indicate a satisfactory solution. Clearly, the larger the number of points, the more accurate the solution will be. The computation time and the computer memory size requirement increase rapidly, especially in three-dimensional problems with complex geometry. This method of solution is called the "relaxation" method.
In Figure 8, points with the same value of electric potential have been connected to reveal a number of important properties associated with conductors in static situations. The lines in the figure represent equipotential surfaces. The distance between two equipotential surfaces tells how rapidly the potential changes, with the smallest distances corresponding to the location of the greatest rate of change and thus to the largest values of the electric field. Looking at the +20-volt and +15-volt equipotential surfaces, one observes immediately that they are closest to each other at the sharp external corners of the right-angle conductor. This shows that the strongest electric fields on the surface of a charged conductor are found on the sharpest external parts of the conductor; electrical breakdowns are most likely to occur there. It also should be noted that the electric field is weakest in the inside corners, both on the inside corner of the right-angle piece and on the inside corners of the square enclosure.
In Figure 9, dashed lines indicate the direction of the electric field. The strength of the field is reflected by the density of these dashed lines. Again, it can be seen that the field is strongest on outside corners of the charged L-shaped conductor; the largest surface charge density must occur at those locations. The field is weakest in the inside corners. The signs of the charges on the conducting surfaces can be deduced from the fact that electric fields point away from positive charges and toward negative charges. The magnitude of the surface charge density σ on the conductors is measured in coulombs per metre squared and is given bywhere ε0 is called the permittivity of free space and has the value of 8.854 × 10−12 coulomb squared per newton-square metre. In addition, ε0 is related to the constant k in Coulomb's law by
Figure 9 also illustrates an important property of an electric field in static situations: field lines are always perpendicular to equipotential surfaces. The field lines meet the surfaces of the conductors at right angles, since these surfaces also are equipotentials. Figure 10 completes this example by showing the potential energy landscape of a small positive charge q in the region. From the variation in potential energy, it is easy to picture how electric forces tend to drive the positive charge q from higher to lower potential—i.e., from the L-shaped bracket at +20 volts toward the square-shaped enclosure at ground (0 volts) or toward the cylindrical rod maintained at a potential of −20 volts. It also graphically displays the strength of force near the sharp corners of conducting electrodes.
A useful device for storing electrical energy consists of two conductors in close proximity and insulated from each other. A simple example of such a storage device is the parallel-plate capacitor. If positive charges with total charge +Q are deposited on one of the conductors and an equal amount of negative charge −Q is deposited on the second conductor, the capacitor is said to have a charge Q. As shown in Figure 11, it consists of two flat conducting plates, each of area A, parallel to each other and separated by a distance d.
Principle of the capacitor
To understand how a charged capacitor stores energy, consider the following charging process. With both plates of the capacitor initially uncharged, a small amount of negative charge is removed from the lower plate and placed on the upper plate. Thus, little work is required to make the lower plate slightly positive and the upper plate slightly negative. As the process is repeated, however, it becomes increasingly difficult to transport the same amount of negative charge, since the charge is being moved toward a plate that is already negatively charged and away from a plate that is positively charged. The negative charge on the upper plate repels the negative charge moving toward it, and the positive charge on the lower plate exerts an attractive force on the negative charge being moved away. Therefore, work has to be done to charge the capacitor.
Where and how is this energy stored? The negative charges on the upper plate are attracted toward the positive charges on the lower plate and could do work if they could leave the plate. Because they cannot leave the plate, however, the energy is stored. A mechanical analogy is the potential energy of a stretched spring. Another way to understand the energy stored in a capacitor is to compare an uncharged capacitor with a charged capacitor. In the uncharged capacitor, there is no electric field between the plates; in the charged capacitor, because of the positive and negative charges on the inside surfaces of the plates, there is an electric field between the plates, with the field lines pointing from the positively charged plate to the negatively charged one. The energy stored is the energy that was required to establish the field. In the simple geometry of Figure 11, it is apparent that there is a nearly uniform electric field between the plates; the field becomes more uniform as the distance between the plates decreases and the area of the plates increases. It was explained above how the magnitude of the electric field can be obtained from the electric potential. In summary, the electric field is the change in the potential across a small distance in a direction perpendicular to an equipotential surface divided by that small distance. In Figure 11, the upper plate is assumed to be at a potential of Va volts, and the lower plate at a potential of Vb volts. The size of the electric field isin volts per metre, where d is the separation of the plates. If the charged capacitor has a total charge of +Q on the inside surface of the lower plate (it is on the inside surface because it is attracted to the negative charges on the upper plate), the positive charge will be uniformly distributed on the surface with the valuein coulombs per metre squared. Equation (8) gives the electric field when the surface charge density is known as E = σ/ε0. This, in turn, relates the potential difference to the charge on the capacitor and the geometry of the plates. The result is
The quantity C is termed capacity; for the parallel-plate capacitor, C is equal to ε0A/d. The unit used for capacity is the farad (F); one farad equals one coulomb per volt. In equation (12), only the potential difference is involved. The potential of either plate can be set arbitrarily without altering the electric field between the plates. Often one of the plates is grounded—i.e., its potential is set at the Earth potential, which is referred to as zero volts. The potential difference is then denoted as ΔV, or simply as V.
Three equivalent formulas for the total energy W of a capacitor with charge Q and potential difference V are
All are expressed in joules. The stored energy in the parallel-plate capacitor also can be expressed in terms of the electric field; it is, in joules,
The quantity Ad, the area of each plate times the separation of the two plates, is the volume between the plates. Thus, the energy per unit volume (i.e., the energy density of the electric field) is given by 1/2ε0E2 in units of joules per metre cubed.
Dielectrics, polarization, and electric dipole moment
The amount of charge stored in a capacitor is the product of the voltage and the capacity. What limits the amount of charge that can be stored on a capacitor? The voltage can be increased, but electric breakdown will occur if the electric field inside the capacitor becomes too large. The capacity can be increased by expanding the electrode areas and by reducing the gap between the electrodes. In general, capacitors that can withstand high voltages have a relatively small capacity. If only low voltages are needed, however, compact capacitors with rather large capacities can be manufactured. One method for increasing capacity is to insert between the conductors an insulating material that reduces the voltage because of its effect on the electric field. Such materials are called dielectrics (substances with no free charges). When the molecules of a dielectric are placed in the electric field, their negatively charged electrons separate slightly from their positively charged cores. With this separation, referred to as polarization, the molecules acquire an electric dipole moment. A cluster of charges with an electric dipole moment is often called an electric dipole.
Is there an electric force between a charged object and uncharged matter, such as a piece of wood? Surprisingly, the answer is yes, and the force is attractive. The reason is that, under the influence of the electric field of a charged object, the negatively charged electrons and the positively charged nuclei within the atoms and molecules are subjected to forces in opposite directions. As a result, the negative and positive charges separate slightly. Such atoms and molecules are said to be polarized and to have an electric dipole moment. The molecules in the wood acquire an electric dipole moment in the direction of the external electric field. The polarized molecules are attracted toward the charged object because the field increases in the direction of the charged object.
The electric dipole moment p of two charges +q and −q separated by a distance l is a vector of magnitude p = ql with a direction from the negative to the positive charge. An electric dipole in an external electric field is subjected to a torque τ = pE sin θ, where θ is the angle between p and E. The torque tends to align the dipole moment p in the direction of E. The potential energy of the dipole is given by Ue = −pE cos θ, or in vector notation Ue = −p · E. In a nonuniform electric field, the potential energy of an electric dipole also varies with position, and the dipole can be subjected to a force. The force on the dipole is in the direction of increasing field when p is aligned with E, since the potential energy Ue decreases in that direction.
The polarization of a medium P gives the electric dipole moment per unit volume of the material; it is expressed in units of coulombs per metre squared. When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, it acquires a polarization that depends on the field. The electric susceptibility χe relates the polarization to the electric field as P = χeE. In general, χe varies slightly, depending on the strength of the electric field, but for some materials, called linear dielectrics, it is a constant. The dielectric constant κ of a substance is related to its susceptibility as κ = 1 + χe/ε0; it is a dimensionless quantity. Table 1 lists the dielectric constants of a few substances.
|dielectric constant
|fused quartz
|calcium titanate
|barium titanate
The presence of a dielectric affects many electric quantities. A dielectric reduces by a factor K the value of the electric field and consequently also the value of the electric potential from a charge within the medium. As seen in Table 1, a dielectric can have a large effect. The insertion of a dielectric between the electrodes of a capacitor with a given charge reduces the potential difference between the electrodes and thus increases the capacitance of the capacitor by the factor K. For a parallel-plate capacitor filled with a dielectric, the capacity becomes C = Κε0A/d. A third and important effect of a dielectric is to reduce the speed of electromagnetic waves in a medium by the factor Square root of√K .
Capacitors come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. Not all have parallel plates; some are cylinders, for example. If two plates, each one square centimetre in area, are separated by a dielectric with K = 2 of one-millimetre thickness, the capacity is 1.76 × 10−12 F, about two picofarads. Charged to 20 volts, this capacitor would store about 40 picocoulombs of charge; the electric energy stored would be 400 picojoules. Even small capacitors can store enormous amounts of charge. Modern techniques and dielectric materials permit the manufacture of capacitors that occupy less than one cubic centimetre and yet store 1010 times more charge and electric energy than in the above example.
Applications of capacitors
Capacitors have many important applications. They are used, for example, in digital circuits so that information stored in large computer memories is not lost during a momentary electric power failure; the electric energy stored in such capacitors maintains the information during the temporary loss of power. Capacitors play an even more important role as filters to divert spurious electric signals and thereby prevent damage to sensitive components and circuits caused by electric surges.The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica


text: Love Jones: From Boo to Bae a Cautionary Tale By Dwight A. Owens, M.D. | January 5, 2017 | No Comments | Uncategorized As the New Year takes foot hold, consider this post. Will you find true love in 2017? Only you can answer this question. Is it even possible to find love? There is an answer to this question. Read More »


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Main Divide
ctimrun just put a new 4.5" lift and 35" Toyo's on his Jeep JK Unlimited, so we had to go play and test out his flex. He was minus his front drive shaft while he's waiting for the upgrade to come in, so we stayed in 2WD to keep the playing field level. I let T.B. wheel my 2DR JK this time so I could take some photos for a change. Located in the Trabuco district of Cleveland National Forest, Main Divide is currently open from Ortega until the turnoff on to Indian Truck Trail, just before Modjeska Peak, and it has lots of side spurs with fun obstacles to play on.Read More
ctimrun is looking good!
ctimrun is looking good!


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Israel: No Place for Bedouin
Bedouin living in the Negev desert often lack even basic services, something Israel appears to promote
|Bedouin Arabs living in the Negev desert are being forced off their grazing lands into towns and villages that lack clean water, sanitation, electricity, and other basic services [GALLO/GETTY]
Ibrahim al-Atrash lifts the cover to a large, copper water tank. "Rust," he says, pointing to the discolored rim. Moments later, one of al-Atrash's children fills a pink, plastic jug with water that slowly trickles out from the container's spout.
This is how the al-Atrash family – and the over 4,500 residents of al-Atrash, a so-called "unrecognized" Bedouin village in the Israeli Negev (Naqab) desert, which is named after the tribe – gets water: through a series of pipes connecting individual tanks to a central water system over 5 kilometers away.
"We don't have any options. We're obliged to drink from the containers and it's not healthy. It causes a lot of health problems because sometimes there are holes in the pipe, water pressure issues, and lots of things," says Ibrahim, who heads the al-Atrash village council.
Ibrahim explains that it cost him nearly 50,000 Israel sheckels (approximately US$14,500) to dig up the land in order to hook his pipes up to the water system. Despite the investment, the system is far from perfect; the water freezes in the winter and is boiling hot in the summer, water pressure is low and often there isn't enough water to satisfy an entire family's needs.
"We don't have water here to drink. It's hot here [in the Negev]. The minimum thing is to give us water so that our children can drink," he says.
Today, nearly half of the entire Bedouin population in the Negev – approximately 80,000 people – lives in 45 Bedouin villages that are unrecognized by the Israeli government. Despite being Israeli citizens, the state views the Bedouin residents of these villages as illegal squatters and does not provide them with basic services or infrastructure, including electricity, water, sewage systems, roads, schools or hospitals.
On June 5, the Israeli Supreme Court ruled on an appeal filed five years ago on behalf of 128 Bedouin families living in six different unrecognized villages, including al-Atrash, who asked to be connected to the area's water distribution network.
The court ruled that three villages – Gatamat, Umm el-Hieran, and Tel Arad – must be provided with an unspecified "minimum access to water" but rejected in part the claims of three other villages – al-Atrash, Tel al-Maleh, and Tla' Rashid – since it stated that these villages already had reasonable access to water.
While the court stated that the right to water is a constitutional right for all Israeli citizens, including the Bedouins, "because it stems directly from the constitutional right to life and the right to dignity and equality," it failed to specify what constitutes a fair minimum of water for the villages the state deems illegal.
Further, its ultimate conclusion dangerously adopted the official Israeli solution with regards to the so-called Bedouin "problem" – that the Bedouins of the unrecognized Negev villages should be moved into government-planned townships.
A history of Bedouin transfer
This, of course, has been the Israeli government's plan all along, and has been promoted through various means since the state began building the first three Bedouin urban centers – Tel al-Sabe (Tel Sheva), Rahat and Kseife – in the early 1960s. Today, seven government-planned, Bedouin towns exist in the Negev, including the largest, Rahat, which holds over 50,000 residents.
These towns are the poorest in the entire country and lack basic services, including schools, complete sewage systems, banks, libraries and employment opportunities. They are largely seen as dormitory towns – people only sleep there and must go outside for anything else they need – and most importantly, the towns fail to take into account Bedouin culture and way of life, which is agricultural and deeply rooted in the land.
Today, the extremely difficult conditions prevalent in unrecognized Bedouin villages in the Negev is being used as an excuse to promote the urbanization of the Bedouin population. This effort comes despite the fact that the Bedouins have lived on their lands (considered state lands by the Israeli government) for generations, and despite the reality that the sub-par conditions in the townships mean that there is no real incentive for the Bedouins to leave their communities, despite being unrecognized.
"The court took for granted that these people are land squatters when in fact, they are not. This is very, very problematic," explained Sawsan Zaher, a lawyer with Adalah, The Legal Center for Arab Minority Rights in Israel, which represented the villagers in their appeal to the Supreme Court. "[It] does not take into consideration that the Bedouins are living on their own lands, many of them before 1948, and many of them were moved onto the lands that they are living [on now] by an order by the [Israeli] military commander."
Prior to and during the founding of the state of Israel in 1948, approximately 85 percent of the Bedouin population in the Negev was expelled from their lands to surrounding territories, including the West Bank, Gaza Strip, Jordan and Egypt. Of the original 95 Bedouin tribes that inhabited the area, only 19 remained.
According to Ismael Abu Saad, the founder of the Bedouin Studies Center at Ben Gurion University of the Negev, after Israeli military rule was imposed on the entire Palestinian population that remained in the territory now known as Israel, the Bedouins of the Negev were deprived of the ability to travel with their herds and cultivate their lands.
In addition, 12 of the 19 remaining tribes were forcibly displaced from their lands and confined to a restricted area in the northeastern Negev, which they could only leave with a special permit. Known as the Siyag, this area covered only ten percent of the land the Bedouins controlled prior to 1948, and was known for its low fertility.
"These restrictions represented a form of forced sedentarization, which virtually ended their traditional way of life," Abu Saad wrote in a paper titled, "Defining the 'Other' as the Enemy: the Indigenous Palestinian Bedouin in Israel". As most of the Bedouins of the Negev were forced into the Siyag and were therefore not occupying their original lands, they lost ownership claims to land that they had used for generations.
After Israel had expropriated 93 percent of the lands in the Negev for Jewish settlement, the state's next priority was the forced urbanization of the Bedouins. "We should transform the Bedouins into an urban proletariat–in industry, services, construction and agriculture. 88 percent of the Israeli populations are not farmers, let the Bedouins be like them," stated Israeli military leader Moshe Dayan in 1963.
"Indeed, this will be a radical move which means that the Bedouin would not live on his land with his herds, but would become an urban person who comes home in the afternoon and puts his slippers on. His children would be accustomed to a father who wears trousers, does not carry a Shabaria [traditional Bedouin knife] and does not search for vermin in public. This would be a revolution, but it may be fixed within two generations. Without coercion but with government direction, this phenomenon of the Bedouins will disappear," Dayan said.
Ethnic cleansing continues slowly
The Judaization of the Negev has been a priority for Israeli leaders since before the state was even founded. In 1937, David Ben-Gurion, who would go on to be Israel's first Prime Minister, wrote in a letter to his son: "Negev land is reserved for Jewish citizens whenever and wherever they want. We must expel the Arabs and take their place."
Over 60 years later, not much has changed. Indeed, in 2005, the Israeli government publicly stated its goal to strengthen Jewish settlement in the region and increase the population by 70 percent by 2015, up to 900,000 residents. As such, virtually every Jewish development project in the Negev – whether for a kibbutz, agricultural village, individual farm, or city – is immediately given basic services and infrastructure and encouraged to grow, while these same resources remain at unlivable levels in Bedouin communities.
Individual settlements – provided with hundreds, and sometimes thousands, of dunums of land for the use of one single Jewish family – have been promoted since 1997 in the Negev. These farms are equipped with basic infrastructure, including vast reserves of water and electricity, and their stated purpose is to safeguard state lands from Arab citizens of the state while ensuring that Jewish Israelis use the most land possible. According to Adalah, the Legal Center for Arab Minority Rights in Israel, the earliest individual settlements were built "without tenders, without clear criteria for distributing the land, without building permits or approvals as required by law, and without examining development and policy needs."
Not only are projects for the benefit of Israel's Jewish population promoted without going through the proper legal channels, they are actively pursued at the expense of the Bedouins, who continue to be viewed as a threat by the state. For example, the Israeli planning authorities in the Negev are arrogantly working on plans to completely destroy the unrecognized Bedouin village of Umm al-Hieran – currently inhabited by 150 families and approximately 1,000 residents – to build a Jewish town, which will be called Hiran, directly on top of it.
In another example, the 300 Bedouin residents of the unrecognized village of al-Araqib have seen their rights trampled in order to make way for a forest sponsored by the Jewish National Fund (JNF). The village has been completely demolished nearly two dozen times, including the most recent demolition on June 21, and JNF bulldozers work the villagers' lands each day in preparation for planting.
And so while Israel promotes Jewish residential and forestation projects, every Bedouin community in the Negev – whether recognized or unrecognized – struggles to meet the basic needs of its residents, all of whom are citizens of the state.
In this context, it is clear that withholding access to water for the Bedouins – not to mention electricity, schools, healthcare, and virtually all other services – has nothing to do with the legal status of their villages.
Instead, it can be seen as a tactical tool that highlights the deep-rooted, state-sanctioned discrimination and inequality prevalent in the Negev and confirms that the rights of Israel's non-Jewish citizens will always be sacrificed in the name of preserving Jewish control over all aspects of the state, from the use of land to the allocation of resources.
"Why is recognition in the country's hands? They say that we are illegal, but then they will build 20 houses for Jews and call it a recognized village. Why do they recognize 20 houses, but not 5,000 people? You can't recognize us? Give us water, electricity, and streets?" asks Ibrahim al-Atrash, sitting in the shade just outside his family's home.
"It's a way to pressure the people. They didn't agree to give us water as a way to pressure us to give up our lands," he adds, "But what will they give me in exchange?"
Jillian Kestler-D'Amours is a Canadian freelance journalist based in Jerusalem. She regularly contributes to The Electronic Intifada, Inter-Press Service and Free Speech Radio News. More of her work can be found at http://jkdamours.com/
The views expressed in this article are the author's own and do not necessarily reflect Al Jazeera's editorial policy.


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Jim Meehan may have achieved cocktail supremacy at PDT—his world-renowned bar in the East Village, where bartenders routinely mix drinks with multiple obscure ingredients and reservations are made weeks in advance—but he started off in a place familiar to us all: Drinking Milwaukee's Best at a high school party.
His professional path included churning out shots at a crowded college bar—"I had the joy of having my front tooth knocked out there," he recalls—and working a busy brunch service at Manhattan's Five Points. From there, he began hobnobbing with some of New York's most accomplished mixologists—including Eben Freeman at wd-50 and Audrey Saunders at Pegu Club—and honed his signature style.
Last year, Meehan's first book, The PDT Cocktail Book: The Complete Bartender's Guide from the Celebrated Speakeasy, was dubbed "the most buzzed-about cocktail guide in the country" by New York Times, and this past May, he took home the first ever James Beard award for Outstanding Bar Program.
"The drinks I've served have evolved with the times," he says, humbly, of his path. Here, he breaks down the eight essential tipples that shaped his career along the way.
This interview has been condensed and edited.


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This Is Your Brain On Ads: An Internal 'Battle'
This Is Your Brain On Ads: An Internal 'Battle'
My Brain On Ads from Turnstyle Video on Vimeo
For decades, social scientists have tried to determine how TV advertising affects the children and teenagers who watch them. Do commercials make kids more materialistic? Are fast-food ads responsible for childhood obesity rates?
So I wanted to find out what's going on in the brain when kids watch a TV ad.
I am at Walgreens in the hair product aisle. There are a lot of brand-name shampoos on the shelf, but there's one that always catches my eye — Tresemme.
I've probably seen the ad a hundred times and didn't think it could affect me. Not after all my mom has taught me to never surrender to the manipulative ways of advertising.
"I realized kids were living in a whole other world that was influencing them more than I was," my mom says.
She's a therapist. When I was in second grade, she started an after-school class where she had kids analyze TV shows and commercials.
"The kids were used to just going into that zone where you just stop thinking and just watch," my mom says. "So this interrupted that and made people stop watching and start thinking."
How The Brain Responds
But recently, I've been wondering just how much control I have over my thoughts, when it comes to ads — which is how I found myself in this Berkeley, Calif., lab wearing a hat of electrodes. The lab technician tells me she's going to place an EEG cap on my head. It looks like a swim cap with a wire attached to my nose.
I'm in the corporate headquarters of NeuroFocus, a pioneer in the business of neuromarketing. It makes some scientists antsy, but they claim they tell advertisers how to make better commercials by replacing focus groups with an electroencephalogram. Kind of like how a microphone is picking up the sound waves of my voice, the EEG strapped to my head is picking up brainwaves created by the electrical activity that passes between neurons when my brain processes something, anything — even commercials. That includes one NeuroFocus uses to demo its technology.
As Morgan Freeman's "God-like" voice narrates a Visa commercial on the Olympics, I watch images of a torch-lighting ceremony, a figure skater, hockey players. Meanwhile, in a neighboring control room, lab director Mark Kishiyama shows my producer a series of squiggly waves that appear on a screen.
"This is her brain activity right now, real time," Kishiyama says. "When you're watching ads, and so forth, you're kind of passively watching it, but your brain is responding to it. So it's not always conscious."
It's subconscious, or "nonconscious," Kishiyama says. "But the awareness is still there."
That awareness shows up on the EEG as tall peaks in the parts of my brain Kishiyama says are associated with emotion, attention and memory. Those parts get busy at certain moments in the ad — at the beginning with the torch and figure skater and then later when a Visa card appears on-screen.
He says it's evidence that my brain is making a nonconscious link between the credit card and the Olympics.
"You think a 30-second ad is so fast it's not going to get in," he says. "But it does. As you can see. It does show how effective it is."
Decisions, Decisions
Advertisers will use Kishiyama's data on the most effective moments in an ad to compress it down to a 10-second Web video for sites like YouTube. In theory, you'd see a lot more brain-wave peaks per second as they pack this message into your head. But the question remains: What happens once it's in there?
"You can literally witness this battle going on," says Ben Hayden, a neuroscientist who studies decision-making. He told me about researchers at Caltech who scanned the brains of people on diets while offering them junk food. A certain region of the brain lit up when the dieters resisted junk food. Hayden says that self-control region is in a tug of war with the parts of the brain affected by ads.
"When advertising comes into the picture, it kind of is the opposite of self-control," Hayden says. "It encourages you to just go out and buy it, just do it."
If he scanned my brain while I was in that shampoo aisle, Hayden says, he would see lots of activity in the "just do it" region as I grab the Tresemme. But just as TV ads prime that part of the brain, it turns out the kind of training my mom gave me could boost the signal in the "just say no" region. It's what Mom was telling me all along.
"So I wouldn't worry so much about how whether your brain will react. It's more what decisions you make after your brain reacts," my mom says.
"So you think that I still could consciously not buy a product?" I ask her.
"Yes, I think so, because I know how thoughtful you are and how well-educated you are," she says.
OK, so maybe my mom's biased. But there's some neuroscience to back her up. Hayden says I could be better off than most teens, because every time I think critically about how ads work, I create new patterns in my brain that strengthen the self-control regions. The ads might get inside my brain, but they don't have to decide what I do.


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While hundreds of families wait in agony to learn the fate of missing loved ones, officials gave a gut-wrenching forecast on the fate of California's Camp Fire:
It's not even halfway done burning yet.
Since the Camp Fire erupted 10 days ago in Butte County, it has killed 77 people, destroyed more than 9,700 homes and torched an area the size of Chicago.
But the blaze probably won't be fully contained until November 30, according to Cal Fire, the state's forestry and fire protection agency.
"It is overwhelming, I don't have any word to describe it," Butte County Sheriff and Coroner Kory Honea said. "This is unprecedented. No one has had to deal with this magnitude that caused so much destruction and regrettably so much death."
Meanwhile, displaced residents are in limbo. Many are in Chico, Butte County's most populous city, about 15 miles from ground zero of the disaster, the town of Paradise.
Some evacuees are staying with friends and family. Others are in a tent city in a Walmart parking lot. On Sunday, those seeking a place to grieve trickled into the First Christian Church of Chico for a candlelight vigil.
A sign in the church set an intention for the hourslong open memorial: "We will rise from the ashes."
The Camp Fire is already the deadliest and most destructive wildfire in California history. And with 993 people still unaccounted for, officials fear the death toll could keep rising.
Crews are combing the remnants of houses where all evidence of life has been wiped out by flames. Many of the searchers have lost their own homes and are looking for the remains of their neighbors.
While the search for the dead and missing continues, thousands of firefighters are trying to control the blaze. As of late Sunday, the Camp Fire had seared 150,000 acres and was 65% contained.
'People don't know that we're looking for them'
Though the number of people missing from the Camp Fire has skyrocketed, it's hard to tell exactly how many are lost and how many may be safe elsewhere, officials said.
"That is raw data we're collecting from phone calls, emails and the 911 system," Honea said. "It's not perfect data, but our thought process is that it's better to get that information out to help start getting people accounted for. So rather than wait for perfection, we're trying to get some progress going."
Hundreds of deputies, National Guard troops, coroners and anthropologists are sifting through leveled homes and mangled cars for remains.
"There are a lot of people displaced, and we're finding that a lot of people don't know that we're looking for them," the sheriff said.
Butte County is maintaining a list of people reported missing from the Camp Fire. Honea urged anyone who sees their own name or the name of a loved one found safe to contact the sheriff's office.
'We're not the only family that's going through this'
Sadia Quint has no idea what happened to her uncle, David William Marbury, who lived in a house in the largely obliterated town of Paradise.
"We already know that his house has been burned down and his car was in his garage," Quint said. "So now we're just waiting for the sheriff's department to go out there and let us know if his body's in there or not."
Her family has provided DNA samples in case authorities find Marbury's remains.
"We're being patient just because we know we're not the only family that's going through this right now," Quint said. "So everyone's kind of in it together and everyone's being really supportive."
But as the hours pass with no news on her uncle, Quint said she's prepared for the worst.
"He had respiratory issues and he had back problems," Quint said. "It's hard to think about him not being here anymore. But as a family, we have accepted whether we get good or bad news. So we're just prepared for both."
Escaping through ditches, front yards
The harrowing escape from fast-moving flames still haunt Dan Newman.
As a Butte County search-and-rescue team captain, Newman was originally tasked with going door to door to alert people in the community of Concow to the fire.
The mission quickly shifted to Paradise, about a 20-mile drive away, where a hospital was in dire trouble.
"When we arrived at the hospital there were already flames," he said. "And all of a sudden the urgency just skyrocketed."
Newman's team went around to the ER entrance and threw four patients in its truck.
The hospital evacuation involved every kind of vehicle -- ambulances, police cars, buses and personal cars.
The road that went by the hospital was swamped with cars and accidents. Drivers used every bit of open space they could to escape, racing through ditches and front yards, Newman said.
The fire was moving faster than any vehicle could, he said.
"We had homes on fire on each side," he said.
Newman's team managed to get out, but another team couldn't and ended up back at the hospital.
Southern California blaze kills 3 people
Across the state, the deadly Woolsey Fire is still wreaking havoc in Southern California.
At least three people have been killed and more than 96,000 acres have been torched by the Woolsey Fire, Cal Fire said.
But a few bits of good news emerged Sunday. The Woolsey Fire is now 88% contained, and all of Ventura County is now open -- meaning more residents can return and try to start rebuilding their lives.


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