text:
Search and rescue
Search and rescue (SAR) is the search for and provision of aid to people who are in distress or imminent danger. The general field of search and rescue includes many specialty sub-fields, typically determined by the type of terrain the search is conducted over. These include mountain rescue; ground search and rescue, including the use of search and rescue dogs; urban search and rescue in cities; combat search and rescue on the battlefield and air-sea rescue over water.
International Search and Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG) is a UN organization that promotes the exchange of information between national urban search and rescue organizations. The duty to render assistance is covered by Article 98 of the UNCLOS.
There are many different definitions of search and rescue, depending on the agency involved.
- Canadian Forces: "Search and Rescue comprises the search for, and provision of aid to, persons, ships or other craft which are, or are feared to be, in distress or imminent danger."[1]
- United States Coast Guard: "The use of available resources to assist persons or property in potential or actual distress."[2]
- United States Defense Department: A search is "an operation normally coordinated by a Rescue Coordination Center (RCC) or rescue sub-center, using available personnel and facilities to locate persons in distress" and rescue is "an operation to retrieve persons in distress, provide for their initial medical or other needs, and deliver them to a place of safety."[3]
One of the world's earliest well-documented SAR efforts ensued following the 1656 wreck of the Dutch merchant ship Vergulde Draeck off the west coast of Australia. Survivors sent for help, and in response three separate SAR missions were conducted, without success.[4]
On 29 November 1945, a Sikorsky R-5 performed the first civilian helicopter rescue operation in history, with Sikorsky's chief pilot Dmitry "Jimmy" Viner in the cockpit, using an experimental hoist developed jointly by Sikorsky and Breeze. All 5 crew members of an oil barge, which had run aground on Penfield Reef, were saved before the barge sank.[5]
In 1983, Korean Air Lines Flight 007 with 269 occupants was shot down by a Soviet aircraft near Sakhalin. The Soviets sent SAR helicopters and boats to Soviet waters, while a search and rescue operation was initiated by U.S., South Korean, and Japanese ships and aircraft in international waters, but no survivors were found.[6]
In July 2009, Air France Flight 447 was lost in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. An international SAR effort was launched, to no avail. A third effort nearly two years later discovered the crash site and recovered the black boxes.
In early 2014, Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 crashed under mysterious circumstances. Many nations contributed to the initial SAR effort, which was fruitless. In June 2014, the Australian Transport Safety Bureau commissioned the MV Fugro Equator to lead a three-month survey of the ocean bed, for which it had budgeted $60mn; at the same time, Malaysia announced it had spent $9.3mn to date on fuel and food in its own effort.[7] The search for Flight 370 has become the largest SAR so far with the largest budget.[8][9]
Types of search and rescue
Mountain rescue
Mountain rescue relates to search and rescue operations specifically in rugged and mountainous terrain.
Ground search and rescue
Ground search and rescue is the search for persons who are lost or in distress on land or inland waterways. Traditionally associated with wilderness zones, ground search and rescue services are increasingly required in urban and suburban areas to locate persons with Alzheimer's disease, autism, dementia, or other conditions that lead to wandering behaviour.[10] Ground search and rescue missions that occur in urban areas should not be confused with "urban search and rescue", which in many jurisdictions refers to the location and extraction of people from collapsed buildings or other entrapments.[11]
Some ground search teams also employ search and rescue dogs.
Urban search and rescue
Urban search and rescue (US&R or USAR), also referred to as Heavy Urban Search and Rescue (HUSAR), is the location and rescue of persons from collapsed buildings or other urban and industrial entrapments. Due to the specialized nature of the work, most teams are multi-disciplinary and include personnel from police, fire and emergency medical services. Unlike traditional ground search and rescue workers, most US&R responders also have basic training in structural collapse and the dangers associated with live electrical wires, broken natural gas lines and other hazards. While earthquakes have traditionally been the cause of US&R operations, terrorist attacks and extreme weather such as tornadoes and hurricanes have also resulted in the deployment of these resources.[12]
Combat search and rescue
Combat search and rescue (CSAR) is search and rescue operations that are carried out during war that are within or near combat zones.[13]
Air-sea rescue
Air-sea rescue (ASR) refers to the combined use of aircraft (such as flying boats, floatplanes, amphibious helicopters and non-amphibious helicopters equipped with hoists) and surface vessels, to search for and recover survivors of aircraft downed at sea as well as sailors and passengers of sea vessels in distress.[14]
International divisions of search and rescue responsibility
United Nations
The Geneva Convention on the High Seas, aka UNCLOS I, is an international treaty created in 1958 to codify the rules of international law relating to the high seas, otherwise known as international waters, and is one of four treaties created at the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea. This treaty contains the definition of high seas, at Article 1.
International Search and Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG) is a UN organization that promotes the exchange of information between national urban search and rescue organizations.
International waters
International waters are divided by the IMO's Maritime Safety Committee into 13 regions as an addendum to the SOLAS convention;[15] these regions were subdivided by various later conventions.[16] The International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue[17][18] was signed in 1979, entered into force in July 1985, and governs SAR operations to present day.[15] In the Arctic, SAR responsibilities are since May 2011 governed by the Arctic Search and Rescue Agreement.
The duty to render assistance is covered by Article 98 of the UNCLOS:[19]
Every State shall require the master of a ship flying its flag, in so far as he can do so without serious danger to the ship, the crew or the passengers:
- to render assistance to any person found at sea in danger of being lost;
- to proceed with all possible speed to the rescue of persons in distress, if informed of their need of assistance, in so far as such action may reasonably be expected of him;
- after a collision, to render assistance to the other ship, its crew and its passengers and, where possible, to inform the other ship of the name of his own ship, its port of registry and the nearest port at which it will call.
A ship should not be subject to undue delay, financial burden or other related difficulties after assisting persons at sea; therefore coastal States should relieve the ship as soon as practicable.[20]
International casualty inquiries
The Load Lines Convention requires the investigation of casualties, and, under SOLAS regulation I/21 and MARPOL articles 8 and 12, each Administration undertakes, when it judges that such an investigation may assist in determining what changes in the present regulations might be desirable:[21][22]
- to conduct an investigation into any casualty occurring to ships under its flag subject to those conventions, and
- to supply the Organization with pertinent information concerning the findings of such investigations.
Under Article 94 of the UNCLOS, paragraph 7 on Duties of one flag state with respect to another, reads as follows:[21]
Each State shall cause an inquiry to be held by or before a suitably qualified person or persons into every marine casualty or incident of navigation on the high seas involving a ship flying its flag and causing loss of life or serious injury to nationals of another State or serious damage to ships or installations of another State or to the marine environment. The flag State and the other State shall co-operate in the conduct of any inquiry held by that other State into any such marine casualty or incident of navigation.
International Maritime Organization (IMO) Resolution MSC.255(84), of 16 May 2008, adopts the Code of the International Standards and Recommended Practices for a Safety Investigation into a Marine Casualty or Marine Incident. It is also known as the Casualty Investigation Code. It is meant to govern collaborative investigations into very serious casualties which are defined at paragraph 2.22 as "a marine casualty involving the total loss of the ship or a death or severe damage to the environment".[23]
SAR by nation
- National
The Australian search and rescue service is provided by AusSAR, which is part of the Australian Maritime Safety Authority (AMSA).[24] AusSAR operates a 24-hour Rescue Coordination Centre (RCC) in Canberra and is responsible for the national coordination of both maritime and aviation search and rescue. AusSAR is also responsible for the management and operation of the Australian ground segment of the Cospas-Sarsat distress beacon detection system. AusSAR's jurisdiction spans Australia and as well as covering 52.8 million square kilometres of the Indian, Pacific and Southern Oceans[24] constituting about 12% of the Earth's surface.[25]
AusSAR's RCC is staffed by SAR specialists who have a naval, merchant marine, air force, civil aviation or police service background. The RCC also coordinates medical evacuations, broadcasts maritime safety information and operates the Australian Ship Reporting System (AUSREP).[24] In coordinating search and rescue missions, AusSAR will call on assistance from organisations as appropriate,[26] such as the Defence forces, Border Protection Command, trained aviation organisations (Civil SAR Units), emergency medical helicopters, state Police services and trained Air Observers from the State Emergency Service.[27] There are also other organisations, such as the non-profit Westpac Life Saver Rescue Helicopter Service that is based at a number of sites around Australia and contracted by various authorities to deliver search and rescue services.
- State
State Police in many states operate state-based search and rescue squads, such as the Victoria Police Search and Rescue Squad, which provides specialist expertise, advice and practical assistance in land search and rescue on most terrain including snow and vertical cliff search and rescue.[28] There are also state-based volunteer search and rescue groups such as the Bushwalkers Wilderness Rescue Squad[29] in New South Wales and Bush Search and Rescue Victoria[30] in Victoria. These state-based groups draw searchers from bushwalking, mountaineering and specialist rescue clubs within their State. A few groups respond on horseback as mounted search and rescue. The State Emergency Service is a collection of volunteer-based emergency organisations established in each state or territory which are responsible for many rescue efforts in urban and rural areas and in any rescue that results from flood or storm activity. In rural areas the SES conducts most bush search, vertical and road traffic rescues. In urban areas they assist the police and fire services with USAR.[31]
Search and rescue operations in Azerbaijan are managed by the Ministry of Emergency Situations onshore in cooperation with the State Civil Aviation Administration in air and the State Maritime Administration offshore.[32]
Search and rescue duties along the Belgian part of the North Sea are executed by the Belgian Air Component. From its Koksijde Air Base it operates 5 Westland Sea King Mk.48 helicopters.[33]
Search and rescue duties in Brazil are the responsibility of the Divisão de Busca e Salvamento (D-SAR) (English: Search and Rescue Division), of the Brazilian Air Force.[34]
Search and rescue duties in Canada are the responsibility of the Canadian Forces and Canadian Coast Guard in conjunction with provincial and municipal governments and private organizations. The Department of National Defence (DND) has overall responsibility for the coordinated search and rescue system. SAR operations are organized by Joint Rescue Coordination Centres (JRCC). The JRCC are manned 24 hours a day by SAR Co-ordinators from the Canadian Coast Guard and Canadian Forces. Authority for the provision of maritime SAR is assigned to the Minister of Fisheries and Oceans by the Canada Shipping Act and the Canada Oceans Act.[1] The Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) and other police forces also coordinate ground search and rescue (GSAR) operations, often using volunteer GSAR teams operating in specific districts under provincial coordinating bodies.[35]
The Canada Shipping Act, most recently passed in 2001, is the framework document that funds international SAR activities.[36]
The Canadian Forces have five assigned SAR squadrons:
- 103 Search and Rescue Squadron, CFB Gander, CH-149 Cormorant[37]
- 413 Transport and Rescue Squadron, CFB Greenwood, CH-149 Cormorant & CC-130 Hercules[38]
- 424 Transport and Rescue Squadron, CFB Trenton, CH-146 Griffon & CC-130 Hercules[39]
- 435 Transport and Rescue Squadron, CFB Winnipeg, CC-130 Hercules[40]
- 442 Transport and Rescue Squadron, CFB Comox, CH-149 Cormorant & CC-115 Buffalo[41]
Plus three Combat Support Squadrons with SAR roles:
- 417 Combat Support Squadron, CFB Cold Lake, CH-146 Griffon[42]
- 439 Combat Support Squadron, CFB Bagotville, CH-146 Griffon[43]
- 444 Combat Support Squadron, CFB Goose Bay, CH-146 Griffon[44]
Some municipalities and provinces have their own SAR units:
- Halton Regional Police Service Marine Unit - using marine craft on Lake Ontario
- Toronto Police Service Marine Unit - using marine craft on Lake Ontario
- Peel Regional Police Marine Unit - using marine craft on Lake Ontario and rivers in Peel Region
- Ontario Provincial Police Marine Unit - using marine craft on Great Lakes (excluding Lake Michigan) and Georgian Bay
- Durham Regional Police Marine Unit - using marine craft on Lake Ontario and lakes within Durham Region
- York Regional Police Marine Unit - using marine craft on Lake Simcoe
- Niagara Regional Police Marine Unit - using marine craft on Niagara River and Lake Ontario
- Vancouver Police Department - using marine craft on waterways around the City of Vancouver
- Heavy Urban Search and Rescue (Toronto) - using land base equipment
- Brockville Police Service Marine Patrol Unit - using a boat on the St. Lawrence River
There are also volunteer non-profit associations that conduct SAR in Canada:
- Canada Task Force 2, Alberta[45]
- Civil Air Search and Rescue Association[46]
- ERT Search and Rescue[47]
- Grande Prairie Technical Search and Rescue Association, Alberta[48]
- Halifax Regional Search and Rescue - Nova Scotia[49]
- North Shore Rescue, British Columbia.[50]
- Pincher Creek Search and Rescue, Alberta[51]
- Québec Secours, Québec.[52]
- River Valley Ground Search and Rescue, New Brunswick[53]
- Roberts Bank Lifeboat - Delta, BC[54]
- Royal Canadian Marine Search and Rescue (RCM SAR)[55]
- Sauvetage Bénévole Outaouais - Ottawa Volunteer Search and Rescue - Ottawa, ON and Gatineau, QC[56]
- Search and Rescue Manitoba (SARMAN), Manitoba[57]
- Vancouver Urban Search and Rescue (Canadian Task Force One), British Columbia[58]
- York Sunbury Search & Rescue - New Brunswick[59]
In Croatia the SAR Service is part of the Croatian Navy and the Croatian Coast Guard with their headquarter in Rijeka.[60]
The Cyprus Republic Search and Rescue (SAR) system is organized by the Cyprus Joint Rescue Coordination Center (JRCC Larnaca).
The JRCC (Greek: Κέντρο Συντονισμού Έρευνας και Διάσωσης) is an independent agency of the Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Cyprus that started its operations on a 24h basis on 7 August 1995 as a unit of the Cyprus Air Force Command.[61]
On 1 March 2002, the JRCC took full responsibility for investigating, organizing, coordinating and executing every SAR incident-operation in the Republic of Cyprus Search & Rescue Region (SRR).[61] JRCC Larnaca operated as a military unit until 26 July 2010, when JRCC was transformed to an independent agency under the Ministry of Defence with the Minister being responsible for its operational aspects. Logistic and technical support is the responsibility of the Ministry of Communications & Works.[62] Its primary mission is to organize the Cyprus Republic Search And Rescue system, to co-ordinate, control and direct SAR operations in its area of responsibility (which is identical to the Nicosia FIR), in order to find and rescue people whose lives are at risk, as a result of an air or naval accident, in the least possible time.[63] This is achieved by coordinating all the different agencies involved such as the Cyprus Police Aviation Unit, the Cyprus Port and Naval Police, the Cyprus National Guard Naval Command, the Cyprus National Guard Air Force Command, the Cyprus Civil Defence and other secondary units.[64]
The JRCC reports directly to the operational control of the Ministry of Defence and it is staffed by qualified personnel of the Cyprus National Guard, mainly from the branches of the Navy and the Air Force.[62]
Search and Rescue operators in Denmark are primarily: Danish air force Squadron 722, Danish navy air squadron, naval home guard and the Danish Maritime Safety Administration, coordinated by the Joint Rescue Coordination Centre, operated by the navy and air force in the Danish Naval Commands facilities near Aarhus. Internationally the Danish works mainly with Germany, Norway and Sweden. With the two latter, the annual exercises Baltic SAREX[65] and Scan-SAR[66] are conducted.
SAR services in Denmark started in 1957 with seven Sikorsky S-55s. Their piston engines produced only 550 hp (410 kW) and they had limited fuel capacity, so their operational range was short. To increase the operational area, Pembroke twin-engined fixed-wing aircraft were employed for search. These aircraft would localize the distressed person(s) and the S-55s would then rescue them. The SAR service was started for respond to fighter-plane crashes as 79 aircraft crashed, with 62 dead, in the period 1950-1955.,[67] but civilian SAR duties are also conducted.
In 1962 eight ship-based Aérospatiale Alouette IIIs were received. These were primarily meant for the ships patrolling the North Atlantic, but also supported the S-55s. In 1964 - 1965 the seven S-55s were replaced with eight Sikorsky S-61A helicopters.[68] This helicopter was originally designed for anti-submarine warfare, but the Danish variant had the heavy dipping sonar equipment removed and extra fuel tanks added, giving the helicopters longer range. In 1977 radar was installed and in 1990 FLIR was added. Further avionics and navigation systems, including GPS, have also been added over time.
In 1977 the naval air squadron was re-established as an independent squadron in the navy and had their Alouette IIIs replaced with Westland Lynx helicopters. Their primary operational area was still the North Atlantic, but they continued their support role, although this was reduced with the introduction of the S-61s. In 2006, the first of the S-61s was replaced by one of 14 new AgustaWestland EH101 Merlin helicopters.
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In 2007 the Danish Defence held a public display in Horsens, to raise awareness about rescue services and maritime safety. Maritime SAR is important because Denmark has a relative long coast line to its land mass.[69][70]
In 2008 the SAR forces in Denmark were equipped with eight EH-101, one or two Lynx, 34 naval home guard vessels and 21 rescue vessels[69] as well as the naval vessels at sea. The EH-101s operate from bases in Aalborg, Skrydstrup and Roskilde. When the sea water temperatures are low a helicopter is also deployed to the island of Bornholm in the Baltic Sea. The Lynx operates from Karup. Maritime vessels are spread out through the entire coastline and on islands. The S-61s and EH-101s have a crew of six: Two pilots, a navigator, a flight engineer, a physician and a rescue swimmer.
The Estonian Border Guard (Piirivalve) is the Estonian security authority responsible for the border security. It is the main support organisation for search and rescue missions in Estonia, and operates a small fleet of SAR vessels and helicopters.[71]
In Finland local rescue services (i.e. fire departments) are responsible for land and inland water SAR, the Border Guard is responsible for maritime areas. These organizations alert and decide on the most suitable response for the location and situation. The country also has several volunteer organizations such as the volunteer fire department (VPK),[72] the Finnish Lifeboat Institution (SMPS)[73] and the Red Cross Finland (SPR).[74]
Search and Rescue in German waters is conducted by the German Maritime Search and Rescue Service with air support by the German Navy and the German Air Force. All incoming requests are coordinated by the Maritime Rescue Coordination Center in Bremen. The DGzRS is a non-governmental organization entirely supported by donations.[75]
Besides the offshore Search And Rescue services, the German Air Force provides 3 SAR Command Posts on a 24/7 basis with the Bell UH-1D Huey.[76]
Further, the Technisches Hilfswerk is a key component of the German disaster relief framework. It is, among other things, regularly involved in urban search and rescue efforts abroad.[77]
Hong Kong
SAR operations are conducted by the Government Flying Service (GFS) and before 1993 by the Royal Hong Kong Auxiliary Air Force. The GFS conducts maritime SAR within the 400-nautical-mile (740 km) radius of the Hong Kong Flight Information Region (FIR).[78]
As of 2010, the GFS fleet consists of nine aircraft including:[78]
- 2 BAe Jetstream 41 - for aerial SAR surveillance
- 3 Eurocopter Super Puma (Super Puma L2) - inshore and offshore SAR
- 4 Eurocopter EC155 B1 - inshore SAR
Other civilian search and rescue units in Hong Kong include:
- Civil Aid Service - works in conjunction with the Hong Kong Fire Services Dept and the air support from the Government Flying Service
- Hong Kong Fire Services/Hong Kong Marine Police - various vessels and rescue divers - with air support from the GFS
- Mountain Search and Rescue Company of Civil Aid Service Hong Kong[79]
- Hong Kong Maritime Rescue Co-ordination Centre is responsible for coordinating other civil agencies in regards to marine SAR operations in waters around Hong Kong
- Countryside Volunteer Search Team
The Icelandic Coast Guard is responsible for coordinating all maritime and aviation search and rescue activities in the Icelandic Search and Rescue Region (SRR), that has the size of 1.9 million square kilometres. The Icelandic Coast Guard operates JRCC ICELAND in combination with the Coast Guard's operation centre, the maritime traffic service and the coastal radio stations. If aircraft crash site is located on land the control of the rescue operations is diverted to the Icelandic Police, which is responsible for SAR operations on land. The Icelandic Coast Guard (JRCC ICELAND) is the Cospas-Sarsat SAR Point of Contact. ISAVIA, which operates the Air Traffic Control in Iceland, is responsible for the aviation alerting services. The Icelandic Coast Guard operates maritime patrol aircraft, SAR helicopters and patrol vessels.[80]
The Icelandic Association for Search and Rescue (Slysavarnafélagið Landsbjörg) (ICESAR) is a volunteer organization with about 100 rescue teams located all around the island. ICESAR is a great support to SAR operations both on land and sea. All the rescue teams contain groups of specially trained individuals.[81]
A specialized INSARAG External Classification certified rubble rescue squad operates under the Icelandic Association of Search and Rescue. It was the first rescue squad to arrive in Haiti following the earthquake of 2010.[82]
SAR services are provided by a civilian body: the Irish Coast Guard.[83] It has responsibility for the Irish Search and Rescue Region.[84]
The waterborne element of Search and Rescue is provided by the Royal National Lifeboat Institution from 43 lifeboat stations including inland stations at Enniskillen and Lough Derg,[85] the coastguard inshore rescue boats,[86] and community rescue boats at fifteen stations: Ballinskelligs - Co. Kerry, Ballybunion - Co. Kerry, Ballyheigue - Co. Kerry, Banna - Co. Kerry, Bantry - Co. Cork, Bunmahon - Co. Waterford, Cahore - Co. Wexford, Carna - Co. Galway, Corrib/Mask Lakes - Co. Galway, Derrynane - Co. Kerry, Limerick City (River Shannon), Mallow Search and Rescue - Co. Cork, Schull - Co. Cork, Tramore - Co. Waterford, Waterford City River Rescue, Waterford Marine Search & Rescue.[87] There are some 25 other independent rescue services.[88]
Mountain Rescue in Ireland is provided by 12 voluntary teams based in different regions of the country.[89]
The Irish Defence Forces are assigned from time to time to carry out search and rescue operations.[90] Ireland's special forces, the Army Ranger Wing have been used for search and rescue operations in difficult or dangerous operations on land and at sea.[91][92] The Irish Naval Service frequently assists the other agencies in search and rescue. Its patrol ships at sea and the communications center at Haulbowline maintain a 24-hour watch on all distress frequencies.[93] The Irish Air Corps are used for rescue and provide top cover for search and rescue over land or sea.[94]
SAR in Israel is the responsibility of the IDF Home Front Command Search and Rescue (SAR). The unit was established at its current strength in 1984, combining all the specialist units that were involved with SAR until that time.[95]
The SAR unit is a rapid mobilization force and has an airborne transport and deployment capability for its personnel and equipment. The unit is composed of reserve personnel, with a regular cadre based at the Bahad 16 Unit training facility. With a focus on urban SAR, the unit operates specialized equipment, including a locally developed device for locating persons trapped under rubble by detecting seismic and acoustic emissions given off by the victims. The SAR unit also uses Search and rescue dogs specially trained to locate people buried under debris.
Israeli SAR resources
- Israel Defense Forces
- Israel Police
- IsraAid
- Magen David Adom
Italian SAR operations are carried out by the Guardia Costiera,[96] backed up by naval aviation and the air force, including 15 ° Stormo,[97] the Corps of the National Alpine and Speleological Rescue, the Meteomont Rescue Team, the Italian Red Cross,[98] the national Corps of Firefighters and other organizations. These organizations are coordinated by Control Rooms and Secondary Coordination Centres, which are connected together, creating the National System for Search and Rescue (SAR).
Jordan's Civil Defense Urban Search and Rescue team (USAR) has achieved the UN classification as a heavy USAR team. The team's role mainly earthquake rescue.[99]
Macau's maritime SAR is conducted by two units:
The Macau Marine Department and responsible for maritime SAR within Macau's waterways. The Macau Search and Rescue Coordination Centre is under the Vessel Traffic Control Centre of Macao of the Maritime Administration of Macau.[100]
The responsibility for SAR at sea in the Malta Search and Rescue Region falls under the Armed Forces of Malta (AFM). It is carried out by maritime patrol aircraft, helicopters and vessels under the co-ordination, command and control of the Rescue Co-ordination Centre.[101]
The AFM, in close collaboration with the US Coast Guard, also runs a Search and Rescue Training Centre for International Students [102] in Maritime SAR Mission Co-ordination and Planning.[103] To date more than 30 foreign students from 15 countries including Albania, Cameroon, Croatia, Equatorial Guinea and Kenya have attended these courses.[104][105]
Malta is also in talks with Libya about enhancing SAR cooperation between the two countries.[106]
SAR responsibility in the Netherlands is held by the Royal Netherlands Coast Guard, carried out by vessels and aircraft from various organisations among which mostly the Koninklijke Nederlandse Redding Maatschappij with 40 fast rescue vessels and between 1824 til 2006 answered 36358 distress calls and rescued in that same period about 79887 people out of distress situations, the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management and the Navy and Air Force.[107]
New Zealand
New Zealand's Search and Rescue Region extends from the South Pole to the southern border of the Honolulu region, including Norfolk, Tonga, Samoa, and Cook Islands.[108]
Smaller searches are controlled by the local police, who call on LandSAR for land-based operations, such as for lost hikers known as tramping in New Zealand, and the Royal New Zealand Coastguard for coastal maritime incidents. Larger maritime search and rescue events, as well as reports of overdue aircraft, fall under the control of the Rescue Coordination Centre New Zealand (RCCNZ), based in Avalon, which coordinates response from local coastguard, helicopter operators, merchant marine, air force and naval resources.[108][109][110]
Urban Search and Rescue falls primarily within the domain of the New Zealand Fire Service, particularly the three USAR Taskforce groups based in Palmerston North, Christchurch, and Auckland. These teams draw together numerous specialists and organisations to achieve an integrated multi-agency response.[111]
Among those organisations that act in a support capacity for NZFS are Response Teams (NZRTs). These are regional rescue groups of professional volunteers that train to a minimum industry standard of USAR Category 1R (USAR Responder), which is also standard for NZFS firefighters. Response Teams are registered with the Ministry of Civil Defence and Emergency Management (MCDEM), and assist their local MCDEM Groups and communities in emergencies to supplement full-time emergency services. Their additional capabilities, which vary among different teams, include: high angle rope rescue, storm response, swift water response, medics, welfare, and rural fire support.[112] Many Response Teams were deployed to assist in the rescue and recovery effort of the 2011 Christchurch earthquake.
Other resources:
- Westpac Rescue Helicopter (New Zealand) - charitable organization
- New Zealand Land SAR Search Dogs - the official NZ search dogs group providing land search & rescue services under NZ Land SAR, wilderness and avalanche rescue dogs.[113]
The search and rescue helicopters are operated by the Royal Norwegian Air Force (RNoAF), who fly 12 Westland Sea Kings. The Norwegian Sea Kings are due to be replaced.[114]
Three different agencies are responsible for providing search and rescue in Portugal. The Portuguese Navy is responsible for all sea rescues, the Portuguese Air Force[115] for all the rescues originating within the airspace, including aircraft crashes and the Autoridade Nacional de Protecção Civil (ANPC) for all inland rescues. All of the above coordinate closely with each other providing a comprehensive search and rescue service.
The Portuguese area of responsibility comprises the Lisbon and Santa Maria Flight Information Regions (FIR).[116]
In Poland most search and rescue operations are undertaken by the airborne units of the Polish Armed Forces. The Navy currently has the largest SAR fleet of helicopters and also operates a number of small vessels for the purpose of rescuing crewmen of stricken ships. There is also, however a semi-governmental organisation known as the 'Morska Służba Poszukiwania i Ratownictwa' (Maritime Search and Rescue Service)[117] which provides the vast majority of seaborne services to vessels in distress; the service is currently (as of 2010) in the process of overhauling and replacing a large portion of its fleet of lifeboats.
Other civilian search and rescue units in Poland include:
- Górskie Ochotnicze Pogotowie Ratunkowe (Mountain Volunteer Search and Rescue)
South Africa
Search and Rescue services are offered by various government departments, non governmental organizations, commercial/private organizations and voluntary organizations organisations in South Africa. There is no single organisation responsible for urban, wilderness, swift water, aviation or maritime/sea rescue.
Aviation and maritime incidents are the responsibility of the South African Search and Rescue Organization (SASAR). SASAR is a voluntary organization that functions under the auspices of the Department of Transport. Its main role is to search for, assist and carry out rescue operations for the survivors of aircraft or vessel accidents. Depending on the nature of the accident, the RCC's (ARCC or MRCC) coordinate the search and rescue missions. These operations are carried out by other government departments, non governmental organizations, commercial/private organizations and voluntary organizations.[118]
Local resources:
- National Sea Rescue Institute
- Wilderness Search and Rescue Cape Town[119]
- Mountain Club of South Africa Search and Rescue
- Off Road Rescue Unit[120]
- Rescue South Africa[121]
- K9 Search and Rescue[122]
Search and rescue duties in Spain are the responsibility of the national government, in conjunction with regional and municipal governments. The Sociedad de Salvamento y Seguridad Marítima is the main organization, and has overall responsibility for the maritime search and rescue, that also coordinates the SAR efforts with other agencies:[123]
- Spanish Navy
- Spanish Air Force
- Servicio de Vigilancia Aduanera
- Servicio Marítimo de la Guardia Civil
- Instituto Social de la Marina
- Spanish Red Cross
The Swedish Maritime Administration is responsible for maritime SAR in Swedish waters.[124] The Sjöräddningssällskapet, or Swedish Sea Rescue Society is an organization aiming at saving lives and recovering property at sea, much the same as the Norwegian Norsk Selskab til Skibbrudnes Redning. The society operates 68 search and rescue stations and some 185 ships manned by 2100 volunteers, of those more than 300 are on call at any time, and can respond within 15 minutes. In 2011, the volunteers turned out to an emergency 3274 times. The Swedish Sea Rescue Society is involved 70% of the number SAR missions in Swedish waters.[125]
REGA (Schweizerische REttungsflugwacht / Garde Aérienne / Guardia Aerea) is the air rescue service which provides emergency medical assistance in Switzerland, notably in mountains but also in cases of life-threatening emergencies elsewhere. They will also return a citizen to Switzerland from a foreign country if they are in need of urgent medical care. Rega was established on 27 April 1952 by Dr. Rudolf Bucher, who thought that the Swiss rescue organisation needed a specialised air sub-section.[126]
National Airborne Service Corps (NASC; Chinese: 內政部空中勤務總隊; pinyin: Nèizhèngbù Kōngzhōng Qínwù Zǒngduì) is the agency of the Ministry of the Interior of the Republic of China responsible for executing and providing support for search and rescue, disaster relief, emergency medical service, transportation, monitoring, reconnaissance and patrol in Taiwan.[127]
Coast Guard Administration (Taiwan) (CGA; Chinese: 行政院海岸巡防署; pinyin: Xíngzhèngyuàn Hǎi'àn Xúnfáng Shǔ) is charged with maintaining coastal waters and the pelagic zone patrols, smuggling and stowaway crackdowns, maritime rescues, natural resource conservation, and public services. The CGA is considered a civilian law enforcement agency under the administration of the Executive Yuan, though during emergencies it may be incorporated as part of the Republic of China Armed Forces.[128]
In Ukraine search and rescue is conducted by the State Search and Rescue Aviation Service of the Ministry of Emergencies of Ukraine Ukraviaposhuk.[129]
United Kingdom
In the UK, maritime search and rescue is coordinated by the Maritime & Coastguard Agency (MCA) while aeronautical rescue is delegated through the UK Ministry of Defence to the Royal Air Force, and land-based operations are usually coordinated by the local Police force. The operation itself is carried out with aircraft from the Royal Navy, Royal Air Force or Coastguard, RNLI or independent lifeboats and police, military or volunteer mountain rescue or ALSAR (Association of Lowland Search and Rescue) teams. Aeronautical rescue and associated aircraft coordination is carried out by the UK Aeronautical Rescue Coordination Centre (ARCC) based at RAF Kinloss in the north of Scotland. The centre is responsible for tasking and coordinating all of the UK's search and rescue helicopter and RAF mountain rescue teams.[130][131] The Merchant Shipping Act 1995, among others, governs casualty investigations and flag registrations for UK-flagged shipping and fishing vessels, and it is under s304 of this Act that the funds for the operation of the SOLAS region are disbursed.
In 2006, the government announced controversial plans to effectively privatise provision of search and rescue helicopters in order to replace the aging Sea Kings currently in use, although it suggested that crews might, at least partially, still be made up of military personnel.[132] In February 2010, Soteria SAR was announced as the preferred bidder for the UK SAR programme.[133] On 8 February 2011, Soteria was disallowed the contract due to irregularities regarding the conduct of its bid team,[134] and a spending review carried out by the new Conservative Government.[135] The programme, SAR-H, was re-opened for bids on 28 November 2011. The £1.6 billion contract was awarded to Bristow Helicopters, to take over UK SAR operations by 2017. The new service will operate Sikorsky S-92 helicopters from existing MCA bases at Stornoway and Sumburgh, and at new bases at Newquay, Caernarfon and Humberside airports. AgustaWestland AW189 helicopters will operate from Lee-on-Solent, Prestwick, and new bases at St Athan, Inverness and Manston Airports.[136]
Local resources include:
- Cardiff and Vale Rescue Association
- Cave Rescue Organisation
- Cheshire Search and Rescue[137]
- ERT (Emergency Response Team) Search and Rescue (ERT SAR)[47]
- Langdale/Ambleside Mountain Rescue Team[138]
- Lincolnshire Fire & Rescue - Urban Search & Rescue[139]
- Mercia Inshore Search and Rescue
- Scarborough and Ryedale mountain rescue team
- Suffolk Search and Rescue[140]
- SEBEV Search and Rescue[142]
- Severn Area Rescue Association
- Upper Wharfedale Fell Rescue Association
- West Mercia Search and Rescue (WMSAR)
United States
In the United States there are many organizations with SAR responsibilities at the national, state and local level.
In January 2008, the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) released the National Response Framework which serves as the guiding document for a federal response during a national emergency. Search and Rescue is divided into 4 primary elements, while assigning a federal agency with the lead role for each of the 4 elements.[143]
- Structural Collapse-USAR: Department of Homeland Security Federal Emergency Management Agency
- Waterborne: United States Coast Guard, United States Coast Guard Auxiliary
- Inland-wilderness: United States Department of Interior, National Park Service
- Aeronautical: United States Air Force via the Air Force Rescue Coordination Center and USAF rescue wings, groups and squadrons in the Air Combat Command, Pacific Air Forces (for Alaska and Hawaii), Air Education and Training Command, Air Force Reserve Command and the Air National Guard; the Civil Air Patrol in its role as the USAF Auxiliary; and the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps, both Active and Reserve (secondary missions for land-based USN maritime patrol and reconnaissance squadrons and land-based and sea-based USN/USMC helicopter squadrons)
In the U.S., SAR standards are developed primarily by ASTM International and the U.S. NFPA which are then used by organizations such as the Mountain Rescue Association (MRA), the U.S. National Association of Search and Rescue (NASAR), and the NFPA to develop training that will meet or exceed those standards.[144] Within ASTM International, most standards of relevance to SAR are developed by Committee F32 on Search and Rescue. Formed in 1988, the committee had 85 current members and jurisdiction of 38 approved standards.[144]
Under command of the Central Government:
- National Committee of Search and Rescue is responsible for searching, rescuing and disaster relief.[145]
- Central Committee of Prevention of Natural Disasters is responsible for analyzing information and monitoring disaster relief processes.[146]
Under command of local People's Committee:
- Each province and municipality has a Provincial or City Committee of Prevention of Natural Disaster
Under command of the Ministry of Defense:
- General Staff: Department of Rescue of Vietnam People's Army is responsible for coordinating all military rescue activities (including ground force rescue activities).[147]
- Navy: Office of Rescue of Vietnam People's Navy is responsible for coordinating naval rescue activities.
- Air Force: Office of Rescue of Vietnam People's Air Force is responsible for coordinating air force rescue activities.
- Coast Guard: Office of Rescue of Vietnam Coast Guard is responsible for coordinating coastal rescue activities.
- Border Guard: Office of Rescue of Vietnam Border Defense Force is responsible for coordinating border rescue activities.
Under command of the Ministry of Public Security:
- Department of Fire and Rescue Police is responsible for fire fighting activities.[148]
Under command of the Ministry of Transport:
- Department of Maritime Administration: Vietnam Maritime Search and Rescue Coordination Center (VMRCC) is responsible for maritime rescue activities.[149] VMRCC is divided into 4 Rescue Regions:
- Vietnam Maritime Search and Rescue Coordination Center of Region I: operate in Tonkin Gulf
- Vietnam Maritime Search and Rescue Coordination Center of Region II: operate in North Central sea
- Vietnam Maritime Search and Rescue Coordination Center of Region III: operate in Gulf of Thailand and Southern sea
- Vietnam Maritime Search and Rescue Coordination Center of Region IV: operate in South Central sea
- Corporation of Air Traffic Management: Vietnam Aviation Search and Rescue Coordination Center (VARCC) is responsible for air rescue activities.[150] VARCC is divided into 3 Rescue Regions:
- Vietnam Aviation Search and Rescue Coordination Center of Northern Vietnam: operate in Northern region
- Vietnam Aviation Search and Rescue Coordination Center of Central Vietnam: operate in Central region
- Vietnam Aviation Search and Rescue Coordination Center of Southern Vietnam: operate in Southern region
- Vietnam Railway Rescue and Natural Calamity Response Center of Northern Vietnam: operates in Northern region
- Vietnam Railway Rescue and Natural Calamity Response Center of Central Vietnam: operates in Central region
- Vietnam Railway Rescue and Natural Calamity Response Center of Southern Vietnam: operates in Southern region
Rotary and fixed wing aircraft are used for air and sea rescue. A list of common aircraft used:
- Aérospatiale SA360 Dauphin
- AgustaWestland AW109
- AgustaWestland AW139
- AgustaWestland AW101
- Bell UH-1 Iroquois
- Boeing Vertol CH-46 Sea Knight
- Eurocopter Dauphin - variant of Aérospatiale SA 360 Dauphin
- Eurocopter AS332 Super Puma
- Lockheed HC-130 Hercules
- Lockheed P-3 Orion
- Sikorsky S-61
- Sikorsky S-70 Blackhawk
- Sikorsky S-76
- Sikorsky S-92
- Westland Sea King
- Westland Wessex HC2
See also
- Bayesian search theory
- Cave rescue
- Coast guard
- Cospas-Sarsat
- Emergency position-indicating radiobeacon station (EPIRS)
- International Search and Rescue Competition
- Pars robot, an Iranian drone designed for sea rescue
- Rescue robot
- Search and Rescue Optimal Planning System (SAROPS)
- Self rescue (climbing)
- Ski patrol
- 1 2 Canadian Forces (May 1998). "B–GA–209–001/FP–001 DFO 5449 NATIONAL SAR MANUAL" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-08-03. Retrieved 2008-07-12.
- ↑ "Search and Rescue - Chapter 9". uscg.mil. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
- ↑ U.S. Department of Defense (January 2006). "U.S. Department of Defense DIRECTIVE NUMBER 3003.01" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-07-12.
- ↑ Major, R. H. (editor) (1859) Early Voyages to Terra Australis, Now Called Australia, The Hakluyt Society, London (2001 facsimile edition on Google Books)
- ↑ Chen, C. Peter (editor), World War II Database Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine., retrieved 8 July 2015
- ↑ Rear Admiral Walter T. Piotti (Photo [7]), Commander of Task Force 71 of U.S. 7th Fleet, stated in his After Action Report (Department of the Navy, Commander, Surface Combat Force Seventh Fleet. CTF75/N32:kpm,4730,Ser 011, 15 November 1983)
- ↑ "MH370 search continues as Australia commissions Dutch vessel to map Indian Ocean floor - Daily Mail Online". Mail Online. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
- ↑ "Search For Flight MH370 Reportedly Largest In History". NPR.org. 17 March 2014. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
- ↑ "Missing MH370: Search is one of the biggest in history, says Hisham" 22 Mac 2014
- ↑ Barry, Ellen (December 1999). "Alzheimer's Wanders Stir Concerns". Retrieved 2010-01-11.
- ↑ U.S. Department of Homeland Security (May 2009). "Urban Search and Rescue (US&R)". Retrieved 2010-01-11.
- ↑ U.S. Department of Homeland Security (May 2009). "About US&R". Retrieved 2010-01-11.
- ↑ SPG Media Limited/Army-Technology.com (2009). "Term: Combat Search and Rescue". Retrieved 2009-06-03.
- ↑ Algeo, John. Fifty years among the new words: a dictionary of neologisms, 1941–1991, pp. 39, 106–107. Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-521-44971-5
- 1 2 imo.org: "International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue (SAR)", retrieved 31 May 2014
- ↑ See the map provided by the IMO ocean atlas Archived November 20, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
- ↑ treaties.un.org: Vol. 1405, 1-23489 - "International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue, 1979" Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine., retrieved 31 May 2014
- ↑ 1979 International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue - Adopted in Hamburg, Germany on 27 April 1979" Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine., retrieved 31 May 2014
- ↑ unhcr.se (December 2011). "UNHCR: RESCUE AT SEA, STOWAWAYS AND MARITIME INTERCEPTION, Selected Reference Materials 2nd Edition" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 June 2014. Retrieved 31 May 2014.
- ↑ unhcr.org: "Legal Brief on International Law and Rescue at Sea" Archived October 3, 2014, at the Wayback Machine., retrieved 31 May 2014
- 1 2 imo.org: "Casualties", retrieved 31 May 2014
- ↑ imo.org: "Applicable IMO instruments on casualty matters", retrieved 31 May 2014
- ↑ "RESOLUTION MSC.255(84)" (PDF). Retrieved 3 October 2012.
- 1 2 3 Australian Maritime Safety Authority (June 2009). "Search & Rescue". Retrieved 2009-11-04.
- ↑ Woolner, Derek (June 2008), Policing our ocean domain: establishing an Australian coast guard Archived April 3, 2016, at the Wayback Machine., Australian Strategic Policy Institute Limited, retrieved 31 March 2014
- ↑ The first suggestion made to use helicopters in Australian searches for missing people, sea rescues, and general support during bush-fires, floods, etc. was made in a letter to the editor, written from the Brisbane suburb of Balmoral, and published in the Brisbane Courier-Mail at the end of 1953 (Value of Helicopter, (Letter to the Editor, from "Wake Up, Australia"), Courier Mail, (Thursday, 31 December 1953), p.2. Archived January 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine.)
- ↑ "Air Search Observation".
- ↑ State of Victoria (June 2007). "Victoria Police Search and Rescue Squad". Retrieved 2009-11-04.
- ↑ Bushwalkers Wilderness Rescue Squad Inc (November 2009). "A remote area search & rescue service for NSW". Retrieved 2009-11-04.
- ↑ Bush Search; Rescue Victoria (October 2009). "Bush Search and Rescue Victoria". Retrieved 2009-11-04.
- ↑ State of New South Wales (December 2008). "About the SES". Retrieved 2009-11-04.
- ↑ Rashad Suleymanov (2009-10-27). "Azerbaijan State Maritime Administration issues statement on rescuing Russia's cargo ship". Azeri Press Agency. Retrieved 2010-12-28.
- ↑ Belgische Defensie (2009). "Vliegbasis Koksijde (Dutch language)". Retrieved 2009-11-04.
- ↑ "Busca e Salvamento (in Portuguese)".
- ↑ Royal Canadian Mounted Police (December 2006). "RCMP Search and Rescue". Retrieved 27 October 2010.
- ↑ justice.gc.ca: "Canada Shipping Act, 2001 - S.C. 2001, c. 26" Archived April 20, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. (s29), retrieved 31 May 2014
- ↑ Air Force Public Affairs / Department of National Defence (November 2011). "103 Search and Rescue Squadron". Retrieved 8 April 2012.
- ↑ Air Force Public Affairs / Department of National Defence (December 2008). "413 Transport and Rescue Squadron". Retrieved 8 April 2012.
- ↑ Air Force Public Affairs / Department of National Defence (August 2010). "424 Transport and Rescue Squadron". Retrieved 8 April 2012.
- ↑ Air Force Public Affairs / Department of National Defence (December 2008). "435 Transport and Rescue Squadron". Retrieved 8 April 2012.
- ↑ Air Force Public Affairs / Department of National Defence (October 2011). "442 Transport and Rescue Squadron". Retrieved 8 April 2012.
- ↑ Air Force Public Affairs / Department of National Defence (April 2012). "417 Combat Support Squadron". Retrieved 8 April 2012.
- ↑ Air Force Public Affairs / Department of National Defence (December 2008). "439 Combat Support Squadron". Retrieved 8 April 2012.
- ↑ Air Force Public Affairs / Department of National Defence (April 2012). "444 Combat Support Squadron". Retrieved 8 April 2012.
- ↑ Canada Task Force 2 (2010). "Canadian Task Force Two". Retrieved 24 July 2011.
- ↑ Civil Air Search and Rescue Association (2006). "Civil Air Search and Rescue Association National Website". Retrieved 2009-05-11.
- 1 2 "ERT Search and Rescue".
- ↑ Technical Search and Rescue (2010). "Technical Search and Rescue". Retrieved 2010-01-18.
- ↑ "Halifax Regional Search & Rescue". halifaxsar.ca. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
- ↑ North Shore Rescue (2009). "North Shore Rescue". Retrieved 2009-03-21.
- ↑ "Pincher Creek Search & Rescue". Archived from the original on 2004-06-13. Retrieved 28 July 2012.
- ↑ Québec Secours (2009). "Québec Secours". Retrieved 2009-05-08.
- ↑ Nocturne Communications (2004). "River Valley Ground Search and Rescue". Archived from the original on February 7, 2007. Retrieved 2009-04-07.
- ↑ Roberts Bank Lifeboat (January 2010). "Roberts Bank Lifeboat". Retrieved 2010-01-20.
- ↑ "About RCM-SAR". Rcmsar.com. Retrieved 2012-07-11.
- ↑ Sauvetage Bénévole Outaouais - Ottawa Volunteer Search and Rescue (December 2014). "Sauvetage Bénévole Outaouais - Ottawa Volunteer Search and Rescue (SBO-OVSAR)". Retrieved 2014-12-29.
- ↑ "Search and Rescue Manitoba". September 2010. Retrieved 2010-09-13.
- ↑ Canadian Task Force One (2010). "Canadian Task Force One". Retrieved 2010-01-18.
- ↑ "York Sunbury Search and Rescue - Home". yssr.nb.ca. Retrieved 4 July 2015.
- ↑ "OCEAN7 - das österreichische Yachtmagazin | OCEAN7 2013 » News-Archiv: SAR, mehr Einsätze in Kroatien". Ocean7.at. Retrieved 2014-06-28.
- 1 2 "JRCC Larnaca History" Archived October 16, 2015, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 2013-07-02
- 1 2 "JRCC Larnaca Subordination-Base" Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 2013-07-02
- ↑ "JRCC Larnaca Mission" Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 2013-07-02
- ↑ "JRCC Larnaca Secondary Units" Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 2013-07-02
- ↑ "Bornholms Marinedistrikt: SAREX '07". Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved 2008-07-07. (Danish)
- ↑ "Flyvertaktisk kommando: Scan-SAR '06". Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved 2008-07-07. (Danish)
- ↑ "Flyvevåbnets historie". Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved 2008-07-09. (Danish)
- ↑ "Danish air force S-61A fact sheet" (PDF) (in Danish). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-08-03. Retrieved 2008-07-09.
- 1 2 "Temadag om søredning og badesikkerhed". Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved 2008-07-09. (Danish)
- ↑ "Pictures from the public display". Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved 2008-07-09.
- ↑ "Piirivalve ajalugu ja sümboolika (In Estonian language)".
- ↑ Suomen Pelastusalan Keskusjärjestö. "Turvalliseen huomiseen (Finnish language)". Retrieved 2009-09-21.
- ↑ Suomen Meripelastusseura Ry. "SAR - Search and rescue (Finnish language)". Retrieved 2009-09-21.
- ↑ Punainen Risti (n.d.). "Finnish Red Cross". Retrieved 2009-09-21.
- ↑ "German Maritime Search and Rescue Service (DGzRS)". Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ↑ rth.info (2002). "Bundeswehr (in German language)". Retrieved 2008-05-22.
- ↑ "Search and rescue". Retrieved 2010-01-21.
- 1 2 "The Government Flying Service". Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government. August 14, 2008. Retrieved 15 May 2010.
- ↑ "Civil Aid Service Hong Kong". Safety Training. Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. 2010. Retrieved 15 May 2010.
- ↑ Icelandic Coast Guard (n.d.). "The Icelandic Coast Guard". Retrieved 2008-03-07.
- ↑ Slysavarnafélaginu Landsbjörg (n.d.). "ICE-SAR A Tale of Great Achievements". Retrieved 2008-03-07.
- ↑ Skógarhlíð (January 2010). "Reports from Haiti". Retrieved 2010-01-23.
- ↑ Department of Transport. "Irish Coast Guard IRCG". Retrieved 2015-02-20.
- ↑ Department of Transport. "The Irish Search and Rescue Region". Retrieved 2015-02-20.
- ↑ "RNLI Lifeboat Stations in Ireland". Royal National Lifeboat Institution. Retrieved 6 October 2009.
- ↑ "Coastguard Teams". Irish Coast Guard. Retrieved 6 October 2009.
- ↑ "Community Rescue Boats Ireland". Irish Water Safety. 2 April 2014. Retrieved 2 April 2014.
- ↑ "Community Rescue Boats Ireland (CRBI)". Retrieved 17 February 2015.
- ↑ Mountain Rescue Ireland (2009). "Team Information". Retrieved 2010-01-05.
- ↑ "Info Centre - Defence Forces". military.ie. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
- ↑ "Organisation". military.ie. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
- ↑ Army Ranger Wing (ARW) carry out Mountain Rescue Archived February 22, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
- ↑ "Organisation - Naval Service - Defence Forces". military.ie. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
- ↑ "Organisation". military.ie. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
- ↑ The Home Front Command (n.d.). "Combat SAR battalions Shahar and Kedem". Retrieved 18 May 2011.
- ↑ Capitanerie di porto - Guardia Costiera (2006). "Capitanerie di porto - Guardia Costiera". Archived from the original on 2008-07-29. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
- ↑ "Il portale dell'Aeronautica Militare - 15° Stormo". difesa.it. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
- ↑ Croce Rossa Italiana. "Croce Rossa Italiana - Home". www.cri.it. Archived from the original on 7 February 2015. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
- ↑ "SDC Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria - News Detail". Swiss-cooperation.admin.ch. 2013-05-23. Retrieved 2013-07-21.
- ↑ Maritime Administration (n.d.). "Maritime Services". Retrieved 2010-01-11.
- ↑ Search and Rescue Training Centre - Armed Forces of Malta (2004). "Search and Rescue (SAR) in Malta". Retrieved 2008-03-13.
- ↑ "Search and Rescue training". YouTube. 2007-11-29. Retrieved 2012-04-08.
- ↑ Search and Rescue Training Centre - Armed Forces of Malta (2004). "Search and Rescue Training Centre - AFM". Retrieved 2008-03-13.
- ↑ U.S. Department of State. (November 2007). "AFM SAR TC Graduation". Archived from the original on December 25, 2007. Retrieved 2008-03-13.
- ↑ Brincat, Erika F. (n.d.). "Search and rescue training certificates awarded". Retrieved 2008-03-13.
- ↑ MaltaMedia News. (January 2008). "Search & Rescue meeting between Libya and Malta". Retrieved 2008-03-15.
- ↑ NLMARFOR (May 2008). "VGSQ 7 (Dutch language article)". Retrieved 2008-05-30.
- 1 2 Civil Aviation Auithority of New Zealand (n.d.). "AIPA New Zealand GEN 3.6 Search and Rescue". Retrieved 2008-02-24.
- ↑ "About our Rescue Coordination Centre New Zealand (RCCNZ)". Maritime New Zealand. n.d. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
- ↑ Maritime New Zealand (n.d.). "Contact RCCNZ". Retrieved 30 May 2010.
- ↑ "New Zealand Fire Service - Urban Search and Rescue (USAR)". Fire.org.nz. Retrieved 2012-04-08.
- ↑ "The Ministry of Civil Defence & Emergency Management: NZ Response Teams". Civildefence.govt.nz. 2011-01-14. Retrieved 2012-04-08.
- ↑ "Search Dogs New Zealand Official Search & Rescue Dogs NZ Land SAR Search Dogs". searchdogs.co.nz. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
- ↑ The NAWSARH Project Archived January 30, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
- ↑ "Força Aérea Portuguesa". emfa.pt. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
- ↑ "Santa Maria Oceanic FIR - Portugal vACC". portugal-vacc.org. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
- ↑ "Morska Służba Poszukiwania i Ratownictwa". sar.gov.pl. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
- ↑ SASAR (n.d.). "Who are we?". Retrieved 2008-11-13.
- ↑ Wilderness Search; Rescue, Western Cape (n.d.). "Wilderness Search and Rescue, Western Cape". Retrieved 2009-11-06.
- ↑ The Off Road Rescue Unit (n.d.). "The Off Road Rescue Unit". Retrieved 2014-09-11.
- ↑ Rescue South Africa (n.d.). "Rescue South Africa". Retrieved 2011-08-26.
- ↑ K9 Search and Rescue (n.d.). "K9 Search and Rescue". Retrieved 2014-09-11.
- ↑ Salvamento Marítimo (n.d.). "Salvamento Marítimo (Spanish)". Archived from the original on March 30, 2010. Retrieved 18 May 2011.
- ↑ Swedish Maritime Administration (January 2011). "Maritime Search and Rescue". Retrieved 29 April 2011.
- ↑ "Vi räddar liv till sjöss". Retrieved 9 March 2012.
- ↑ "Error 404; Seite nicht gefunden". rega.ch. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
- ↑ "AN OUTLINE OF INTERIOR AFFAIRS. REPUBLIC OF CHINA 2013-National Airborne Service". Moi.gov.tw. 2013-12-03. Retrieved 2014-04-22.
- ↑ "Coast Guard Administration, Executive Yuan-Our Minister-A Word from the Minister". cga.gov.tw. Retrieved 4 July 2015.
- ↑ (Ukrainian)The page of the Ukrainian Search and Rescue at the Ministry of Emergencies website Archived January 2, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
- ↑ ARCC Kinloss (2005). "Aeronautical Rescue Coordination Centre". Retrieved 2008-02-24.
- ↑ Royal National Lifeboat Institution (2009). "Royal National Lifeboat Institution". Retrieved 2009-11-06.
- ↑ BBC (2006-05-09). "Private bids plan for air rescue". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-02-24.
- ↑ "Press Release". Soteria SAR. 9 Feb 2010. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
- ↑ "Search and Rescue (Helicopter) Project". Dft.gov.uk. Retrieved 2012-06-28.
- ↑ "UK Government suspends SAR-H helicopter programme - News - Shephard". Shephardmedia.com. 2010-06-17. Retrieved 2012-06-28.
- ↑ "Search and rescue helicopters". Department for Transport. 26 March 2013. Retrieved 2013-03-31.
- ↑ Cheshire Search and Rescue (n.d.). "Cheshire Search and Rescue". Retrieved 2016-04-11.
- ↑ LAMRT (May 2011). "Langdale Ambleside MRT". Retrieved 7 May 2011.
- ↑ Lincolnshire Urban Search & Rescue (n.d.). "Lincolnshire Urban Search & Rescue". Retrieved 2009-05-22.
- ↑ SULSAR Search & Rescue (April 2015). "SULSAR Search and Rescue". Retrieved 2009-10-18.
- ↑ Surrey Today (January 2011). "Volunteers needed to aid search and rescue". Retrieved 20 June 2011.
- ↑ SEBEV Search & Rescue (November 2009). "SEBEV Search and Rescue". Retrieved 2009-10-18.
- ↑ Section ESF #9-1 Archived December 11, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
- 1 2 O'Toole, Thomas F. (n.d.). "Committee F32 on Search and Rescue". Retrieved 2008-02-24.
- ↑ CỦA THỦ TƯỚNG CHÍNH PHỦ Số 780/TTg NGÀY 23 THÁNG 10 NĂM 1996 VỀ VIỆC THÀNH LẬP ỦY BAN QUỐC GIA TÌM KIẾM - CỨU NẠN TRÊN KHÔNG VÀ TRÊN BIỂN Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. (Vietnamese language)
- ↑ "Hệ thống thông tin VBQPPL". moj.gov.vn. Retrieved 6 March 2016.
- ↑ "Xây dựng lực lượng cứu hộ-cứu nạn chính quy và hiện đại". VOV - ĐÀI TIẾNG NÓI VIỆT NAM. Retrieved 4 July 2015.
- ↑ Administrator. "Tรกยปย• chรกยปยฉc bรกยปย mรยกy lรกยปยฑc lรยฐรกยปยฃng Cรกยบยฃnh sรยกt phรยฒng chรยกy vร chรกยปยฏa chรยกy". canhsat.vn. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
- ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-10-14. Retrieved 2015-02-26.
- ↑ "Tìm kiếm cứu nạn (SAR)". vatm.vn. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
External links
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Search and rescue.
- Search and rescue at DMOZ
- InternetSAR.org Volunteer Project
- Software for SAR patterns in GPX - Navigational Algorithms Manual: http://opencpn.org/ocpn/node/196


text:
Van Ness and Greenwich
Cow Hollow, San Francisco, California
San Francisco
Looking down Greenwich Street from Van Ness
We stayed at the Comfort Inn at Lombard and Van Ness during our 2006 visit. The Golden Gate Bridge was visible from our room.
Lombard Street, San Francisco
Looking down Lombard from Van Ness.
Zero Emission Vehicle at Van Ness and Francisco
Electric Bus in front of the Comfort Inn on Van Ness Ave.
Zero Emission Vehicle across from the Comfort Inn
Polk St and Lombard St
Polk St and Lombard St. The fog hasn't burned off yet.
View of the Golden Gate from Lombard Street
Looking down Lombard toward the Comfort Inn.
Lombard Street. Crookedest Street in the World. The Bay Bridge is in the background
Lombard Street
San Francisco
Colt Tower and the Bay Bridge from Lombard Street, San Francisco
Alcatraz Island
San Francisco Bay July 29, 2006.
Golden Gate Bridge
View of the Golden Gate Bridge and the San Francisco Bay from our room in the Comfort Inn.
My room in The Hilton Union Square
Taken with an iPhone 4S and IOS6 Panorama feature. The wall isn't curved!
I sayed at The Hilton Union Square. Taken with an iPhone 4S.
Hilton Union Square
City College and Cole Fox Hardware across from the Marriot on 4th Street
San Francisco Through the Windshield
James Lick Freeway headed to San Francisco International Airport

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Michelin Tyre Showrooms in Kochi
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text:
Sharpening ice skates at SkatePro. Both hockey skates and figure skates.
"The manufacturers provide ice skates with a basic sharpening, enabling the blade to be used for skating. Unfortunately, this sharpening is not very good, and not near the level of newly sharpened ice skates" (by Kenwin, Ice skate expert at SkatePro)
Sharpening ice skates is a service, and the usual return of rights does not apply to the sharpening. If you buy skates + sharpening, and return the skates, you still can use your return of right on the skates. Please note, that the quality of the sharpening also depends on the quality of the ice skates themselves. This means, that a cheaper skate never will be as sharp and good as a more expensive ice skate.
The listed price is for sharpening a pair of skates.


text:
Places in Middle-earth
House of the Kings (Tomb)
Type: Buildings, Halls, Houses
Region: Gondor
Other Names
Tombs of the Kings
Houses of the Dead
Location: The mausoleum containing the remains of the Kings of Gondor, located on Rath Dínen, the Hallows of Minas Tirith.
[The] narrow shoulder that joined the Hill of Guard to [Mindolluin]..., which rose to the height of the fifth wall, was hedged with great ramparts right up to the precipice that overhung its western end; and in that space stood the houses and domed tombs of bygone kings and lords, for ever silent....
The Return of the King, LoTR Book 5, Ch 1, Minas Tirith
Kings made tombs more splendid than houses of the living...
The Two Towers, LoTR Book 4, Ch 5, The Window on the West
[The] crown of Elendil lay in the lap of King Eärnil in the Houses of the Dead, where Eärnur had left it.
The Return of the King, LoTR Appendix A, Annals of the Kings and Rulers: Gondor and the Heirs of Anárion
Then going to the House of the Kings in the Silent Street, Aragorn laid him down on the long bed that had been prepared for him....
"Lady Undómiel," said Aragorn,... "[To] me has been given not only a span thrice that of Men of Middle-earth, but also the grace to go at my will, and give back the gift. Now, therefore, I will sleep."
The Return of the King, LoTR Appendix A, Annals of the Kings and Rulers: Here Follows a Part of The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen
It is said that the beds of Meriadoc and Peregrin were set beside the bed of the great king.
The Return of the King, LoTR Appendix B, The Tale of Years: Later Events Concerning the Members of the Fellowship of the Ring
...Rath Dínen, the Silent Street, leading down from the Citadel to the Tombs of the Kings....
Unfinished Tales, Part 2, Ch 4, The History of Galadriel and Celeborn: Notes, Note 16
Contributors: Elena Tiriel 1Dec04, 13Dec04, 21Apr05, 26Jan08


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Tk_Preserve, Tk_Release, Tk_EventuallyFree - avoid freeing storage while it's being used
#include <tk.h>
Tk_EventuallyFree(clientData, freeProc)
Token describing structure to be freed or reallocated. Usually a pointer to memory for structure.
Procedure to invoke to free clientData.
These three procedures help implement a simple reference count mechanism for managing storage. They are designed to solve a problem having to do with widget deletion. When a widget is deleted, its widget record (the structure holding information specific to the widget) must be returned to the storage allocator. However, it's possible that the widget record is in active use by one of the procedures on the stack at the time of the deletion. This can happen, for example, if the command associated with a button widget causes the button to be destroyed: an X event causes an event-handling C procedure in the button to be invoked, which in turn causes the button's associated Tcl command to be executed, which in turn causes the button to be deleted, which in turn causes the button's widget record to be de-allocated. Unfortunately, when the Tcl command returns, the button's event-handling procedure will need to reference the button's widget record. Because of this, the widget record must not be freed as part of the deletion, but must be retained until the event-handling procedure has finished with it. In other situations where the widget is deleted, it may be possible to free the widget record immediately.
Tk_Preserve and Tk_Release implement short-term reference counts for their clientData argument. The clientData argument identifies an object and usually consists of the address of a structure. The reference counts guarantee that an object will not be freed until each call to Tk_Preserve for the object has been matched by calls to Tk_Release. There may be any number of unmatched Tk_Preserve calls in effect at once.
Tk_EventuallyFree is invoked to free up its clientData argument. It checks to see if there are unmatched Tk_Preserve calls for the object. If not, then Tk_EventuallyFree calls freeProc immediately. Otherwise Tk_EventuallyFree records the fact that clientData needs eventually to be freed. When all calls to Tk_Preserve have been matched with calls to Tk_Release then freeProc will be called by Tk_Release to do the cleanup.
All the work of freeing the object is carried out by freeProc. FreeProc must have arguments and result that match the type Tk_FreeProc:
typedef void Tk_FreeProc(ClientData clientData);
The clientData argument to freeProc will be the same as the clientData argument to Tk_EventuallyFree.
This mechanism can be used to solve the problem described above by placing Tk_Preserve and Tk_Release calls around actions that may cause undesired storage re-allocation. The mechanism is intended only for short-term use (i.e. while procedures are pending on the stack); it will not work efficiently as a mechanism for long-term reference counts. The implementation does not depend in any way on the internal structure of the objects being freed; it keeps the reference counts in a separate structure.
free, reference count, storage
To install Tk, copy and paste the appropriate command in to your terminal.
cpanm Tk
CPAN shell
perl -MCPAN -e shell
install Tk
For more information on module installation, please visit the detailed CPAN module installation guide.


text:
Human Rights
Israel's discriminatory water policies leave West Bank dry
Report, B'Tselem
The chronic water shortage in the West Bank, resulting from an unfair distribution of water resources shared by the Palestinians and Israel, will be much graver this summer because of this year's drought. In the northern West Bank, water consumption has fallen to one-third of the minimal amount needed.
The 2008 drought, the most serious drought in the area in the past decade, aggravates the built-in, constant shortage of water in the West Bank. Rainfall this year in the northern West Bank was 64 percent of average, while in the southern sections of the West Bank, it was 55 percent. As a result, the water stored from rainfall has already been used. The Palestinian Water Authority (PWA) estimates this year's water shortage in the West Bank at 42 to 69 million cubic meters. The total water consumption in the West Bank is 79 mcm. The PWA has already requested Mekorot — the Israel Water Company — for an emergency supply of eight mcm.
Severe shortage of water for personal needs
According to the World Health Organization, the per capita minimal amount of water needed for household and urban needs is one hundred liters a day. Due to the chronic water shortage, water consumption in the northern West Bank has dropped to one-third this amount. In Tubas, per capita consumption is 30 liters; in Jenin, it is 38 liters. In Nablus and the Southern Hebron Hills, the figure is slightly higher than 50 liters a day.
Average per capita consumption throughout the West Bank is 66 liters, two-thirds of the minimal amount needed according to the WHO. These figures include water for livestock, meaning that the water consumed for personal use is even less.
In comparison, average daily water consumption in Israeli cities is 235 liters, and 214 liters in local councils, 3.5 times higher than Palestinian consumption in the West Bank.
Villages not connected to a water network
A total of 227,500 Palestinians in 220 towns and villages in the West Bank are not connected to a water network at all, 75 percent of them in the northern West Bank. Another 190,000 Palestinians live in villages that are only partially connected to a water network. Some 20 percent of Palestinians in the West Bank are not connected to a water network.
Even in Palestinian towns and villages that have a water network, water supply is not regular most of the year. Water is supplied only some hours of the day, and sometimes on a rotational basis. In distant areas, water supply may be disconnected for days or weeks. Residents of communities with water networks hooked up to Mekorot report that the company discriminates against them, reducing water supply to Palestinian residents to enable it to meet the increased demand in the settlements.
To aggravate matters, Palestinian farmers hook up unlawfully to the water networks in Palestinian communities in Oslo-designated Area C. Israeli authorities, which are charged with enforcing the law in these areas, do not to put an end to the theft.
Water at inflated prices
Lacking regular water supply, many Palestinians have to buy water on the private market. Last year, the price for a cubic meter of water ranged from 15-30 shekels, three to six times higher than Israeli households pay. It is expected that prices will be even higher this year. The high rate of unemployment and poverty in the West Bank has made water purchases an economic burden for a substantial portion of the population.
Discrimination in division of water sources
Israel holds complete control of the water sources shared by Israel and the Palestinians, primarily the Mountain Aquifer, and prohibits by army order any Palestinian drilling of wells without a permit. At the same time, Israel draws from the West Bank, primarily from the Jordan Valley, some 44 mcm, five million more than it supplies to the Palestinian Authority. Israel allocates to Palestinians only 20 percent of the water from the Mountain Aquifer, and prevents the PWA to develop additional water sources to enable greater water supply for Palestinians in the West Bank.
Israel's obligations under international law
As the occupying power, Israel is required under international humanitarian law to ensure public order and safety in the occupied territory, without discrimination. In addition, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which Israel ratified, ensures access to clean drinking water without discrimination. International human rights law also ensures the Palestinians' right to utilize and enjoy freely their natural resources.
B'Tselem calls on the government of Israel to ensure, immediately and without discrimination, adequate, regular water supply to all residents of the West Bank. B'Tselem also urges the government to allow the Palestinian Authority to develop new water sources.
*Source: Electronic Intifada
- PRESS RELEASE : Protectthe Rohingya. - June 8, 2020
- EID-UL-FITR MESSAGE-1441 (A.H) (2020) - May 23, 2020
- How Israel Legitimizes the Abuse of Palestinian Political Prisoners - April 30, 2020


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JESCO West - Holland
Matthew Hemmelgarn
JESCO East - Caro
Russ Bialowas
Kason offers the widest selection of screening and processing equipment in the world—from the most basic machines to the most sophisticated, high capacity systems. Whether you are separating solid particles from solids or liquids, or drying/cooling/moisturizing bulk materials of any kind, it means that Kason has already solved a problem precisely like yours many times before, or can readily modify an existing design to fit your unique requirement with top efficiency at low cost. Kason can also design and finish your equipment to meet virtually any food, dairy, pharmaceutical or industrial standard in the world—as well as any electrical and safety standard—and can service your equipment on-site, ensuring your total satisfaction.
Scalping and Dedusting Sugar
Dewatering Slurry
Screening Waste Oil and Grease
Sifting and Screening Gypsum
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Please note: our thermals are a generous fit so if you are unsure we recommend the next size down.
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Customize the web interface
There are few options you can set
- Enable sidebar
- Enable sidebar in distribution page.
- Glossy theme
- Use a glossy theme for the interface. Not too much changes, just fancy.
- Enable autoscroll
- Enable scroll down page automatically while you are viewing a file and a new line is received.
- File background
- Remove file background if it makes you uncomfortable while reading a log.
- File font-size
- Increase the font size for files content.
- Debug level
- Set debug level, please take a look at debug.js for more information. Level
0means no debug. Please DO NOT enable debug if you do not really need it. Debug can affect perfomance.


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Plumbing the Space Station
But have you ever stopped to wonder about plumbing ... in space? For example, which way does water flow in a weightless environment? Can toilets flush in free-fall? And if something springs a leak in Earth-orbit, which plumber would you call? There are plenty of choices, but they're all at least 235 miles (378 km) away racing by at 17,000 mph (7.5 km/s).
Designers of the International Space Station (ISS) had to contend with all these questions and many more as they laid out a complex network of tubes, pipes and ducts between the Station's outer skin and its inner walls. Like veins and arteries in the human body, the Station's plumbing circulates vital liquids and gases that keep the crew and the ISS itself in good health.
Above: The U.S. Destiny laboratory module during construction, showing the "standoff" assemblies that contain the pipes, tubing, and ducts that circulate the Station's vital liquids and gases.
"This is kind of an ecologist's dream house," said Dave Williams, system manager for Environmental Control and Life Support Systems (ECLSS) at Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. "If you built a house this way you would be reclaiming as much water as possible."
For example, while a house on Earth can simply drain its wastewater to lines leading to a municipal treatment plant, the ISS must carry its own miniature water treatment plant onboard.
This equipment must achieve a higher level of cleanliness than its earthly counterparts for several reasons. Unlike most municipal systems, the ISS system recycles the urine of both the crew and the laboratory animals and returns it to the drinking water supply -- and the health of the crew is of particular concern in space. Like plumbers, there are few doctors nearby! Microbes are a danger even to the Station itself, as exemplified by the problems on Mir with fungal growth. Keeping microbe levels in the water supply to an absolute minimum is an important part of ensuring the longevity of the Station.
Operating "in a bottle" also complicates the plumbing of the Station because the crew can't simply open a window to get some fresh air. Tubes carry pressurized oxygen and nitrogen from the Shuttle to storage tanks on the ISS. Ducts move cabin air from all parts of the Station to the carbon dioxide scrubbers and back, ensuring that the dangerous gas doesn't build up in any forgotten corner.
Below: This diagram shows the flow of recyclable ("regenerative") resources in the Space Station's Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS), which is being developed jointly by NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, and the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas.
To be certain cabin air is safe, a mass spectrometer routinely analyzes the gas content of the air. Another network of tubes draws air samples from many different spots around the Station and feeds this air to the spectrometer, which looks at levels of oxygen, carbon dioxoide, and other gases.
"So if we know, for instance, there's some crew activity in a particular location that day, we can tell the computer to sample more frequently there," Williams said.
The oxygen tanks -- in addition to providing a backup supply of oxygen to replenish cabin air -- attach to yet another set of tubes that supply low-pressure oxygen to the modules. Receptacles in the modules allow the crew to tap into these lines with their emergency breathing apparatuses, extending the 15-minute supply built into the breathing apparatuses so that the crew can take their time handling the emergency.
And this collective network of tubing and hardware, which is far more elaborate than that of the typical house, must be compact, lightweight, corrosion-resistant, leak-resistant, microbe-resistant, and highly dependable. To meet this tall order, the pipes of the Space Station are variously made from titanium, stainless steel, or Teflon wrapped in metal mesh. In comparison, household plumbing is typically made of inexpensive PVC and copper.
Along with the unique demands of a "ship in a bottle," the plumbing on the ISS must operate without the assistance of gravity.
Above: What happens to water flowing through pipes in orbital free fall? These photos show water and air flowing through clear pipes. The left photo was captured in Earth's gravity -- the air rises and forms a layer on top of the water because gases are less dense than liquids. The right photo, captured in free fall (equivalent to zero-G), shows that density differences are irrelevant. The air can form a core flowing through the center of the pipe, surrounded by water. [more information]
When building a house on Earth, it's enough to just lay the pipe and then let gravity or the pressure of the city water supply create the flow. In the mutual free fall of Earth orbit, liquids and gases would stagnate on their own.
"You have to look at the lack of gravity carefully," Williams said. "Because normally fluids would just sit there, unless you had the head pressure to force them. In a house, you can count on gravity when you flush a toilet to take that water and put it out in the sewer."
To keep the fluids flowing, the ISS plumbing system includes dozens of pumps and fans that create the pressure needed to coax the liquids and gases into moving.
The mutual free fall environment also places special demands on the design of bathroom and faucet fixtures. Mass-produced fixtures like those found found in a typical home won't work on the ISS.
Left: This "hygiene center" on the ISS looks a bit different than a typical bathroom sink! Crew members need specialized hardware to perform basic bathroom necessities. [
The lavatory on the ISS looks markedly different than a bathroom here on the ground. A conventional toilet would not function at all without gravity. The ISS uses specialized equipment to meet these bodily needs.
"We have to have active components to help remove the feces and urine away from the astronaut," Williams said. The two machines that separately handle these two body functions both use air flow created by suction to facilitate waste removal.
With a little practice, no doubt, it seems just like home. And that's the goal of the most far-out plumbing in the solar system -- to work so well that the crew takes it for granted. After all, building a new home in space is a full time job and nobody up there wants to waste time calling the plumber.
This is the third in a five-part series of articles about the construction of the ISS. The first examined the Station's architecture and structural design; the second described the Station's unique thermal control systems. Future installments will explore the power and ergonomics of the Station.
International Space Station -- NASA's Web page for the International Space Station
Water on the Space Station -- Science@NASA article: Rationing and recycling will be an essential part of life on the International Space Station. In this article, Science@NASA explores where the crew will get their water and how they will (re)use it.
Breathing Easy on the Space Station -- Science@NASA article: Life support systems on the ISS provide oxygen, absorb carbon dioxide, and manage vaporous emissions from the astronauts themselves. It's all part of breathing easy in our new home in space.
Advanced Life Support Web Page -- from the Johnson Space Center
Environmental Control and Life Support Systems -- describes the life support systems being developed at Marshall Space Flight Center
This Quicktime movie shows a freely falling fluid in action. Credit: microgravity researcher Dr. John Pojman
Join our growing list of subscribers - sign up for our express news delivery and you will receive a mail message every time we post a new story!!!
|The Science and Technology Directorate at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center sponsors the Science@NASA web sites. The mission of Science@NASA is to help the public understand how exciting NASA research is and to help NASA scientists fulfill their outreach responsibilities.
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text:
01 October 2010
Well, I did
Most of you have read it already, but Dr. Al Mohler exposes the dirty secret about allegedly-conservative values especially as it relates to divorce.
I don't wanna say I told you so, but I did in fact tell you so, almost 2 years ago.
Have a nice weekend. I am sure Dan and Phil will be back with bells on next week. Be in God's house with God's people on His day this weekend, and remember that God is the one who designed marriage -- so treat it like it is His gift.
24 comments:
- David Kyle said...
I went back and reread that post... everyone else should.
- 7:24 AM, October 01, 2010
- David Kyle said...
Frank's and Dr. Mohler's.
- 7:25 AM, October 01, 2010
- Al said...
Frank... your inital typo made me think of "All Creatures Great and Small." Just saying :-)
al sends
- 7:49 AM, October 01, 2010
- J♥Yce Burrows said...
Thanks for not shortchanging us on what needs to be said concerning marriage/divorce, Frank ~ almost 2 years ago, today, and as God's truth will still matter tomorrow.
- 8:08 AM, October 01, 2010
- Rachael Starke said...
It's nice to see that the esteemed (truly) Dr. Mohler has finally caught up with you on the significance of the secondary problem,
but it's interesting/frustrating/disappointing how few words he dedicates to the reason for that problem. Or, more importantly, the solution to that problem.
Unlike your piece, which, to echo others, is a masterpiece and should be mandatory reading for anyone married, single or inbetween.
- 9:15 AM, October 01, 2010
- FX Turk said...
I attribute any omission by Dr. Mohler to the vast ocean of information he is culling out to make a simple blog-length post. Imagine trying to catch all th Shrimp in the Gulf of Mexico in one net -- a few large ones are bound to get away.
- 9:23 AM, October 01, 2010
- donsands said...
"Be in God's house with God's people on His day"
I thought of when I hated church. It was somewhere I never wanted to be.
But ever since Christ saved me, and changed my heart, I love church. I love to worship our Father in Spirit and truth. I love to sing hymns and spiritual songs to our Lord.
I love to hear my pastor pray, and pray with him.
Most of all I love to hear the Word taught, and proclaimed with humility and authority.
Lord bless us all this Sunday as we assemble to honor and worship Him.
- 9:37 AM, October 01, 2010
- David Regier said...
Rereading your post reminded me of necessity of connecting everything we are - and everything we advocate - to the narrative of God's word.
Moralism is easily punctured when it's supported outside the plot lines.
- 9:49 AM, October 01, 2010
- Nash Equilibrium said...
I read both your old post and Dr. Mohler's post. Excellent.
I guess the take-away for me is that evangelicals probably don't have much energy about opposing divorce, because many of them are divorced - and it's a lot easier to oppose sins that you may not have in your background (abortion, homosexuality) than to oppose ones that you do.
Can you imagine how uncomfortable the average church gathering would be if the pastor delivered a sermon on the actual, Biblical view of divorce (and remarriage)? In 30 years as a Christian I'm not sure I've ever heard such a sermon.
- 1:27 PM, October 01, 2010
- Stefan Ewing said...
Despite its horrible consequences, divorce seems so easy doesn't it? Easier than trying to work things through.
I thank God that just when our marriage was at its worst, He saved me—and in a church that does that a strong stand on divorce.
As a result, after three years of struggle and in spite of numerous challenges, God has blessed and transformed our marriage, and made us truly one.
- 2:16 PM, October 01, 2010
- Stefan Ewing said...
...does take a strong stand on divorce.
- 2:17 PM, October 01, 2010
- Stefan Ewing said...
...and more to the point, takes a strong, positive stand on the sanctity marriage.
- 2:18 PM, October 01, 2010
- bp said...
Great post, Frank!
David Regier - Moralism is easily punctured when it's supported outside the plot lines.
So true. Reminds me of the movie Time Changers. Bad acting, but good message (for the most part). We cannot separate good morals from the One who gave them to us to obey.
- 4:04 PM, October 01, 2010
- Clark Dunlap said...
Mawwiage is wot bwings us together today. That Bwessed awangement, that dweam wifin a dweam.
- 7:43 PM, October 01, 2010
- Robert said...
I have a feeling that more churches need more sermons on sin and how to handle it in their lives. This would mean more time in the epistles, which I personally would love to have. My church seems a bit cold at times and I think that a lot of that stems from the fact that we've been in Genesis, Romans, and now Exodus since I've been there (almost 5 years). Our pastor wants to preach Matthew next, but I hope he will think about covering an epistle first (if not, right after).
word verification: metas
- 7:49 PM, October 01, 2010
Somehow I missed this post back in the day. Just finished reading it. Good words.
- 2:34 AM, October 02, 2010
- Aaron said...
Let's face it. God's people have never been very good on the issue of divorce. Jesus himself said so in the sermon on the mount.
And Newsweek's argument is an old one. It's regurgitated hash that they use on other issues such as slavery and war.
The standard on marriage and divorce is clear in the Bible. It's not written in parables or allegories. Newsweek and their ilk just choose to ignore it to sully the name of Christ and His followers.
So I'll grant you that the modern church have fallen short on decrying the number of divorces, but lets not pretend that Newsweek would write a different article if there were zero divorces in the church.
- 1:45 PM, October 02, 2010
- boyd said...
Actually Newsweek is using the same tactic that the Word of faith and celebrity super church robber barons use(ignoring new coveant principles). That being, talking more about the old testament tithe and the wealth of Abramham than the sacrifice of Jesus. The modern "get it now" church goer knows more about Abramham, Elijah, and the old testament prophets and the writings of Malachi than they do about the apostle Paul.
- 5:31 AM, October 03, 2010
I'm wondering what you think of Luther writing in regards to the church and marriage...
"That it is a worldly issue and the church should have no part in it"
He was writing in regards to the Roman churches insistence that a priest had to preside at a marriage for it to be valid.. (the RC church ratified it in 1553) until then the church had no role in marrying people...
- 6:04 PM, October 03, 2010
- thomas4881 said...
I heard one Pastor say that Christians who get divorced shouldn't be second class citizens in the Church. He pointed out that Moses was divorced and married a black woman. He cautioned getting legalistic about the issue.
- 9:56 PM, October 03, 2010
I would caution against being any more legalistic than Paul.
- 2:47 AM, October 04, 2010
- FX Turk said...
MenCan --
I would say that this is not the only thing Luther is wrong about. cf. lutheranism.
I think your view of the history of marriage is less than fully informed. For example, certainly the Council of Trent did affirm that marriage ought to be a poublic ceremony, but it did so in 1563, not 1553 -- and that, against a contemporary trend in the 16th century to make weddings private affairs of neither political nor religious concern. While Luther may have had his own views, these were soundly and roundly rejected by almost all other reformers who take their cues for Paul, especially the letter to the Ephesians. The trend for private marriages died out -- and it was an anomaly in the history of the West.
As early as 866 is is plain that the public, religious nature of marriage was being practiced in the West, and we can trace it back even to the first century after Christ in the apologetic arguments of the first defenders of the Christian faith -- that the Christian view of marriage is first spiritual, but that spiritual blessing has material, ethical consequences.
- 7:16 AM, October 04, 2010
- Nash Equilibrium said...
Agree. I would say that the mere statement "what God has put together, let no man put asunder" alone makes it a religious matter, no matter what Luther or anyone else says/said to the contrary.
- 10:16 AM, October 04, 2010
- Aaron said...
Ok, somebody needs to address the Luther quote head on.
Luther,like all men, had concerns of the day to deal with too. And like other great men he was a sinner and made mistakes. You'll find that he did a couple of things which it appears he later regretted. The bigamy of Philip being one of them. On the whole, you'll find that Luther said many times that one man and one woman was the standard for Christian marriage. Likewise, he held rigidly to the gospels and Christ's only reason for divorce: Adultery. (which was one of the reasons he made the aforementioned mistake).
Accordingly, you may say to the carnal people (with whom you have to do), if they want to be Christians, they must keep married fidelity and bridle their flesh, not give it license. If they want to be heathen, let them do what they please, at their own risk.
- 10:49 AM, October 05, 2010


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This week, there are a lot of opportunities to experience the Museum, including an American Ceramics Circle Symposium; free admission for everyone on Thursday, November 4, and free admission for veterans on Saturday, November 6; a lecture with Luke Beckerdite on the Art In Clay exhibition on Thursday at 6:15 p.m.; and a European Design Since 1985 Express Talk.
This Thursday, November 4, is Target Free First Thursday. Admission to the Museum is FREE for everyone, thanks to Target. It's a great opportunity to experience everything the Museum has to offer. And while you are here, be sure to experience the European Design Since 1985 Express Talk at 12 p.m.
As our way of saying "Thank You," veterans will receive free admission to the Museum on Saturday, November 6, and Thursday, November 11.
Don't forget, now through Sunday, November 14, the Museum is hosting a "Soup for Soup" food drive to benefit Hunger Task Force. Bring in your donation and receive a coupon for a free cup of soup in Cafe Calatrava, good through November 24. It's a great way to give back to the community and experience a fantastic meal.
It's the official start of the holiday season, so while you are here, stop into the Museum Store and get all of your holiday shopping completed. With something for everyone, it's an easy and unique way to show your loved ones that you care. Or, give the gift of art and purchase a gift membership to the Museum, giving your loved ones free admission all year long.
Finally, since the Packers don't play until Sunday night, you'll have time to experience North Carolina potters Hal Pugh and Eleanor Minnock-Pugh as they throw pottery in Windhover Hall. This demonstration is free with Museum admission, from 1 to 4 p.m. Then stop downstairs to see Art in Clay: Masterworks of North Carolina Earthenware, on view through January 17.
For more information, please visit mam.org.