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Figure 1. Group-averaged cortical response to single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (spTMS) in the cortical region underlying the TMS coil (precentral gyrus) (A) and to a button-pressing (BP) task in the precentral gyrus (B) (n = 14 in each group). Shaded areas indicate 95% CIs. * P < .05. Insets, Single-subject representation of the region of interest (yellow) and the voxels most responsive to the condition (red). L indicates left; R, right.
Figure 2. Group-averaged response to single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (spTMS) (A) and to a button-pressing (BP) task (B) in the thalamus (n = 14 in each group) as well as the sham TMS response in the same voxels (n = 13 in each group). Shaded areas indicate 95% CIs. * P < .05; † P = 1.86 × 10−9. Insets, Single-subject representation of the region of interest (yellow) and the voxels most responsive to the condition (red). L indicates left; R, right. Dot plots illustrate single-subject peak percent signal change (extracted 3-6.5 seconds following spTMS delivery) in response to spTMS (C) and the BP task (D) with the group means (horizontal lines) and SEMs (gray boxes) indicated. Because peak latency varied across subjects, the group means shown in C and D necessarily differ from the maxima of the average hemodynamic response function waveforms depicted in A and B. C and D represent data used for hypothesis testing.
Figure 3. Group-averaged medial superior frontal gyrus response to single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (spTMS) of the precentral gyrus (n = 14 in each group). Shaded areas indicate 95% CIs. * P < .05. Inset, Single-subject representation of the region of interest (yellow) and the voxels most responsive to the condition (red). L indicates left; R, right.
Guller Y, Ferrarelli F, Shackman AJ, Sarasso S, Peterson MJ, Langheim FJ, Meyerand ME, Tononi G, Postle BR. Probing thalamic integrity in schizophrenia using concurrent transcranial magnetic stimulation and functional magnetic resonance imaging. Arch Gen Psychiatry. Published online March 5, 2012. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2012.23.
eAppendix. Supplemental methods, supplemental results, and supplemental references.
eFigure 1. Concurrent TMS-fMRI targeting and apparatus. (A) Frameless stereotaxy is used to align the subject to their T1 high-resolution structural image. (B, C) A custom plastic mount holds the TMS coil allowing it to rotate in all directions.
eFigure 2. Concurrent TMS-fMRI image acquisition timing. spTMS (and button press tone) stimuli occurred during a 230 ms gap in MRI acquisition (nominal TR: 2000ms; effective TR: 1170ms), ensuring that electromagnetic artifacts from discharge of the TMS coil did not corrupt acquisition of fMRI images.
eFigure 3. Group averaged spTMS-evoked response in insula. *P < .01, shaded areas: 95% CI. Inset: single-subject representation of ROI (yellow); voxels most responsive to condition (red). N=14 in each group.
eTable 1. Mean number of voxels (SEM) in each ROI.
eTable 2. Group mean correlation coefficient (r) between ROI time series.
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Guller Y, Ferrarelli F, Shackman AJ, et al. Probing Thalamic Integrity in Schizophrenia Using Concurrent Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation and Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012;69(7):662–671. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2012.23
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Author Affiliations: Departments of Psychiatry (Ms Guller and Drs Ferrarelli, Shackman, Sarasso, Peterson, Langheim, Tononi, and Postle), Psychology (Ms Guller and Dr Postle), and Biomedical Engineering (Dr Meyerand), Neuroscience Training Program (Ms Guller and Drs Meyerand, Tononi, and Postle), and HealthEmotions Research Institute (Dr Shackman), University of Wisconsin–Madison.
Context Schizophrenia is a devastating illness with an indeterminate pathophysiology. Several lines of evidence implicate dysfunction in the thalamus, a key node in the distributed neural networks underlying perception, emotion, and cognition. Existing evidence of aberrant thalamic function is based on indirect measures of thalamic activity, but dysfunction has not yet been demonstrated with a causal method.
Objective To test the hypothesis that direct physiological stimulation of the cortex will produce an abnormal thalamic response in individuals with schizophrenia.
Design We stimulated the precentral gyrus with single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (spTMS) and measured the response to this pulse in synaptically connected regions (thalamus, medial superior frontal cortex, insula) using concurrent functional magnetic resonance imaging. The mean hemodynamic response from these regions was fit with the sum of 2 gamma functions, and response parameters were compared across groups.
Setting Academic research laboratory.
Participants Patients with schizophrenia and sex- and age-matched psychiatrically healthy subjects were recruited from the community.
Main Outcome Measure Peak amplitude of the thalamic hemodynamic response to spTMS of the precentral gyrus.
Results The spTMS-evoked responses did not differ between groups at the cortical stimulation site. Compared with healthy subjects, patients with schizophrenia showed a reduced response to spTMS in the thalamus (P = 1.86 × 10−9) and medial superior frontal cortex (P = .02). Similar results were observed in the insula. Sham TMS indicated that these results could not be attributed to indirect effects of TMS coil discharge. Functional connectivity analyses revealed weaker thalamus–medial superior frontal cortex and thalamus-insula connectivity in patients with schizophrenia compared with control subjects.
Conclusions Individuals with schizophrenia showed reduced thalamic activation in response to direct perturbation delivered to the cortex. These results extend prior work implicating the thalamus in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and suggest that the thalamus contributes to the patterns of aberrant connectivity characteristic of this disease.
Schizophrenia is a devastating mental illness that has a significant impact on family, caregivers, society, and patients.1-3 More than 2.4 million Americans are diagnosed as having schizophrenia,4 and mortality rates are 2 to 3 times greater for these patients compared with the population as a whole.5,6 Although research has focused heavily on identifying diagnostic tools7 and treatments8 for the illness, schizophrenia is currently diagnosed based on clinical criteria,9 treatments are often ineffective,10 and the pathophysiology of the disease remains elusive. The work presented here builds on numerous prior studies that have implicated dysfunction of the thalamus in schizophrenia. We review the theoretical and empirical basis for this hypothesis of thalamic dysfunction in schizophrenia and conclude that much of the extant evidence is either indirect or subject to significant inferential limitations. For instance, some studies rely on cortical differences or effects measured at the scalp to draw inferences about thalamic dysfunction. Others infer functional differences on the basis of structural measures or rely on the assumption that patient and control groups perform behavioral tasks in a comparable manner. We designed our experiment to circumvent these limitations, using single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (spTMS) to directly stimulate the cortex and concurrent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to measure the resulting thalamic response.
Three lines of evidence suggest that schizophrenia is associated with thalamic dysfunction. First, aberrant scalp-recorded electrophysiological indices of sensory gating in schizophrenia have been interpreted as evidence for thalamic dysfunction, given nonhuman research confirming the critical role of the thalamus in conceptually similar processes.11-15 Sensory gating deficits in schizophrenia have been demonstrated using P50 prepulse inhibition,16,17 a P300 auditory oddball paradigm,18 and mismatch negativity tasks.19-21 All of these paradigms have been interpreted as requiring thalamically mediated filtering of novel or salient stimuli. On this basis, some have suggested that hallucinations are a result of impaired thalamic filtering of salient and external speech from nonsalient and internal speech.22,23
A second line of evidence comes from overnight electroencephalographic studies demonstrating sleep spindle deficits in individuals with schizophrenia. Sleep spindles are waxing and waning 12- to 16-Hz oscillations initiated by the thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN) and regulated by thalamoreticular and thalamocortical circuits.24,25 Individuals with schizophrenia display fewer and smaller sleep spindles. These metrics distinguish patients from healthy control subjects, medicated control subjects, and individuals with depression with high sensitivity and specificity.26-28
A third line of evidence implicating the thalamus in schizophrenia comes from studies that directly measured the thalamus using structural and functional neuroimaging techniques. Structural imaging studies have consistently identified decreases in thalamic gray matter29-31 and aberrant thalamic morphology32,33 in individuals with schizophrenia. In parallel, functional imaging studies have consistently found abnormal thalamic activation during sensory gating,32,33 working memory,34 and other executive function35-40 tasks.
Although these studies have contributed to an important model of the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, most are subject to 1 of 3 key inferential limitations. One limitation is that studies using scalp-recorded electrophysiology, as in studies of sensory gating and sleep, do not measure thalamic activity directly. A second is that structural imaging studies cannot address thalamic physiology and are therefore unable to directly test hypotheses of thalamic dysfunction. A third is that most studies using fMRI measure thalamic activity in the context of task performance and are therefore susceptible to detecting group differences in physiology that are mediated by performance differences (eg, attention, compliance, comprehension, motivation, strategy) rather than differences in underlying disease-related neurobiology.36-38
The aim of our study was to circumvent these limitations and more directly test the hypothesis that the thalamus functions abnormally in schizophrenia. We used spTMS to present a direct physiological challenge to the cortex while we simultaneously measured the transynaptic response to this challenge in the thalamus with fMRI. Transcranial magnetic stimulation uses electromagnetic induction to noninvasively produce weak currents in the tissue underlying the TMS coil.39 In addition to affecting the tissue that experiences the magnetic flux directly, depolarization at the stimulation site propagates to distal regions via synaptic transmission or spread of neural impulses.40,41 Whereas repetitive TMS is thought to create a transient "virtual lesion" by overwhelming a brain region with noise42 or otherwise altering ongoing neural functioning,43,44 spTMS transiently excites discrete cortical patches without producing prolonged changes in cortical excitability or function. The use of spTMS permits concurrent measurement of both the local response and the response in distal regions functionally connected to the stimulation site.41,45,46 In our study, the cortical and thalamic responses to spTMS were measured using blood oxygen level–dependent fMRI.47 Although concurrent TMS-fMRI has been used to evaluate brain function in healthy individuals48,49 and a number of commentators have highlighted the potential benefits of using this technique to probe the neurobiology of schizophrenia,50,51 to our knowledge it has never before been applied to the study of any psychiatric illness.
Here, spTMS was delivered to the precentral gyrus and the resulting hemodynamic response was parameterized (amplitude, peak latency, and width) in 4 regions of interest (ROIs). Hypothesis testing focused on group differences in peak amplitude in the thalamus. Differences in the hemodynamic response were also assessed in the cortex beneath the TMS coil (precentral gyrus), the medial superior frontal gyrus (mSFG), and the insula. Exploratory analyses were used to characterize group differences in the latter 2 cortical ROIs, and measures of functional connectivity were computed. Results were compared with sham TMS. A button-pressing (BP) task was also assessed to confirm that spTMS-evoked responses were qualitatively similar to those obtained with a standard motor task. We hypothesized and demonstrated that patients with schizophrenia show a reduced thalamic response to spTMS.
Procedures were approved by the University of Wisconsin–Madison Health Sciences Institutional Review Board. Written informed consent was obtained from all subjects.
Fourteen healthy subjects and 14 subjects with schizophrenia, recruited from local mental health care providers through newspaper and Internet advertisements and by word of mouth, participated in the study (Table 1). A psychiatrist interviewed all subjects to obtain psychiatric and medical histories and to exclude (healthy control subjects) or confirm (patients with schizophrenia) diagnoses using DSM-IV-TR criteria9 (eAppendix). The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR Axis I Disorders, Patient Edition52 was also administered. Symptom severity was evaluated using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale.53
Patients were diagnosed as having the following subtypes: paranoid (n = 11), residual (n = 1), catatonic (n = 1), or undifferentiated (n = 1). They were receiving second-generation (n = 10), first- and second-generation (n = 2), or first-generation (n = 2) antipsychotic medications. All were outpatients with a stable chronic illness (mean [SD], 11 [7] years).
The study consisted of 2 sessions occurring on separate days. During the first session, structural MRIs required for the subsequent spTMS-fMRI session were collected; data for the first session for some subjects were obtained from a prior study. The second session featured 2 challenges. The first was spTMS to the precentral gyrus of the left hemisphere. The second was a BP task known to produce a well-characterized hemodynamic response54 (11 subjects performed this task during the first session).
Four criteria led us to select the precentral gyrus as the spTMS target. First, to ensure that spTMS-induced input to thalamus would be comparable across groups, we required a target that is not dysfunctional in schizophrenia. Thus, we ruled out the prefrontal cortex, for example.55,56 Second, we required a target easily accessible in the scanner and not covered in musculature,57 ruling out the occipital and temporal lobes. Third, we preferred a target that has a well-characterized hemodynamic response, that has been studied in prior TMS-fMRI research, and whose activity is associated with robust thalamic activity.46,58 Fourth, given the sleep spindle abnormality described earlier,26,59 we preferred a target with robust projections to the TRN.60 The precentral gyrus satisfied all of these criteria.
During the first session, T1-weighted high-resolution structural images (echo time [TE] = 3.2 milliseconds; repetition time [TR] = 8.2 milliseconds; field of view [FOV] = 25.6 cm; matrix = 256 × 256; 156 × 1.0-mm slices; no inversion recovery) were collected using a 3-T General Electric Discovery 750 MRI scanner. Single-subject data were transferred to a Navigated Brain Stimulation (frameless stereotaxy) system (Nexstim), and the TMS target (left precentral gyrus in the vicinity of the primary hand representation [knob]61) was identified.
Session 2 included (1) coregistering the subject's head with the high-resolution T1 image to determine TMS positioning and (2) fMRI scanning. The order of functional scanning was as follows: spTMS to the precentral gyrus, BP task (if not obtained during the first session), spTMS to another TMS target (data not shown), and sham TMS (eAppendix). Each time the TMS coil was relocated, the subject was repositioned in the scanner. Following each scan with spTMS, a medium-resolution structural scan was obtained. All MRI sessions occurred at the same time of day (early afternoon).
spTMS Targeting. The Navigated Brain Stimulation system was used to coregister each subject to his or her own T1 (eFigure 1 and eAppendix). Stimulation intensity was determined by delivering spTMS at varying intensities (using a staircasing procedure62) to the hand area of the precentral gyrus until an intensity that evoked a contralateral motor response to 5 of 10 pulses was reached. The spTMS was delivered using a 70-mm figure-8 coil and biphasic stimulator (Magstim Rapid 2). To avoid evoking motor responses in the scanner, we used the Navigated Brain Stimulation system to move the coil along the precentral gyrus until a location that did not evoke a motor response was identified. Because the Navigated Brain Stimulation system is not MRI compatible, the exact position of the TMS coil was traced onto a cap worn by the subject, allowing stimulation to be delivered to the same location using an MRI-compatible TMS coil in the scanner. The subject was then escorted to the scanner.
fMRI Acquisition To minimize startle from the click associated with the TMS coil, subjects were fitted with Avotec pneumatic headphones through which white noise was played during the session. Volume was titrated to the maximum level that the subject could comfortably tolerate. Foam padding was used to minimize movement. An MRI-compatible TMS coil (Magstim and Jali Medical) was attached to a custom multijointed mount (eFigure 1 and eAppendix). An 8-foot radiofrequency-shielded cable, passed through a waveguide in the penetration panel, connected the TMS coil in the scanner to the stimulator in the control room.
The TMS coil was aligned to the coil tracing on the subject's cap. Single pulses were delivered to confirm that movements were not evoked. Subjects were instructed to remain calm, still, and awake with open eyes.
The first scan was a localizer image, followed by a higher-order shim (TE = 7.0 milliseconds; TR = 1558 milliseconds; FOV = 24 cm; slice thickness = 5.8 mm) and field map (TE = 7 and 10 milliseconds; TR = 710 milliseconds; FOV = 20 cm; matrix = 256 × 256; 25 × 1.0-mm slices). This was followed by two 20-pulse runs of spTMS to the precentral gyrus (110% motor threshold; intertrial interval = 16-24 seconds) and one 20-pulse run of the BP task. To minimize TMS artifacts, the pulse sequence for these echo-planar images (TR = 2000 milliseconds; TE = 25 milliseconds; FOV = 22.4 cm; matrix = 64 × 64; 35 × 3.0-mm slices [0.6-mm gap]; flip angle = 60°) was modified such that image acquisition occurred during the first 1770 milliseconds of the TR, thereby leaving a 230-millisecond silent gap during which spTMS could be delivered (eFigure 2). The same pulse sequence was used for the BP task, during which subjects were instructed to press a button with their right thumb as firmly and as quickly as possible following a 500-millisecond tone (Current Designs). Stimuli were controlled by E-Prime (Psychology Software Tools) and transistor-transistor logic pulses generated by the scanner. Finally, a medium-resolution structural scan (TR = 4.3 milliseconds; TE = 1.22 milliseconds; FOV = 28 cm; matrix = 256 × 256; 60 × 2.6-mm slices) was collected.
The subject was then slid out of the scanner and the TMS coil was configured for sham stimulation. The procedure was repeated with 2 runs of sham TMS replacing spTMS (for details of the sham TMS procedure, see eAppendix). One subject in each group discontinued participation in the experiment prior to collection of sham TMS data.
Except where otherwise noted, processing used AFNI (http://afni.nimh.nih.gov)63 and in-house software. Functional images were first reconstructed on the scanner. Images were corrected for slice time, motion, and field map using FSL software (http://www.fmrib.ox.ac.uk/fsl).64 Data were masked to exclude extracerebral voxels and converted to percent signal change. Functional images were aligned to the high-resolution T1 using the transformation matrix generated by aligning the medium- to the high-resolution T1 and then applying the transformation matrix to the functional data (6 df, least squares, sinc interpolation; resampled to 3 × 3 × 3.6 mm).
For each subject, the hemodynamic response was modeled using a generalized least-squares fit with restricted maximum likelihood estimation of temporal autocorrelation. Hemodynamic responses were modeled using a set of triangular (tent) functions (9 tents; 0-16 seconds). Similar to other basis functions (eg, finite impulse responses), this allowed the amplitude, peak latency, and width of the hemodynamic response to vary.
The aim of this investigation was to test whether individuals with schizophrenia show an attenuated thalamic response to cortical spTMS. To accomplish this, we used an a priori ROI-based strategy. This approach has 2 advantages. First, statistical power is maximized by eliminating the need to correct for thousands of voxelwise comparisons. Second, this strategy circumvents the assumption that the thalamus is anatomically similar in patients and control subjects. The ROIs were prescribed in the axial plane on the high-resolution T1, referring to a human brain atlas65 as needed (eTable 1 and eAppendix).
In addition to interrogating the stimulation site and the thalamus, we analyzed 2 other regions. The mSFG was selected for exploratory analyses after visual inspection of activation maps from the first 8 subjects enrolled in the study revealed that it was consistently and robustly activated by spTMS. When these analyses revealed abnormal thalamocortical coupling in schizophrenia, we assessed the generality of this finding by interrogating the insula, for which thalamic dysconnectivity in schizophrenia was recently reported.66 Importantly, for each subject, the nearest border of the mSFG and insula ROIs was always located several centimeters from the site targeted for spTMS. Because direct electromagnetic induction is limited to an area of approximately 2 cm2 and a depth of 2 cm,67,68 the responses observed in these regions (and the thalamus) were necessarily due to synaptic transmission.
For each ROI, a mask was created containing the upper fifth percentile of voxels responsive to spTMS (determined using the t statistic at the peak of each individual's hemodynamic response [4-6 seconds]). The hemodynamic response from these voxels was parameterized using the sum of 2 gamma functions (in units of percent signal change). The gamma functions were upsampled from 2000-millisecond (ie, the original sampling rate) to 10-millisecond resolution.69 This fit enabled us to extract model parameters corresponding to the amplitude, peak latency, and overall width (at approximately the full width at half maximum) of the hemodynamic response and then to compare them across groups.
For spTMS and sham TMS conditions, 1 of 2 runs was analyzed. Although a single 20-trial run is sufficient to produce a BP-evoked hemodynamic response,54 the technical challenges inherent in measuring the spTMS-evoked response with fMRI led us to collect a second spTMS run as a backup. For the analyses reported here, we selected the run in which the t statistic (corresponding to the greatest difference from baseline) was most similar to that of the BP run (see eAppendix for details about run selection and results from analyses of unselected runs). To control for nonspecific TMS effects, thalamic voxels responsive to spTMS were also compared with sham TMS.
When analyses of the spTMS-evoked responses in the mSFG and insula revealed group differences in amplitude in these regions, we assessed group differences in functional connectivity among ROIs. Specifically, time series were averaged across the upper fifth percentile of voxels within each ROI for each subject, demeaned, correlated, and then Z transformed using the Fisher technique.
Between-groups analyses of variance, t tests, Pearson correlations, and discriminant analyses were performed with SPSS Statistics version 20.0.0 software (SPSS Inc). Gamma fit parameters were also assessed with nonparametric statistics, which yielded similar conclusions (not reported). Owing to nonnormality of the connectivity metric, coefficients were rank transformed prior to testing.70,71 Hemodynamic response curves and their associated 95% CIs (computed using group means and standard errors at each time point) were plotted using in-house code written for R software (http://www.r-project.org). Effect size is reported as partial η2. The spTMS and BP task were not formally compared because we did not have theoretically motivated hypotheses involving this comparison.
The spTMS-evoked response did not differ between groups in the precentral gyrus (F1,26 = 0.52; P = .48; η2 = 0.02). However, during the BP task, patients with schizophrenia showed a wider hemodynamic response (F1,26 = 5.86; P = .02; η2 = 0.18) (Figure 1). There were no group differences in BP reaction time (F1,26 = 2.05; P = .16; η2 = 0.07).
In the spTMS condition, individuals with schizophrenia showed a smaller (F1,26 = 80.79; P = 1.86 × 10−9; η2 = 0.76) and earlier peaking (F1,26 = 4.39; P = .05; η2 = 0.14) thalamic response. Indeed, every patient showed a peak that was numerically smaller than the least responsive member of the control group (Figure 2C) (range of percent signal change, 0.26%-0.80% for patients vs 0.88%-1.67% for healthy subjects). A formal discriminant analysis indicated that this measure did an excellent job classifying members of the 2 groups (χ2 = 36.0; P = 1.95 × 10−9; leave-one-out cross-validation: sensitivity = 85.7%; specificity = 100.0%; overall classification accuracy = 92.9%). Peripheral consequences of spTMS stimulation could not account for this effect because, compared with spTMS, sham TMS produced a nonexistent response (patients: F1,12 = 16.33; P = .002; η2 = 0.58; healthy subjects: F1,12 = 135.50; P = 6.8 × 10−8; η2 = 0.92) that did not differ between groups (F1,24 = 3.0 × 10−5; P > .99; η2 = 1.0 × 10−6) (Figure 2). The BP task showed a similar, albeit weaker, pattern (F1,26 = 10.69; P = .003; η2 = 0.29) (Figure 2).
The spTMS-evoked response was smaller in magnitude in the mSFG in patients with schizophrenia compared with healthy control subjects (F1,26 = 6.56; P = .02; η2 = 0.20) (Figure 3). To explore possible factors underlying this difference, we assessed functional connectivity between the precentral gyrus and mSFG, between the mSFG and thalamus, and between the precentral gyrus and thalamus (using time-series correlations). These analyses found no group differences in precentral gyrus–mSFG connectivity (F1,26 = 0.47; P = .31; η2 = 0.02) or in precentral gyrus–thalamus connectivity (F1,26 = 0.02; P = .61; η2 = 0.001) but did reveal that patients with schizophrenia had reduced coupling between the thalamus and mSFG relative to healthy control subjects (F1,26 = 32.00; P = 6.0 × 10−5; η2 = 0.55) (Table 2). Importantly, the lack of a group difference in coupling between the precentral gyrus and mSFG was not simply a function of low overall connectivity between these regions; actual magnitudes of the correlations reflected a relatively high level of functional connectivity in both groups (Table 2).
Variation in thalamocortical coupling also predicted the magnitude of the spTMS-evoked mSFG response. Across groups, subjects with lower thalamus-mSFG coupling showed a smaller evoked response in the mSFG (ρ26 = 0.37; P = .05). Results for the insula were complementary to those for the mSFG (eFigure 3, eTable 2, and eAppendix).
Disease chronicity and medication dosage, assessed using chlorpromazine equivalents,72 did not predict any of the brain measures (all P > .13). Across groups, variation in years of formal education did not predict any brain measure (all P > .15). Likewise, accounting for variation in education did not substantively alter the significance of any group difference. Because the majority of the patients with schizophrenia (n = 11) were diagnosed as having paranoid schizophrenia and the remaining 3 subjects were diagnosed as having residual, undifferentiated, or catatonic schizophrenia, it was not possible to meaningfully assess the effect of subtype. Nevertheless, analyses performed with these 3 individuals omitted did not alter any of our conclusions.
There was a trend for patients with smaller thalamic responses to spTMS to show more severe positive symptoms on the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (r12 = −0.49; P = .07). Relationships with negative symptoms were not significant (r12 = −0.17; P = .57).
Schizophrenia is a severe mental illness whose neurobiology remains unclear.1-3 There is considerable circumstantial evidence of a thalamic abnormality in schizophrenia as assessed structurally29,30 and functionally.32,33 Our results strengthen this hypothesis of thalamic dysfunction in schizophrenia with a procedure that supports causal inference: subjects with schizophrenia evinced a smaller spTMS-evoked response in the thalamus compared with healthy control subjects. Analysis of a sham stimulation condition indicated that these effects could not be attributed to secondary consequences of spTMS. Additionally, because no group differences were found in response to spTMS in the precentral gyrus, the results likely reflect local deficits in thalamic physiology, not downstream consequences of deficits in cortical function.
The average thalamic spTMS-evoked response in patients with schizophrenia was less than half the magnitude of the average response in healthy subjects. Although this measure identified individuals from the 2 groups with 100% specificity, additional research is needed to determine whether the groups are better characterized as falling into 1 of 2 clusters or as falling along a continuum on which patients with schizophrenia tend to have lower values. In terms of pathophysiology, the difference might be due to 1 of 3 factors: (1) a physiological abnormality in the stimulated cortical tissue, (2) deficient corticothalamic signal propagation, or (3) a physiological abnormality in the thalamus. The first possibility is ruled out by the fact that the response in cortical tissue underlying spTMS did not differ across groups. The second seems unlikely because the connectivity between the thalamus and precentral gyrus, that is, the degree of corticothalamic coupling, did not differ across groups. The most likely interpretation, therefore, is that our results reflect aberrant functioning of the thalamus itself, a claim consistent with evidence of structural abnormalities29-31,73,74 in the thalamus in subjects with schizophrenia.
Group differences in spTMS-evoked responses were also observed in the mSFG and insula, cortical regions distal to the site of spTMS delivery. Such findings could be attributed to (1) a functional deficit in the mSFG or insula, (2) a deficit in the region of stimulation (precentral gyrus) or its coupling with the mSFG or insula, or (3) an abnormality in a third area that is connected to both the precentral gyrus and the mSFG or insula (eg, the thalamus) or the coupling with this third area. Again, the results of the functional connectivity analysis support the third possibility, revealing reduced coupling between the thalamus and mSFG and the thalamus and insula in patients with schizophrenia but no difference in the degree of coupling between the precentral gyrus and these regions. (Note that in healthy control subjects, coupling between the mSFG and thalamus was significantly stronger than coupling between the precentral gyrus and thalamus [eAppendix]. Although this specific pattern does not alter the reasoning behind our interpretation of the group difference in overall patterns of functional connectivity, it is an intriguing observation that may merit future investigation.) Further consistent with the third scenario, when data from the groups were combined, the strength of the thalamus-mSFG coupling predicted the magnitude of the TMS-evoked responses in the mSFG and, likewise, the strength of the thalamus-insula coupling predicted the magnitude of the TMS-evoked responses in the insula. Taken together, these observations strongly suggest that the group difference in the magnitude of the mSFG and insula responses to spTMS reflects deficits centered on the thalamus or thalamocortical circuitry rather than local cortical deficits. Thus, although numerous studies have shown aberrant activation in cortical areas in response to various tasks in schizophrenia,37,75,76 our results suggest that such deficits could reflect underlying deficits in structures connected with the cortex such as the thalamus.77,78 The extent to which the abnormal coupling between the thalamus and mSFG and the thalamus and insula can be attributed to dysfunction in thalamic activity per se, compared with the integrity of structural connections between these regions, requires further investigation.79
Numerically, there was no overlap in the amplitude of TMS-evoked thalamic response between patients with schizophrenia and healthy subjects. Additionally, the thalamic response amplitude in patients showed a trend toward predicting the severity of positive symptoms, a result in accord with similar relationships observed with sleep spindle data.26 Consequently, our results not only confirm the thalamic abnormality in schizophrenia but also show that it may be related to clinical symptoms.
Several limitations of this investigation represent challenges for future research. First, although sleep spindle data suggest that thalamic deficits do not reflect a group difference in medication,26 it will be necessary to replicate our results while controlling for effects of medication. Additionally, further investigation with first-degree relatives will be necessary for understanding the potential genetic components of the abnormality in the thalamus. Investigating patients with first-episode schizophrenia will help discern whether the thalamic abnormality is present in early as well as later stages of the illness. Future studies will be required to assess the influence of potentially important demographic and diagnostic variables (eg, socioeconomic status, subtype).
The sleep spindle deficit in schizophrenia implicates a thalamic, and more specifically a TRN, abnormality in schizophrenia.26 Because the TRN, a structure that surrounds the dorsal and lateral portions of the thalamus, is very thin (approximately 1 mm in cross section80), it is not possible to resolve it with conventional fMRI techniques. There are 2 reasons, however, to believe that the activity we measured in the thalamus is heavily weighted by contributions of the TRN. First, the sole efferents from the TRN are inhibitory projections to the underlying thalamus. (Thus, the totality of the synaptic activity attributable to TRN output will be reflected in the blood oxygen level–dependent signal from the principal thalamic nuclei that receive these outputs.) Second, synaptic activity in the TRN is likely to be larger in magnitude than synaptic activity in principal thalamic nuclei. This is because there are 3.7 times more excitatory glutamatergic corticothalamic synapses onto the TRN than onto principal thalamic nuclei and because excitatory postsynaptic currents are 2.5 times larger in the TRN than in thalamocortical neurons.81 Consequently, it is plausible that the blood oxygen level–dependent signal we measured in the thalamus was heavily weighted by cortico-TRN-thalamic propagation of the spTMS-evoked response and that the decreased spTMS-evoked thalamic response in subjects with schizophrenia may reflect a more specific abnormality in the TRN.
Animal studies support the idea that the TRN is necessary for sensory gating and attention modulation,82,83 brain functions aberrant in schizophrenia.19,84,85 More evidence gleaned from animal models and higher-resolution imaging or postmortem studies in humans will be necessary to more fully test this hypothesis.
In summary, this study implicates an abnormality in the thalamus in the neurobiology of schizophrenia. This physiological abnormality cannot be attributed to differences in attention, compliance, or task performance that may exist between groups. Future studies will need to determine whether this deficit stems specifically from dysfunction of the TRN. More generally, this study underscores the value of concurrent spTMS-fMRI for probing the integrity of distributed neural circuits in psychiatric populations.
Correspondence: Yelena Guller, BS, Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 438E, W. J. Brogden Hall, 1202 W Johnson St, Madison, WI 53706 (firstname.lastname@example.com).
Submitted for Publication: October 27, 2011; final revision received December 13, 2011; accepted December 16, 2011.
Published Online: March 5, 2012. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2012.23
Financial Disclosure: None reported.
Funding/Support: This work was supported by grants R01-MH064498 (Dr Postle), 20MH-077967-01A (Dr Tononi), RC1MH090912-12 (Dr Meyerand), and T31-GM007507 (Neuroscience Training Program) from the National Institutes of Health.
Previous Presentation: This paper was presented in part at the 66th Annual Meeting of the Society of Biological Psychiatry; May 14, 2011; San Francisco, California.
Additional Contributions: Daniel Acheson, PhD, Tom Johnstone, PhD, John Ollinger, PhD, and Adam Riggall assisted with programming; Eva Feredoes, PhD, and Andrew Fox gave advice; and Michael Anderle, BA, Rasmus Birn, PhD, Kristina Bolduc, BBA, Jenelle Fuller, BA, Marti Garcia, BS, Andy Mulder, and DJ Nephew, BS, provided technical assistance.


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Keith Murray f/ 50 Grand - Dangerous Ground Lyrics
Dangerous Ground Soundtrack Lyrics
Keith Murray f/ 50 Grand - Dangerous Ground Lyrics
[Keith Murray]
Yo, you think them niggaz out there impress me?
Don't none of that shit impress me
Oh, I'm supposed to listen cause they on the radio?
Psssh, I'm ready
I got, nuttin to lose in the world to gain
I leave you slain and make your family relocate and change their names
Like the West coast say, I'm bout the ?macolay?
Niggaz be slippin when I be flippin and I'll see you next trip
Cause revenge is a motherf*cker payback is a bitch
Especially when I'm coin with that Def Squad click
Can you relate to an intense, motherf*cker
Gridiron mic cuffer, terror to the jugular
Smother all the others, punk motherf*ckers
But I'ma keep it real, cause me and you is brothers
It'll happen so fast boy you won't stand a chance
Cause the L.O.D. put in work like red ants
And when I walk by Curtis Mayfield'll draft
And spell the full limp love is just like Shaft
Shit I craft, is harder than Chinese math
Plus I lay you down for standing on Dangerous Ground
[Chorus: Keith Murray, 50 Grand (with variations)]
Aiyyo you're standing on Dangerous Ground, too close to the crown
Let's see if you know the bounds
I said you're standing on Dangerous Ground, too close to the crown
Let's see if you know the bounds
Aiyyo y'all standing on Dangerous Ground, too close to the crown
Let's see if you know the bounds
Yo kid you standing on Dangerous Ground, too close to the crown
Let's see if you know the bounds
[Keith Murray]
Let's embark on this mission like Black Indiana Jones
is eatin Pookie sandwiches and smokin chronic bones
See I kill it a little, then leave it alone
Let my man 50 G drag it into his zone
[50 Grand]
Now 50 Grand's in the room and Legion of Doom
And if you sayin Def Squad's the bomb then I'll assume
It's takes brain splittin compositions, makin incisions
Dranin the blood up out silly niggaz, like morticians
[Keith Murray]
Now I'ma mack out and pimp the rhythm like Too $hort and Dru Down
And wait for what go around to come around
And beat it in the head with this, send em off into the unknown
In and out of conciousness, kind of like
a hip-hop microphone hypnotic
Specialist in gettin inside artists, sick word analyst
World's most foul freestylist
C'mon man y'all niggaz know y'all can't get with this
[Keith Murray]
And kill the noise playboys cause we have no flaws
We employ hits the whole family can enjoy
I'll be masterin the Funk like Flex, mentally
Etchin and Sketchin, speakin with my hands like Terminator X and
scheme and get choked out like Radio Raheem
My team'll put you to sleep and let you dream
I'm not down with the East West coast controversy
Me say you you say me, across the country makin millis
I'll be glad to see a brother get paid for hard work
But instead y'all steady tryin to ditch up the dirt
[50 Grand]
Yeah niggaz still tryin to toss salt in the game
And y'all done read my name graffitied in the walls of fame
Let me explain niggaz die for fame in this game my name's
like a migraine, rappers get banged out the frame
See some funny style niggaz in the house tonight
With posses too thin to win, and too light to fight
Think twice
[Keith Murray]
I had the last watch and y'all niggaz on the corner pumpin gas
Nervous like you lyin to a polygraph
[50 Grand]
Come see a real show, cut off your flow, killin you slow
One time for L.O., I'm like a thief, in your window
[Keith Murray]
Or catch us in the streets, herdin like cattle
Defeatin rappers without contracts and battles, swingin like Mickey Mantle
[50 Grand]
Niggaz trippin like they wanna be me
Challenge Def Squad, L.O.D. you livin Dangerously
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subset: commoncrawl


text:
Your voice will give you away
It's extremely difficult to read a speech and sound as if you mean it.
For most of us, when reading, posture changes, the throat tightens and people can tell. Reading is different from speaking, and a different sort of attention is paid.
Before you give a speech, then, you must do one of two things if your goal is to persuade:
Learn to read the same way you speak (unlikely)
or, learn to speak without reading. Learn your message well enough that you can communicate it without reading it. We want your humanity.
If you can't do that, don't bother giving a speech. Just send everyone a memo and save time and stress for all concerned.


text:
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text:
Friday, 1 February 2008
Colossal Financial Collapse: The Truth behind the Citigroup Bank "Nationalization"
by F. William Engdahl from Global Research 25 November 2008 On Friday November 21, the world came within a hair's breadth of the most colossal financial collapse in history according to bankers on the inside of events with whom we have contact. The trigger was the bank which only two years ago was America's largest, Citigroup. The size of the US Government de facto nationalization of the $2 trillion banking institution is an indication of shocks yet to come in other major US and perhaps European banks thought to be 'too big to fail.' Secretary Henry Paulson, himself not a banker but a Wall Street 'investment banker', whose experience has been in the quite different world of buying and selling stocks or bonds or underwriting and selling same, has handled the unfolding crisis has been worse than incompetent. It has made a grave situation into a globally alarming one. 'Spitting into the wind' A case in point is the secretive manner in which Paulson has used the $700 billion in taxpayer funds voted him by a labile Congress in September. Early on, Paulson put $125 billion in the nine largest banks, including $10 billion for his old firm, Goldman Sachs. However, if we compare the value of the equity share that $125 billion bought with the market price of those banks' stock, US taxpayers have paid $125 billion for bank stock that a private investor could have bought for $62.5 billion, according to a detailed analysis from Ron W. Bloom, economist with the US United Steelworkers union, whose members as well as pension fund face devastating losses were GM to fail. That means half of the public's money was a gift to Paulson's Wall Street cronies. Now, only weeks later, the Treasury is forced to intervene to de facto nationalize Citigroup. It won't be the last. Paulson demanded, and got from a labile US Congress, Democrat as well as Republican, sole discretion over how and where he can invest the $700 billion, to date with no effective oversight. It amounts to the Treasury Secretary in effect 'spitting into the wind' in terms of resolving the fundamental crisis. It should be clear to any serious analyst by now that the September decision by Paulson to defer to rigid financial ideology and let the fourth largest US investment bank, Lehman Brothers fail, was the proximate trigger for the present global crisis. Lehman Bros.' surprise collapse triggered the current global crisis of confidence. It was simply not clear to the rest of the banking world which US financial institution bank might be saved and which not, after the Government had earlier saved the far smaller Bear Stearns, while letting the larger, far more strategic Lehman Bros. fail. Some Citigroup details The most alarming aspect of the crisis is the fact that we are in an interregnum period when the next President has been elected but cannot act on the situation until after January 20, 2009 when he is sworn in. Consider the details of the latest Citigroup government de facto nationalization (for ideological reasons Paulson and the Bush Administration hysterically avoid admitting they are in the process of nationalizing key banks). Citigroup has more than $2 trillion of assets, dwarfing companies such as American International Group Inc. that got some $150 billion in US taxpayer funds in the past two months. Ironically, only eight weeks before, the Government had designated Citigroup to take over the failing Wachovia Bank. Normally authorities have an ailing bank absorbed by a stronger one. In this instance the opposite seems to have been the case. Now it is clear that the Citigroup was in deeper trouble than Wachovia. In a matter of hours in the week before the US Government nationalization was announced, the stock value of Citibank plunged to $3.77 in New York, giving the company a market value of about $21 billion. The market value of Citigroup stock in December 2006 had been $247 billion. Two days before the bank nationalization the CEO, Vikram Pandit had announced a huge 52,000 job slashing plan. It did nothing to stop the slide. The scale of the hidden losses of perhaps the twenty largest US banks is so enormous that if not before, the first Presidential decree of President Barack Obama will likely have to be declaration of a US 'Bank Holiday' and the full nationalization of the major banks, taking on the toxic assets and losses until the economy can again function with credit flowing to industry once more. Citigroup and the government have identified a pool of about $306 billion in troubled assets. Citigroup will absorb the first $29 billion in losses. After that, remaining losses will be split between Citigroup and the government, with the bank absorbing 10% and the government absorbing 90%. The US Treasury Department will use its $700 billion TARP or Troubled Asset Recovery Program bailout fund, to assume up to $5 billion of losses. If necessary, the Government's Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) will bear the next $10 billion of losses. Beyond that, the Federal Reserve will guarantee any additional losses. The measures are without precedent in US financial history. It's by no means certain they will salvage the dollar system. The situation is so intertwined, with six US major banks holding the vast bulk of worldwide financial derivatives exposure, that the failure of a single major US financial institution could result in losses to the OTC derivatives market of $300-$400 billion, a new IMF working paper finds. What's more, since such a failure would likely cause cascading failures of other institutions. Total global financial system losses could exceed another $1,500 billion according to an IMF study by Singh and Segoviano. The madness over a Detroit GM rescue deal The health of Citigroup is not the only gripping crisis that must be dealt with. At this point, political and ideological bickering in the US Congress has so far prevented a simple emergency $25 billion loan extension to General Motors and other of the US Big Three automakers-Ford and Chrysler. The absurd spectacle of US Congressmen attacking the chairmen of the Big Three for flying to the emergency Congressional hearings on a rescue loan in their private company jets while largely ignoring the issue of consequences to the economy of a GM failure underscores the utter lack of touch with reality that has overwhelmed Washington in recent years. For GM to go into bankruptcy risks a disaster of colossal proportions. Although Lehman Bros., the biggest bankruptcy in US history, appears to have had an orderly settlement of its credit defaults swaps, the disruption occurred before-hand, as protection writers had to post additional collateral prior to settlement. That was a major factor in the dramatic global market selloff in October. GM is bigger by far, meaning bigger collateral damage, and this would take place when the financial system is even weaker than when Lehman failed. In addition, a second, and potentially far more damaging issue, has been largely ignored. The advocates of letting GM go bankrupt argue that it can go into Chapter 11 just like other big companies that get themselves in trouble. That may not happen however, and a Chapter 7 or liquidation of GM that would then result would be a tectonic event. The problem is that under Chapter 11 US law, it takes time for the company to get the protection of a bankruptcy court. Until that time, which may be weeks or months, the company would need urgently 'bridge financing' to continue operating. This is known as 'Debtor-in-Possession or DIP financing. DIP is essential for most Chapter 11 bankruptcies, as it takes time to get the plan of reorganization approved by creditors and the courts. Most companies, like GM today, go to bankruptcy court when they are at the end of their liquidity. DIP is specifically for companies in, or on the verge of bankruptcy, and the debt is generally senior to other outstanding creditor claims. So it is actually very low risk, as the amount spent is usually not large, relatively speaking. But DIP lending is being severely curtailed right now, just when it is most needed, as healthier banks drastically cut loans in the severe credit crunch situation. Without access to DIP bridge financing, GM would be forced into a partial, or even a full liquidation. The ramifications are horrendous. Aside from loss of 100,000 jobs at GM itself, GM is critical to keep many US auto suppliers in business. If GM failed soon most, possibly even all of the US and even foreign auto suppliers will go under. Those parts suppliers are important to other auto makers. Many foreign car factories would be forced to close due to loss of suppliers. Some analysts put 2009 job losses from a GM failure as high as 2.5 million jobs due to the follow-on effects. If the impact of that 2.5 million job loss is seen in terms of the overall losses to the economy of non-auto jobs such as services, home foreclosures caused and such, some estimate total impact would be more than 15 million jobs. So far in the face of this staggering prospect, the members of the US Congress have chosen to focus on the fact the GM chief, Rick Wagoner, flew in his private company jet to Washington. The Congressional charade conjures up the image of Nero playing his fiddle as Rome goes up in flames. It should not be surprising that at the recent EU-Asian Summit in Beijing, Chinese officials mooted the idea of trading between the EU and Asian nations such as China in Euro, Renminbi, Yen or other national currencies other than the dollar. The Citigroup bailout and GM debacle has confirmed the death of the post-1944 Bretton Woods Dollar System. The real truth behind Citigroup bailout What neither Paulson nor anyone in Washington is willing to reveal is the real truth behind the Citigroup bailout. By his and the Republican Bush Administration's adamant earlier refusal to take an initial resolute action to immediately nationalize the nine or so largest troubled banks, he has created the present debacle. By refusing on ideological grounds to instead reorganize the banks' assets into some form of 'good bank' and 'bad bank,' similar to what the Government of Sweden did with what it called Securum, during its banking crisis in the early 1990's, Paulson and company have created a global financial structure on the brink. A Securum or similar temporary nationalization would have allowed the healthy banks to continue lending to the real economy so the economy could continue operating, while the State merely sat on the undervalued real estate assets of the Swedish banks for some months until the recovering economy made the assets again marketable to the private sector. Instead, Paulson and his 'crony capitalists' in Washington have turned a bad situation into a globally catastrophic one. His apparent realization of the error of his initial refusal to nationalize came too late. When Paulson reversed policy on September 19 and presented the nine largest banks with an ultimatum to accept partial Government equity ownership, abandoning his original bizarre plan to merely buy up the toxic waste asset-backed securities of the banks with his $700 billion TARP taxpayer money, he never revealed why. Under the original Paulson Plan, as Dimitri B. Papadimitriou and L. Randall Wray of the Jerome Levy Institute at Bard College in New York point out, Paulson sought to create a situation in which the US 'Treasury would become an owner of troubled financial institutions in exchange for a capital injection - but without exercising any ownership rights, such as replacing the management that created the mess. The bailout would be used as an opportunity to consolidate control of the nation's financial system in the hands of a few large (Wall Street) banks, with government funds subsidizing purchases of troubled banks by "healthy" ones.' Paulson soon realized the scale of crisis, largely triggered by his inept handling of the Lehman Brothers case, had created an impossible situation. Were Paulson to use the $700 billion to buy up toxic waste ABS assets from the select banks at today's market price, the $700 billion would be far too little to take an estimated $2 trillion ($2,000 billion) in Asset Backed Securities off the books of the banks. The Levy Economics Institute economists state, 'It is probable that many and perhaps most financial institutions are insolvent today -- with a black hole of negative net worth that would swallow Paulson's entire $700 billion in one gulp.' That reality is the real reason Paulson was forced to abandon his original 'crony bailout' TARP plan and opt to use some of his money to buy equity shares in the nine largest banks. That scheme as well is 'dead on arrival' as the latest Citigroup nationalization scheme underscores. The dilemma Paulson has created with his inept handling of the crisis is simple: If the US Government paid the true value for these nearly worthless assets, the banks would have to write down huge losses, and, as Levy economists put it, 'announce to the world that they are insolvent.' On the other hand, if Paulson raised the toxic waste purchase price high enough to protect the banks from losses, $700 billion 'will buy only a tiny fraction of the 'troubled' assets.' That is what the latest nationalization of Citigroup is about. It is only the beginning. The 2009 year will be one of titanic shocks and changes to the global order of a scale perhaps not experienced in the past five centuries. This is why we should speak of the end of the American Century and its Dollar System. How destructive that process will be to the citizens of the United States who are the prime victims of Paulson's crony capitalists, as well as to the rest of the world depends now on the urgency and resoluteness with which heads of national Governments in Germany, the EU, China, Russia and the rest of the non-US world react. It is no time for ideological sentimentality and nostalgia of the postwar old order. That collapsed this past September along with Lehman Brothers and the Republican Presidency. Waiting for a 'miracle' from an Obama Presidency is no longer an option for the rest of the world.
Labels: banks, economic crisis, nationalisation, USA
Posted by Vaughan at Friday, February 01, 2008
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Japanese whalers who hunt whales in the Antarctic can no longer justify their actions as "scientific research" and must stop their annual whale roundup, according to a ruling by the International Court of Justice.
The court ruled today that Japan's so-called "research" does not meet ordinary scientific standards. The court ordered Japan to stop killing whales under the guise of its research program, called JARPA II. As stated in a 73-page finding (PDF 649 kb) supported by 12 of the 16 judges:
"Taken as a whole, the Court considers that JARPA II involves activities that can broadly be characterized as scientific research, but that the evidence does not establish that the programme's design and implementation are reasonable in relation to achieving its stated objectives.
"The Court concludes that the special permits granted by Japan for the killing, taking and treating of whales in connection with JARPA II are not 'for purposes of scientific research' pursuant to Article VIII, paragraph 1, of the Convention (the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling)."
In the legal action brought before the United Nations court by Australia, the judges carefully scrutinized the JARPA II methods and procedures. They found that the sampling procedure and lethal take of minke, fin and humpback whales falls short of legitimate scientific study in many regards:
"The fact that the actual take of fin and humpback whales is largely, if not entirely, a function of political and logistical considerations, further weakens the purported relationship between JARPA II's research objectives and the specific sample size targets for each species — in particular, the decision to engage in the lethal sampling of minke whales on a relatively large scale."
A news release (PDF 174 kb) issued by the court does a fair job of summarizing the findings:
"Examining Japan's decisions regarding the use of lethal methods, the court finds no evidence of any studies of the feasibility of or the practicability of non-lethal methods, either in setting the JARPA II sample sizes or in later years in which the programme has maintained the same sample size targets. The court also finds no evidence that Japan examined whether it would be feasible to combine a smaller lethal take and an increase in non-lethal sampling as a means to achieve JARPA II's research objectives."
After the ruling, Koji Tsuruoka, Japan's representative at the court, addressed reporters at the Peace Palace in The Hague. According to a report by Australian Associated Press, Tsuruoka stated:
"Japan regrets and is deeply disappointed that JARPA II … has been ruled by the court as not falling within the provisions of Article 8. However, as a state that respects the rule of law, the order of international law and as a responsible member of the global community, Japan will abide by the decision of the court."
He said Japanese officials would need to digest the judgment before considering a future course of action. He refused to discuss whether a new research program could be crafted to allow whaling to resume.
Australian officials were careful not to gloat over the victory as they emphasized the need to maintain favorable relations with Japan. Bill Campbell, Australia's general counsel in the case, was quoted by the AAP:
"The decision of the court today, important as it is, has given us the opportunity to draw a line under the legal dispute and move on."
The ruling was welcomed by environmental groups, including Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, which has sent ships to the Antarctic to directly confront the whaling ships and interfere with their whaling activities, as seen on the television show "Whale Wars." Capt. Alex Cornelissen of Sea Shepherd Global had this to say in a news release:
"With today's ruling, the ICJ has taken a fair and just stance on the right side of history by protecting the whales of the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary and the vital marine ecosystem of Antarctica, a decision that impacts the international community and future generations. Though Japan's unrelenting harpoons have continued to drive many species of whales toward extinction, Sea Shepherd is hopeful that in the wake of the ICJ's ruling, it is whaling that will be driven into the pages of the history books."


text:
If you are a staff member wanting to access your home drive for read only, open your browser and go to https://staff.nafcs.k12.in.us/staff/username whereusername is your assigned NAFCS username.
If you are wanting to do any file manipulation such as editing and deleting, you must set up and use WebDAV on your home computer. The link below is screenshots showing the one-time setup directions required to install WebDAV on your Windows 7 home computer for staff members.
The link to directions for installing installing WebDAV for staff.


text: Hi All! I need moving ISPconfig from Server A to Server B. Server A is a server in production. This must be repaire. I need moving all ispconfig: acounts, emails, passwords, webs... I have backup of Server A: /etc /home/www /var/lib/mysql How can i do it?. I think make: 1- Install software in Server B: postfix, mysql, php, apache, courier, proftpd and others. 2- Install a new ISPconfig 3- Replace the files /etc /home /var/lib/mysql Is it correct? I can't install a software for backup. I only can use scp or rsync. Regards,


text:
Worship Services
Cuyahoga Valley Church-Worship Center
We have several options for you to join us for weekend worship. The desire of our services is to honor Christ. Our worship is contemporary, our dress is casual and we hope to see you this weekend. Service times are 8:00AM | 9:30AM | 11AM | 6:30PM.
Sunday School communities are available for babies through Grade 5 during all services. Each CVCKids LifeGroup is led by devoted volunteers who will help your kids learn how God's Word applies to their life, how to talk to Him, and build lifetime friendships with others in their LifeGroup.


text:
Monday, August 10, 2009
How Many? and GIVEAWAY
54 comments:
I love this post! What a creative way to tell us a lot about your trip. I'm glad you are back and that you had a good time!ReplyDelete
I think I need to make some additional stops to the ice cream shop!ReplyDelete
Welcome home! And now, if you will excuse me, I'm going to have some ice cream (although it's not that hot tonight).ReplyDelete
Welcome home! That is a whole lot of numbers that add up to one big whoopie of a time. Your trip sounds like it was a lot of fun and your godson had a great time. Really Joanna this is so neat that you do this with him. xoxoReplyDelete
That is awesome I know you had a wonderful time. Cool way to count it down :-)ReplyDelete
I would have lost count. You are so awesome compared to me. I'm still on vacation and we're getting lots done around the house. We're having company tomorrow and celebrating Middle Daughter's 12th birthday. I'll post tomorrow although I tried to take a week off. 3 days of not blogging feels like a week.ReplyDelete
Glad you're back safe and sound!
Sounds like a good time was had by all. The ice cream sounds good...I have been craving a snowball.ReplyDelete
Sounds like a good time was had by all. The ice cream sounds good...I have been craving a snowball.ReplyDelete
I have to say I'm a smooosh tired after reading your post. Phew. Sounds like a wonderful experience altogether though. Funny that my family had a family BBQ yesterday of just about 24 or 25 people. Aunts, Gma's, Uncles, Nieces, Nephews, Great-Nieces, Great-Nephews, Sisters and various marrieds of various others. See, now I'm a smooosh tired again.ReplyDelete
haha. sounds like a wonderful trip. big smiles at the list...ice cream, water balloons, coloring...even giving the boyfriend a hard time...but only b/c i was there once. welcome home.ReplyDelete
I LOVE Apples to Apples. Great game.ReplyDelete
I miss my family- I'd love to fly out and see them but we'll just have to see how much that will run me!
Love your numbers!!! And I love Apples to Apples! What a fun game!ReplyDelete
Okay, here's how much I trust you as a writer and a snarky sister...I have absolutely no doubt that those numbers are exact and correct.ReplyDelete
Here's something else...this was the coolest post and I'm not certain how you ever came up with the idea you clever minx! But, to have had it and then kept the stats?!
You are the best. Welcome home.
welcome back! sounds like a wonderful time and seems to have gone by quickly.ReplyDelete
- ValerieAugust 10, 2009 at 9:29 PM
Haha, that was neat and sounds like you had fun -)ReplyDelete
KawaiiNeko2008 at aol dot com
Welcome back home! So glad that you had a great time both you and Godson. The kid seriously kicked your seat that many times? I dunno...I probably would've wanted to reach out and touch someone! :)ReplyDelete
Never heard of Apples to Apples. Is it a card game?
How many frogs did your bring back to California?
welcome home!! I love how you chronicled your trip; sounds like for the most part you had a great time with godson!ReplyDelete
I have 2 grandsons, (7 and 8). After raising 3 daughters I have learned that boys are twice as busy. I see in your case, that still holds true. I am reminded why young people multiply and not us Nanas. I need to go lay down after reading about yur week.ReplyDelete
1.....number of blogger from Paraguay glad you are home safe and glad you had a great time! :)ReplyDelete
Glad you both enjoyed your adventure and visit! On a different note, I feel as though your reminder to leave a comment on any 'NEW' post between now and the 16th was directed at enthusiasts like myself. :) It's the first contest I've entered and I shall not be kept down! :)ReplyDelete
All things being tallied...sounds like you had a great vacation.ReplyDelete
The best thing about going on vacation...coming home.
Great post! Welcome home!ReplyDelete
Were you hit by the raging storm that blew through the midwest over the weekend? We had torrential downpours here.
Welcome home!!! I LOVE the way you "broke out" your vacation activities!! Sounds like a good time was had by all!ReplyDelete
- AnonymousAugust 11, 2009 at 4:04 AM
Welcome back and it sounds like everyone had a great time. Are all the HP pictures now decorating your refrigerator?ReplyDelete
Welcome home! And I'm sure I would have hit the ice cream shop four or five times too!ReplyDelete
Sounds like a great vacation all except the part of having your seat kicked on the flight.ReplyDelete
- AnonymousAugust 11, 2009 at 6:11 AM
Haha...neat post! Nice to see you back tho!.ReplyDelete
Great post!ReplyDelete
Sounds like you had a wonderful time. :)
Priceless! :-)ReplyDelete
I love the way you recounted your trip! Very funny too.ReplyDelete
what a nice giveaway
Didn't it feel like your trip was over all too soon? I know it is always nice to get home again, but it sure sounds like you had a great time.ReplyDelete
I like the way you let us know about your trip. Short and to the point. Really cute!!! Reminded me of a trip I took many years ago with a friend who did NOT fly so we went by bus. From Oklahoma to Connecticut (Never again) and her son a little kid at the time Hummed all the way!ReplyDelete
Marvellous post, and welcome home!ReplyDelete
I love water balloons and wonder why only reserved for kids....ReplyDelete
Maybe I'll greet my husband with one when he comes home from work. Nothing says love like a water balloon on a hot summer day.
- AnonymousAugust 11, 2009 at 8:35 PM
Sounds like you had a fantastic time!! This post has inspired me to do more fun things with my kids! Welcome home!ReplyDelete
Didn't the cats want to sleep with you? Or maybe not, because you snore.ReplyDelete
Don't make that sad face, you know I'm only kidding.
Welcome back. xo d
Love the "numbers" post! Sounds like a wonderful time was enjoyed by all!ReplyDelete
(now I'm a wee bit homesick for my beloved Ohio!)
How awesome and sounds like you had such a great time!ReplyDelete
out of a 100 points for a great post!
- AnonymousAugust 12, 2009 at 6:07 AM
No need to enter me in the giveaway. Just wanted to tell you how much I enjoyed this charming post. It reminded me of moments in Ray Bradbury's DANDELION WINE, with all its sweet references to summer in a small midwestern town. So glad you haven't lost touch with that... Thank you, and welcome back!ReplyDelete
Joanna, I saw the comment you left on my blog, you are so thoughtful!! I don't have your email address, but mine is email@example.com. If you drop me a note, I'll send you my mailing address (I'm a bit hesitant to post it online!).ReplyDelete
Thanks again for thinking of me, it's so sweet of you!
I was waiting for one of those "priceless" finishes like in the Mastercard commercials. ;)ReplyDelete
Sounds like you had a great time.
I'm guessing that rainy day might've been Tuesday? It poured in KY and flooded a lot places.
great idea with the numbers. I have seen this in the newspaper but never thought of writing a post with that technique.ReplyDelete
I like the 4's.
Assuming you didn't have a red-eye type of flight, how do you sleep 4 hours on plane? I flew to Hong Kong once and don't think I even slept 4 hours then.
Four - the number of goals Scotland lost in the football tonight. But your post fair cheered me up!ReplyDelete
Welcome back, Lovely Lady!ReplyDelete
What a fun post to read!ReplyDelete
Hugs, G
I have never seen that bridge. I am from the Akron, OH area. My college room mate was from chardon, OH. My husband and I have never missed living in Akron. EVER!!! We only wish that we would have moved further. Hindsight is a bitch - especially shoveling a few feet of snow in the winter.ReplyDelete
Hi everyone, It was a great trip but it's great to be back home to!ReplyDelete
- AnonymousAugust 13, 2009 at 7:11 PM
Water balloons! You do it right!ReplyDelete
What a great travel companion you had. Glad he got to go with you.ReplyDelete
Sounds like so much fun.
Love your # list.
Thanks for the post. I'm flying out for a vacation this week so I now know what I have to look forward to!ReplyDelete
1. Leaving a comment to enter the contest.ReplyDelete
2. yeah for fun and numbers!! :)
Great post!....It really tickled me.ReplyDelete
Aw, that was a sweet post and fun to read. I bet I would ahve gone to the ice cream shop more than that though - its always good to have a child or two with you just to use as an excuse for needing to be there. I used to be like that with dolls, I loved them. I loved having a daughter as I had an excuse to buy them. Only problem was I played with them and she didnt. She preferred racing cars.... Sounds like you had a wonderful time though!ReplyDelete


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Wednesday night's State of the State address was an interesting evening at the Capitol. It was the first time since I began covering Montana politics that a governor other than Brian Schweitzer was on the big stage, and I wasn't sure what to expect.
The State of the State is a major event for a Montana governor. The address is broadcast live statewide on Montana PBS and Montana Public Radio, and just about every TV station, radio station and newspaper in the state covers the event.
Many of us in the Capitol press corps admitted prior to the speech we were unsure of how Bullock would do in his first-ever State of the State. After all, he's following in the footsteps of one of the best orators many of us have ever seen in Montana. Former Gov. Brian Schweitzer wasn't popular with everyone – particularly Republicans, whom Schweitzer needled at every turn – but at the end of the day nobody could argue the man's ability to work a crowd.
Bullock brings a much different style to the governor's office. As he pointed out in his speech, just three weeks in to his term as governor he's "already been trying to change the tone in the halls of this building."
While he didn't mention Schweitzer by name, Bullock's message on that point was clear: "I'm not Brian Schweitzer."
The consensus among most people I talked to after the speech was that Bullock did a great job. It was a strong speech and it was masterfully delivered. Even many Republicans said they liked the speech, though they didn't like all the spending proposals Bullock rolled out.
My first thought after he finished the address was this:
"This guy showed us tonight he is the governor."
Observations from the floor
The press corps is mostly relegated to the east side of the House floor during speeches like this, which means we're stationed along the GOP's side of the aisle. That's always an interesting place to be during a speech delivered by a Democrat. When the big applause lines come, we all watch to see which Republicans clap or stand and which Republicans keep their arms crossed tightly over their chests.
I paid keen attention to a standing ovation that came when Bullock blasted the rise of dark money groups that "target candidates and refuse to tell the voting public who they really are and what they really represent."
"They hide behind made-up names and made-up newspapers. They operate out of P.O. Boxes or Washington, D.C. office buildings. They falsely proclaim themselves the guardians of Montana's traditions.
These groups believe they can violate our laws and corrupt our government in order to create a system that benefits their special interests.
Montanans deserve better."
At that point the House floor erupted with the cheers and applause from Democrats and a handful of enthusiastic Republicans. Without having a clear view of the entire floor I can't say for certain which Republicans stood and cheered and which ones sat on their hands, but it was a moment many of us talked about after the speech. If anyone can produce video of that particular applause line that shows the entire House floor it would certainly been an interesting study.
Another point that stood out to me was when Bullock talked about returning from the airport after having greeted troops returning from Iraq and Afghanistan to find out a Legislative committee had cut funding for "wrap-around" services that would make it easier for returning soldiers to attend universities.
"I urge you to restore these funds, live up to the promises we've made and welcome these warriors home with more than just words," Bullock said.
At that point Democrats jumped to their feet and most of the Republican side of the aisle joined them. However, in front of me one Republican Senator remained firmly planted in her seat, not clapping. As another Senator looked over at her and said something she shook her head and said, "I'm not clapping for that."
All-in-all Bullock did a good job of defining his policy agenda and laying down markers for the next three months of the Legislative session. He's going to push for more spending on education. He wants a fix to the state pension system that "honors the commitment to Montana's public servants." He's going to continue to push for his proposed $400 homeowner tax rebate. He wants to expand Medicaid. And he wants campaign finance reform that gets dark money out of politics.
How much of that agenda he will get accomplished remains to be seen as the Republican-dominated Legislature continues to chip away at spending proposals and bring their own policy agendas to bear on the state budget, namely, reducing Montana's reliance on federal dollars.
Bullock, however, seemed sincere in his desire and willingness to work with GOP lawmakers going forward.
"We need each other if we're going to make progress," Bullock told members of the House and Senate.
The only words that rang truer were Bullock's closing thoughts:
"At the end of any one of our terms. . . yours or mine. . . we will be measured by the progress we have made. And the true measure will be taken not by the politicians or pundits, but by our children. Let us not forget that it is to them we are most accountable."


text:
What country do Americans overwhelmingly like the most? Canada.
What country do Canadians pretty much like the most? America.
What country has the natural resources America needs? Canada.
What country has the entrepreneurship, technology and defense capability Canada needs? America.
Has the time come to face the music and dance? Yes, says Diane Francis, editor-at-large at the National Post in Toronto. Her book "Merger of the Century: Why Canada and America Should Become One Country" is both provocative and persuasive.
"The genius of both societies is that they are very good at assimilating people from all over the world," Francis told me. "So why can't they do it themselves?"
Relatively small differences are why. Canadian intellectuals have long portrayed the United States as their violent, unruly twin. Many conservatives in this country, meanwhile, deride Canada as the socialistic land of single-payer medicine, gun control and other heavy regulation.
"I don't buy the narrative of American exceptionalism or Canadian superiority," says Francis, a dual citizen (born in Chicago). "Both have good points and bad points."
Americans close to the border already think a lot like Canadians, she notes. Some northern states actually have more liberal laws and lower crime rates than Canada's. "They are more Canadian than Canadians."
But set aside these "local" considerations. There's a big, scary reason the countries should merge: to create a united front against outside aggressors, especially China and Russia. These countries' sights are set on Canada's rich and poorly defended open spaces.
"Neither nation upholds the same values as Canadians or Americans," Francis writes, "and they represent Trojan horses that are eager to partition an already weak, fragmented Canada."
She goes on: "China has targeted Canada for years because of its enormous oil sands, its undeveloped resources, its dominant Arctic position, its backdoor entry into the U.S. market and technology sector, and its vast landmass capable of supporting millions more people."
For example, China's state-run oil company was able to buy Nexen, the Canadian oil giant, for $15 billion — despite loud public opposition and warnings by Canadian intelligence. China got a trade deal giving it special market access for 31 years, while Canadians are still banned from buying China's iconic corporations.
Meanwhile, the melting Arctic is exposing massive resources. Canadian blood pressure rose when Russian explorer Artur Chilingarov announced, "The Arctic is Russian" — and then his sub planted a Russian flag on the seabed.
Canada can hardly defend its territory in an age of resource grabbing while ranking 14th in defense spending and 74th in military manpower. Only the United States can do that, which, of course, it's been doing all along. Americans are tiring of providing free rides to other countries.
The United States and Canada could reach the altar by several paths. One would start with a single currency, move to a customs union and end at political union. Europe is already at monetary union. "The countries have different health care systems, different taxes, but there's no border."
What does each partner have to offer? "Canada's best assets include its resources, stability and banking system, its strong relationship with the United States and an educated, law-abiding people," according to Francis.
America offers a culture of risk taking and entrepreneurship. It leads the world in technology and defense.
"There's no excuse for two countries as similar as us to not get rid of the border after 26 years of free trade," Francis says.
A merged Canada and U.S. would occupy more land than Russia or all of South America. It would become an energy and economic powerhouse less subject to foreign intrigue.
And few countries would mess with either of us.
Froma Harrop is a Providence Journal columnist. Email email@example.com.
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text:
Within a short walk of Longbourn lived a family with whom the Bennets were particularly intimate. Sir William Lucas had been formerly in trade in Meryton, where he had made a tolerable fortune, and risen to the honour of knighthood by an address to the king during his mayoralty. The distinction had perhaps been felt too strongly. It had given him a disgust to his business, and to his residence in a small market town; and, in quitting them both, he had removed with his family to a house about a mile from Meryton, denominated from that period Lucas Lodge, where he could think with pleasure of his own importance, and, unshackled by business, occupy himself solely in being civil to all the world. For, though elated by his rank, it did not render him supercilious; on the contrary, he was all attention to everybody. By nature inoffensive, friendly, and obliging, his presentation at St. James's had made him courteous.
Lady Lucas was a very good kind of woman, not too clever to be a valuable neighbour to Mrs. Bennet. They had several children. The eldest of them, a sensible, intelligent young woman, about twenty-seven, was Elizabeth's intimate friend.
That the Miss Lucases and the Miss Bennets should meet to talk over a ball was absolutely necessary; and the morning after the assembly brought the former to Longbourn to hear and to communicate.
"You began the evening well, Charlotte," said Mrs. Bennet with civil self-command to Miss Lucas. "You were Mr. Bingley's first choice."
"Yes; but he seemed to like his second better."
"Oh! you mean Jane, I suppose, because he danced with her twice. To be sure that did seem as if he admired her--indeed I rather believe he did_--I heard something about it--but I hardly know what--something about Mr. Robinson."
"Perhaps you mean what I overheard between him and Mr. Robinson; did not I mention it to you? Mr. Robinson's asking him how he liked our Meryton assemblies, and whether he did not think there were a great many pretty women in the room, and which he thought the prettiest? and his answering immediately to the last question: 'Oh! the eldest Miss Bennet, beyond a doubt; there cannot be two opinions on that point.'"
"Upon my word! Well, that is very decided indeed--that does seem as if--but, however, it may all come to nothing, you know."
"My overhearings were more to the purpose than yours, Eliza," said Charlotte. "Mr. Darcy is not so well worth listening to as his friend, is he?--poor Eliza!--to be only just tolerable."
"I beg you would not put it into Lizzy's head to be vexed by his ill-treatment, for he is such a disagreeable man, that it would be quite a misfortune to be liked by him. Mrs. Long told me last night that he sat close to her for half-an-hour without once opening his lips."
"Are you quite sure, ma'am?--is not there a little mistake?" said Jane. "I certainly saw Mr. Darcy speaking to her."
"Aye--because she asked him at last how he liked Netherfield, and he could not help answering her; but she said he seemed quite angry at being spoke to."
"Miss Bingley told me," said Jane, "that he never speaks much, unless among his intimate acquaintances. With them he is remarkably agreeable."
"I do not believe a word of it, my dear. If he had been so very agreeable, he would have talked to Mrs. Long. But I can guess how it was; everybody says that he is eat up with pride, and I dare say he had heard somehow that Mrs. Long does not keep a carriage, and had come to the ball in a hack chaise."
"I do not mind his not talking to Mrs. Long," said Miss Lucas, "but I wish he had danced with Eliza."
"Another time, Lizzy," said her mother, "I would not dance with him, if I were you."
"I believe, ma'am, I may safely promise you never to dance with him."
"His pride," said Miss Lucas, "does not offend me so much as pride often does, because there is an excuse for it. One cannot wonder that so very fine a young man, with family, fortune, everything in his favour, should think highly of himself. If I may so express it, he has a right to be proud."
"That is very true," replied Elizabeth, "and I could easily forgive his pride, if he had not mortified mine."
"Pride," observed Mary, who piqued herself upon the solidity of her reflections, "is a very common failing, I believe. By all that I have ever read, I am convinced that it is very common indeed; that human nature is particularly prone to it, and that there are very few of us who do not cherish a feeling of self-complacency on the score of some quality or other, real or imaginary. Vanity and pride are different things, though the words are often used synonymously. A person may be proud without being vain. Pride relates more to our opinion of ourselves, vanity to what we would have others think of us."
"If I were as rich as Mr. Darcy," cried a young Lucas, who came with his sisters, "I should not care how proud I was. I would keep a pack of foxhounds, and drink a bottle of wine a day."
"Then you would drink a great deal more than you ought," said Mrs. Bennet; "and if I were to see you at it, I should take away your bottle directly."
The boy protested that she should not; she continued to declare that she would, and the argument ended only with the visit.


text:
Sunday, February 12, 2012
News from the Tékumel Foundation
As a teaser, here's a photograph of a copy of the original EPT rules, put together by Professor Barker in 1974, as well as one of the earliest maps of Tékumel, drawn by the professor. The Foundation intends to release the map to the public too at some point, but is still deciding the best way to do so. Once again, I stand in awe of not just what Professor Barker has done but what the Foundation is doing to promote and support his work. It's a pity more of the hobby's creators aren't in a similar position to be able to preserve and make available their works.
13 comments:
I hope the cover of the PDF is the same as the ones depicted above. Who needs POD? I'd just print it and staple it just like the Professor did.ReplyDelete
This is great! I think for certain individuals the value of their raw notes is underestimated. Now only if we could see a similar release by the heirs of Gygax and Arneson.ReplyDelete
I'm an old schooler that has never purchased a Tekumel product. I'd done some reading on the Professor and his vision. What would you recommend as far as a gaming product? Is there a Tekumel / D&D conversion out there so that we could take advantage of the setting? What's a good starting place?ReplyDeleteReplies
The original published EPT rules /were/ D&D, in most ways. It was only a slightly different system than was used on OD&D. I'd recommend the original boxed rules as being the most accessible from a gaming standpoint, but they're hard to get. The Different Worlds one-book printing seems to be pretty much the same thing, and you can get it from Tita's House of Games at http://www.tekumel.com/tita/ept.htmlDelete
This is great news! Love the map, and the booklets... but would have preferred they use original dice in the photo! Only the bottom left-most die is from the 70s... the rest look to be early 80s.ReplyDeleteReplies
That is undoubtedly correct as to the dice. I still have my original set purchased with my original D&D set of rules when they first came out. After about five or six years of rolling those, they became rounded and you couldn't play with them much anymore.Delete
Pretty schwey. I might actually go for that.ReplyDelete
I did some googling and found a blog about Tekumel: http://thetekumelproject.blogspot.com/ReplyDelete
I know, I'm awesome. You don't have to tell me, but that doesn't mean I don't like to hear it. :p
This is great news! So many people who came to the hobby in the late 80's, the 90's and the 00's have never heard ofTekumel before. If it brings more people into the original games and shows them that there has always been variation, flavour and gains their interest to play, all the more power to the project.ReplyDelete
I have a friend who had that version of the rules. She loaned it to me at one point, I think it was early 80's; certainly before I could afford to purchase a copy for myself. Pretty heady stuff, eh?ReplyDelete
This is wonderful news! I've always heard that the Professor's group plays rules-light (i think Bob Alberti once summarized it on one sheet of paper), but to finally get to see the original game structure before some of the rules (eg, separation of Priests/Magic-users and spell lists that don't really reflect Tekumel society) must have been adapted to be more compatible with OD&D will be amazing. Great work by the Foundation!ReplyDelete
Excellent. It will be interesting to see the differences.ReplyDelete
I have played in both Dr. Barker's very first and last role playing sessions. Except for a brief span in the late 70's and early 80's I have played in one group or another of his from 1974 until late 2011 when he was no longer able to referee the game due to health reasons.ReplyDelete
To know the impact of this set of rules, simply look at the original three volume set of D&D rules and compare it to this treasure.
Everyone was simply amazed. For the younger enthusiasts out there, think of what it must have been like to see something like this only a couple years into the genre of role playing. It was like reading children's comics books and suddenly someone invented the novel. It was that profound.
Alan Musielewicz