text:
Locales in GLIBC
- Introduction
- Overview
- Using Locales
- Developing with Locales
- GLIBC Locale Internals
- Creating and Updating Locale Data
- References
1. Introduction
This page provides an introduction to locales in general and a more detailed description on how to use locales (both as a user and a developer) and how to create and update actual locale definition files with the GNU C Library.
2. Overview
Locales in short are collections of language and country specific conventions allowing to adapt software to the user's preferences.
Each locale has following categories to specify related conventions which can then be selected for use by the user:
- LC_IDENTIFICATION - this is not a user-visible category, it contains information about the locale itself and is rarely useful for users or developers (but is listed here for completeness sake).
- LC_CTYPE - this category applies to classification and conversion of characters and is relevant when dealing with non-ASCII characters.
- LC_COLLATE - this category applies to collation of strings and is relevant when processing strings or text in a certain language.
- LC_TIME - this category applies to formatting date and time values, for example whether to present the current time in 12 or 24 hour format.
- LC_NUMERIC - this category applies to formatting numeric values that are not monetary, for example the decimal separator.
- LC_MONETARY - this category applies to formatting monetary values, for example the currency symbol.
- LC_MESSAGES - this category applies to selecting the language used in the user interface for message translations and defines expressions for affirmative and negative responses. The software providing the user interface must provide the actual message translations for the selected language for LC_MESSAGES to have the desired effect.
- LC_PAPER - this category applies to selecting the paper size (A4 or US).
- LC_MEASUREMENT - this category applies to selecting the measurement system (metric or US).
- LC_NAME - this category applies to represent a person's name and title.
- LC_ADDRESS - this category applies to postal addresses and country and language names.
- LC_TELEPHONE - this category applies to formatting telephone numbers.
The locales of the GNU C library are named using the pattern ll_CC.SSS where ll refers to language, CC refers to country, and SSS refers to the character set to use. For example, the English language as used in Canada using the UTF-8 character set is to be referenced as en_CA.UTF-8. (For more information on characters sets, see charsets(7) and http://www.joelonsoftware.com/articles/Unicode.html.)
3. Using Locales
The user wishing to use one or more of the above categories can take them in use by defining the corresponding environment variables, for example in the ~/.i18n file which is used on many systems automatically.
There are two additional environment variables which are considered when selecting locales - LANG and LC_ALL. LANG sets the default locale for all categories which can be then overridden by defining additional selected categories. LC_ALL forces the locale for all categories and the selection cannot be overridden. Using LC_ALL is mostly recommended in scripts only (for example, to make sure characters and collation are as the developer was expecting regardless of the user's preferences), while LANG in general should be preferred for the flexibility it provides.
The following example sets the default locale as Mexican Spanish, then sets collation rules to be based on the standard C locale, and finally sets monetary formatting to follow US conventions.
LANG=es_MX.UTF-8 LC_COLLATE=C LC_MONETARY=en_US.UTF-8
Since above LANG is defined but LC_MESSAGES is left undefined, message translations will use Mexican Spanish. The same logic goes for the other undefined categories, like LC_TIME, too.
The user can use custom locales by compiling them with localedef(1) and loading them from a directory pointed by LOCPATH; see the GNU C Library online manual at Locale Names, the locale(1) manual page, and the Testing Locales section below for details and examples.
4. Developing with Locales
The online GNU C Library manual provides a good starting point for developers creating applications supporting locales. At least the following pages are relevant:
Linux manual pages were greatly improved during 2014 and are now more or less complete, the following pages serve as a good starting point:
Application developers should note that while some of the resulting strings (like int_curr_symbol of LC_MONETARY) are required to be of certain length other resulting strings may vary, especially between locales (see this and this email for examples). Thus, testing applications with several locales is recommended to make sure different length strings do not cause inconsistencies in user experience.
5. GLIBC Locale Internals
The locale API and definitions of concrete locales are a rather individual part of the GNU C Library; related to this is the subsystem dealing with various charsets and converting between them.
locale/ directory contains the source for the locale API and support tools (localedef, locale, ...).
localedata/ directory (semi-independent with its own README) contains the localedata/locales/ definitions of the set of locales available on a default GNU system, the localedata/charmaps/ character maps for available charsets, a testsuite, and few helper files.
iconv/ directory contains the source for the iconv charset conversion API and duct-tape for gconv modules implementing concrete charsets.
iconvdata/ directory contains the modules for the concrete charsets themselves.
6. Creating and Updating Locale Data
Please keep in mind the following before starting to work on glibc locales. If in doubt, send a question to libc-alpha/libc-locales mailing lists.
6.1. Qualifications
The glibc maintainers cannot easily judge on their own if your new version is correct.
- If your proposed contribution is a non-trivial change, you should get an approval from the locale maintainer or the original creator.
- In case they are unreachable or there is a dispute, you should cite authoritative references and/or multiple widely used websites (government pages or websites of major national newspapers are good choices).
- If the change is not clear-cut, for example you want to switch between two common usages, it is good to gather (and link to) feedback from local user community.
If at all possible, the proposed changes should be aligned with the data in the Unicode Common Locale Data Repository, CLDR - http://cldr.unicode.org/.
It is probably most convenient to review CLDR data via the web interface, for example the CLDR version 26 Finnish data is available at http://www.unicode.org/repos/cldr-aux/charts/26/summary/fi.html - change the version number and the language code as needed to see the data relevant to you
The locale definitions are in a specific file format; it is described below and in the manual pages, please read them both for complete understanding.
6.2. Locale File Format
The locale definition are in a specific file format; most relevant notes can be found from the locale(5) manual page. POSIX also describes the format and some fields, but not all that are commonly used in glibc (e.g. week start definitions). Most numbers and strings in the glibc locale files use Unicode entity specifications instead of plain characters, for the exceptions refer to other locale files and locale(5). When working with a locale, to quickly inspect the file just do gcc -o show-ucs-data localedata/show-ucs-data.c (no need to do any build preparation for this, not even ./configure) and then just ./show-ucs-data localedata/locales/en_US to print out the data in more readable form.
One additional resource describing locale categories and category members is the ISO/IEC TR 14652:2002(E) Technical Report (PDF). However, some members are described below to address some glibc specific requirements and formatting issues. In case of doubt, please refer to manual pages, other glibc locales for examples, or send a question to libc-alpha/libc-locales mailing lists.
6.2.1. Comments
You should provide plenty of comments in the locale file, both about the individual members of each category and also any relevant references. If something is left undefined on purpose, the reason should be stated.
This category is pretty much self-explaining. You should be able to fill this category by using other locales as examples.
This category deals with character sets and transliteration rules both most often based on Unicode standards. It defines for example what characters are considered to be alphabetic or how to transliterate characters from one encoding to another. See locale(5) and other locales for inspiration how to implement these rules. See the Testing Locales section below for tips how to verify implementation.
In many/most countries and languages there are official guidelines and standards on collation rules. Often these are based on the well-known ISO 14651 standard or on the Unicode collation algorithm. See other locales for inspiration how to implement the required collation rules. See the Testing Locales section below for tips how to verify that the implementation matches the relevant standards. Note also bug 14095.
This is one of the most often used categories. The non-obvious members of this category are as follows:
am_pm and t_fmt_ampm - should be empty if using 24 hour time
week DAYSINWEEK;WEEKSTARTDATE;MINWEEKLEN - DAYSINWEEK is usually 7; MINWEEKLEN is the minimal length of the first week in year (usually 4). WEEKSTARTDATE is most confusing - it should be some date that corresponds to the beginning of a week. It is typically either 19971130 (Sunday) or 19971201 (Monday), the former being used almost by all glibc locales (see below).
first_weekday N - number of day in the week to be shown in the first column of a calendar. Defaults to 1 (Sunday).
first_workday N - number of the first working day in the week. Defaults to 2 (Monday).
Furthermore, there is the question of the abday and day keywords and which day of week should the lists start with. Specs say Sunday, but they do not mention any of the week start specifiers. Applications aware of these tend to interpret the abday and day lists in a more complicated way.
The tricky thing is how to reconcile information from WEEKSTARTDATE and first_weekday. PetrBaudis wrote some lenghty treatises about this on libc-locales; we present the outcome and thus our de facto current interpretation:
WEEKSTARTDATE specifies the base of the abday and day lists
first_weekday specifies the offset of the first day-of-week in the abday and day lists
For compatibility reasons, all locales should set WEEKSTARTDATE on 19971130 (Sunday) and base the abday and day lists appropriately, and set first_weekday 1 or 2 depending to whether their week actually starts on Sunday or Monday.
Thus, for example en_GB definition (English locale with week starting on Monday) is:
week 7;19971130;4 first_weekday 2 first_workday 2 day "Sunday;Monday;Tuesday;Wednesday;Thursday;Friday;Saturday" abday "Sun;Mon;Tue;Wed;Thu;Fri;Sat"
When your locale is compiled, you can use a simple first_weekday test tool to check the day definitions are correct.
This category has only three members. See the manual page, POSIX, and ISO TR 14652 references and e.g. http://h71000.www7.hp.com/doc/73final/6494/6494pro_003.html for more information on grouping.
This category is well described in the manual page, POSIX, and ISO TR 14652 references.
Note that if a locale uses a new, previously undefined currency, it should be added to locale/iso-4217.def.
This category defines regular expressions to be accepted as positive or negative response and equivalents of yes and no.
In yesstr and nostr the beginning should reflect whether the beginning of the word is capitalized or in lowercase. This is in line with other specifications in glibc locales, where e.g. day names and month names reflect the use of lower and upper case as prescribed in dictionaries, which records the canonical form of the word or phrase. This is also in accordance with use in POSIX and ISO TR 14652, and general guidelines for definitions in ISO/IEC.
Here A4 is 297x210 and US Letter is 279x216.
Rather than define height and width explicitly, locales should copy either the main language for that territory (e.g. most locales in India copy hi_IN), or they should copy i18n (for A4) or en_US (for US Letter).
Here 1 means metric, 2 means US.
Rather than define measurement explicitly, locales should copy either the main language for that territory (e.g. most locales in India copy hi_IN), or they should copy i18n (for metric) or en_US (for US).
Keep in mind that the measurement field reflects the "main" unit system. Some territories use metric for distances & weights, but Fahrenheit for temperature. In these cases, it should be configured for metric.
This category is well explained in the manual page, POSIX, and ISO TR 14652.
name_fmt should be always defined, other members only if they are commonly used.
This category is explained in the manual page, POSIX, and ISO TR 14652. The following notes apply for glibc locales:
country_ab2, country_ab3 - two/three-letter ISO 3166 country code
country_name, lang_name - country, language name in this language
country_num - ISO 3166 numeric code in simple numbers without quotes (others like country_isbn are quoted Unicode points as usual)
country_car - international licence plate country code
lang_ab - two-letter ISO 639 code if available, empty if not (when only three-letter code is available)
lang_term - three-letter ISO 639-2/T (Terminology) code
lang_lib - three-letter ISO 639-2/B (Bibliographic) code
Note that if a locale uses a new, previously undefined country and/or language code, they should be added to locale/iso-3166.def and/or to locale/iso-639.def.
Applications should prefer lang_term over lang_lib. There are 20 specific ISO 639-2/B codes, both ISO 639-2/T and ISO 639-2/B are listed at http://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/langhome.html.
This category is well explained in the manual page, POSIX, and ISO TR 14652.
6.3. Testing Locales
After modifying a locale, make sure it compiles, and install it to a temporary directory for testing. The following example is ran on the glibc source tree root:
LOCALE=fi_FI export LOCPATH=$HOME/locale-test/ mkdir -p $LOCPATH I18NPATH=./localedata/ localedef -f UTF-8 -i $LOCALE $LOCPATH/$LOCALE.UTF-8 LC_ALL=$LOCALE.UTF-8 locale -ck LC_TIME LC_ALL=$LOCALE.UTF-8 locale -ck date_fmt LC_ALL=$LOCALE.UTF-8 date LC_ALL=$LOCALE.UTF-8 iconv -f UTF-8 -t ASCII//TRANSLIT < translit-test-input.txt LC_ALL=$LOCALE.UTF-8 sort < sorting-test-input.txt
These commands prepare a user directory for testing a locale, compile and install the locale, show contents of a category and a value of a certain keyword, and run commands which use different categories. Note that if the locale uses a new country, currency, or language code (see the LC_MONETARY and LC_ADDRESS sections above for details) then it needs to be compiled with localedef utility compiled in the glibc build directory.
If you have set up glibc compilation environment, you can mass-test compilation of all locales by installing to the locale archive and then installing the individual files into their respective directories (exercises both kinds of installs):
make localedata/install-locales DESTDIR=<PATH> make localedata/install-locale-files DESTDIR=<PATH>
The data in the locale-archive file will be used preferentially. If you want to test the installed files you need to remove the locale-archive or install the files in an alternate location and use LOCPATH to locate them. Lastly, note that invoking <prefix>/bin/localedef manually will of course install to the configured --prefix path (unless you use an absolute path as the output).
See localedata/README and localedef(1) for more information about localedef(1).
6.4. Contributing
See Contribution checklist for complete contributing instructions.
When contributing locale updates, always try to get in touch with the locale maintainer first; if this is unsuccessful, try to describe the changes you have made, and (this is important) provide some proofs that this reflects common usage - e.g. local government or big newspapers sites, references to language norms, etc.
Please test your changes before submitting them, see above for testing instructions.
6.5. Miscellaneous Information
6.5.1. Charsets
The iconv conversion internally always works by converting from source charset to UCS-4 and then from UCS-4 to the target charset. This implies that the charset modules need to implement only to/from Unicode mapping, and that characters not in Unicode are not convertable (luckily, this seems to be currently the case only for few obscure ancient kanji characters).
Most of the charsets are simple (single-byte with direct 1-1 Unicode mapping). .c files for these are trivial, depending on data provided by .h files, autogenerated by iconvdata/gen-8bit.sh from localedata/charmaps/ files at build time.
6.5.2. Transliteration
LC_CTYPE specifies the rules how to transliterate characters from one encoding to another, see the above LC_CTYPE section for more details.
7. References
https://github.com/googlei18n/libaddressinput/wiki/AddressValidationMetadata [https://i18napis.appspot.com/address]


text:
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If you'd like to reach out to Robin, please email her at email@example.com.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Sappho and Phaon: Sonnet III
Turn to yon vale beneath, whose tangled shade
Excludes the blazing torch of noon-day light,
Where sportive Fawns, and dimpled Loves invite,
The bow'r of Pleasure opens to the glade:
Lull'd by soft flutes, on leaves of violets laid,
There witching beauty greets the ravish'd sight,
More gentle than the arbitress of night
In all her silv'ry panoply array'd!
The birds breathe bliss! light zephyrs kiss the ground,
Stealing the hyacinth's divine perfume;
While from the pellucid fountains glitt'ring round,
small tinkling rills bid rival flow'rets bloom!
HERE, laughing Cupids bathe the bosom's wound;
THERE, tyrant passion finds a glorious tomb!
This poem appeared in Poem-A-Day on March 23, 2013. Browse the Poem-A-Day archive. This poem is in the public domain.


text:
Poorly Made, "Doogal" Should Stay in the Memory Box
- Annabelle Robertson Entertainment Critic
- 2006 22 May
DVD Release Date: May 16, 2006
Rating: G
Genre: Animated Action/Adventure (Children's)
Run Time: 85 min.
Directors: Jean Duval, Frank Passingham, Dave Borthwick
Actors: Daniale Tay, Ian McKellen, Jon Stewart, Chevy Chase, Whoopi Goldberg, Kevin Smith, Judi Dench, William H. Macy, Jimmy Fallon
It's unfortunate that filmmakers keep cranking out kid movies with little-to-no story, superficial characters, trite dialogue and lousy animation – just because they're kids and, I guess, nobody seems to care. I'm sure that over in Europe, a lot of 40-somethings have really been looking forward to the film version of their favorite childhood TV show, too. So, for you disappointed Frenchies and Brits, I have two words from this side of the pond: "Scooby Doo."
Doogal (voiced by Daniel Tay) is a ditzy little dog who can't stay away from candy or his owner, Florence (Kylie Minogue). When Doogal tries to steal some candy, he causes Florence and her friends to get stuck on a merry-go-round, which is then frozen by an evil sorcerer. The sorcerer's name is Zeebad (Jon Stewart) and he has a tiny little head, a Magnum P.I. mustache, and a spring for a body. (Yes, a spring, as in "boing-boing." Go figure.) Zeebad's body spring looks exactly like the body spring of his adversary, Zebedee (Ian McKellen) – apparently to save them from the hassle of inventing another character. He also has a Magnum P.I. mustache, but he's red, and his special power is fire, whereas Zeebad is blue and uses cold as his special power. Oh, and when they "fight," they bounce around. But wait – it gets even better.
Now Zeebad, who's into freezing, is going after world domination, like most villains, and needs these three diamonds. Diamonds of color, no less – as in blue, pink and yellow. (Which, in my book, would actually make them a sapphire, a garnet and a tiger's eye, respectively. But who cares, right?) Now what these "diamonds" have to do with world domination, much less a merry-go-round, is beyond me. But hey, this is a movie for little kids. So who cares.
After Zeebad freezes the merry-go-round, locking Heather and her friends inside, Doogal goes on a quest for the diamonds, with Zeebad in hot pursuit. He's accompanied by a guitar-playing-stoner-dude (without the pot)-rabbit named Dylan (Jimmy Fallon), an operatic cow named Ermintrude (Whoopi Goldberg) and Brian, the shy snail who adores Ermintrude (William H. Macy). Oh, and let's not forget the moose-with-gas (played by – oh, why am I not surprised – Kevin Smith) and, gee, a train with gas (Chevy Chase), too. Anybody else out there with gas? Because the producers are auditioning for their next film. The more flatulent, the better.
Back to the "plot." The idea is that – follow closely now – if Doogal can get the diamonds, he can save Heather and her friends from freezing to death in the iced-up merry-go-round. Of course, why someone didn't just tap on the ice and break it, I have no idea. It wasn't even thick. But, like I said, who cares. Kids have no brains, right?
Well, if this plot sounds familiar, then bingo! Or, should I say, "boing!" you win world domination. Because, of course, it is a ripped off version of "Lord of the Rings." Only without the good characters, dialogue, acting, direction, cinematography and anything else that can and should create a decent film. Add to that, bad animation and really bad jokes, and you've got "Doogal." Just get a load of some of these pitiful puns:
- "I have a bone to pick with you" (speaking to skeletons).
- "Why do I always get the shaft? Lucky I have tunnel vision" (spoken by the train, while traveling through a tunnel).
- "After winter it's time for spring!" (by one of the two spring characters)
- "You, a guard! You couldn't guard underarm odor!"
- "I was supposed to be your knight in furry armor" (spoken by Dougal, the dog).
Have you had enough yet? Ah, but wait. I still have the worst joke of the film. Are you ready? Here it comes – and I promise I am not making this up: "One spring to rule them all." Aha! Now we know why the villain was a spring. So they could use this joke!
For the sake of more puns, we're also subjected to a litany of pop culture references that include Blue Man Group, Phil Collins, Harry Potter, C.S.I. and the overused phrases of "Whassup?" and "Peace Out!" I guess the screenwriters were trying to emulate the postmodern witticisms of "Shrek," but suffice to say that they did not succeed. The film doesn't even have a decent message. Well, there is something about the importance of friends, but woop-dee-do. Even my three-year-old understands that. And that cliché is still buried among the fart jokes, bad dialogue and brain-numbing plot.
If there is a decent line in the film, it comes from Jon Stewart, when he threatens the snail with garlic butter, or perhaps his comment, "No, Sam. The evil laugh comes from the back of the throat, like this." But honestly, that's it. Even the acting, a stellar lineup of talent if ever there was one (except Tay, who offers a poor Doogal), can't overcome this cinematic catastrophe, which is wrapped in animation that looks like claymation mixed with early '70s cartoon "technology." I mean, the dog doesn't even walk, okay? He hops.)
An Americanized version of "The Magic Roundabout," a popular television show during the '60s on European television stations, "Doogal" – like most remakes – should have just stayed in the old memory box. For good animation with a strong message, instead check out VeggieTale's "Lord of the Beans," a well-made, witty spoof of "Lord of the Rings."
AUDIENCE: 8 and up
- Drugs/Alcohol: None.
- Language/Profanity: None. However, multiple characters rudely pass gas throughout film, without apology or rebuke.
- Violence: Mild peril and discussion about death, as in sorcerer's instructions to guard: "Pain, misery and torment will be on your daily to-do list, and your only break is death."


text: Exemption for attributable taxpayersWarning: This information may not apply to the current year. Check the content carefully to ensure it is applicable to your circumstances. End of attention Apart from the FIF regime, there are two other components of the foreign source income attribution regime: the CFC measures, and the transferor trust measures. These measures attribute specified income and gains of foreign companies and trusts to certain Australian residents - known as attributable taxpayers. If the FIF measures overlap with the other components of the foreign source income regime, the CFC or transferor trust measures apply and, in general, the FIF measures will not apply. However, if a CFC, either directly or through a CFT or transferor trust, holds an interest in a FIF, the FIF measures do apply in working out the attributable income of those entities. [sections 492, 493 and 494] Last modified: 15 May 2020QC 27895


text:
What is the Difference Between XHTML 1.0 Strict and XHTML 1.1?
As some of you (e.g., Louis) may have noticed during the recent site redesign, I decided to switch the default doctype from XHTML 1.0 Strict to XHTML 1.1. Just in case you were wondering, XHTML 1.1 is different than XHTML 1.0 in three important ways1:
- On every element, the
langattribute has been removed in favor of the
- On the
mapelements, the
nameattribute has been removed in favor of the
- The "
ruby" collection of elements has been added
Beyond these three differences, XHTML 1.1 is identical to XHTML 1.0. Personally, I chose to markup my current design with XHTML 1.1 because of its advancement of the web-standards paradigm: complete separation of structure, behavior, and presentation.
- 1 As listed at W3C Working Draft for XHTML 1.1


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text:
Monadology (Leibniz, tr. Latta)
1. The Monad, of which we shall here speak, is nothing but a simple substance, which enters into compounds. By 'simple' is meant 'without parts.' (Theodicy 10.)
2. And there must be simple substances, since there are compounds; for a compound is nothing but a collection or aggregatum of simple things.
3. Now where there are no parts, there can be neither extension nor form [figure] nor divisibility. These Monads are the real atoms of nature and, in a word, the elements of things.
4. No dissolution of these elements need be feared, and there is no conceivable way in which a simple substance can be destroyed by natural means. (Theodicy 89.)
5. For the same reason there is no conceivable way in which a simple substance can come into being by natural means, since it cannot be formed by the combination of parts [composition].
6. Thus it may be said that a Monad can only come into being or come to an end all at once; that is to say, it can come into being only by creation and come to an end only by annihilation, while that which is compound comes into being or comes to an end by parts.
7. Further, there is no way of explaining how a Monad can be altered in quality or internally changed by any other created thing; since it is impossible to change the place of anything in it or to conceive in it any internal motion which could be produced, directed, increased or diminished therein, although all this is possible in the case of compounds, in which there are changes among the parts. The Monads have no windows, through which anything could come in or go out. Accidents cannot separate themselves from substances nor go about outside of them, as the 'sensible species' of the Scholastics used to do. Thus neither substance nor accident can come into a Monad from outside.
8. Yet the Monads must have some qualities, otherwise they would not even be existing things. And if simple substances did not differ in quality, there would be absolutely no means of perceiving any change in things. For what is in the compound can come only from the simple elements it contains, and the Monads, if they had no qualities, would be indistinguishable from one another, since they do not differ in quantity. Consequently, space being a plenum, each part of space would always receive, in any motion, exactly the equivalent of what it already had, and no one state of things would be discernible from another.
9. Indeed, each Monad must be different from every other. For in nature there are never two beings which are perfectly alike and in which it is not possible to find an internal difference, or at least a difference founded upon an intrinsic quality [denomination].
10. I assume also as admitted that every created being, and consequently the created Monad, is subject to change, and further that this change is continuous in each.
11. It follows from what has just been said, that the natural changes of the Monads come from an internal principle, since an external cause can have no influence upon their inner being. (Theodicy 396, 400.)
12. But, besides the principle of the change, there must be a particular series of changes [un détail de ce qui change], which constitutes, so to speak, the specific nature and variety of the simple substances.
13. This particular series of changes should involve a multiplicity in the unit [unité] or in that which is simple. For, as every natural change takes place gradually, something changes and something remains unchanged; and consequently a simple substance must be affected and related in many ways, although it has no parts.
14. The passing condition, which involves and represents a multiplicity in the unit [unité] or in the simple substance, is nothing but what is called Perception, which is to be distinguished from Apperception or Consciousness, as will afterwards appear. In this matter the Cartesian view is extremely defective, for it treats as non-existent those perceptions of which we are not consciously aware. This has also led them to believe that minds [esprits] alone are Monads, and that there are no souls of animals nor other Entelechies. Thus, like the crowd, they have failed to distinguish between a prolonged unconsciousness and absolute death, which has made them fall again into the Scholastic prejudice of souls entirely separate [from bodies], and has even confirmed ill-balanced minds in the opinion that souls are mortal.
15. The activity of the internal principle which produces change or passage from one perception to another may be called Appetition. It is true that desire [l'appetit] cannot always fully attain to the whole perception at which it aims, but it always obtains some of it and attains to new perceptions.
16. We have in ourselves experience of a multiplicity in simple substance, when we find that the least thought of which we are conscious involves variety in its object. Thus all those who admit that the soul is a simple substance should admit this multiplicity in the Monad; and M. Bayle ought not to have found any difficulty in this, as he has done in his Dictionary, article 'Rorarius.'
17. Moreover, it must be confessed that perception and that which depends upon it are inexplicable on mechanical grounds, that is to say, by means of figures and motions. And supposing there were a machine, so constructed as to think, feel, and have perception, it might be conceived as increased in size, while keeping the same proportions, so that one might go into it as into a mill. That being so, we should, on examining its interior, find only parts which work one upon another, and never anything by which to explain a perception. Thus it is in a simple substance, and not in a compound or in a machine, that perception must be sought for. Further, nothing but this (namely, perceptions and their changes) can be found in a simple substance. It is also in this alone that all the internal activities of simple substances can consist. (Theodicy, Préf. [E. 474; G. vi. 37].)
18. All simple substances or created Monads might be called Entelechies, for they have in them a certain perfection (έχουσι τό έντελές); they have a certain self-sufficiency (αύτάρκεια) which makes them the sources of their internal activities and, so to speak, incorporeal automata. (Theodicy 87.)
19. If we are to give the name of Soul to everything which has perceptions and desires [appétits] in the general sense which I have explained, then all simple substances or created Monads might be called souls; but as feeling [le sentiment] is something more than a bare perception, I think it right that the general name of Monads or Entelechies should suffice for simple substances which have perception only, and that the name of Souls should be given only to those in which perception is more distinct, and is accompanied by memory.
20. For we experience in ourselves a condition in which we remember nothing and have no distinguishable perception; as when we fall into a swoon or when we are overcome with a profound dreamless sleep. In this state the soul does not perceptibly differ from a bare Monad; but as this state is not lasting, and the soul comes out of it, the soul is something more than a bare Monad. (Theodicy 64.)
21. And it does not follow that in this state the simple substance is without any perception. That, indeed, cannot be, for the reasons already given; for it cannot perish, and it cannot continue to exist without being affected in some way, and this affection is nothing but its perception. But when there is a great multitude of little perceptions, in which there is nothing distinct, one is stunned; as when one turns continuously round in the same way several times in succession, whence comes a giddiness which may make us swoon, and which keeps us from distinguishing anything. Death can for a time put animals into this condition.
22. And as every present state of a simple substance is naturally a consequence of its preceding state, in such a way that its present is big with its future; (Theodicy 350.)
23. And as, on waking from stupor, we are conscious of our perceptions, we must have had perceptions immediately before we awoke, although we were not at all conscious of them; for one perception can in a natural way come only from another perception, as a motion can in a natural way come only from a motion. (Theodicy 401-403.)
24. It thus appears that if we had in our perceptions nothing marked and, so to speak, striking and highly-flavoured, we should always be in a state of stupor. And this is the state in which the bare Monads are.
25. We see also that nature has given heightened perceptions to animals, from the care she has taken to provide them with organs, which collect numerous rays of light, or numerous undulations of the air, in order, by uniting them, to make them have greater effect. Something similar to this takes place in smell, in taste and in touch, and perhaps in a number of other senses, which are unknown to us. And I will explain presently how that which takes place in the soul represents what happens in the bodily organs.
26. Memory provides the soul with a kind of consecutiveness, which resembles [imite] reason, but which is to be distinguished from it. Thus we see that when animals have a perception of something which strikes them and of which they have formerly had a similar perception, they are led, by means of representation in their memory, to expect what was combined with the thing in this previous perception, and they come to have feelings similar to those they had on the former occasion. For instance, when a stick is shown to dogs, they remember the pain it has caused them, and howl and run away. (Theodicy "Discours de la Conformité", &c., § 65.)
27. And the strength of the mental image which impresses and moves them comes either from the magnitude or the number of the preceding perceptions. For often a strong impression produces all at once the same effect as a long-formed habit, or as many and oft-repeated ordinary perceptions.
28. In so far as the concatenation of their perceptions is due to the principle of memory alone, men act like the lower animals, resembling the empirical physicians, whose methods are those of mere practice without theory. Indeed, in three-fourths of our actions we are nothing but empirics. For instance, when we expect that there will be daylight to-morrow, we do so empirically, because it has always so happened until now. It is only the astronomer who thinks it on rational grounds.
29. But it is the knowledge of necessary and eternal truths that distinguishes us from the mere animals and gives us Reason and the sciences, raising us to the knowledge of ourselves and of God. And it is this in us that is called the rational soul or mind [esprit].
30. It is also through the knowledge of necessary truths, and through their abstract expression, that we rise to acts of reflexion, which make us think of what is called I, and observe that this or that is within us: and thus, thinking of ourselves, we think of being, of substance, of the simple and the compound, of the immaterial, and of God Himself, conceiving that what is limited in us is in Him without limits. And these acts of reflexion furnish the chief objects of our reasonings. (Theodicy Préf. [E. 469; G. vi. 27].)
31. Our reasonings are grounded upon two great principles, that of contradiction, in virtue of which we judge false that which involves a contradiction, and true that which is opposed or contradictory to the false; (Theodicy 44, 169.)
32. And that of sufficient reason, in virtue of which we hold that there can be no fact real or existing, no statement true, unless there be a sufficient reason, why it should be so and not otherwise, although these reasons usually cannot be known by us. (Theodicy 44, 196.)
33. There are also two kinds of truths, those of reasoning and those of fact. Truths of reasoning are necessary and their opposite is impossible: truths of fact are contingent and their opposite is possible. When a truth is necessary, its reason can be found by analysis, resolving it into more simple ideas and truths, until we come to those which are primary. (Theodicy 170, 174, 189, 280-282, 367. Abrégé, Object. 3.)
34. It is thus that in Mathematics speculative Theorems and practical Canons are reduced by analysis to Definitions, Axioms and Postulates.
35. In short, there are simple ideas, of which no definition can be given; there are also axioms and postulates, in a word, primary principles, which cannot be proved, and indeed have no need of proof; and these are identical propositions, whose opposite involves an express contradiction. (Theodicy 36, 37, 44, 45, 49, 52, 121-122, 337, 340-344.)
36. But there must also be a sufficient reason for contingent truths or truths of fact, that is to say, for the sequence or connexion of the things which are dispersed throughout the universe of created beings, in which the analyzing into particular reasons might go on into endless detail, because of the immense variety of things in nature and the infinite division of bodies. There is an infinity of present and past forms and motions which go to make up the efficient cause of my present writing; and there is an infinity of minute tendencies and dispositions of my soul, which go to make its final cause.
37. And as all this detail again involves other prior or more detailed contingent things, each of which still needs a similar analysis to yield its reason, we are no further forward: and the sufficient or final reason must be outside of the sequence or series of particular contingent things, however infinite this series may be.
38. Thus the final reason of things must be in a necessary substance, in which the variety of particular changes exists only eminently, as in its source; and this substance we call God. (Theodicy 7.)
39. Now as this substance is a sufficient reason of all this variety of particulars, which are also connected together throughout; there is only one God, and this God is sufficient.
40. We may also hold that this supreme substance, which is unique, universal and necessary, nothing outside of it being independent of it,—this substance, which is a pure sequence of possible being, must be illimitable and must contain as much reality as is possible.
41. Whence it follows that God is absolutely perfect; for perfection is nothing but amount of positive reality, in the strict sense, leaving out of account the limits or bounds in things which are limited. And where there are no bounds, that is to say in God, perfection is absolutely infinite. (Theodicy 22, Préf. [E. 469 a; G. vi. 27].)
42. It follows also that created beings derive their perfections from the influence of God, but that their imperfections come from their own nature, which is incapable of being without limits. For it is in this that they differ from God. An instance of this original imperfection of created beings may be seen in the natural inertia of bodies. (Theodicy 20, 27-30, 153, 167, 377 sqq.)
43. It is farther true that in God there is not only the source of existences but also that of essences, in so far as they are real, that is to say, the source of what is real in the possible. For the understanding of God is the region of eternal truths or of the ideas on which they depend, and without Him there would be nothing real in the possibilities of things, and not only would there be nothing in existence, but nothing would even be possible. (Theodicy 20.)
44. For if there is a reality in essences or possibilities, or rather in eternal truths, this reality must needs be founded in something existing and actual, and consequently in the existence of the necessary Being, in whom essence involves existence, or in whom to be possible is to be actual. (Theodicy 184-189, 335.)
45. Thus God alone (or the necessary Being) has this prerogative that He must necessarily exist, if He is possible. And as nothing can interfere with the possibility of that which involves no limits, no negation and consequently no contradiction, this [His possibility] is sufficient of itself to make known the existence of God a priori. We have thus proved it, through the reality of eternal truths. But a little while ago we proved it also a posteriori, since there exist contingent beings, which can have their final or sufficient reason only in the necessary Being, which has the reason of its existence in itself.
46. We must not, however, imagine, as some do, that eternal truths, being dependent on God, are arbitrary and depend on His will, as Descartes, and afterwards M. Poiret, appear to have held. That is true only of contingent truths, of which the principle is fitness [convenance] or choice of the best, whereas necessary truths depend solely on His understanding and are its inner object. (Theodicy 180-184, 185, 335, 351, 380.)
47. Thus God alone is the primary unity or original simple substance, of which all created or derivative Monads are products and have their birth, so to speak, through continual fulgurations of the Divinity from moment to moment, limited by the receptivity of the created being, of whose essence it is to have limits. (Theodicy 382-391, 398, 395.)
48. In God there is Power, which is the source of all, also Knowledge, whose content is the variety of the ideas, and finally Will, which makes changes or products according to the principle of the best. (Theodicy 7, 149, 150.) These characteristics correspond to what in the created Monads forms the ground or basis, to the faculty of Perception and to the faculty of Appetition. But in God these attributes are absolutely infinite or perfect; and in the created Monads or the Entelechies (or perfectihabiae, as Hermolaus Barbarus translated the word) there are only imitations of these attributes, according to the degree of perfection of the Monad. (Theodicy 87.)
49. A created thing is said to act outwardly in so far as it has perfection, and to suffer [or be passive, pâtir] in relation to another, in so far as it is imperfect. Thus activity [action] is attributed to a Monad, in so far as it has distinct perceptions, and passivity [passion] in so far as its perceptions are confused. (Theodicy 32, 66, 386.)
50. And one created thing is more perfect than another, in this, that there is found in the more perfect that which serves to explain a priori what takes place in the less perfect, and it is on this account that the former is said to act upon the latter.
51. But in simple substances the influence of one Monad upon another is only ideal, and it can have its effect only through the mediation of God, in so far as in the ideas of God any Monad rightly claims that God, in regulating the others from the beginning of things, should have regard to it. For since one created Monad cannot have any physical influence upon the inner being of another, it is only by this means that the one can be dependent upon the other. (Theodicy 9, 54, 65, 66, 201. Abrégé, Object. 3.)
52. Accordingly, among created things, activities and passivities are mutual. For God, comparing two simple substances, finds in each reasons which oblige Him to adapt the other to it, and consequently what is active in certain respects is passive from another point of view; active in so far as what we distinctly know in it serves to explain [rendre raison de] what takes place in another, and passive in so far as the explanation [raison] of what takes place in it is to be found in that which is distinctly known in another. (Theodicy 66.)
53. Now, as in the Ideas of God there is an infinite number of possible universes, and as only one of them can be actual, there must be a sufficient reason for the choice of God, which leads Him to decide upon one rather than another. (Theodicy 8, 10, 44, 173, 196 sqq., 225, 414-416.)
54. And this reason can be found only in the fitness [convenance], or in the degrees of perfection, that these worlds possess, since each possible thing has the right to aspire to existence in proportion to the amount of perfection it contains in germ. (Theodicy 74, 167, 350, 201, 130, 352, 345 sqq., 354.)
55. Thus the actual existence of the best that wisdom makes known to God is due to this, that His goodness makes Him choose it, and His power makes Him produce it. (Theodicy 8, 78, 80, 84, 119, 204, 206, 208. Abrégé, Object. 1 and 8.)
56. Now this connexion or adaptation of all created things to each and of each to all, means that each simple substance has relations which express all the others, and, consequently, that it is a perpetual living mirror of the universe. (Theodicy 130, 360.)
57. And as the same town, looked at from various sides, appears quite different and becomes as it were numerous in aspects [perspectivement]; even so, as a result of the infinite number of simple substances, it is as if there were so many different universes, which, nevertheless are nothing but aspects [perspectives] of a single universe, according to the special point of view of each Monad. (Theodicy 147.)
58. And by this means there is obtained as great variety as possible, along with the greatest possible order; that is to say, it is the way to get as much perfection as possible. (Theodicy 120, 124, 241 sqq., 214, 243, 275.)
59. Besides, no hypothesis but this (which I venture to call proved) fittingly exalts the greatness of God; and this Monsieur Bayle recognized when, in his Dictionary (article Rorarius), he raised objections to it, in which indeed he was inclined to think that I was attributing too much to God—more than it is possible to attribute. But he was unable to give any reason which could show the impossibility of this universal harmony, according to which every substance exactly expresses all others through the relations it has with them.
60. Further, in what I have just said there may be seen the reasons a priori why things could not be otherwise than they are. For God in regulating the whole has had regard to each part, and in particular to each Monad, whose nature being to represent, nothing can confine it to the representing of only one part of things; though it is true that this representation is merely confused as regards the variety of particular things [le détail] in the whole universe, and can be distinct only as regards a small part of things, namely, those which are either nearest or greatest in relation to each of the Monads; otherwise each Monad would be a deity. It is not as regards their object, but as regards the different ways in which they have knowledge of their object, that the Monads are limited. In a confused way they all strive after [vont à] the infinite, the whole; but they are limited and differentiated through the degrees of their distinct perceptions.
61. And compounds are in this respect analogous with [symbolisent avec] simple substances. For all is a plenum (and thus all matter is connected together) and in the plenum every motion has an effect upon distant bodies in proportion to their distance, so that each body not only is affected by those which are in contact with it and in some way feels the effect of everything that happens to them, but also is mediately affected by bodies adjoining those with which it itself is in immediate contact. Wherefore it follows that this inter-communication of things extends to any distance, however great. And consequently every body feels the effect of all that takes place in the universe, so that he who sees all might read in each what is happening everywhere, and even what has happened or shall happen, observing in the present that which is far off as well in time as in place: σύμπνοια πάντα, as Hippocrates said. But a soul can read in itself only that which is there represented distinctly; it cannot all at once unroll everything that is enfolded in it, for its complexity is infinite.
62. Thus, although each created Monad represents the whole universe, it represents more distinctly the body which specially pertains to it, and of which it is the entelechy; and as this body expresses the whole universe through the connexion of all matter in the plenum, the soul also represents the whole universe in representing this body, which belongs to it in a special way. (Theodicy 400.)
63. The body belonging to a Monad (which is its entelechy or its soul) constitutes along with the entelechy what may be called a living being, and along with the soul what is called an animal. Now this body of living being or of an animal is always organic; for, as every Monad is, in its own way, a mirror of the universe, and as the universe is ruled according to a perfect order, there must also be order in that which represents it, i.e. in the perceptions of the soul, and consequently there must be order in the body, through which the universe is represented in the soul. (Theodicy 403.)
64. Thus the organic body of each living being is a kind of divine machine or natural automaton, which infinitely surpasses all artificial automata. For a machine made by the skill of man is not a machine in each of its parts. For instance, the tooth of a brass wheel has parts or fragments which for us are not artificial products, and which do not have the special characteristics of the machine, for they give no indication of the use for which the wheel was intended. But the machines of nature, namely, living bodies, are still machines in their smallest parts ad infinitum. It is this that constitutes the difference between nature and art, that is to say, between the divine art and ours. (Theodicy 134, 146, 194, 403.)
65. And the Author of nature has been able to employ this divine and infinitely wonderful power of art, because each portion of matter is not only infinitely divisible, as the ancients observed, but is also actually subdivided without end, each part into further parts, of which each has some motion of its own; otherwise it would be impossible for each portion of matter to express the whole universe. (Theodicy Prelim., "Discours de la Conformité" 70, and 195.)
66. Whence it appears that in the smallest particle of matter there is a world of creatures, living beings, animals, entelechies, souls.
67. Each portion of matter may be conceived as like a garden full of plants and like a pond full of fishes. But each branch of every plant, each member of every animal, each drop of its liquid parts is also some such garden or pond.
68. And though the earth and the air which are between the plants of the garden, or the water which is between the fish of the pond, be neither plant nor fish; yet they also contain plants and fishes, but mostly so minute as to be imperceptible to us.
69. Thus there is nothing fallow, nothing sterile, nothing dead in the universe, no chaos, no confusion save in appearance, somewhat as it might appear to be in a pond at a distance, in which one would see a confused movement and, as it were, a swarming of fish in the pond, without separately distinguishing the fish themselves. (Theodicy Préf. [E. 475 b; 477 b; G. vi. 40, 44].)
70. Hence it appears that each living body has a dominant entelechy, which in an animal is the soul; but the members of this living body are full of other living beings, plants, animals, each of which has also its dominant entelechy or soul.
71. But it must not be imagined, as has been done by some who have misunderstood my thought, that each soul has a quantity or portion of matter belonging exclusively to itself or attached to it for ever, and that it consequently owns other inferior living beings, which are devoted for ever to its service. For all bodies are in a perpetual flux like rivers, and parts are entering into them and passing out of them continually.
72. Thus the soul changes its body only by degrees, little by little, so that it is never all at once deprived of all its organs; and there is often metamorphosis in animals, but never metempsychosis or transmigration of souls; nor are there souls entirely separate [from bodies] nor unembodied spirits [genies sans corps]. God alone is completely without body. (Theodicy 90, 124.)
73. It also follows from this that there never is absolute birth [génération] nor complete death, in the strict sense, consisting in the separation of the soul from the body. What we call births [générations] are developments and growths, while what we call deaths are envelopments and diminutions.
74. Philosophers have been much perplexed about the origin of forms, entelechies, or souls; but nowadays it has become known, through careful studies of plants, insects, and animals, that the organic bodies of nature are never products of chaos or putrefaction, but always come from seeds, in which there was undoubtedly some preformation; and it is held that not only the organic body was already there before conception, but also a soul in this body, and, in short, the animal itself; and that by means of conception this animal has merely been prepared for the great transformation involved in its becoming an animal of another kind. Something like this is indeed seen apart from birth [génération], as when worms become flies and caterpillars become butterflies. (Theodicy 86, 89. Préf. [E. 475 b; G. vi. 40 sqq.]; 90, 187, 188, 403, 86, 397.)
75. The animals, of which some are raised by means of conception to the rank of larger animals, may be called spermatic, but those among them which are not so raised but remain in their own kind (that is, the majority) are born, multiply, and are destroyed like the large animals, and it is only a few chosen ones [élus] that pass to a greater theatre.
76. But this is only half of the truth, and accordingly I hold that if an animal never comes into being by natural means [naturellement], no more does it come to an end by natural means; and that not only will there be no birth [génération], but also no complete destruction or death in the strict sense. And these reasonings, made a posteriori and drawn from experience are in perfect agreement with my principles deduced a priori, as above. (Theodicy 90.)
77. Thus it may be said that not only the soul (mirror of an indestructible universe) is indestructible, but also the animal itself, though its mechanism [machine] may often perish in part and take off or put on an organic slough [des depouilles organiques].
78. These principles have given me a way of explaining naturally the union or rather the mutual agreement [conformité] of the soul and the organic body. The soul follows its own laws, and the body likewise follows its own laws; and they agree with each other in virtue of the pre-established harmony between all substances, since they are all representations of one and the same universe. (Préf. [E. 475 a; G. vi. 39]; Theodicy 340, 352, 353, 358.)
79. Souls act according to the laws of final causes through appetitions, ends, and means. Bodies act according to the laws of efficient causes or motions. And the two realms, that of efficient causes and that of final causes, are in harmony with one another.
80. Descartes recognized that souls cannot impart any force to bodies, because there is always the same quantity of force in matter. Nevertheless he was of opinion that the soul could change the direction of bodies. But that is because in his time it was not known that there is a law of nature which affirms also the conservation of the same total direction in matter. Had Descartes noticed this he would have come upon my system of pre-established harmony. (Préf. [E. 477 a; G. vi. 44]; Theodicy 22, 59, 60, 61, 63, 66, 345, 346 sqq., 354, 355.)
81. According to this system bodies act as if (to suppose the impossible) there were no souls, and souls act as if there were no bodies, and both act as if each influenced the other.
82. As regards minds [esprits] or rational souls, though I find that what I have just been saying is true of all living beings and animals (namely that animals and souls come into being when the world begins and no more come to an end that the world does), yet there is this peculiarity in rational animals, that their spermatic animalcules, so long as they are only spermatic, have merely ordinary or sensuous [sensitive] souls; but when those which are chosen [élus], so to speak, attain to human nature through an actual conception, their sensuous souls are raised to the rank of reason and to the prerogative of minds [esprits]. (Theodicy 91, 397.)
83. Among other differences which exist between ordinary souls and minds [esprits], some of which differences I have already noted, there is also this: that souls in general are living mirrors or images of the universe of created things, but that minds are also images of the Deity or Author of nature Himself, capable of knowing the system of the universe, and to some extent of imitating it through architectonic ensamples [échantillons], each mind being like a small divinity in its own sphere. (Theodicy 147.)
84. It is this that enables spirits [or minds—esprits] to enter into a kind of fellowship with God, and brings it about that in relation to them He is not only what an inventor is to his machine (which is the relation of God to other created things), but also what a prince is to his subjects, and, indeed, what a father is to his children.
85. Whence it is easy to conclude that the totality [assemblage] of all spirits [esprits] must compose the City of God, that is to say, the most perfect State that is possible, under the most perfect of Monarchs. (Theodicy 146; Abrégé, Object. 2.)
86. This City of God, this truly universal monarchy, is a moral world in the natural world, and is the most exalted and most divine among the works of God; and it is in it that the glory of God really consists, for He would have no glory were not His greatness and His goodness known and admired by spirits [esprits]. It is also in relation to this divine City that God specially has goodness, while His wisdom and His power are manifested everywhere. (Theodicy 146; Abrege, Object. 2.)
87. As we have shown above that there is a perfect harmony between the two realms in nature, one of efficient, and the other of final causes, we should here notice also another harmony between the physical realm of nature and the moral realm of grace, that is to say, between God, considered as Architect of the mechanism [machine] of the universe and God considered as Monarch of the divine City of spirits [esprits]. (Theodicy 62, 74, 118, 248, 112, 130, 247.)
88. A result of this harmony is that things lead to grace by the very ways of nature, and that this globe, for instance, must be destroyed and renewed by natural means at the very time when the government of spirits requires it, for the punishment of some and the reward of others. (Theodicy 18 sqq., 110, 244, 245, 340.)
89. It may also be said that God as Architect satisfies in all respects God as Lawgiver, and thus that sins must bear their penalty with them, through the order of nature, and even in virtue of the mechanical structure of things; and similarly that noble actions will attain their rewards by ways which, on the bodily side, are mechanical, although this cannot and ought not always to happen immediately.
90. Finally, under this perfect government no good action would be unrewarded and no bad one unpunished, and all should issue in the well-being of the good, that is to say, of those who are not malcontents in this great state, but who trust in Providence, after having done their duty, and who love and imitate, as is meet, the Author of all good, finding pleasure in the contemplation of His perfections, as is the way of genuine 'pure love,' which takes pleasure in the happiness of the beloved. This it is which leads wise and virtuous people to devote their energies to everything which appears in harmony with the presumptive or antecedent will of God, and yet makes them content with what God actually brings to pass by His secret, consequent and positive [décisive] will, recognizing that if we could sufficiently understand the order of the universe, we should find that it exceeds all the desires of the wisest men, and that it is impossible to make it better than it is, not only as a whole and in general but also for ourselves in particular, if we are attached, as we ought to be, to the Author of all, not only as to the architect and efficient cause of our being, but as to our master and to the final cause, which ought to be the whole aim of our will, and which can alone make our happiness. (Theodicy 134, 278. Préf. [E. 469; G. vi. 27, 28].)
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The opening out of democracy will prove a greater challenge to the Muslim Brotherhood than repression
The post-revolutionary Muslim Brotherhood is facing unprecedented challenges. The movement has been excluded from the legal polity for decades, and has been subject to cycles of partial toleration and periodic repression, causing both organisational and intellectual distortions.
It responded to repression through constructing a broad and vague intellectual formula that guaranteed wide social support, reflecting a decision to compromise ideological clarity for the sake of organizational existence.
Over the course of history, four different schools of thought came to coexist within the Muslim Brotherhood. First is the founder's school; a relatively modernist school of thought that existed on the margins of Al-Azhar in the early 20th century and was championed by Muhammad Abduh. It rejects the authority of turath (accumulated heritage of Islamic sciences), and calls for the return to Quran and Sunnah and practicing ijtihad (innovation in Islamic jurisprudence) whilst being only guided by ideas in turath.
Second is the traditionalist school, championed by Al-Azhar's long history of scholarship. It is characterised by heavy reliance on turath and acceptance of the full authenticity of the four main Sunni schools of jurisprudence. The school also promotes the notion of "balanced identity", arguing that each individual belongs to different circles of affiliation, including mazhab (school of jurisprudence), tariqa (Sufi order), theological school, hometown, profession, guild, family and others. Sophisticated and interlinked affiliations created societal harmony and diversity, and led Islamists to seek gradual customisable reform that responds to societal diversity and does not provide a blueprint, one-size-fits-all manifesto for (re)Islamisation.
Named after the infamous Sayyid Qutb, Qutbism, the third school, is characterised by its highly politicised and revolutionary interpretation of Quran that divides peoples into those who belong to/support Islam/Islamism, and those who oppose it. It relies on historical incidents from the prophet's biography (mainly conflicts between Muslims and pagans) to construct a framework for managing the relation between Islamists and their societal counterparts, and between the Muslim world and other civilisations. The school emphasises the necessity of developing a detached vanguard that focuses on recruitment and empowering the organisation while postponing all intellectual questions. While hardcore Qutbism opens doors for political violence, Muslim Brotherhood Qutbis follow a demilitarised version of the ideology, clearly distancing themselves from notions of takfir (disbelief) and violence.
The Salafi/Wahabi school made its way to the Muslim Brotherhood (and to the broader Egyptian society) in the 1970s. It is a modernist Islamist ideology that has minimal respect for turath, and is characterised by a conservative, rigid, and rather materialist understanding of Sharia law, low levels of tolerance and the focus on superficial/external components of religion.
Salafi and Qutbi acceptance of notions like democracy and diversity are minimal, and they believe in a strong, broad central state that plays a major role in public morality.
With a wide ideological formula, only four principles keep the Muslim Brotherhood united as an organisation; namely, a belief that Islam is an all-encompassing system; rejecting violence as a means for political change; accepting democracy; and accepting political pluralism. It is noteworthy that while accepted in principle, these notions mean different things for different members.
Organisationally, the Muslim Brotherhood responded to repression primarily through centralising decision-making and decentralising decision execution —both designed to sustain unity. The former component was intended to keep disputes contained in limited domains, and capitalise on leadership's historical legacy to dictate compromises whenever necessary, while the latter was intended to overcome possible consequences of security crackdowns, to create a sense of belonging and empowerment amongst members, and to develop members' executive capabilities.
As the revolution opened wide doors for the inclusion of the Muslim Brotherhood into the polity, the group will move from identity to reform politics. The construction of a political programme requires moving beyond areas of organisational consensus to others of diversity and dispute. With Islam being understood as a value system and a limited set of legislation pertaining to the public sphere, different political programmes could be drafted from the group's ideology, with different tendencies and political orientations. Some Muslim Brotherhood members are starting to realise the inevitability of political disputes as a real polity emerges and serious political challenges arise.
The Brotherhood has already announced it will establish the Freedom and Justice Party (FJP), a declaration met with scepticism from intellectuals and Brotherhood reformers alike. They argue that limiting the broad school of thought to a single political manifestation will inevitably fail, and is harmful for the religious cause the group was founded to serve. Instead, they call for the group's retreat from the political to civic domain, and allowing the emergence of various political manifestations instead.
So far, the Muslim Brotherhood leadership is rejecting these calls. The group's chief declared a ban on joining political parties other the FJP. Rather short sighted, the decision will fail to silence emerging diversities from within the group, as diversity is an essential product of freedom. Different organisational measures currently employed to discourage members from leaving the group are failing, as numerous dissidents are already challenging the leadership's decision and joining other existing parties or establishing their own. As new political questions emerge, the numbers will inevitably increase, and it will be the leadership's decision to either dismiss dissidents or accept political diversity. Either way, the FJP will cease to act as the sole manifestation of the Muslim Brotherhood, even if it retains monopoly over organisational representation.
With a legacy of diverse ideological orientations and strategic inconsistencies, the Muslim Brotherhood is currently faced by questions more threatening to its very existence than was oppression. The context of freedom will undermine dominant organisational rhetoric calling for unity at the cost of diversity. As the emergence of various political manifestations seems inevitable, the Brotherhood's leadership will decide to either allow diversity through a flexible organisation, or disallow it though a rigid one, leading to numerous splits. Either way, continued political inclusion and freedom will lead to transcending the phenomenon of political Islamism as it currently exists, and its re-emergence in more sophisticated and more diverse forms.


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Lyrics: [none]
Music: Adepoju, Moreira, Olatunji, Purim, Vinayakram
An instrumental on Mickey Hart's "Planet Drum" CD. He gives the following background:
Dance of the Hunter's Fire demonstrates the basic African polyrhythm, four beats against six beats. It is an interesting comparison of two rhythmic traditions, the African and the South Indian. What you hear is Baba's interpretation of the six beat rhythm against a four beat carpet, while Vikku improvises on the Ghatam.
|Mickey Hart Recordings
|Recorded By
|Planet Drum
|Mickey Hart


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Samsung Galaxy S Duos
Currently we do not provide COD for this item !
Samsung Galaxy S Duos smartphone was launched in November 2012. The phone comes with a 4.00-inch touchscreen display with a resolution of 480 pixels by 800 pixels at a PPI of 233 pixels per inch. Samsung Galaxy S Duos price in India starts from Rs. 18,488.
The Samsung Galaxy S Duos is powered by 1GHz it comes with 768MB of RAM. The phone packs 4GB of internal storage that can be expanded up to 32GB via a microSD card. As far as the cameras are concerned, the Samsung Galaxy S Duos packs a 5-megapixel primary camera on the rear and a 0.3-megapixel front shooter for selfies.
The Samsung Galaxy S Duos runs Android 4.0 and is powered by a 1500mAh removable battery. It measures 121.50 x 63.10 x 10.50 (height x width x thickness) and weigh 120.00 grams.
The Samsung Galaxy S Duos is a dual SIM (GSM and GSM) smartphone that accepts Regular and Regular. Connectivity options include Wi-Fi, GPS, Bluetooth, FM and 3G. Sensors on the phone include Compass Magnetometer, Proximity sensor and Accelerometer.
Terms and Conditions
30-day money-back guarantee
Shipping: 2-3 Business Days
Once the user has seen at least one product this snippet will be visible.


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(RNS) Catholic Bishop Robert W. Finn was found guilty Thursday (Sept. 6) of failing to tell police about a priest suspected of sexually exploiting children, an unprecedented verdict that is being hailed as a landmark in the effort to bring accountability to the church's hierarchy.
Finn, leader of the Diocese of Kansas City-St. Joseph and an outspoken conservative in the American hierarchy, was convicted of a single misdemeanor count for not telling police that one of his priests, the Rev. Shawn Ratigan, had taken hundreds of lewd images of children in Catholic schools and parishes.
But even as he became the first U.S. bishop ever convicted in criminal court for shielding an abusive priest, Finn's standing inside the church appears uncertain, and the subject of intense debate.
Should he stay or should he go? Finn has indicated that he wants to tough it out.
"The Bishop looks forward to continuing to perform his duties, including carrying out the important obligations placed on him by the Court," Finn's spokesman, Jack Smith, said in a statement to Religion News Service on Friday.
Pope Benedict XVI is the only one with the authority to force a bishop from office, and the Vatican said nothing on Friday about Finn.
Meanwhile, the point man on the abuse crisis for the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops, Bishop R. Daniel Conlon of Joliet, Ill., was circumspect about Finn's conviction.
Conlon, who recently acknowledged that the hierarchy's credibility on abuse was "shredded" in part because of cases like Finn's, said that he did not know the details of the trial. He instead stressed that the bishops stood by their policy of reporting all allegations to police and complying with all local laws on reporting.
"Church officials have committed themselves to follow the Charter" – the policies on abuse that the bishops adopted in 2002 – "and are bound by civil and canon law," Conlon said Friday.
But others directly called on Finn to step down.
"For the good of the diocese and the church, I think he should apologize and resign. Then a new bishop can begin the healing process," said the Rev. Thomas Reese, a fellow at Georgetown University's Woodstock Theological Center.
"The judge found him guilty," said Reese, a Jesuit priest. "There is no way he can lead the diocese after that."
Nicholas Cafardi, a canon and civil lawyer at the Duquesne Law School in Pittsburgh, said that Finn could be dismissed under canon law. He also noted that in the past year Benedict removed a bishop suspected of financial improprieties and another who suggested that the church debate the issue of allowing women and married priests.
In an email, Cafardi said that in Finn's case it shouldn't come to that.
"The best solution for the Church here … is not a canonical process or even Finn's forced removal," said Cafardi, a former head of the bishops' National Review Board that was established to ensure compliance with their own reforms. "It is that Finn put the good of his diocese above his personal ambitions and his need for power and resign immediately. After this, how can he face his people or his priests?"
Evidence introduced by prosecutors showed that Finn, 59, had also received numerous complaints about Ratigan's behavior over the course of a year, starting in December 2010, and did not tell authorities even after Ratigan attempted suicide.
Ratigan, 46, pleaded guilty last month to federal child pornography charges and is awaiting sentencing.
Thursday's verdict by Jackson County, Mo., Circuit Court Judge John Torrence came at the end of a one-day bench trial. Prosecutors wanted to spare victims the pain of testifying, and the diocese wanted to avoid a lengthy trial that could have exposed further embarrassing details about Finn's record.
Both Finn and the diocese faced two separate misdemeanor counts of failure to report suspected child abuse. Torrence found Finn guilty on one charge, and said there was insufficient evidence to convict on the second. At the request of prosecutors, he then dismissed both counts against the diocese.
Finn could have faced up to a year in jail and a $1,000 fine on each charge. Torrence gave Finn a suspended sentence of two years' probation, on condition that he complete the probation period without incident and complies with a series of steps.
Last November, Finn avoided trial on similar charges in another county in the diocese by agreeing to give prosecutors oversight of the diocese's sex abuse reporting procedures in that county.
In the long run, Finn's viability as a bishop may depend on how local Catholics react.
The case has left many of the faithful in the diocese discouraged and furious, and it is not clear Finn can reverse that negativity.
Finn's statement after his conviction carefully pointed to inadequate diocesan "process and procedures" as the reason that Ratigan was not reported to police, and his expression of regret was for policy failures and "for the hurt that these events have caused."
Until this week Finn had vigorously rejected the charges that he had done anything wrong, and had hired a high-priced defense team to make his case. The diocese revealed this week that Finn's legal bills have cost the diocese and its insurers nearly $1.4 million over the past year, and that parishes will have to kick in more money to cover the outlays. Finn and the diocese still face numerous civil suits resulting from the case.
"How can the diocese move forward after all this?" the Rev. Gerald Waris, a retired priest who was pastor of the church where Ratigan last served, told the Kansas City-based National Catholic Reporter. "Most of us who have worked in parishes and continue to work here, we'll have to find a way to rise above it all."
The Vatican does not like to be pressured into taking action, especially when it comes to disciplining a bishop. But the pope is also trying to promote accountability as a solution to the sexual abuse crisis and could be waiting to see how things play out.
Observers note that Finn is 59 and does not have to retire until 75. That could provide time for him to restore his reputation, or the prospect of having Finn as bishop for 15 more years could serve as a spur to Catholics to register their anger now.
"Rome is not immune to public pressure," said Cafardi. "It's now up to the faithful and the clergy of the diocese to come forward."


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Currently 3.00/512345 Rating: 3.0/5 (Total votes: 23)
Rating: 3.0/5 (Total votes: 23)
What's New in This Release:
· This update fixed some bugs and completed Traditional Chinese translation.
What's New in 5.0.728:
· We've got MiCall! Call your MiTalk friends through MiTalk now! Don't forget to ask them to update their MiTalk for MiCall!
· Added batch delete messages at once
· Improved profile photo display
· Improved the entire performance


text: Eulogy for The Big Man Jun 29, 2011 Bruce Springsteen: Standing next to Clarence was like standing next to the baddest ass on the planet. You were proud, you were strong, you were excited and laughing with what might happen, with what together, you might be able to do. You felt like no matter what the day or the night brought, nothing was going to touch you. Clarence could be fragile but he also emanated power and safety, and in some funny way we became each other's protectors; I think perhaps I protected "C" from a world where it still wasn't so easy to be big and black. Racism was ever present and over the years together, we saw it. Clarence's celebrity and size did not make him immune. I think perhaps "C" protected me from a world where it wasn't always so easy to be an insecure, weird and skinny white boy either. But, standing together we were badass, on any given night, on our turf, some of the baddest asses on the planet. We were united, we were strong, we were righteous, we were unmovable, we were funny, we were corny as hell and as serious as death itself. And we were coming to your town to shake you and to wake you up. Together, we told an older, richer story about the possibilities of friendship that transcended those I'd written in my songs and in my music. Clarence carried it in his heart. It was a story where the Scooter and the Big Man not only busted the city in half, but we kicked ass and remade the city, shaping it into the kind of place where our friendship would not be such an anomaly. And that… that's what I'm gonna miss. The chance to renew that vow and double down on that story on a nightly basis, because that is something, that is the thing that we did together… the two of us. Clarence was big, and he made me feel, and think, and love, and dream big. How big was the Big Man? Too fucking big to die. And that's just the facts. You can put it on his grave stone, you can tattoo it over your heart. Accept it… it's the New World. -- http://www.brucespringsteen.net/news/index.html


text: In full bloom this month at the Harbor Walk is the fabulous North American native 'Baby Joe' (Eupatorium). While maintaining the Harbor Walk gardens, Jay Ramsey of Farm Creek Landscaping reported seeing no less than half a dozen species of butterflies nectaring simultaneously at the 'Baby Joe' on a warm sunny morning this past week. Given your average warm sunny summer day, butterflies are typically on the wing throughout the day; I find the very best time of day to see the very most is between 10:00 am until 12 noon.


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Some preferences can be controlled from the Preferences dialog within the Arduino environment. Access it from the File menu in Windows or Linux, or the Arduino menu on the Mac.
Other preferences must be changed in the preferences.txt file. This file's location is displayed in the preferences dialog. It should be:
/portable/preferences.txt (when used in portable mode)
<Arduino IDE installation folder>
Only edit the file when Arduino is not running - otherwise your changes will be overwritten when Arduino exits.
The definitions that determine the contents of the Board menu are found in boards.txt in the hardware/ sub-directory of the Arduino application directory. The definitions for the Burn Bootloader menu are in the programmers.txt file in the same directory. To create a new board or programmer definition, copy an existing one, change the prefix used in the preference keys (e.g. "diecimila." or "avrisp."), and alter the values to fit your hardware.


text:
Durable Medical Device & Pharmaceutical Packaging for Demanding Applications
Tyvek® 1073B provides the highest level of protection, making it the ideal choice for medical device and pharmaceutical packaging that requires high strength and superior microbial barrier.
DuPontTM Tyvek® 1073B has the highest strength of all Tyvek® styles for medical device and pharmaceutical packaging.
High-Strength Protection for High-Risk Products
Made of high-density polyethylene (HDPE), Tyvek® offers exceptional protection against damage for sharp or heavy products, outperforming more fragile alternative materials, such as medical-grade paper. Its strength helps Tyvek® 1073B protect and maintain the sterility of high-risk medical products, such as artificial hips and heart valves.
In addition, Tyvek® 1073B is compatible with a broad range of manufacturing and sterilization processes, and is a superior microbial barrier, to help preserve sterility during both shipping and storage.
Key Benefits
Tyvek® 1073B provides a range of advantages for medical device manufacturers. These include:
• High durability to withstand impact during shipping and storage.
• A superior microbial barrier that helps medical packaging start sterile and stay sterile.
• Compatibility with many sterilization processes.
• Clean peel and low risk of packaging contamination.
• Production under ISO 14001, offering recyclability and support of sustainability programs.
• Reliable, high-quality supply
Sterilization Compatibility
Unlike other materials, Tyvek® 1073B and all Tyvek® styles for medical device packaging are compatible with the most common methods of sterilization, giving medical device and pharmaceutical manufacturers greater flexibility. These include:
• Ethylene Oxide (EO)
• Gamma
• Electron-Beam
• Steam (under controlled conditions)
• Low temperature oxidative
Reliable Supply
To meet growing global demand and ensure continuity and flexibility of future supply, DuPont is transitioning manufacturing of Tyvek® 1073B to production lines using the latest flash-spinning technology.
Learn more about medical packaging transition .
Read more about Tyvek® medical and pharmaceutical packaging specification properties.


text:
Maybe you have to do it for work. Maybe you're just curious. Maybe you're a glutton for punishment who lives on the bleeding edge. Maybe you lost a bet. Whatever the reason, you want to run the Windows 8 Preview Release.
I'm not here to judge you. I'm just here to help you get Windows 8 running on your Mac.
There are several ways to accomplish this, but I'm going to look at four options—Boot Camp, Parallels, VMware Fusion and VirtualBox.
Boot Camp
The first requires items that you probably have around the house—a recent Mac and OS X, which ships with Boot Camp, Apple's dual boot manager.
You might want to run Windows on an older machine, as Windows 8 actually has much less stringent hardware requirements than Mac OS X Lion, but the problem is that only Macs since about 2008 have firmware that can boot from disks with the modified boot sectors Microsoft started using in Vista. I was actually able to install an earlier preview release on a 2006 Core Solo Mac mini, but not the latest release, which is unfortunate. It is possible to extract the install into a new disk image with a normal boot sector, but it's complicated, and you'd need an existing Windows install to attempt it.
So, assuming you have a relatively recent Mac, the first thing you'll need to install Windows 8 Preview Release via Boot Camp is, not surprisingly, a copy of Windows 8 Preview Release, which Microsoft is providing for download at the cost of only a valid email address and your immortal soul. Since we've already determined that you're using a recent Mac, you'll want the 64-bit release. Remember to make note of the activation code. Yes, I said "activation code."
Hey, whoa, whoa. You're the one who wanted to use Windows, remember? Don't shoot the messenger.
Once you've downloaded the disk image, open Disk Utility on a Mac with an optical drive and mount the image in the sidebar. Click on the disk image and burn it to a blank disk. It's possible to use a USB disk image, but that also requires an existing Windows install as well as Microsoft's USB/DVD download tool.
Now get ready to lose some hard drive space! The 64-bit version of WIndows 8 requires at least 20GB of disk space; the 32-bit version 18GB. Launch Boot Camp Assistant. On the first screen, uncheck the option to download the latest Windows support software from Apple, and check the option to install Windows 7. (Yes, Windows 7—as of this writing, Apple has not yet updated Boot Camp for Windows 8.)
Then select how much disk space you want to allocate to the Windows drive. Unlike partitioning a drive using Disk Utility, this process won't wipe your existing data; it'll just allocate a section of your free space for Windows. (If you want to reclaim it later, you can run Boot Camp Assistant again to remove it.) Put your burned Windows 8 install disk in the drive and click Install.
Your Mac will restart, and you should see the dreadful… uh, I mean happy Windows installation dialog. You can take it from there. I don't support Windows unless you're family.
While Boot Camp will let you run Windows natively, Parallels almost makes installing Windows 8 a pleasure by comparison. Well, OK, you're still installing Windows, so maybe that's stretching things a bit, but it takes care of a lot of the process for you.
First download and install Parallels from that company's website. Parallels kindly offers a two-week trial period; after that the software costs $80 for a license.
Once you've installed the software, launch Parallels. Downloading Windows 8 is an option on the main screen. Select it and click Continue. Select a language, and Parallels will then even provide the activation code for you. It's almost like OS X, which has no activation codes! Except with activation codes!
If you uncheck the 64-bit Windows version box at the bottom, Parallels will download the 32-bit version instead. The only reason to do so might be if you have a Mac with less than 4GB of RAM. The 32-bit version of Windows 8 only requires 1GB of RAM versus the 2GB required for the 64-bit version.
You can then select to run Windows applications as if they are Mac applications, without having to view the Windows desktop, or to run Windows as an independent environment—"Like a PC," is how Parallels puts it. Then you'll be asked where you want to store the virtual drive file, which is the Windows data drive. Parallels also handles the Windows installation process for you, using your OS X user information to set up a Windows user.
VMware Fusion
The first thing you'll need if you opt for this approach is an online account with VMware to download the software. The account setup asks for your name and address as well as a phone number. (No, the company will not call you up and ask "Is your virtual machine running?" before shouting, "You better run and catch it, then" and hanging up. I mean, I would do that, but VMware is more professional about these sorts of things.)
Once you sign up for an account, you'll need to activate it through an email VMware sends you; then you can download a free 30-day trial. (A full version of VMware Fusion is a reasonable $50.) Open the disk image and do the old drag to install.
Launch the application, and you'll be asked if you want to submit anonymous data and statistics. Your online VMware account will include a trial license key which you'll need to supply; then, click OK and you'll be taken to the application's Virtual Machine Library. Click Create New. VMware will ask you what kind of disk you'll be installing from. In my instance, I was using Remote Disk from a MacBook Air, so I clicked "Continue without disc" and then navigated to the disc, which was being shared from an iMac eight feet away.
VMware will recognize your operating system as Windows but suggest that it's XP; you'll want to change that option to the closest available, which Windows 7 as of this writing. Also, as VMware defaults to allocating 1GB of RAM to the VM, I changed that to 2GB, the Windows 8 recommended minimum. Select Customize Settings, and WMware will prompt you first to save the file. Then click on Processors and Memory and increase the amount of RAM to 2GB.
Close the Settings window and your virtual machine shows a movie-like start arrow. Click it and you're in business. Unlike with Parallels, you'll need to supply the Windows activation code when prompted, as with a standard Windows installation process.
If you don't want to pay to try Windows 8 and, for whatever reason, you don't want to use Boot Camp, you can use VirtualBox, Oracle's free virtualization software.
Download and install VirtualBox from its website. Once that's done, launch VirtualBox and click New to make a new virtual machine. Provide a name for the environment and select Microsoft Windows as the operating system and "Windows 8 (64 bit)" (or just "Windows 8" if you downloaded the 32-bit version) as the version. Then select the base amount of RAM to allocate, I'd say at least 1GB if you're running the 32-bit version and 2GB if you're running the 64-bit version.
Next, you need to create a virtual hard disk. Using the defaults of "Start-up Disk" and "create new hard disk," click Continue and select the format of the disk. I chose a VirtualBox disk, but there are several other formats including Parallels. Click Continue and select whether you want the space to be dynamically allocated or static. Click Continue again and give the disk a name and a maximum size. Click Continue to review your disk settings and click Create. Finally, click Create one more time to tie it all together.
You're almost kinda sorta there! Now you have the environment, you just need to install Windows 8. Click Start and VirtualBox will initiate the First Run Wizard which, and I hate to disappoint you, isn't that magical. Click the folder icon next to the popup menu and select the ISO disk image of Windows 8 you want to use. Click Continue to review again and then Start.
VirtualBox will start the environment using the Windows install disk image. From there, you'll need to run through the standard Windows setup providing the activation key.
Which to choose?
Of the four options I explored, I found that Parallels is far and away the most painless to configure, even if it does require you to shell out more of your hard-earned cash. VMware Fusion is a bit less and slightly less slick, but still a solid option. VirtualBox is slower and much less elegant than the other virtualization options, but it is free. Boot Camp will be the fastest of the options listed here since it's not running Windows in a virtual environment, but it requires you have a Mac with an optical drive.
Whatever you choose, here's hoping your Windows experience is short and relatively painless. That should be possible, right?
[John Moltz recently gave up the glamour of working in corporate IT to write online at his Very Nice Web Site. He does not respond to questions about whether he used to write what amounts to Apple fan fiction.]