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The Science of Superstitions
Posted by Nick Niesen on October 27th, 2010
"The most beautiful experience we can have is the mysterious. It is the fundamental emotion that stands at the cradle of true art and true science."
Albert Einstein, The World as I See It, 1931
The current - mythological - image of scientific enquiry is as follows:
Without resorting to reality, one can, given infinite time and resources, produce all conceivable theories. One of these theories is bound to be the "truth". To decide among them, scientists conduct experiments and compare their results to predictions yielded by the theories. A theory is falsified when one or more of its predictions fails. No amount of positive results - i.e., outcomes that confirm the theory's predictions - can "prove right" a theory. Theories can only be proven false by that great arbiter, reality.
Jose Ortega y Gasset said (in an unrelated exchange) that all ideas stem from pre-rational beliefs. William James concurred by saying that accepting a truth often requires an act of will which goes beyond facts and into the realm of feelings. Maybe so, but there is little doubt today that beliefs are somehow involved in the formation of many scientific ideas, if not of the very endeavor of Science. After all, Science is a human activity and humans always believe that things exist (=are true) or could be true.
A distinction is traditionally made between believing in something's existence, truth, value of appropriateness (this is the way that it ought to be) - and believing that something. The latter is a propositional attitude: we think that something, we wish that something, we feel that something and we believe that something. Believing in A and believing that A - are different.
It is reasonable to assume that belief is a limited affair. Few of us would tend to believe in contradictions and falsehoods. Catholic theologians talk about explicit belief (in something which is known to the believer to be true) versus implicit one (in the known consequences of something whose truth cannot be known). Truly, we believe in the probability of something (we, thus, express an opinion) - or in its certain existence (truth).
All humans believe in the existence of connections or relationships between things. This is not something which can be proven or proven false (to use Popper's test). That things consistently follow each other does not prove they are related in any objective, "real", manner - except in our minds. This belief in some order (if we define order as permanent relations between separate physical or abstract entities) permeates both Science and Superstition. They both believe that there must be - and is - a connection between things out there.
Science limits itself and believes that only certain entities inter-relate within well defined conceptual frames (called theories). Not everything has the potential to connect to everything else. Entities are discriminated, differentiated, classified and assimilated in worldviews in accordance with the types of connections that they forge with each other.
Moreover, Science believes that it has a set of very effective tools to diagnose, distinguish, observe and describe these relationships. It proves its point by issuing highly accurate predictions based on the relationships discerned through the use of said tools. Science (mostly) claims that these connections are "true" in the sense that they are certain - not probable.
The cycle of formulation, prediction and falsification (or proof) is the core of the human scientific activity. Alleged connections that cannot be captured in these nets of reasoning are cast out either as "hypothetical" or as "false". In other words: Science defines "relations between entities" as "relations between entities which have been established and tested using the scientific apparatus and arsenal of tools". This, admittedly, is a very cyclical argument, as close to tautology as it gets.
Superstition is a much simpler matter: everything is connected to everything in ways unbeknown to us. We can only witness the results of these subterranean currents and deduce the existence of such currents from the observable flotsam. The planets influence our lives, dry coffee sediments contain information about the future, black cats portend disasters, certain dates are propitious, certain numbers are to be avoided. The world is unsafe because it can never be fathomed. But the fact that we - limited as we are - cannot learn about a hidden connection - should not imply that it does not exist.
Science believes in two categories of relationships between entities (physical and abstract alike). The one is the category of direct links - the other that of links through a third entity. In the first case, A and B are seen to be directly related. In the second case, there is no apparent link between A and B, but a third entity, C could well provide such a connection (for instance, if A and B are parts of C or are separately, but concurrently somehow influenced by it).
Each of these two categories is divided to three subcategories: causal relationships, functional relationships and correlative relationship.
A and B will be said to be causally related if A precedes B, B never occurs if A does not precede it and always occurs after A occurs. To the discerning eye, this would seem to be a relationship of correlation ("whenever A happens B happens") and this is true. Causation is subsumed by a the 1.0 correlation relationship category. In other words: it is a private case of the more general case of correlation.
A and B are functionally related if B can be predicted by assuming A but we have no way of establishing the truth value of A. The latter is a postulate or axiom. The time dependent Schrödinger Equation is a postulate (cannot be derived, it is only reasonable). Still, it is the dynamic laws underlying wave mechanics, an integral part of quantum mechanics, the most accurate scientific theory that we have. An unproved, non-derivable equation is related functionally to a host of exceedingly precise statements about the real world (observed experimental results).
A and B are correlated if A explains a considerable part of the existence or the nature of B. It is then clear that A and B are related. Evolution has equipped us with highly developed correlation mechanisms because they are efficient in insuring survival. To see a tiger and to associate the awesome sight with a sound is very useful.
Still, we cannot state with any modicum of certainty that we possess all the conceivable tools for the detection, description, analysis and utilization of relations between entities. Put differently: we cannot say that there are no connections that escape the tight nets that we cast in order to capture them. We cannot, for instance, say with any degree of certainty that there are no hyper-structures which would provide new, surprising insights into the interconnectedness of objects in the real world or in our mind. We cannot even say that the epistemological structures with which we were endowed are final or satisfactory. We do not know enough about knowing.
Consider the cases of Non-Aristotelian logic formalisms, Non-Euclidean geometries, Newtonian Mechanics and non classical physical theories (the relativity theories and, more so, quantum mechanics and its various interpretations). All of them revealed to us connections which we could not have imagined prior to their appearance. All of them created new tools for the capture of interconnectivity and inter-relatedness. All of them suggested one kind or the other of mental hyper-structures in which new links between entities (hitherto considered disparate) could be established.
So far, so good for superstitions. Today's superstition could well become tomorrow's Science given the right theoretical developments. The source of the clash lies elsewhere, in the insistence of superstitions upon a causal relation.
The general structure of a superstition is: A is caused by B. The causation propagates through unknown (one or more) mechanisms. These mechanisms are unidentified (empirically) or unidentifiable (in principle). For instance, al the mechanisms of causal propagation which are somehow connected to divine powers can never, in principle, be understood (because the true nature of divinity is sealed to human understanding).
Thus, superstitions incorporate mechanisms of action which are, either, unknown to Science ? or are impossible to know, as far as Science goes. All the "action-at-a-distance" mechanisms are of the latter type (unknowable). Parapsychological mechanisms are more of the first kind (unknown).
The philosophical argument behind superstitions is pretty straightforward and appealing. Perhaps this is the source of their appeal. It goes as follows:
There is nothing that can be thought of that is impossible (in all the Universes);
Some of these propositions can be easily attacked. For instance: we can think about contradictions and falsehoods but (apart from a form of mental representation) no one will claim that they exist in reality or that they are possible. These statements, though, apply very well to entities, the existence of which has yet to be disproved (=not known as false, or whose truth value is uncertain) and to improbable (though possible) things. It is in these formal logical niches that superstition thrives.
APPENDIX - From "The Cycle of Science"
"There was a time when the newspapers said that only twelve men understood the theory of relativity. I do not believe that there ever was such a time... On the other hand, I think it is safe to say that no one understands quantum mechanics... Do not keep saying to yourself, if you can possibly avoid it, 'But how can it be like that?', because you will get 'down the drain' into a blind alley from which nobody has yet escaped. Nobody knows how it can be like that."
"The first processes, therefore, in the effectual studies of the sciences, must be ones of simplification and reduction of the results of previous investigations to a form in which the mind can grasp them."
" ...conventional formulations of quantum theory, and of quantum field theory in particular, are unprofessionally vague and ambiguous. Professional theoretical physicists ought to be able to do better. Bohm has shown us a way."
"It would seem that the theory [quantum mechanics] is exclusively concerned about 'results of measurement', and has nothing to say about anything else. What exactly qualifies some physical systems to play the role of 'measurer'? Was the wavefunction of the world waiting to jump for thousands of millions of years until a single-celled living creature appeared? Or did it have to wait a little longer, for some better qualified system ... with a Ph.D.? If the theory is to apply to anything but highly idealized laboratory operations, are we not obliged to admit that more or less 'measurement-like' processes are going on more or less all the time, more or less everywhere. Do we not have jumping then all the time?
The first charge against 'measurement', in the fundamental axioms of quantum mechanics, is that it anchors the shifty split of the world into 'system' and 'apparatus'. A second charge is that the word comes loaded with meaning from everyday life, meaning which is entirely inappropriate in the quantum context. When it is said that something is 'measured' it is difficult not to think of the result as referring to some pre-existing property of the object in question. This is to disregard Bohr's insistence that in quantum phenomena the apparatus as well as the system is essentially involved. If it were not so, how could we understand, for example, that 'measurement' of a component of 'angular momentum' ... in an arbitrarily chosen direction ... yields one of a discrete set of values? When one forgets the role of the apparatus, as the word 'measurement' makes all too likely, one despairs of ordinary logic ... hence 'quantum logic'. When one remembers the role of the apparatus, ordinary logic is just fine.
In other contexts, physicists have been able to take words from ordinary language and use them as technical terms with no great harm done. Take for example the 'strangeness', 'charm', and 'beauty' of elementary particle physics. No one is taken in by this 'baby talk'... Would that it were so with 'measurement'. But in fact the word has had such a damaging effect on the discussion, that I think it should now be banned altogether in quantum mechanics."
"Is it not clear from the smallness of the scintillation on the screen that we have to do with a particle? And is it not clear, from the diffraction and interference patterns, that the motion of the particle is directed by a wave? De Broglie showed in detail how the motion of a particle, passing through just one of two holes in screen, could be influenced by waves propagating through both holes. And so influenced that the particle does not go where the waves cancel out, but is attracted to where they co-operate. This idea seems to me so natural and simple, to resolve the wave-particle dilemma in such a clear and ordinary way, that it is a great mystery to me that it was so generally ignored."
"...in physics the only observations we must consider are position observations, if only the positions of instrument pointers. It is a great merit of the de Broglie-Bohm picture to force us to consider this fact. If you make axioms, rather than definitions and theorems, about the "measurement" of anything else, then you commit redundancy and risk inconsistency."
"To outward appearance, the modern world was born of an anti religious movement: man becoming self-sufficient and reason supplanting belief. Our generation and the two that preceded it have heard little of but talk of the conflict between science and faith; indeed it seemed at one moment a foregone conclusion that the former was destined to take the place of the latter... After close on two centuries of passionate struggles, neither science nor faith has succeeded in discrediting its adversary.
I opened this appendix with lengthy quotations of John S. Bell, the main proponent of the Bohemian Mechanics interpretation of Quantum Mechanics (really, an alternative rather than an interpretation). The renowned physicist, David Bohm (in the 50s), basing himself on work done much earlier by de Broglie (the unwilling father of the wave-particle dualism), embedded the Schrödinger Equation (SE throughout this article) in a deterministic physical theory which postulated a non-Newtonian motion of particles. This is a fine example of the life cycle of scientific theories.
Witchcraft, Religion, Alchemy and Science succeeded one another and each such transition was characterized by transitional pathologies reminiscent of psychotic disorders. The exceptions are (arguably) medicine and biology. A phenomenology of ossified bodies of knowledge would make a fascinating read. This is the end of the aforementioned life cycle: Growth, Pathology, Ossification.
This article identifies the current Ossification Phase of Science and suggests that it is soon to be succeeded by another discipline. It does so after studying and rejecting other explanations to the current state of science: that human knowledge is limited by its very nature, that the world is inherently incomprehensible, that methods of thought and understanding tend to self-organize to form closed mythic systems and that there is a problem of the language which we employ to make our inquiries of the world describable and communicable.
Kuhn's approach to Scientific Revolutions is but one of a series of approaches to issues of theory and paradigm shifts in scientific thought and its resulting evolution. Scientific theories seem to be subject to a process of natural selection as much as organisms are in nature.
Animals could be construed to be theorems (with a positive truth value) in the logical system "Nature". But species become extinct because nature itself changes (not nature as a set of potentials - but the relevant natural phenomena to which the species are exposed). Could we say the same about scientific theories? Are they being selected and deselected partly due to a changing, shifting backdrop?
Indeed, the whole debate between "realists" and "anti-realists" in the philosophy of Science can be thus settled, by adopting this single premise: that the Universe itself is not a fixture. By contrasting a fixed subject of the study ("The World") with the moving image of Science - anti-realists gained the upper hand.
Arguments such as the under-determination of theories by data and the pessimistic meta-inductions from past falsity (of scientific "knowledge") emphasized the transience and asymptotic nature of the fruits of the scientific endeavor. But all this rests on the implicit assumption that there is some universal, immutable, truth out there (which science strives to approximate). The apparent problem evaporates if we allow both the observer and the observed, the theory and its subject, the background, as well as the fleeting images, to be alterable.
Science develops through reduction of miracles. Laws of nature are formulated. They are assumed to encompass all the (relevant) natural phenomena (that is, phenomena governed by natural forces and within nature). Ex definitio, nothing can exist outside nature - it is all-inclusive and all-pervasive, omnipresent (formerly the attributes of the divine).
Supernatural forces, supernatural intervention - are a contradiction in terms, oxymorons. If it exists - it is natural. That which is supernatural - does not exist. Miracles do not only contravene (or violate) the laws of nature - they are impossible, not only physically, but also logically. That which is logically possible and can be experienced (observed), is physically possible. But, again, we confront the "fixed background" assumption. What if nature itself changes in a way to confound everlasting, ever-truer knowledge? Then, the very shift of nature as a whole, as a system, could be called "supernatural" or "miraculous".
In a small way, this is how science evolves. A law of nature is proposed. An event or occurs or observation made which are not described or predicted by it. It is, by definition, a violation of the law. The laws of nature are modified, or re-written entirely, in order to reflect and encompass this extraordinary event. Hume's distinction between "extraordinary" and "miraculous" events is upheld (the latter being ruled out).
The extraordinary ones can be compared to our previous experience - the miraculous entail some supernatural interference with the normal course of things (a "wonder" in Biblical terms). It is through confronting the extraordinary and eliminating its abnormal nature that science progresses as a miraculous activity. This, of course, is not the view of the likes of David Deutsch (see his book, "The Fabric of Reality").
The last phase of this Life Cycle is Ossification. The discipline degenerates and, following the psychotic phase, it sinks into a paralytic stage which is characterized by the following:
All the practical and technological aspects of the discipline are preserved and continue to be utilized. Gradually the conceptual and theoretical underpinnings vanish or are replaced by the tenets and postulates of a new discipline - but the inventions, processes and practical know-how do not evaporate. They are incorporated into the new discipline and, in time, are erroneously attributed to it. This is a transfer of credit and the attribution of merit and benefits to the legitimate successor of the discipline.
The practitioners of the discipline confine themselves to copying and replicating the various aspects of the discipline, mainly its intellectual property (writings, inventions, other theoretical material). The replication process does not lead to the creation of new knowledge or even to the dissemination of old one. It is a hermetic process, limited to the ever decreasing circle of the initiated. Special institutions are set up to rehash the materials related to the discipline, process them and copy them. These institutions are financed and supported by the State which is always an agent of conservation, preservation and conformity.
Thus, the creative-evolutionary dimension of the discipline freezes over. No new paradigms or revolutions happen. Interpretation and replication of canonical writings become the predominant activity. Formalisms are not subjected to scrutiny and laws assume eternal, immutable, quality.
All the activities of the adherents of the discipline become ritualized. The discipline itself becomes a pillar of the power structures and, as such, is commissioned and condoned by them. Its practitioners synergistically collaborate with them: with the industrial base, the military powerhouse, the political elite, the intellectual cliques in vogue. Institutionalization inevitably leads to the formation of a (mostly bureaucratic) hierarchy. Rituals serve two purposes. The first is to divert attention from subversive, "forbidden" thinking.
This is very much as is the case with obsessive-compulsive disorders in individuals who engage in ritualistic behavior patterns to deflect "wrong" or "corrupt" thoughts. And the second purpose is to cement the power of the "clergy" of the discipline. Rituals are a specialized form of knowledge which can be obtained only through initiation procedures and personal experience. One's status in the hierarchy is not the result of objectively quantifiable variables or even of judgment of merit. It is the result of politics and other power-related interactions. The cases of "Communist Genetics" (Lysenko) versus "Capitalist Genetics" and of the superpower races (space race, arms race) come to mind.
Conformity, dogmatism, doctrines - all lead to enforcement mechanisms which are never subtle. Dissidents are subjected to sanctions: social sanctions and economic sanctions. They can find themselves ex-communicated, harassed, imprisoned, tortured, their works banished or not published, ridiculed and so on.
This is really the triumph of text over the human spirit. The members of the discipline's community forget the original reasons and causes for their scientific pursuits. Why was the discipline developed? What were the original riddles, questions, queries? How did it feel to be curious? Where is the burning fire and the glistening eyes and the feelings of unity with nature that were the prime moving forces behind the discipline? The cold ashes of the conflagration are the texts and their preservation is an expression of longing and desire for things past.
The vacuum left by the absence of positive emotions - is filled by negative ones. The discipline and its disciples become phobic, paranoid, defensive, with a blurred reality test. Devoid of new, attractive content, the discipline resorts to negative motivation by manipulation of negative emotions. People are frightened, threatened, herded, cajoled. The world without the discipline is painted in an apocalyptic palette as ruled by irrationality, disorderly, chaotic, dangerous, even lethally so.
New, emerging disciplines, are presented as heretic, fringe lunacies, inconsistent, reactionary and bound to lead humanity back to some dark ages. This is the inter-disciplinary or inter-paradigm clash. It follows the Psychotic Phase. The old discipline resorts to some transcendental entity (God, Satan, the conscious intelligent observer in the Copenhagen interpretation of the formalism of Quantum Mechanics). In this sense, it is already psychotic and fails its reality test. It develops messianic aspirations and is inspired by a missionary zeal and zest. The fight against new ideas and theories is bloody and ruthless and every possible device is employed.
But the very characteristics of the older nomenclature is in its disfavor. It is closed, based on ritualistic initiation, patronizing. It relies on intimidation. The numbers of the faithful dwindles the more the "church" needs them and the more it resorts to oppressive recruitment tactics. The emerging knowledge wins by historical default and not due to the results of any fierce fight. Even the initiated desert. Their belief unravels when confronted with the truth value, explanatory and predictive powers, and the comprehensiveness of the emerging discipline.
This, indeed, is the main presenting symptom, distinguishing hallmark, of paralytic old disciplines. They deny reality. The are a belief-system, a myth, requiring suspension of judgment, the voluntary limitation of the quest, the agreement to leave swathes of the map in the state of a blank "terra incognita". This reductionism, this avoidance, their replacement by some transcendental authority are the beginning of an end.
Consider physics:
The Universe is a complex, orderly system. If it were an intelligent being, we would be compelled to say that it had "chosen" to preserve form (structure), order and complexity - and to increase them whenever and wherever it can. We can call this a natural inclination or a tendency of the Universe.
This explains why evolution did not stop at the protozoa level. After all, these mono-cellular organisms were (and still are, hundreds of millions of years later) superbly adapted to their environment. It was Bergson who posed the question: why did nature prefer the risk of unstable complexity over predictable and reliable and durable simplicity?
The answer seems to be that the Universe has a predilection (not confined to the biological realm) to increase complexity and order and that this principle takes precedence over "utilitarian" calculations of stability. The battle between the entropic arrow and the negentropic one is more important than any other (in-built) "consideration". This is Time itself and Thermodynamics pitted against Man (as an integral part of the Universe), Order (a systemic, extensive parameter) against Disorder.
In this context, natural selection is no more "blind" or "random" than its subjects. It is discriminating, exercises discretion, encourages structure, complexity and order. The contrast that Bergson stipulated between Natural Selection and Élan Vitale is grossly misplaced: Natural Selection IS the vital power itself.
Modern Physics is converging with Philosophy (possibly with the philosophical side of Religion as well) and the convergence is precisely where concepts of Order and disorder emerge. String theories, for instance, come in numerous versions which describe many possible different worlds. Granted, they may all be facets of the same Being (distant echoes of the new versions of the Many Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics).
Still, why do we, intelligent conscious observers, see (=why are we exposed to) only one aspect of the Universe? How is this aspect "selected"? The Universe is constrained in this "selection process" by its own history - but history is not synonymous with the Laws of Nature. The latter determine the former - does the former also determine the latter? In other words: were the Laws of Nature "selected" as well and, if so, how?
The answer seems self evident: the Universe "selected" both the Natural Laws and - as a result - its own history. The selection process was based on the principle of Natural Selection. A filter was applied: whatever increased order, complexity, structure - survived. Indeed, our very survival as a species is still largely dependent upon these things. Our Universe - having survived - must be an optimized Universe.
Only order-increasing Universes do not succumb to entropy and death (the weak hypothesis). It could even be argued (as we do here) that our Universe is the only possible kind of Universe (the semi-strong hypothesis) or even the only Universe (the strong hypothesis). This is the essence of the Anthropic Principle.
By definition, universal rules pervade all the realms of existence. Biological systems must obey the same order-increasing (natural) laws as physical ones and social ones. We are part of the Universe in the sense that we are subject to the same discipline and adhere to the same "religion". We are an inevitable result - not a chance happening.
We are the culmination of orderly processes - not the outcome of random events. The Universe enables us and our world because - and only for as long as - we increase order. That is not to imply that there is an intention to do so on the part of the Universe (or a "higher being" or a "higher power"). There is no conscious or God-like spirit. There is no religious assertion. We only say that a system that has Order as its founding principle will tend to favor order, to breed it, to positively select its proponents and deselect its opponents - and, finally, to give birth to more and more sophisticated weapons in the pro-Order arsenal. We, humans, were such an order-increasing weapon until recently.
These intuitive assertions can be easily converted into a formalism. In Quantum Mechanics, the State Vector can be constrained to collapse to the most Order-enhancing event. If we had a computer the size of the Universe that could infallibly model it - we would have been able to predict which event will increase the order in the Universe overall. No collapse would have been required then and no probabilistic calculations.
It is easy to prove that events will follow a path of maximum order, simply because the world is orderly and getting ever more so. Had this not been the case, evenly statistically scattered event would have led to an increase in entropy (thermodynamic laws are the offspring of statistical mechanics). But this simply does not happen. And it is wrong to think that order increases only in isolated "pockets", in local regions of our universe.
It is increasing everywhere, all the time, on all scales of measurement. Therefore, we are forced to conclude that quantum events are guided by some non-random principle (such as the increase in order). This, exactly, is the case in biology. There is no reason why not to construct a life wavefunction which will always collapse to the most order increasing event. If we construct and apply this wave function to our world - we will probably find ourselves as one of the events after its collapse.
Appendix - Interview granted to Adam Anderson
1. Do you believe that superstitions have affected American culture? And if so, how?
A. In its treatment of nature, Western culture is based on realism and rationalism and purports to be devoid of superstitions. Granted, many Westerners - perhaps the majority - are still into esoteric practices, such as Astrology. But the official culture and its bearers - scientists, for instance - disavow such throwbacks to a darker past.
Today, superstitions are less concerned with the physical Universe and more with human affairs. Political falsities - such as anti-Semitism - supplanted magic and alchemy. Fantastic beliefs permeate the fields of economics, sociology, and psychology, for instance. The effects of progressive taxation, the usefulness of social welfare, the role of the media, the objectivity of science, the mechanism of democracy, and the function of psychotherapy - are six examples of such groundless fables.
Indeed, one oft-neglected aspect of superstitions is their pernicious economic cost. Irrational action carries a price tag. It is impossible to optimize one's economic activity by making the right decisions and then acting on them in a society or culture permeated by the occult. Esotericism skews the proper allocation of scarce resources.
2. Are there any superstitions that exist today that you believe could become facts tomorrow, or that you believe have more fact than fiction hidden in them?
A. Superstitions stem from one of these four premises:
That there is nothing that can be thought of that is impossible (in all possible Universes);
Still, regardless of how "magical" it becomes, positive science is increasingly challenged by the esoteric. The emergence of pseudo-science is the sad outcome of the blurring of contemporary distinctions between physics and metaphysics. Modern science borders on speculation and attempts, to its disadvantage, to tackle questions that once were the exclusive preserve of religion or philosophy. The scientific method is ill-built to cope with such quests and is inferior to the tools developed over centuries by philosophers, theologians, and mystics.
Moreover, scientists often confuse language of representation with meaning and knowledge represented. That a discipline of knowledge uses quantitative methods and the symbol system of mathematics does not make it a science. The phrase "social sciences" is an oxymoron - and it misleads the layman into thinking that science is not that different to literature, religion, astrology, numerology, or other esoteric "systems".
The emergence of "relative", New Age, and politically correct philosophies rendered science merely one option among many. Knowledge, people believe, can be gleaned either directly (mysticism and spirituality) or indirectly (scientific practice). Both paths are equivalent and equipotent. Who is to say that science is superior to other "bodies of wisdom"? Self-interested scientific chauvinism is out - indiscriminate "pluralism" is in.
3. I have found one definition of the word "superstition" that states that it is "a belief or practice resulting from ignorance, fear of the unknown, trust in magic or chance, or a false conception of causation." What is your opinion about said definition?
A. It describes what motivates people to adopt superstitions - ignorance and fear of the unknown. Superstitions are, indeed, a "false conception of causation" which inevitably leads to "trust in magic". the only part I disagree with is the trust in chance. Superstitions are organizing principles. They serve as alternatives to other worldviews, such as religion or science. Superstitions seek to replace chance with an "explanation" replete with the power to predict future events and establish chains of causes and effects.
4. Many people believe that superstitions were created to simply teach a lesson, like the old superstition that "the girl that takes the last cookie will be an old maid" was made to teach little girls manners. Do you think that all superstitions derive from some lesson trying to be taught that today's society has simply forgotten or cannot connect to anymore?
A. Jose Ortega y Gasset said (in an unrelated exchange) that all ideas stem from pre-rational beliefs. William James concurred by saying that accepting a truth often requires an act of will which goes beyond facts and into the realm of feelings. Superstitions permeate our world. Some superstitions are intended to convey useful lessons, others form a part of the process of socialization, yet others are abused by various elites to control the masses. But most of them are there to comfort us by proffering "instant" causal explanations and by rendering our Universe more meaningful.
5. Do you believe that superstitions change with the changes in culture?
A. The content of superstitions and the metaphors we use change from culture to culture - but not the underlying shock and awe that yielded them in the first place. Man feels dwarfed in a Cosmos beyond his comprehension. He seeks meaning, direction, safety, and guidance. Superstitions purport to provide all these the easy way. To be superstitious one does not to study or to toil. Superstitions are readily accessible and unequivocal. In troubled times, they are an irresistible proposition.
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About the AuthorNick Niesen
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Cleveland, OH – James Harden had 16 of his 29 points in the fourth quarter and the Houston Rockets downed the Cleveland Cavaliers, 112-104, on Saturday.
"James (Harden) sure made a couple of big shots down the stretch, no doubt about that," Rockets head coach Kevin McHale said. "He made some great plays and, as a team, we found a way to make plays through him. He had a very good game for us."
Jeremy Lin added 20 points and five assists for Houston, which has won four in a row and nine of its last 11 games.
Kyrie Irving tallied 16 of his 30 points in the final frame and added six assists and four steals, but turned the ball over eight times for the Cavs, who have dropped four of their last five contests.
"I thought Kyrie (Irving) tried to press at times tonight. A couple of times, he might have tried to go too far, trying to get into the lane and getting it stripped," Cavs head coach Byron Scott said.
The Rockets led by as many as nine in the fourth, but Irving nailed a 3- pointer and split a pair of free throws on consecutive possessions to pull the Cavs within 106-103 with 1:09 to play.
Houston, though, netted six of the last seven points of the contest.
Following Irving's split from the charity stripe, Harden took the clock down and smoothly swished his step-back, right-wing jumper to make it 108-103 in favor of the visitors with 45.7 ticks left.
After Irving turned the ball over at the other end, Harden sunk all four of his foul shots to seal the outcome.
Cleveland took a 26-20 lead after a quarter of play, but Houston outscored the hosts 34-24 in the second and went into the locker room with a 54-50 edge.
The game was knotted at 78-78 heading into the fourth.
Game Notes
Tristan Thompson registered 14 points and 16 rebounds for Cleveland ... Houston gave the ball away 17 times, which led to 21 Cav points ... The Rockets shot 46.8 percent (37-of-79) from the floor.

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JEvents v3.1.8 Stable Copyright © 2006-2013
Vámos Péter: From matroids to equations and back
Abstract. A matroid is the abstraction of the notion of dependence/independence, in particular that of linear independence, algebraic independence and graph edge independence. Matroids were introduced in 1936 by H. Whitney in his paper 'On the abstract properties of linear dependence'. A year later van der Waerden also did the same (not by the name matroid) in the second edition of his 'Moderne Algebra' to unify the treatment of linear and algebraic independence. Matroids can be thought of as incident/partial geometries or indeed as certain lattices. Today matroids play an important role in combinatorics and optimisation.
A central problem in matroid theory is representability: when is a (finite) matroid isomorphic to a set of vectors under linear independence over some field or division ring? This turns out to be a question of solvability of a system of equations and leads to intriguing interactions between geometry and algebra, and algorithms as well.
|Location : Bolyai Intézet, I. emelet, Riesz terem, Aradi Vértanúk tere 1., Szeged
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Allen County Maritime Lawyers
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Florence Ann Murray
(800) 624-3009
Ohio State University - ColumbusCase Western Reserve University, Ashland University and Loyola College6th Circuit, Federal Circuit and OhioSuperlawyersDisability Rights Bar Association, Pound Civil Institute...
Jay Harris
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Ohio, 6th Circuit, D.C. Circuit and U.S. Supreme CourtOhio Super Lawyers and Best Lawyers in AmericaOhio State Bar, American Board of Trial Advocates...
Ronna Lucas
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Capital University Law SchoolUniversity of CincinnatiIllinois and Ohio
The LII Lawyer Directory contains lawyers who have claimed their profiles and are actively seeking clients. Find more Allen County Maritime Lawyers in the Justia Legal Services and Lawyers Directory which includes profiles of more than one million lawyers licensed to practice in the United States, in addition to profiles of legal aid, pro bono and legal service organizations.
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Fremont Military Lawyers
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Michael James Kelley
(603) 865-1301 1 Tara Boulevard
Nashua, NH 03062
Nashua, NH 03062
Free ConsultationMilitary and Social Security Disability
New England Law | Boston
New England Law | Boston
Michael Kelley founded the law firm, New England Disability. The firm specializes in representing claimants seeking disability benefits from the Social Security Administration, Veterans Administration, Long Term Disability Insurers, Federal Worker's Compensation, State Disability Retirement. My firm represents Claimant's seeking benefits throughout the entire Northeastern United States from initial claims through Federal Court Appeals.
John Kalled
(603) 539-2218 15 Courthouse Square
Ossipee, NH 03864
Ossipee, NH 03864
Military, Divorce, Domestic Violence and Family
Albany Law School
Albany Law School
Since 1948, the Kalled Law Offices has provided the best representation on a wide variety of family law cases. If you are going through a divorce, then you need an attorney who can properly asses your case and be with you throughout the process to help you with matters such as domestic violence or child support. With over 35 years of helping people with their divorce related issues, John Kalled provides the expertise and individual attention that your case deserves. We provide the best legal insight and can make a plan to make this process as painless as possible. For...
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Don't Look Back In Anger
There's nothing wrong with old skool sf. There isn't even anything wrong with old-fashioned Star Wars style sf, if that's what floats your boat. But if that's all science fiction has to offer, then it will no longer be a vital genre: it will have become a museum of taxonomy. Because retreating from the present into the familiar comfort of the past means giving up on something that makes science fiction distinctive. It means no longer dealing with the shock of the new, no more wild extrapolations or metaphorical constructs ripped from the bleeding edge of science and technology, an end to pushing trends to their limits, and explorations of the limits of what makes us human. Goodbye to all that; hello to a little cell that's getting smaller by the minute, padded with worn-out tropes from some mythical Golden Age, inhabited by catatonics.
Science fiction isn't going to win a new and wider audience by turning its back on the world and talking to itself. It has to engage. It has to produce novels that are part of the world's conversation. Paul Cornell is right. If someone somewhere could write a definitely great populist but finely imagined science fiction novel, it would not only be a lovely thing in its own right; it would, like a supernova, make the science fiction galaxy more visible. But I'd go further. One singular novel, or one lone author, is in danger of being traduced by the too-good-to-be-science-fiction brigade. If we're going to get our mojo back, we need a shelfload of good books that connect the present with fabulous futures, weird worlds, and even weirder ideas made as real and plausible as any armchair.
So if you're a writer, write from the heart as well as from the mind. Aim for an audience if you like, but know this: at best you're going to hit nothing more than a temporary, here-and-gone demographic. Wouldn't it be better to try to write the book that means more to you than any other book? You'll probably fail. But you can always try again, and fail better. And, dear reader: buy books. Tell people about the books you like. Spread the word. Behave like you have found the best and finest secret in the world. And who knows? Perhaps you have.


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Choose your own TEDTalk: Sebastian Wernicke at TED2012
Photos: James Duncan Davidson Sebastian Wernicke thinks there's something missing from the Full Spectrum of TED2012: The audience has had no influence over the talks. This is in the vein of the old Choose Your Own Adventure books, invented by accident by Edward Packard. Wernicke is going to tell us that story, but he needs some […]Continue reading


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🎃 Looking for Halloween & Fall events? Visit ccparent.com/halloween-happenings to see spooky events all over the Valley! 🎃
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Zinedine Zidane once told Vogue, during his dalliance with modelling: "It's not that I'm doing something different -- it's a continuation." And he was right: the elegant playmaker would not look out of place on the catwalk wearing the tricolore France jersey in which he won the World Cup, or the classic all-white Real Madrid kit he wore when lifting the Champions League trophy.
The designers and models on the runways in the world of haute couture may turn their nose up at football culture, but every fan of the sport knows the thrill of seeing an amazing new kit.
With the help of ESPN's football writers and editors from around the globe, we have gone back through the years to rank the 101 greatest kits of all time. We have taken into account both club and national teams and have considered their home, away and third alternate uniforms on their own individual merits.
When it comes to something as cherished as football kits, everyone will have their opinion, and this ranking is no different. But, treated as a celebration of the art form, it is something we can all enjoy as we wait to return to the stadiums.
- ESPN+: Stream ESPN FC TV daily and 30 for 30: Soccer Stories
101. SENEGAL (home)
Seasons worn: African Nations Cup 2017
Notable players in this kit: Sadio Mane (pictured), Kalidou Koulibaly, Keita Balde
UAE-based kit manufacturer Romai only made one set of kits for Senegal in their short-lived deal, but this 2017 jersey, with its roaring lion on the shoulder, is a beauty. The lion is a nod to the team's nickname "Les Lions de la Teranga," Teranga being a word used in Senegal that means hospitality, warmth and selflessness. Mane & Co. went out in the quarterfinals to Cameroon.
100. MANCHESTER UNITED (away)
Seasons worn: 1993-95
Notable players in this kit: Eric Cantona (pictured), Ryan Giggs, Roy Keane, Paul Scholes
Manchester United signalled their status as the Premier League's most fearsome team by wearing this black away kit with yellow trim. The uniform certainly had an effect on Cantona -- all three of his Premier League red cards for United came while he was wearing it, most infamously when he was sent off at Crystal Palace in 1995 and delivered a flying kick to a supporter as he was leaving the field, earning him an eight-month ban. Here he is pictured after receiving a red card at Swindon, strutting toward the locker room with his collar flicked up in his trademark style.
99. VALENCIA (home)
Seasons worn: 1999-2000
Notable players in this kit: Gaizka Mendieta (pictured), Claudio Lopez, Miguel Angel Angulo
Mendieta ran the Valencia midfield in this white shirt with orange-and-black trim, sponsored by a theme park that had just opened in the region. Mendieta now brings the same flair to the dance floor as a club DJ.
98. REAL MADRID (away)
Seasons worn: 2011-12
Notable players in this kit: Cristiano Ronaldo (pictured), Sergio Ramos, Karim Benzema, Mesut Ozil
Any kit with gold is going to catch our eye. Real always seem to produce good away kits, but this sleek black effort with those iconic three Adidas stripes in gold is among the best. The club's monogram on the socks is a nice touch, too.
97. BASTIA (home)
Seasons worn: 1977-78
Notable players in this kit: Johnny Rep
After pulling a transfer coup signing Netherlands winger Johnny Rep, who was as talented as his name was awesome, the former Ajax and Valencia star helped Corsican club Bastia make a surprise appearance in the 1978 UEFA Cup final. They lost to PSV Eindhoven, but their crest was now recognised across Europe thanks to it being worn proudly across the players' chests.
96. PUMAS UNAM (home)
Seasons worn: 2016-17
Notable players in this kit: Jesus Gallardo (pictured), Nicolas Castillo
Not a season to remember (sixth in Apertura, 17th in Clausura) but Pumas' home shirt -- inspired by the mural at the library of the National Autonomous University of Mexico, where the team was founded in the 1950s -- makes this a kit steeped in heritage.
95. CHELSEA (away)
Seasons worn: 1997-98
Notable players in this kit: Gianfranco Zola (pictured), Ruud Gullit, Gianluca Vialli
This kit shouldn't really work given its clashing elements and garish design, but somehow it does. Like the Chelsea team at the time it was a bit of a mess (player-manager Gullit was sacked midway through the season) but also a success (they won the League Cup and Cup Winners' Cup). That's so Chelsea.
94. WOLVERHAMPTON WANDERERS (home)
Seasons worn: 1977-79
Notable players in this kit: George Berry (pictured), John Richards
No club does gold kits like Wolves, especially their mid-to-late 1970s shirts, with the big black collar and three wolves down the middle of the chest. They won the 1974 League Cup in a version of this, but Umbro added black logos down the sleeves to really set it off.
93. INTER MILAN (home)
Seasons worn: 2005-06
Notable players in this kit: Adriano (pictured), Javier Zanetti, Luis Figo
You could pick out almost any of Inter's iconic Nerazzurri home strips, but this one was so good they won the domestic Treble of Serie A, Coppa Italia and Supercoppa Italiana in it.
92. ITALY (away)
Seasons worn: 1999
Notable players in this kit: Paolo Maldini (pictured), Alessandro Del Piero, Enrico Chiesa
Much like Maldini, Kappa's first Italy kits were superb in their simplicity, yet stunningly beautiful at the same time. The blue stripe across the white chest was a nod to their past, with white being the first colour the team wore in 1910.
91. BELGIUM (away)
Seasons worn: Euro 2016
Notable players in this kit: Eden Hazard (pictured), Kevin De Bruyne, Romelu Lukaku
Fans and neutrals loved this kit ahead of the tournament in France, but their manager, Marc Wilmots, not so much. He likened the design to that of a cycling jersey. His team's own Tour de France ended in defeat to Wales in the quarterfinals. Also, for a reason which no one is able to explain, the numbers on the shorts were absolutely massive.
90. MARGATE (third)
Seasons worn: 2019-20
Notable players in this kit: Nobody you've heard of
Designed by local Kent-based pop artist Luke McLean, this kit has a lot going for it. The distorted purple-and-turquoise diagonal stripes have the names of supporters printed on them in tiny font, and yes, the jersey really is sponsored by rock band The Libertines. Time for heroes to wear it.
89. MEXICO (away)
Seasons worn: World Cup 2010
Notable players in this kit: Rafael Marquez (pictured), Giovani dos Santos, Carlos Vela
This was the first time in their history that Mexico had gone with an away kit that wasn't white or burgundy. However, according to its designer Brad Day, that didn't stop it being Adidas' fourth-best-selling shirt that year -- behind only those of Germany, Spain and Argentina.
88. AC MILAN (away)
Seasons worn: 1988-90
Notable players in this kit: Marco van Basten (pictured), Ruud Gullit, Frank Rijkaard
Any Milan kit of this period, when Italy's Serie A was the envy of the world, would be a worthy entry but this away kit gets the nod for its simplicity and its understated sponsor text and logos. Milan retained the European Cup in it, playing the best football in the world and with some of the best players ever seen.
87. FIORENTINA (home)
Seasons worn: 1998-99
Notable players in this kit: Gabriel Batistuta (pictured), Rui Costa, Eduardo
This late-90s kit was sponsored by Nintendo, and the white blocks on the shoulders and down the sides have more than a shade of games console aesthetic about them. It takes real confidence to wear purple, and La Viola have always been able to pull it off.
86. PALERMO (third)
Seasons worn: 2012-13
Notable players in this kit: Paulo Dybala (pictured), Josip Ilicic, Abel Hernandez
You can't go wrong with a sash. Palermo's official website claimed this kit had a "future-classic" look, although their immediate future was anything but classic; they were relegated at the end of the season. Still, they looked nice doing it.
85. BARCELONA (home)
Seasons worn: 2010-11
Notable players in this kit: Lionel Messi (pictured), Xavi, Andres Iniesta, Gerard Pique, David Villa
The first Barcelona kit to feature yellow trim, as Nike announced at the time, in a nod to the yellow-and-red stripes of the Senyera, the Catalan flag. This kit brought untold success as Messi & Co. secured a domestic Treble as well as the Champions League. This was the last Barcelona kit to bear the logo of global charity UNICEF, to which the club donated €1.5 million a season, on the front.
84. UNITED STATES WOMEN (home)
Seasons worn: World Cup 2019
Notable players in this kit: Megan Rapinoe (pictured), Alex Morgan, Carli Lloyd, Julie Ertz
The United States' thrilling victory at the Women's World Cup in 1999 was echoed 20 years later in this Nike kit that the USWNT wore as they cruised to their fourth world title in France. It had that striped sleeve cuff in red and blue and three stars down the shorts to signify their three previous global triumphs. The likes of Rapinoe and Morgan did the Class of '99 proud.
83. ROMANIA (away)
Seasons worn: World Cup 1994
Notable players in this kit: Gheorghe Hagi (pictured), Gheorghe Popescu, Dan Petrescu
Those three stripes emerging from the hips, the matching collar, those boxy numbers ... my word, this kit is just so beautiful and so '90s. This was a special design that was only worn during the World Cup finals, and it worked as Romania made it all the way to the quarterfinals in their best showing at the tournament.
82. LEEDS UNITED (away)
Seasons worn: 2000-02
Notable players in this kit: Harry Kewell (pictured), Mark Viduka, Rio Ferdinand
It feels like just yesterday that Leeds were in the Champions League semifinals, but it was actually 20 years ago. Nike kept Leeds' uniforms straightforward in this period, with this yellow away strip featuring one blue pinstripe running from each shoulder to the waist.
81. BORUSSIA DORTMUND (third)
Seasons worn: 2019-20
Notable players in this kit: Jadon Sancho (pictured), Marco Reus, Julian Brandt
Worn just once, to commemorate Dortmund's 110th anniversary, this sleek strip sold out in just three hours. BVB smashed Fortuna Dusseldorf 5-0, giving them a 100% record in all black. Sancho was definitely a fan: "The black shirts are the best I've ever worn. Maybe we should keep playing with them."
80. MANCHESTER CITY (home)
Seasons worn: 1993-95
Notable players in this kit: Keith Curle (pictured), Uwe Rosler, Niall Quinn
Worn by famous fan Noel Gallagher before Oasis' iconic gig at the club's old Maine Road ground in 1996, and it's one of City's best. A bit like Oasis' music, it seems a bit bland on the surface, but look a little deeper and you can see so much more, including a pseudo-holographic pattern of the manufacturer's logo that is typical of the period.
79. DULWICH HAMLET (home)
Seasons worn: 2019-20
Notable players in this kit: Dominic Vose (pictured), Lionel Ainsworth, Quade Taylor
Dulwich Hamlet enjoy remarkable support for an English non-league side. The club, based in an affluent south London suburb, even claim to have registered the biggest-ever attendance (16,254) for a match outside of the professional ranks. Plus they are probably the only team bold enough to pull off a purple-and-pink sash.
78. CHELSEA (home)
Seasons worn: 2012-13
Notable players in this kit: Frank Lampard (pictured), John Terry, Didier Drogba
Chelsea's home kit for the 2012-13 season was a classic Adidas design but with gold highlights, a bit like Fernando Torres' hair. The gold was added not to celebrate their recent Champions League victory, but the London 2012 Olympics.
77. ROMA (home)
Seasons worn: 2000-01
Notable players in this kit: Francesco Totti (pictured), Cafu, Gabriel Batistuta
When you look at this kit you instantly see Totti -- hair in a band, No. 10 on his back, strutting like a Roman deity. This was Kappa's first Roma shirt, and they brought with them the club's first Scudetto in 18 years and only the third in their history.
76. FRANCE WOMEN (away)
Seasons worn: World Cup 2019
Notable players in this kit: Amandine Henry (pictured), Wendie Renard
The 2019 Women's World Cup was an ultimately disappointing one for France as they went out to eventual winners the USWNT in the quarterfinals, but their highlight came beating Brazil in the round of 16 wearing this Nike away kit. White with what looks like navy blue dots -- a nod to a look of classic bygone French fashion, according to the kit manufacturer -- on closer inspection the dots were tiny hexagons, referencing the country's nickname "L'Hexagone."
75. REPUBLIC OF IRELAND (home)
Seasons worn: 1990-92
Notable players in this kit: Niall Quinn (pictured), Paul McGrath, Ray Houghton
The late '80s and early '90s were a great time to be an Ireland fan thanks to consecutive World Cup knockout appearances and memorable wins over Italy and England, and the kits were just as good. This kit, worn at Italia '90, is as beautiful as the Emerald Isle itself.
74. BOHEMIANS (away)
Seasons worn: 2018
Notable players in this kit: Keith Ward (pictured), Dinny Corcoran
We stay in Ireland for this beauty of a sash kit from a club not afraid of doing things differently. Bohemians are a fan-run club who, in 2020, released an away kit with the slogans "Refugees Welcome" and "Love Football, Hate Racism." In 2019 their away kit had Bob Marley's face on it to celebrate an iconic gig he played at their Dalymount ground in 1980. It was later withdrawn at the request of his family and redesigned with an image of a clenched fist.
73. MANCHESTER CITY (away)
Seasons worn: 1969
Notable players in this kit: Tony Book (pictured), Mike Summerbee, Colin Bell, Neil Young
City's red-and-black stripes are almost as synonymous among their fans as their sky-blue home kit, so much so that it has been brought back several times, including for the 2019 FA Cup final where City wore warm-up shirts inspired by this kit, with names from that 1969 FA Cup-winning team on their back.
72. FLAMENGO (home)
Seasons worn: 1977-81
Notable players in this kit: Zico (pictured), Junior, Leandro, Tita
Flamengo wore this red-and-black hooped shirt for one of the most successful periods in their history as they dominated the Campeonato Carioca and won the Brazilian Championship, the Copa Libertadores and Intercontinental Cup for the first time.
71. BELGIUM (home)
Seasons worn: Euro 1984
Notable players in this kit: Enzo Scifo (pictured), Leo Clijsters
This design shouldn't work; the white block behind the red-and-yellow argyle pattern, the central badge and the tiny Adidas logo where the crest should be. Yet what should be a messy jumble adds up to more than the sum of its parts and is now regarded as a classic. The same can't be said for the Belgium team of this era, who were thrashed 5-0 by a Michel Platini-inspired France.
70. MEXICO (home)
Seasons worn: World Cup 1998
Notable players in this kit: Cuauhtemoc Blanco (pictured), Luis Hernandez
Made by Mexican manufacturer ABA Sport and made famous by the Blanco Bounce, this kit is as bold as it is wonderful. El Tri have been using stylish apparel suppliers for years: their 1978 kits were made by Levi's.
69. AJAX (away)
Seasons worn: 1994-95
Notable players in this kit: Clarence Seedorf (pictured), Patrick Kluivert, Edgar Davids, Marc Overmars
Ajax won the Champions League in this gorgeous shirt, with its burgundy hatching on dark blue and its buttoned collar. They didn't lose a game in this shirt, as between 1994 and 1996 they completed an unbeaten run of 52 domestic and 19 Champions League matches. No other team has done that and lifted the Champions League and domestic title, before or since.
68. MANCHESTER UNITED (home)
Seasons worn: 1994-96
Notable players in this kit: Ryan Giggs (pictured), David Beckham, Eric Cantona, Paul Ince
United didn't have things all their own way in this uniform; they lost the 1994-95 Premier League title to Blackburn and Cantona was banned for eight months for kicking a fan, but at least that all played out in this Umbro classic. The oversized crest, the black, extremely flickable collar and the faint Old Trafford stencil really make this one work.
67. LIVERPOOL (home)
Seasons worn: 1989-91
Notable players in this kit: John Barnes (pictured), Ian Rush, Peter Beardsley, Steve Nicol
The last time Liverpool were champions of England -- well, the last time before this season -- this was their kit. While it looks as though they were sponsored by the marketing board for sweet treats, Candy is actually an Italian manufacturer of domestic appliances.
66. CHICAGO FIRE (home)
Seasons worn: 1999
Notable players in this kit: Lubos Kubik (pictured), Ante Razov, Piotr Now, Chris Armas
This jersey literally has the word "FIRE" on it, what's not to love? Sadly, in 2008 the club replaced that with a sponsor. This effort, from their second season in MLS, came off the back of winning MLS Cup and the US Open Cup in their first year.
65. SWEDEN (home)
Seasons worn: Euro 1992
Notable players in this kit: Tomas Brolin (pictured), Stefan Schwarz, Kennet Andersson, Anders Limpar
When you throw a party you have to turn out well, and that's what Sweden did when hosting Euro '92 by wearing one of the best kits of the tournament. It's an Adidas template we've seen before, but the strong yellow and blue trim (with Adidas trefoil shadow print) is truly iconic and we saw a lot of it as Brolin & Co. made the semis.
64. CLUB AMERICA (home)
Seasons worn: 1993-94
Notable players in this kit: Luis Roberto Alves "Zague" (pictured), Cuauhtemoc Blanco
Club America have a thing for excellent kits, but they really hit the heights here. The Mexican side boldly went with the sponsor above their own badge, with both neatly sat in a giant blue triangle with red trim on a yellow shirt. Just incredible.
63. CENTRAL COAST MARINERS (home)
Seasons worn: 2015-16
Notable players in this kit: Luis Garcia (pictured)
When an Australian football kit is also an ad for the tourism board. Shaun Mielekamp, CEO of the NSW-based A-League club, said at the time: "The palm tree design is a call nationally to all sports fans to pencil in a visit to Central Coast Stadium, where there are water views from every seat and a matchday experience you will never forget."
62. BAYERN MUNICH (home)
Seasons worn: 1995-97
Notable players in this kit: Jurgen Klinsmann (pictured), Markus Babbel, Mehmet Scholl, Dietmar Hamann
Bayern wore this for two years and won two Bundesliga titles in it. They have never looked better than when they had this shirt, thanks to its chunky bars of colour flanked with pinstripes.
61. TAMPA BAY ROWDIES (home)
Seasons worn: 1978-81
Notable players in this kit: Rodney Marsh (pictured), John Wegerle, John Gorman
This kit, with the word "Rowdies" emblazoned across the front, is peak NASL, peak 1970s aesthetic and peak America. Did you know the club had a "Rowdiest Fan" contest, won by a guy donning a giant soccer hat and chucking himself into the goal? Everyone loved it so much he became a de facto mascot. The club also encouraged the crowd to "Get up, get out and get Rowdy!" and their fans were known as "Fannies."
60. PARIS SAINT-GERMAIN (home)
Seasons worn: 1977-78
Notable players in this kit: Jean-Michel Larque (pictured), Johan Cruyff
PSG were formed in 1970 after the merger of Paris Football Club and Stade Saint-Germain, and they began wearing this red stripe with white piping on a navy background in 1974. They wore variations of the kit created by fashion designer Daniel Hechter, who was the club's president at the time, until 1981. Johan Cruyff was such a fan of Hechter that he played two games for PSG in a preseason tournament in 1975.
59. PALMEIRAS (home)
Seasons worn: 1992-93
Notable players in this kit: Roberto Carlos (pictured), Rivaldo
Palmeiras had suffered 20 years of disappointment before they donned this pea green, white pinstriped shirt and promptly swept all before them. Two youngsters called Roberto Carlos and Rivaldo helped them win the Campeonato Paulista, Rio-Sao Paulo Championship and Campeonato Brasileiro.
58. NEW YORK COSMOS (home)
Seasons worn: 1975
Notable players in this kit: Pele (pictured), Werner Roth
New York Cosmos played in green for the first five years of their existence until they signed Pele in 1975. Because of his success at Santos, who played in white, the Cosmos changed their home colours to white with green trim. Did it work? Well, they did finally win the NASL Championship in 1977, Pele's final season.
57. CELTIC (home)
Seasons worn: 1965-72
Notable players in this kit: Bobby Lennox (pictured), Jimmy Johnstone, Willie Wallace
For Celtic fans, the hoops are sacrosanct and the same went for the traditionalist chairman Robert Kelly, who in the 1960s refused to put numbers on the back of the shirts because it would break the sacred green and white. No wonder their 1967 European Cup-winning side looked so resplendent. But they could not resist the modern way forever, and they finally began wearing numbers on their backs in 1994.
56. ENGLAND (home)
Seasons worn: 1982-83
Notable players in this kit: Kevin Keegan (pictured), Trevor Francis, Glenn Hoddle
The great manager Brian Clough, never one to mince words, wrote in a column when this jersey was released: "The wraps are off England's new kit, and I'm saying now I don't like it. It has the looks of one of my mother's old pinnies!" But Admiral stuck by their design, made "shinier" to impress under floodlights and on TV and, thanks to a half-decent 1982 World Cup appearance, it became cherished.
55. RIVER PLATE (home)
Seasons worn: 1985-88
Notable players in this kit: Antonio Alzamendi (pictured), Claudio Caniggia, Nelson Gutierrez
Another sash, and a classic of the genre. Adidas remain River's kit manufacturers to this day -- the deal is second only to Bayern Munich as the German kit-maker's longest. This kit was worn by the team that won an impressive Treble of the Intercontinental Cup, the Copa Libertadores and Argentina's Primera Division.
54. CROATIA (home)
Seasons worn: World Cup 1998
Notable players in this kit: Davor Suker (pictured), Zvonimir Boban, Robert Prosinecki
Croatia have worn red-and-white squares ever since they gained independence in 1991, save for Kappa's bland all-red jerseys of 1994. At their first World Cup in 1998, Croatia turned up in these beauties, with the checks draped over the shoulder like someone was whipping off a tablecloth. They came in third and this kit went down in history.
53. WEST GERMANY (away)
Seasons worn: World Cup 1990
Notable players in this kit: Lothar Matthaus (pictured), Jurgen Klinsmann
There is a long-standing myth that West Germany's change colour is green because the first team they played after World War II was Ireland. Sadly this isn't true. Their first post-war opponent was Switzerland in 1950, Ireland were their fourth a year later. The colour actually came from the German Football Association (DFB)'s logo, and they first wore green against Turkey in June 1951. This incarnation, the same funky Adidas template that the Netherlands wore as they won Euro '88, brought the Germans similar luck, although they only wore it just once; that night in Turin against England in the semifinals of Italia '90.
52. BRAZIL (home)
Seasons worn: World Cup 1970
Notable players in this kit: Rivellino (pictured), Pele, Jairzinho, Carlos Alberto
Brazil originally played in white, but fans demanded change after the Selecao lost the 1950 World Cup final to neighbours Uruguay on home soil. After a public competition they switched to yellow and green and began sweeping all before them. At the 1970 World Cup, where they won their third title, they wore this classic kit but actually had two different versions with them in Mexico; a traditional cotton shirt made by longtime and local manufacturer Athlete and a newer, lighter weight one by Umbro. Each game they wore the old one for the first 45 minutes and the newer one for the second 45 minutes and went on to win.
51. WEST GERMANY (home)
Seasons worn: World Cup 1990
Notable players in this kit: Jurgen Klinsmann (pictured), Lothar Matthaus
This kit's sloped triple stripe of black, red and gold marked a bold new direction for Adidas. It would also go on to be the first kit worn by a reunified Germany national team (in in December 1990) following the fall of the Berlin Wall.
50. NIGERIA (home)
Seasons worn: World Cup 2018
Notable players in this kit: John Obi Mikel (pictured), Victor Moses, Ahmed Musa
Easily the most popular shirt at the 2018 World Cup. Released in January 2018, Nike dubbed the kit a "subtle homage to Nigeria's '94 shirt." It was an instant hit with 3 million people preordering it. Despite the hype, Nigeria failed to make it out of their group in Russia.
49. WALES (home)
Seasons worn: 1980-84
Notable players in this kit: Ian Rush, Terry Yorath
After UK-based manufacturer Admiral hit financial issues, Adidas stepped in and gave Wales white sleeves. At the time it was seen as just another kit, but has since become something of a cult classic. Which is a bit odd, as the Wales teams that wore it did absolutely nothing spectacular; the closest they came to glory was missing out on the 1982 World Cup on goal difference.
48. FRANCE (home)
Seasons worn: 1984-86
Notable players in this kit: Michel Platini (pictured), Alain Giresse, Jean Tigana, Luis Fernandez
The kit that spawned a thousand kits, Adidas hit on something when they designed France's outfit for the 1984 European Championship, hosted on home soil. It was the first time red had been used as a main colour on a France shirt (not including collar trim in the past) and not only was it a hit, so were France. They won their first major tournament that summer and went on to win two more trophies, the 1998 World Cup and Euro 2000, in kits heavily influenced by this one.
47. BORUSSIA DORTMUND (home)
Seasons worn: 1996-97
Notable players in this kit: Lars Ricken (pictured), Matthias Sammer, Andreas Moller, Karl-Heinz Riedle
Dortmund wore this kit on the road to winning their first Champions League title, but they didn't actually wear it in the final. Instead, they decided to showcase their (inferior) home kit for the following season. This one had that bright yellow base with the black tyre track marks down the bottom half of the shirt and giant black C of Die Continentale -- somehow making a German insurance company cool.
46. NETHERLANDS (home)
Seasons worn: Euro 1988
Notable players in this kit: Ruud Gullit (pictured), Marco van Basten, Ronald Koeman, Frank Rijkaard
That Adidas template is back, and this is how it is best remembered; Gullit's dreadlocks, Rijkaard's guile and *that* Marco van Basten volley as the Dutch beat the Soviet Union in Munich to claim their only major international title.
45. ENGLAND WOMEN (away)
Seasons worn: 2019
Notable players in this kit: Steph Houghton (pictured), Fran Kirby, Ellen White, Lucy Bronze
It seems almost embarrassing that it took until 2019 for the English women's team to get their own kit, but when they did it was worth the wait. The home kit was classic white with dark red trim, but the away strip, in "dark red crush" as Nike dubbed it, featured an interwoven design with flora from across the country. England forward Fran Kirby said: "It is great to see kits designed specifically with us in mind." The Lionesses lost in the semifinal to eventual winners the U.S. after a valiant run.
44. BOTAFOGO (home)
Seasons worn: 1963-70
Notable players in this kit: Garrincha (pictured), Nilton Santos
Botafogo wore simple stripes for most of the 1960s and '70s and had some incredible players wearing them, none more so than the incomparable Garrincha. The inclusion of the stunning lone star badge (a nod to Botafogo's inception as a rowing club) elevates this shirt.
43. ARSENAL (home)
Seasons worn: 2019-20
Notable players in this kit: Mesut Ozil (pictured), Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang, Alexandre Lacazette
Based on the kit from the title-winning 1988-89 season, Adidas somehow managed to make the 2019-20 update even better than the original. It was the first time in 25 years that the German manufacturer had returned to make the Gunners' kits, so it made sense to go back to a classic. Former Arsenal star Ian Wright leaked the kit on Instagram before it was officially launched, although that slip of the thumb ramped up the pre-release clamour and sales went up an incredible 84% on the previous season's strip.
42. TOTTENHAM HOTSPUR (away)
Seasons worn: 1994-95
Notable players in this kit: Jurgen Klinsmann (pictured), Teddy Sheringham, Gheorghe Popescu
Think of Klinsmann's one full season at Tottenham (he would return on loan in 1997-98 to help steer the club clear of relegation) and you'll probably think of him in Umbro kit, with its navy blue backing and dark purple brush stroke pattern on the front and one arm. Wearing it when he scored on his Spurs debut, he celebrated by theatrically throwing himself to the floor in a riposte to criticism from those in the British press who had accused him in the past of diving.
41. COLOMBIA (home)
Seasons worn: World Cup 2018
Notable players in this kit: Radamel Falcao (pictured), James Rodriguez, Juan Cuadrado
Adidas decided to go retro in 2018; almost all of their World Cup kits were nods to previous designs. Colombia's was an updated version of their 1990 effort. It was one of the most popular kits of the tournament. Los Cafeteros did exactly as well as they did in Italia '90, too, reaching the round of 16.
40. INTER MILAN (away)
Seasons worn: 1995-96
Notable players in this kit: Maurizio Ganz (pictured), Roberto Carlos, Javier Zanetti, Paul Ince
Not a memorable season for Inter as they finished seventh, had three managers and went out of the UEFA Cup in the first round to Lugano. But they did it all looking resplendent in their white away kit with jazzy black and blue panels on the shoulders that had flashes of their badge in gold.
39. VISSEL KOBE (home)
Seasons worn: 2020
Notable players in this kit: Andres Iniesta (pictured), David Villa
These maroon and white diamonds show that innovations in football shirts are still possible in 2020. Japanese club Vissel Kobe had never had this diamond pattern on their kit before but wore this look for the first time back in January for their Emperor Cup final clash with Kashima Antlers. It worked as they won 2-0, although they may have had more to do with Iniesta and Villa playing for them.
38. TOTTENHAM HOTSPUR (home)
Seasons worn: 1985-87
Notable players in this kit: Glenn Hoddle (pictured), Chris Waddle, Diego Maradona
When Hummel became Spurs' kit manufacturer in 1985, they made a splash by bucking almost a century of tradition with the introduction of navy to the front of the kit. The classic Hummel chevrons were there too, down the arm. They changed the shorts from navy to white, which was another big departure. And no, that's not a typo, Diego Maradona really did play for Tottenham in this kit, during Ossie Ardiles' testimonial against Inter Milan in May 1986.
37. REAL MADRID (home)
Seasons worn: 1994-96
Notable players in this kit: Fernando Redondo (pictured), Clarence Seedorf, Raul, Fernando Hierro, Michael Laudrup
This kit is all about manufacturer Kelme, a tiny Spanish company more known for its cycling apparel that supplied shirts for European football giants. Their iconic little paw print down the sleeves is certainly distinctive. Kelme now provide kits for Premier League side Watford.
36. GREMIO (home)
Seasons worn: 1963
Notable players in this kit: Everaldo (pictured)
Gremio's club colours were originally inspired by those of English club Exeter City. After various different versions, they landed on black-and-blue stripes with white piping in 1928. The gold star above the Porto Alegre-based club's crest is in honour of legendary full-back Everaldo, who won the World Cup with Brazil in 1970.
35. LIVERPOOL (away)
Seasons worn: 1995-96
Notable players in this kit: Steve McManaman (pictured), Robbie Fowler, John Barnes, Jamie Redknapp
Liverpool first had a taste of green as their away kit four years earlier but really pushed the boat out with this quartered kit design. They wore this kit in the 1996 FA Cup final defeat to bitter rivals Manchester United. However, it is the awful cream suits worn by Jamie Redknapp, David James and the rest of Liverpool's "Spice Boys" upon arriving at Wembley that live longest in the memory from that day.
34. AS MONACO (home)
Seasons worn: 1984-85
Notable players in this kit: Daniel Bravo (pictured), Philippe Anziani, Bernard Genghini
Monaco's distinctive kit template was designed by Oscar-winning actress Grace Kelly, who became Princess Grace of Monaco when she married Prince Rainier III in 1956. Her royal duties included designing the fledgling AS Monaco's kit, changing their red-and-white stripes to the diagonal they wear today. It had an instant impact, as they won their first French championship a year later. This 1985 version by Adidas is one of the best incarnations.
33. RAYO VALLECANO (third)
Seasons worn: 2015-16
Notable players in this kit: Pablo Hernandez (pictured), Razvan Rat, Bebe
A club known for their strides toward social justice, Madrid-based Rayo put a rainbow on their 2015-16 third kit, with each colour representing a different marginalised group in society. Red for those tackling cancer, orange for disabled people, yellow for "those who have lost hope," green for people striving to protect the environment, blue for those fighting against child abuse and pink for the victims of domestic violence, while the rainbow itself was support for the LGBT community. They donated €7 from the sale of each shirt to charities fighting for each cause.
32. AC MILAN (home)
Seasons worn: 1990-92
Notable players in this kit: Marco van Basten (pictured), Ruud Gullit, Frank Rijkaard
Milan's clubs must surely be the most consistent purveyors of quality uniforms out there, perhaps no surprise as they are based in one of the world's fashion capitals. This one, from 1990 to '92, with its untouched black-and-red stripes echoed in the collar and tiny Adidas trefoil, is an exemplary incarnation of one of world football's most iconic kits.
31. ARGENTINA (away)
Seasons worn: World Cup 1986
Notable players in this kit: Diego Maradona (pictured), Jorge Valdano, Daniel Passarella
Look away now, England fans, it's the kit that Diego Maradona wore when he punched the ball into Peter Shilton's goal and somehow got away with what would become known as his "Hand of God" goal. Maradona also scored one of the greatest solo goals ever a few minutes later. And, according to FIFA, the story behind this particular shirt also involves Maradona. Argentina coach Carlos Bilardo decided the blue cotton Aertex shirts would not be comfortable in the scorching sunshine of Mexico City. So, hours before the game, he instructed one of his coaches to head to a local sports store and buy something lighter. The coach brought back two blue kits and Maradona got to decide. He pointed to one and said: "That's a nice jersey. We'll beat England in that."
30. CORINTHIANS (third)
Seasons worn: 2018-19
Notable players in this kit: Mateus Vital (pictured), Douglas, Jadson, Gabriel
When football meets Formula 1. Motor racing legend Ayrton Senna was a big Corinthians fan, and in 2018, the Sao Paulo club released a third shirt honouring the 30th anniversary of the Formula 1 racing legend's first world championship, an event still cherished by Brazilians. The kit included the trademark black and gold of Senna's Lotus F1 cars, 41 golden lines representing the number of victories he achieved and his signature in place of a sponsor across the front.
29. UNITED STATES (away)
Seasons worn: World Cup 1994
Notable players in this kit: Alexi Lalas (pictured), Cobi Jones, Roy Wegerle, Eric Wynalda
When the World Cup rocked up to the U.S. in 1994, Adidas and U.S. Soccer wanted to produce a memorable kit for the hosts. They certainly managed it with this shirt that is supposed to look like denim -- and, originally was intended to be made of denim. When the players were shown it, Lalas assumed it was a prank, later admitting: "I'd be lying if I said people weren't looking around for the hidden camera." And yet, the denim print (which was literally photocopied from the original design) with floating stars has since come to represent that tournament perfectly: unapologetically brash, wild and memorable.
28. BARCELONA (away)
Seasons worn: 1995-97
Notable players in this kit: Ronaldo (pictured), Pep Guardiola, Luis Figo, Hristo Stoichkov, Luis Enrique
This jersey's teal oblongs with red and blue flourishes, matched with classic Kappa logo down the sleeves, ensured Ronaldo looked good during his one season at Barcelona, when he won the FIFA World Player of the Year award for the first time.
27. AUSTRALIA (home)
Seasons worn: 1990-93
Notable players in this kit: Robbie Slater (pictured), Kevin Muscat, Tony Vidmar, Ned Zelic
Just as great art isn't always appreciated in the artist's lifetime, this abstract kit was widely derided upon its release but has gone on to become a cult classic. Designed by KingRoo, each jersey was actually slightly different from the last as they weren't able to regulate the print across a range of sizes. At the time, opposition players refused to swap shirts after games, but Aussie fans have since come to love what they have dubbed the "spew shirt" due to its unruly brushstrokes and bright colours. The Socceroos qualified for the 1992 Olympics, where they just missed out on bronze, wearing it.
26. JAPAN (home)
Seasons worn: World Cup 1998
Notable players in this kit: Hidetoshi Nakata (pictured)
Flames on the arms. Flames on the actual arms. Japan started using that distinctive motif on their kit in 1996. Asics provided the kit for the 1996 Olympics, but Adidas became the kit sponsor for the 1998 World Cup and stuck with the same design.
25. AJAX (home)
Seasons worn: 1994-95
Notable players in this kit: Frank Rijkaard (pictured), Patrick Kluivert, Edgar Davids, Marc Overmars, Clarence Seedorf
Ajax have such an iconic kit that you could pick one from any season and it would make the list. The 1994-95 season was just as good for Ajax on the pitch -- they won the Champions League, Eredivisie and Johan Cruyff Shield -- as it was for their kits. The Amsterdam giants kept the distinctive sponsor logo of Dutch bank ABN-AMRO turned on its side until 2008.
24. LAZIO (home)
Seasons worn: 1998-99
Notable players in this kit: Christian Vieri (pictured), Roberto Mancini, Diego Simeone, Pavel Nedved, Juan Veron
Around the turn of the century, Lazio had some great players in some superb kits. But this one, with its black band across the chest, was so good they recommissioned this season to mark the club's 120th anniversary. Back in 1999, they won the Supercoppa Italiana, UEFA Cup Winners Cup and came in second in Serie A before going on to win the league the following year.
23. WEST HAM UNITED (home)
Seasons worn: 1999-2001
Notable players in this kit: Paolo Di Canio (pictured), Trevor Sinclair
For those who saw it at the time, it's impossible to look at this West Ham kit without thinking of *that* Di Canio goal against Wimbledon. The mercurial Italian scored 47 Premier League goals in his 3½ years wearing claret and blue. He is still clinging on to that club record with Hammers captain Mark Noble just one goal behind him.
22. MANCHESTER UNITED (away)
Seasons worn: 1990-92
Notable players in this kit: Mark Hughes (pictured), Paul Ince, Brian McClair, Dennis Irwin
This snazzy blue-and-white zigzag design has aged remarkably well. United were on the cusp of greatness at the time having just won the FA Cup, their first trophy under Sir Alex Ferguson, and in the two years with this away kit, they won the Cup Winners' Cup, League Cup and European Super Cup. The following season, they won the first of their 13 league titles under Ferguson.
21. AS ROMA (third)
Seasons worn: 2019-20
Notable players in this kit: Justin Kluivert (pictured), Edin Dzeko, Chris Smalling
This kit somehow manages to be incredibly retro but also very modern at the same time. From the chunky collar to the old-school Nike logo, this shirt ticks every box for your kit-loving millennial. There is a subtle pattern in the fabric that features elements of several iterations of Roma's badge, including the iconic Lupetto ("little wolf") and the club's initials.
20. SANTOS (home)
Seasons worn: 1963-66
Notable players in this kit: Pele (pictured)
Shortly after Santos were founded in 1912 their owners decided to change the club's colours from white, azure blue and golden lemon to a simpler white with black trim. Thank goodness they did. This mid-'60s kit, with its plunging V-neck and eye-catching black badge, was worn with distinction by a young lad called Pele.
19. PALERMO (home)
Seasons worn: 2014-15
Notable players in this kit: Paulo Dybala (pictured)
Get ready for the most poetic colour choice of any team ever. Palermo had previously worn red-and-blue shirts, but Count Giuseppe Airoldi, a prominent founding member of the club, suggested pink and black as they are "colours of the sad and the sweet" and would suit a football team with "results as up and down as a Swiss clock." You could pick any Palermo kit really, but this one from 2014-15 wins it for us.
18. BARCELONA (home)
Seasons worn: 1976-78
Notable players in this kit: Johan Cruyff (pictured), Johan Neeskens
Barcelona do red-and-blue better than any other. At the time of this kit there were no sponsors (which Barca resisted all the way into the 21st century) or even kit manufacturer logos. The only thing that seemed to change was the collar, which went from V-neck to rounded and back again. Barca didn't win much during this period, despite having the likes of Cruyff and Neeskens in their ranks, but they looked great nonetheless.
17. ITALY (home)
Seasons worn: Euro 2000
Notable players in this kit: Alessandro Del Piero (pictured), Francesco Totti, Alessandro Nesta, Fabio Cannavaro, Paolo Maldini
The '90s was a decade of near-misses and disappointments for Italy on the pitch, but it gave them some incredible kits, and that continued into the new millennium with their much-hyped Euro 2000 shirts. The Azzurri went from Nike back to Italian brand Kappa, who started the trend for slimmer-fitting shirts with these skin-tight "Kombat" kits. The players all wore one size up to get a comfy fit and it nearly paid off as they reached the Euro 2000 final, but lost in extra time to world champions France.
16. BARCELONA (away)
Seasons worn: 1975-76
Notable players in this kit: Johan Neeskens (pictured), Johan Cruyff
Back to Barcelona for this iconic away strip, which proudly displays the club's heritage with the colours of Catalonia's Senyera flag -- yellow, red and blue -- into a classic sash. This colour combination has been used a fair few times since, including another sash design this season, but the stripped-back '70s version with red-and-blue cuffs and no collar can't be beat.
15. BOCA JUNIORS (Home)
Seasons worn: 1981-82
Notable players in this kit: Diego Maradona (pictured)
Maradona only spent one season at Boca Juniors at the start of his career (he would return toward the end), but what a season. He helped them to the Argentina title and a 3-0 win over archrivals River Plate in his first Superclasico. He did it all in this Adidas kit, with its thick yellow band, no sponsor and four stars bearing the initials "CABJ" (Club Atletico Boca Juniors). The club originally played in sky blue, but settled on blue and yellow in the early 20th century after taking inspiration from the Swedish flag flying on a ship docked in the Buenos Aires port of La Boca.
14. PARMA (home)
Seasons worn: 1998-99
Notable players in this kit: Fabio Cannavaro (pictured), Juan Veron, Lilian Thuram, Hernan Crespo
Parma were historically a relatively small and unsuccessful Italian club, but they burst on to the scene in 1990 by landing promotion to the top flight for the first time. Over the next decade they won seven trophies including both the UEFA Cup and Coppa Italia in 1998-99, though this marked the first time they had ever worn yellow-and-blue hoops. Their traditional home kit of white shirts with blue-and-yellow trim or a navy cross was originally influenced by Juventus. But as the Turin giants had become their Serie A rivals in the '90s, Parma made the change, as they wanted to forge their own identity.
13. NEWCASTLE UNITED (home)
Seasons worn: 1995-97
Notable players in this kit: David Ginola (pictured), Alan Shearer, David Batty, Les Ferdinand, Faustino Asprilla
There is so much to love about this shirt; the black-and-white "bar code" stripes, that button-up collar that went halfway down the shirt, the sponsorship by Newcastle Brown Ale. Newcastle twice came close to winning the Premier League in this kit, and it was also their home kit at the time when Kevin Keegan had *that* outburst live on TV. He, and Newcastle, were never quite the same after that, and neither were the Magpies' kits.
12. JUVENTUS (away)
Seasons worn: 1995-96
Notable players in this kit: Fabrizio Ravanelli (pictured), Alessandro Del Piero, Gianluca Vialli, Antonio Conte
It's a tradition in Italian football that when you've won your 10th Serie A title you get to have a golden star on your jersey. Most teams put them modestly above their badge, but when you're as confident as Juventus, why not slap giant stars on your shoulders? That's exactly what shirt makers Kappa did for two seasons from 1994 to 1996, a spell where they won four trophies, including the Champions League in 1996. That shirt, with Sony replacing Danone as shirt sponsor, and the Scudetto badge under two more little gold stars rather than the Juventus logo, was sheer perfection.
11. ARGENTINA (home)
Seasons worn: World Cup 1982
Notable players in this kit: Ossie Ardiles (pictured), Diego Maradona, Mario Kempes, Daniel Passarella
Not a vintage World Cup for defending champions Argentina, as they were knocked out in the second group stage, but the kit they wore doing so was their best. The Albiceleste (white and sky blue) stripes had a new Argentina crest for that tournament and, unusually, squad numbers assigned in alphabetical order. Attacking midfielder Ossie Ardiles was No. 1 and goalkeeper Ubaldo Fillol took No. 7. A 21-year-old Maradona should have been No. 12 but was given his preferred No. 10, with Patricio Hernandez having to give that up.
10. ENGLAND (third)
Seasons worn: 1991
Notable players in this kit: Dennis Wise (pictured), John Barnes, Gary Lineker
The only kit in the ranking that is more famous for being in a music video than worn on the pitch. New Order's Bernard Sumner has actually worn this shirt as many times as the England players after he donned it in the video to "World In Motion," England's official 1990 World Cup song that included Barnes rapping. The blue jersey, with its multi-layered rhombus pattern, was officially the third kit for the tournament and was never worn in Italy. It was only ever worn once, for a Euro '92 qualifier in Turkey a year later. England won 1-0, making Wise the only player to ever score a goal in this shirt.
9. NETHERLANDS (home)
Seasons worn: World Cup 1978
Notable players in this kit: Johan Neeskens (pictured), Johnny Rep, Wim Jansen
Netherlands were one of the first teams to adopt Adidas in the early '70s. Their striking orange kit with black trim has become iconic. While the team wore these tops with the classic three stripes down the arms, Cruyff's only ever had two stripes because of a clash with his personal Puma deal. That was not an issue at the 1978 World Cup, as Cruyff didn't go to Argentina. Despite guiding the Dutch to the finals, he quit international football after a terrifying kidnap attempt at the family home when he was held at gunpoint. Netherlands made the final but lost to the hosts.
8. JUVENTUS (home)
Seasons worn: 1985-86
Notable players in this kit: Michel Platini (pictured), Gaetano Scirea, Michael Laudrup
No one is better known for black-and-white stripes than Juventus, even though they got the design from English club Notts County back in 1903, having previously worn pink kits that kept fading in the wash. The best has to be this one from the mid-'80s. And in Platini, a star to do the Bianconeri kit justice, two stars to represent more than 20 league titles, giant collar, bold sponsor logo of Italian heating systems supplier Ariston, and the Kappa icon. They won Serie A for the 22nd time wearing this, and Platini retired a year later.
7. ARSENAL (away)
Seasons worn: 1991-93
Notable players in this kit: Ian Wright (pictured), Tony Adams, Paul Merson
Arguably the most memorable English kit of the '90s was another that made the journey from figure of fun to cult classic. Known as the "Bruised Banana," which sounds more like a wrestling move than a football shirt, the jersey took its nickname from its strong black-and-yellow horizontal zigzag. Arsenal won the FA Cup and League Cup with stars like Wright wearing it, and it is linked inextricably with that success. Arsenal released a new version last summer. Such was the appetite among supporters that the club's website crashed within minutes of it going on sale.
6. CRYSTAL PALACE (away)
Seasons worn: 1975-77
Notable players in this kit: Dave Swindlehurst (pictured), Peter Taylor
We've had a lot of sashes on this list, but the team most associated with it in England is probably Crystal Palace. They are the only team in this ranking to feature while playing in the third tier, as they were in 1976 when they first wore this classic red-and-blue sash on white. It was designed by flamboyant manager Malcolm Allison, who had also changed the club's colours from claret and light blue to scarlet and royal blue three years earlier. They played in the FA Cup semifinals, the last team from that far down the league to do so, wearing this away kit. It was so popular they made it their home kit for the following season, and within two years were in the top flight. The club badge and kit-maker logo swapping sides just adds to the magic.
5. PERU (home)
Seasons worn: World Cup 1978
Notable players in this kit: Teofilo Cubillas (pictured)
The global pioneers of the sash were Peru, with a look so iconic it is now woven into the country's fabric. According to Peruvian historian Jaime Pulgar-Vidal Otalora: "The national team's jersey has been part of Peru's identity, so much so that many think it's a national symbol." Peru have been wearing a red sash on white since the 1936 Olympics in Berlin, but it was the 1970 World Cup -- the first on colour TV -- that brought it to the masses. However, it was the 1978 tournament in Argentina where they had their first official kit-maker in Adidas, and they really nailed it.
4. BRESCIA (away)
Seasons worn: 2003-04
Notable players in this kit: Roberto Baggio (pictured), Luigi Di Biagio
This kit is iconic for two main reasons; the "V" on the front and man who wore No. 10 on the back. This was Baggio's last season as a footballer after a 22-year career and the 36-year-old led Brescia to 11th in Serie A, scoring 12 goals in 26 games. Their kits that year were made by Kappa and, while it was the classic white chevron on blue for the home kit, it was the away kit that caught the eye. Combined with Baggio's multi-coloured captain's armband and that ponytail, the kit was a classic. The designs stems back to 1927 when they added "V" so that the team could use a new stadium that was built for another team called Virtus. Brescia retired his No.10 shirt after this season, and quite right too.
3. DENMARK (home)
Seasons worn: World Cup 1986
Notable players in this kit: Michael Laudrup (pictured), Morten Olsen
Hummel's bold design for Denmark's 1986 World Cup campaign was initially met with anger but is now beloved. It quickly became known as the "Carnival Suit" among indignant journalists, with one, Per Hoyer Hansen, saying: "Others would use such rags for kitchen drapes." The players were less damning, with captain Morten Olsen calling it "a breath of fresh air." It didn't matter what they thought, as the Danish fans in Mexico absolutely loved the white-and-dark red pinstripe blocks with chevrons down the arms, decking themselves out in homemade pinstripes. The template was later adapted for Aston Villa, Southampton, Coventry City, Feyenoord and Sporting Lisbon but the Danes wore it best.
2. NAPOLI (home)
Seasons worn: 1985-86
Notable players in this kit: Diego Maradona (pictured)
Some kits are synonymous with a single player, and with any mid-'80s Napoli shirt, it can only be one man you think of: Maradona. He arrived in Naples in 1984 after a tumultuous two seasons at Barcelona, and within three years had led the Azzurri to their first ever championship. The light blue, short-sleeved, polo-style home shirt sponsored by chocolate bar Mars may be the one everyone remembers, it was actually the kit bearing the name of pasta sauce-makers Buitoni that they were wearing when they lifted their first title in 1987.
Note the lovely switch of the Napoli badge and kit-maker Ennerre. They were the company of former footballer Nicola Raccuglia, who pioneered designs that were more like casual clothes. He made most top Italian clubs' kits during this period and used his initials on the kits instead of a logo (Ennerre literally translating as "NR" in Italian).
1. SAMPDORIA (home)
Seasons worn: 1990-92
Notable players in this kit: Roberto Mancini (pictured), Gianluca Vialli, Pietro Vierchowod, Attilio Lombardo
A fourth Italian kit in the top 10 and an instantly recognisable one to top our ranking. Sampdoria might not have the trophy haul of Juventus or Milan, but they have this incredible shirt to make up for that. The white, black and red band across the torso on a blue shirt is a nod to the club's origins with a merger between two teams; Sampierdarenese (red and black) and Andrea Doria (white and blue with a shield bearing a St. George cross).
This particular Asics kit was also worn during Samp's most successful period, during which they won their first and only Scudetto. That silhouette on the shoulder is of Baciccia, whose name is derived from the Italian name for John the Baptist, the patron saint of both sailors and the city of Genoa. He was unveiled in 1980 and referenced, bizarrely, by Donald Duck in the pages of Topolino, a licensed Disney comic sold by Panini. Baciccia was placed on the sleeves by Errenne (him again) in 1980, leaving space for the Italian shield that teams who have won the Scudetto get to wear the following season on the chest, as Mancini is modelling here.
Additional writing and research by Tony Mabert