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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article
Sec. Psychopathology
Volume 6 - 2015 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00099
The "Facebook-self": characteristics and psychological predictors of false self-presentation on Facebook
- 1College of Management Academic Studies, Rishon LeZion, Israel
- 2The Academic College of Tel Aviv Yafo, Tel Aviv Yafo, Israel
- 3Department of Behavioral Sciences, Ruppin Academic Center, Emek Hefer, Israel
- 4Information Systems and Decision Sciences, Mihaylo College of Business and Economics, California State University, Fullerton, CA, USA
- 5Psychology, Brain and Creativity Institute, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
In this study we present and empirically examine a new phenomenon related to social networking sites, such as Facebook, the "false Facebook-self." Arguably false self-presentation on Facebook is a growing phenomenon, and in extreme cases; i.e., when ones Facebook image substantially deviates from their true image, it may serve as a gateway behavior to more problematic behaviors which may lead to psychological problems and even pathologies. In this study we show that certain users are more vulnerable to such false self-presentation than others. The study involved 258 Facebook users. Applying ANOVA and SEM analyses we show that users with low self-esteem and low trait authenticity are more likely than others to present a Facebook-self which deviates from their true selves. These social-interaction-related traits are influenced by one's upbringing and the anxious and avoidant attachment styles he or she has developed. Several cases (7.5%) with large gaps between the true and false Facebook-self were detected, which implies that future research should consider the adverse consequences and treatments of high levels of false Facebook-self.
The use of Facebook has been increasing in the last decade, with tens of millions of new users joining it on a quarterly basis worldwide (Internet World Stats, 2012). Each of these users spends, on average, around 14 min every day on Facebook, which represents 16.6% of the overall time spent online (Comscore1, 2011). This increased use, however, could be a double-edged sword as social networking sites provide their members with utilitarian, social and self-enhancing benefits, but at the same time, can produce negative well-being, work-life balance, and work performance consequences (Turel et al., 2011a,b, 2014; Turel and Serenko, 2012; Turel, 2015). Primarily, Facebook provides its members with the opportunity to interact with many different people, called "Facebook friends." Through these interactions users, especially those with low self-esteem and low life satisfaction can improve their psychological well-being, (Ellison et al., 2007). However, these rewarding interactions can lead to excessive use of such sites, up to the level of addiction (Turel and Serenko, 2012; Turel et al., 2014), especially for individuals with low self-esteem, low self-efficacy and other "problematic" characteristics (Brand et al., 2014), and those with strong need for escapism (Xu et al., 2012).
In this study we argue and demonstrate that the use of Facebook can also be associated with other psychological problems, beyond addiction. We specifically suggest that the use of Facebook, and perhaps other social media sites, can promote false presentation of the self, which we presume to be unhealthy based on false-self theories (Rogers, 1959; Winnicott, 1960), because it can ultimately lead to reduced wellbeing and promote various psychological pathologies. Unlike other online destinations, such as portals, news websites and even blogs, where one can comment either anonymously or under a fake name, social networking sites require their users to expose themselves, not just in terms of names, but also in terms of friends, activities, images, feelings, and preferences. As a result, some users decide, consciously or unconsciously, to present an identity or a self that deviates from their true-self (if such a thing really exists). Presumably, and assuming rationality, these users self-enhance their true identity to match a desired one, but would unlikely play down their true identity.
False self-presentation, to a certain degree, is not a phenomenon that was invented in the digital age. People often present themselves in a manner which is inconsistent with who they really are and with their set of real beliefs and values. The gap between the real self and the ideal self is called incongruity (Rogers, 1959); and it could lead to the creation of "false self" (Winnicott, 1960) which is a more defensive, protective self that hides one's "true self." Both Winnicott and Rogers suggested that low degrees of falseness are natural and perhaps not harmful. However, high degrees of falseness, or in other words, wide and persistent gaps between the true/real self and the false/ideal self, can result in precarious functioning and psychological vulnerability which ultimately can lead to psychological pathologies. We hence believe that such false self-representations on Facebook can lead to similar negative consequences and may merit increased awareness, and in some extreme cases – when the gaps between the true and false self are large and the person adopts his or her own false identity, even warrant counseling and treatment.
As such, we extend the idea of false-self and its consequent psychological vulnerabilities to a new domain, namely Facebook, which provides an efficient vehicle for developing and presenting a false-self. We call this false presentation the "Facebook-self." The "Facebook-self" is usually a more socially acceptable and popular self, and as such, can be very different from the user's real or "true self." The circumstances that lead to the creation of a false "Facebook-self" may differ from one user or situation to another. For instance, there is reason to predict that the difference between the "true-self" and the "Facebook-self" might be bigger when an individual is not satisfied with his or her real life or have low self-esteem and as a result creates an alternative environment to compensate for his or her real-life deficiencies. This is a natural compensation-defensive mechanism which shelters individuals from internal and external threats (e.g., social pressures and expectations) to their true-self. For instance, a recent survey showed that nearly two-thirds of mothers who use social networking sites felt pressure to create a social presence that depicted the perfect life, even though clearly life with newborns is not always perfect, i.e., they create "false selves" on such sites (emarketer, 2014). The creation of a false "Facebook-self" can also be a result of various individual differences in attachment style and authenticity. We consequently develop a theory which ties these concepts and explains the creation of the Facebook-self.
Ultimately, this study focuses on the "Facebook-self" and its predictors, because it is presumed that presenting a false image on a social networking site is easier and less risky that in real life; and consequently it may be prevalent in such environments. Moreover, it may influence the well-being of many users, since a growing percentage of their social lives shifts to online environments, such as Facebook. Hence, some users, especially with vulnerable personalities may create online identities which are much more rewarding and appealing than their true identities. These growing reward may have the potential to increase user risks of engaging in precarious behaviors and even developing addiction to the use of such sites (Turel et al., 2014). As such, we see the false Facebook-self as a possible gateway phenomenon to more problematic behaviors which may lead to psychological problems and pathologies. We hence posit that the phenomenon of false Facebook-self merits research, and might be relevant for treatment in extreme cases.
False identity and the Facebook-self
Winnicott's (1960) theory posits that one's ego can split to "true self" and "false self." These terms describe two types of experiences: one is more spontaneous, authentic and real and the other is more defensive and protective, trying to hide the "true self." Similarly, Rogers' (1959) theory defined the real self as the underlying organismic self. The ideal self often deviates from the real-self, and this can be a result of the lack of positive regard during childhood. It represents who one would like to be, as a result of the feedback he or she received during their developmental period. The gap between the real self and the ideal self is called incongruity. Both theories also suggest that large gaps or incongruence between the true and protective self can lead to various psychological problems. Behaving according to one's "true self," as well as having clear and explicit identity, tends to have positive consequences. This idea extends to online environments. People who present their "true selves" and are authentic on online media, tend to create honest, healthier and longer relationships with their online friends. These relationships, in many cases, are also translated into the offline world (McKenna et al., 2002).
One should note that there are also short-terms advantages to false presentations; and hence presenting a false self can be rational and perceived as a self-advantageous behavior. In a process called "identity play" a person can explore and adopt different identities that are different from his or her own identity (Turkle, 1995). This behavior can be considered positive if it is done from time to time and if it is flexible, meaning the person can freely change his or her behavior in different states. In addition, one's "false self" protects a person from showing others (including him- or her-self) who he or she really is or how he or she really feels, which in many cases can be a major benefit explaining the common use of "false self" and specifically false Facebook-self in our society. However, these advantages are realized primarily when the false-self is not persistent and is not too far from the true self. Hence, when these conditions are not met, a person may suffer from the negative consequences of his or her falseness.
How can a false-self be created on Facebook? Users on Facebook expose information about their identity in various ways, from their demographic profile information and education/professional experience to photographs, clips and written text. In contrast to anonymous social networks and sites (such as: blogs, forums, and others), it is uncommon for Facebook users to present false surface information (i.e., they mostly present true name, activities, and social demographic information). However, their deep identities are often presented in an implicit way using cues and signals embedded in their posts and images. For example, people may selectively post images of them being happy dining at a fancy restaurant with good looking friends, in an implicit attempt to enhance their image in the eyes of others in their social network; even though their true selves may be depressed and introvert, and the rest of their week was pretty dull. Consequently, users keep their identity much more implicit and create signals that present their identity in a positive way (Zhao et al., 2008). Hence, the Facebook-self in this research is a collection of signals given by a Facebook user to his or her Facebook community. These signals include all information, from the profile information (academic and professional background, hobbies, and others), followed by the uploaded content (photos, songs, and others) and ending with the published communications one posts on his or her "wall" or on other people's "walls" (messages, referred links, and other pieces of information). In this sense, one-to-one messages sent via Facebook are usually not a part of the public "Facebook-self." Please note that the "Facebook-self" following Winnicott's theory, might in some cases represent a "true self." However, in many cases it is likely to manifest a "false self" to a certain degree, which can diverge from one's "true self." This falseness is not necessarily intentional or even conscious, as it can represent one's non-Facebook "False self."
Personality characteristics that contribute to the presentation of a false-self, regardless of Facebook, are low self-esteem and unawareness of the true self (Harter et al., 1996), which may be manifested through low general authenticity. We therefore focus on these variables in this study, and apply them to the case of the Facebook-self.
Why should we care about false Facebook-self? There are several negative outcomes which may stem from a false Facebook-self. Specifically, it might negatively affect one's well-being, especially if done consistently and inflexibly, since authenticity is correlated with both subjective well-being and psychological well-being (Wood et al., 2008). We also assumed that keeping a false "Facebook-self" increases the reward one gets out of Facebook, as it provides a non-realistic environment one can act in, which may serve as a fertile ground for the development of addiction to the use of Facebook (Turel et al., 2014). Hence, therapists may want to deal with extreme cases of Facebook-self in order to prevent such issues. The point at which falseness on Facebook requires treatment is a topic for a different study, and requires further research.
Psychological predictors of false Facebook-self
Facebook is the largest social networking site on the Internet, with more than 1.3 billion active users, 829 million daily active users and ∼15% annual growth (Facebook, 2014). People use Facebook for developing and maintaining social ties; and such uses can improve the well-being of individuals by reducing their feelings of loneliness and depression (Kraut et al., 1998). Other possible benefits of using such sites include increases in self-esteem and perceived social support (Ellison et al., 2007; Bessière et al., 2008; Gonzales and Hancock, 2011), as well as enjoyment, satisfaction (Turel and Serenko, 2012; Turel, 2015) and positive affect (Bareket-Bojmel and Shahar, 2011).
Given these social and self-enhancing benefits, the use of such websites may be especially appealing for people with low self-esteem, who can use such sites to self-disclose in a "protected" environment (Reis and Shaver, 1988). Unfortunately, even though such sites look like "safe" environments, recent research shows that interactions with and on such sites can lead to unwarranted consequences. For example, retaliation against people with different opinions may be common on such sites (Forest and Wood, 2012). This unsupportive interaction causes social networking site users with depressive symptoms to have negative interactions and negative affect (Feinstein et al., 2012). This concern regarding social-and affective-safety may be one predictor that promotes social compliance and the development of false Facebook-self.
Furthermore, lonely people that have low social skills tend to develop strong compulsive Internet use behaviors, and as a result have negative life outcomes instead of relieving their original problems (Kim et al., 2009). Similarly, individuals with materialistic values who believe that online purchases will enhance their emotions and identity, develop compulsive shopping tendencies (Dittmar et al., 2007); and others may feel guilty regarding the time they spend on Facebook and the way they manage relationships on Facebook (Turel, 2015). As such, Facebook usage has a range of effects on the self, much beyond the Facebook boundaries. It affects the feelings, attitudes and behaviors of its users in the offline world, outside of Facebook.
As discussed above, Facebook can have positive impacts on certain users and negative effects on others, and it is also possible that it has positive and negative effects on the same users (Tarafdar et al., 2013; D'Arcy et al., 2014). One of the potential causes to this variation in the positive and the negative effects of social networking sites is the wide spectrum of Facebook users who differ in their characteristics, personalities, intensity and forms of Facebook usage, benefits they get from the social networking sites, and attitudes toward Facebook. Analysis of this wide range of personalities, behaviors, attitudes and emotions can shed some light on the various effects Facebook has on its users. Focusing on the characteristics that put certain users at risk might point to possible prevention strategies, and this is the avenue of research we pursue in this study.
The negative effects of Facebook usage were mainly found in parameters such as reduced offline social life participation, withdrawal from academic studies challenges in relationships (Kuss and Griffiths, 2011), and sense of time wasting and guilt feelings (Turel, 2015). It was also found that some Facebook users prefer their social interaction to be online (versus offline). These users usually engage in social networking site use as a means to regulate their mood changes. When they have deficient self-regulation abilities, they may engage in excessive and problematic Facebook use (Lee et al., 2012), which is sometimes classified as an addiction to the use of such sites (Turel and Serenko, 2012; Brand et al., 2014). From a brain activation standpoint, problematic use of Facebook is typically driven by hyper-sensitized and hyperactive amygdala-striatal system (Turel et al., 2014).
In addition to the abovementioned variables, it is possible that the social aspects of Facebook use are associated with its users' attachment style (Bowlby, 1969), albeit these effects are likely to be indirect and mediated through traits which are developed post-childhood. Attachment theory predicts that early childhood relationships of the infant with his or her main caregiver influence his or her long-term relationships with others. Hence, its relevancy to Facebook use, which is largely about relationship development and maintenance. Attachment theory points to four attachment patterns: secure, avoidant, ambivalent/resistant and disorganized. These styles can influence Facebook use in various ways, and particularly non-secure attachment styles (anxious and avoidant) can be associated with the ways people manage relationships and interact on Facebook: (1) anxious attachment style is positively related to relationships within Facebook and (2) avoidant attachment style is negatively related to these relationships, with expression of jealousy and surveillance on Facebook (Marshall et al., 2012). The rationale behind these influences is that Facebook users who are high in anxious-attachment are likely to maintain a larger number of friends, and to have more intensive relationships, but experience no satisfaction with these relationships. In contrast, Facebook users who are high in avoidant-attachment are expected to have fewer friends, to be less active in maintaining these relationships and to be less emotionally involved with these friends.
Other major personality traits that have been studied in past research include self-esteem, narcissism, conscientiousness, loneliness and self-worth. Users with low levels of self-esteem and high levels of narcissism tend to spend more time on Facebook and post self-promotional Photoshop-enhanced images (Mehdizadeh, 2010). Self-esteem was also found to be negatively correlated with emotional connection with Facebook (Seto, 2012). On average, heavy Facebook users tend to be less conscientious and socially lonely (Ryan and Xenos, 2011). With regards to self-worth it was found that its sources (appearance, outdoing, and others) explain online sharing of photos (Stefanone et al., 2011). Hence, Facebook users low on self-esteem will be more likely than others to self-enhance their image on Facebook, and present higher degrees of false Facebook-self.
Lastly, authenticity is another personality trait which has received attention, because it is seen by many psychology perspectives as an important aspect of well-being (Horney, 1951; Rogers, 1961; Winnicott, 1965; Yalom, 1980; May, 1981) and departures from it are often seen as increasing the likelihood of psychopathologies. Authenticity is the degree to which one is true to his or her own personality, spirit, or character, despite external pressures. Psychodynamic theoreticians, such as Horney (1951) and Winnicott (1965) focused on the internalization of external aspects of life during childhood as something that can lead to self-alienation, while existential theoreticians, such as Yalom (1980) and May (1981) focused particularly on self-alienation as the core of authenticity. Both points of view agree that authenticity is a key influencer of well-being, and that major deviation from it can lead to problems. In the current research we hypothesized that one's authenticity in the "real world" (outside of Facebook) will mirror into the Facebook arena, and will lead to lower degrees of falseness in one's Facebook representation.
Ultimately, the growth in Facebook usage seems to result in part from the various benefits it provides to its users; and that these benefits can vary based on individual differences in terms of self-esteem and anxious attachment styles. However, as we argue here, this growth can also fuel the development of false Facebook self-identities. Based on the abovementioned logic, we argue that the development of false Facebook-self is driven, in part by low authenticity and low self-esteem, and that these individual differences can be influenced by one's upbringing and the negative attachment styles – avoidant and anxious, he or she has developed. We expect that avoidant and anxious styles will reduce one's self esteem and his or her authenticity because less-authentic behaviors and reduced self-esteem may result from less secured attachment styles as a means to protect one from engaging in relationships in which he or she is perceived to be inferior to others.
Research model
Given the possible prevalence and importance of the false Facebook-self and its possible adverse consequences, the aim of this study is to analyze key psychological processes leading to a false Facebook-self, with an emphasis on key predictors mentioned in the previous sections. Integrating the possible influences of these predictors on false Facebook-self, we propose the model depicted in Figure 1. The model starts with early childhood, where infant's relationships with his or her main caregiver influence his or her attachment style. As predicted by Bowlby's (1969) attachment theory, non-secure attachment styles (anxious and avoidant) influence long-term relationships with others, and more importantly, personality characters which relate to self-worth perception and image. In our model we predict that both avoidant and anxious attachment styles negatively influence one's self-esteem (Arbona and Power, 2003) and authenticity (Gillath et al., 2010) in real life (outside of Facebook). These two personality characteristics, in turn, will negatively influence the creation of a false Facebook-self. That is, people high in non-secure attachment styles are predicted to develop lower general life authenticity and lower general self-esteem. When self-esteem and authenticity are low, we predict that individuals' self-representation on Facebook will deviate from their true-self; i.e., they will present stronger false Facebook-selves.
Materials and Methods
The study involved 258 participants, 183 females, 62 males, and 13 participants who did not report their gender. All participants were Israeli adults (between the ages of 20 and 65 years old with an average age of 27.04 years and SD = 6.12) with an active account on Facebook. Participants were approached using an online questionnaire (Qualtrics) which was distributed to freshman undergraduate psychology students (N = 135), as well as to freshman graduate business students (N = 123).The scales used in this study can be found in appendix A. A description of the scales and their reliability scores in the current study are provided below:
(1) Attachment style questionnaire [a short version of the Experiences in Close Relationships Scale (ECR); Brennan et al., 1998] was used to assess adult attachment patterns. The scale included 16 statements such as: "I prefer not to show others how I feel deep down," "I worry about people leaving me," "I am comfortable being close to other people." The items were rated on a 7-point Likert scale from 1 – "Strongly disagree" to 7 – "Strongly agree." Respondents were asked to rate how they generally experience close relationships. The Anxiety subscale consisted of eight items assessing fear of abandonment, preoccupation with one's close partner, and fear of rejection. The Avoidance subscale was also composed of eight items, and assessed avoidance of intimacy, discomfort with closeness, and self-reliance.
Based on the classification by Bartholomew and Horowitz (1991), four categories or styles of adult attachment were identified, based on both attachment style levels and median splits – secure (low levels of both avoidance and anxiety attachment), dismissive (high level of avoidance attachment and low level of anxiety attachment), preoccupied (low level of avoidance attachment and high level of anxiety attachment) and fearful (high levels of both avoidance and anxiety attachment). Previous applications of the scale reported coefficient alphas of 0.76–0.84 in the Anxiety subscale and 0.68–0.76 in the Avoidance subscale (Gur, 2006). In the present study, coefficient alphas were 0.80 and 0.75 for the Anxiety and Avoidance subscales, respectively.
(2) Self-esteem questionnaire [Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE); Rosenberg, 1965] captured general levels of self-esteem. The scale included 10 statements such as: "I hold a positive attitude toward myself," "I'm inclined to feel that I'm a failure," "I feel that I have a number of good qualities." The items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 – "Strongly disagree" to 5 – "Strongly agree." Previous studies have reported coefficient alphas for the RSE scale ranging from 0.72 to 0.88 (Gray-Little et al., 1997). In the present study, coefficient alpha was 0.87.
(3) Authenticity questionnaire (Authenticity Scale; Wood et al., 2008) was used for measuring the authenticity trait of the Facebook users in their real life. The authenticity scale comprised of three sub-scales: authentic living, accepting external Influence and self-alienation. The scale included 12 statements such as: "I think it is better to be yourself than to be popular," "I don't know how I really feel inside," "I am strongly influenced by the opinions of others." Each of the three sub-scales includes four statements. The items were rated on a 7-point Likert scale from 1 – "does not describe me at all" to 7 – "describes me very well." The authors reported coefficient alpha of 0.70–0.82 for the authentic Living sub-scale, 0.77–0.84 for the accepting External Influence sub-scale and 0.82–0.84 for the self-Alienation sub-scale. In the present study, coefficient alphas were 0.75, 0.79, and 0.64 correspondingly. The Authenticity scale overall, had a coefficient alpha of 0.65, which is somewhat low but acceptable.
(4) False Facebook-self questionnaire [Perception of "False Self" Scale (POFS); Weir and Jose, 2010] was adapted for this research in order to measure the difference between the perceived day-to-day self and the perceived self within Facebook, as well as the falseness of one's self on Facebook (regardless of who the user is in real life). The bigger the difference was, the more false one's Facebook-self was, and to stronger his or deviation from reality was (i.e., strong agreement indicated higher degrees of falseness). Very high false Facebook-self scores can represent a fictional self which may meet DSM criteria for delusional disorder, medium scores of false Facebook-self represent moderately self-exaggerated and enhanced self, and low scores represent a relatively consistent, accurate and reliable depiction of the self on Facebook. Please note that this study treated the false Facebook self as a continuous concept (e.g., like the treatment of addiction scores in past research; see Turel et al., 2014), but future research can find the infliction point after which fictional self is developed, or where clinical treatment is warranted.
(5) The scale included 21 statements such as: "I say what I think on Facebook even if it is different from the opinions of others," "I cannot express my opinions to others on Facebook," "I act one way, but want to act a different way on Facebook." The scale tapped into multiple facets of the false-self: the gap between the true and Facebook self, the gap between the Facebook self and real-life self, and gaps between the signals provided on one's Facebook page and social expectations. The items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 – "Strongly disagree" to 5 – "Strongly agree." The authors reported coefficient alpha of 0.84. In the present study, coefficient alpha was 0.86. The Facebook-self levels measured in this study ranged between 1.14 and 3.90 on a 5-point scale, with an average of 2.43 and a standard deviation of 0.50. Higher levels of false Facebook-self indicated large gaps between the true self and the one presented on Facebook.
(6) Demographic questionnaire captured sex, age, marital status, education levels and income levels.
Analysis and Results
Several analyses were performed in order to test the proposed associations. First, the role of demographics was examined, and largely ruled out. Next, a descriptive assessment of the variables was performed, and demonstrated a preliminary viability of the proposed associations. Next, a sequence of ANOVAs was used for establishing potential associations between the pertinent individual differences and the Facebook-self. Lastly, a structural equation model depicting all hypothesized effects was estimated.
Sample composition – demographic variables
The sample included 258 participants, out of whom 183 were women (74.7%) and 62 men (25.3%). Thirteen participants did not disclose their sex. The vast majority of the participants (74.1%) were single followed by 22.3% who were married. The majority of the sample (52.3%) held either a Bachelor's or a Master's degree.
To test the contribution of the demographic characteristics to the research's main variables, one-way ANOVA tests were conducted. Levels of anxious attachment [F(1,243) = 9.713, p ≤ 0.05] and self-esteem [F(1,243) = 7.933, p ≤ 0.05] were found to be different for the different sexes, where women had higher anxious attachment levels (M = 3.26, SD = 1.04) compared to men (M = 2.79, SD=1.0), as well as lower self-esteem (M = 3.95, SD = 0.64) compared to men (M = 4.20, SD = 0.49). Levels of anxious attachment [F(2,245) = 3.782, p ≤ 0.05] were found to be different also for the different marital status categories. To further examine the difference between the categories, a post hoc Scheffe test was conducted with significance level of p < 0.05. The results showed that there is a significant difference in anxious attachment between single participants (M = 3.23, SD = 1.08) and married ones (M = 2.80, SD = 0.88), and that single participants had higher levels of anxious attachment.
Levels of anxious attachment [F(2,245) = 4.85, p ≤ 0.05] were found to be different also for the different education levels. To further examine the difference between the categories, a post hoc Scheffe test was conducted with significance level of p < 0.05. The results showed that there is a significant difference in anxious attachment between participants with high school education (M = 3.35, SD = 1.0) and participants with a bachelor degree (M = 2.94, SD = 1.12). Levels of anxious attachment [F(5,243) = 3.72, p ≤ 0.05] and self-esteem [F(5,243) = 4.27, p ≤ 0.05] were found to be different for the different salary levels. To further examine the difference between the categories, a post hoc Scheffe test was conducted with significance level of p < 0.05. The results showed that there is a significant difference in anxious attachment between the lowest salary band participants (M = 3.79, SD = 1.13) and the third salary band (M = 2.93, SD = 0.98). There is also a significant difference in self-esteem between the lowest salary band participants (M = 3.60, SD = 0.80), the third salary band (M = 4.14, SD = 0.50) and the fourth salary band (M = 4.11, SD = 0.47).
Other than these reported differences, there was no additional contribution of the demographic characteristics to the model's variables, and most importantly to the reported levels of false Facebook-self. Hence, they were not included as predictors in the next analysis.
Predictors of the false Facebook-self
Table 1 displays the means, SDs, correlations between the variables of the model and their significance, as well as the reliability scores (Cronbach Alphas) for the scales.
Personality characteristics' contribution to a false Facebook-self. In order to understand the indirect contribution of attachment styles to the false Facebook-self based on the classification by Bartholomew and Horowitz (1991), two dummy variables were created using a median split: anxious and avoidant, dividing the anxious attachment style and avoidant attachment style variables into two categories (low and high) using the median as the cutoff point.
In order to establish possible association between Facebook-self scores and the pertinent attachment styles, Facebook-self scores were subjected to a two-way ANOVA having two levels of anxious attachment (low, high) and two levels of avoidant attachment (low, high). All effects were statistically significant at the 0.05 significance level. The main effect of anxious attachment yielded F(1,248) = 11.01, p < 0.001, indicating that the mean false Facebook-self score was significantly greater for high anxious-attachment participants (M = 2.42, SD = 0.47) than for low anxious-attachment participants (M = 2.22, SD = 0.52). The main effect of avoidant attachment yielded F(1,248) = 12.11, p < 0.001, indicating that the mean Facebook-self score was significantly greater for high avoidant-attachment participants (M = 2.43, SD = 0.44) than for low avoidant-attachment participants (M = 2.22, SD = 0.53). The interaction effect was non-significant [F(1,248) = 0.833, p > 0.05], and participants with both high levels of anxious-attachment and high levels of avoidant-attachment had a mean Facebook-self score of 2.51 (SD = 0.42).
Figure 2 shows the average Facebook-self levels in each of the avoidant and anxious attachment style categories.
FIGURE 2. Average false Facebook-self levels in each avoidant and anxious attachment style categories.
After preliminarily testing the indirect total contribution of attachment style to the appearance of a false Facebook-self, we wanted to preliminarily examine the contribution of the individual-difference variables which we hypothesize to directly influence false Facebook-self levels (Self-esteem and authenticity). Toward this end, two dummy variables were created for each personality characteristic: low and high, using the median as the cutoff point (i.e., median split).
Next, two separate one-way ANOVA tests were conducted. These tests showed that the both effects of self-esteem [F(1,250) = 29.617, p ≤ 0.05] and authenticity [F (1,250) = 36.324, p ≤ 0.05] were statistically significant. Figure 3 shows the average Facebook-self levels in each self-esteem and authenticity category. Based on these results, the higher levels of false Facebook-self appear in individuals with lower levels of self-esteem and authenticity.
Following these preliminary analyses, we sought to examine the suggested research model as a whole, which explicates also links among individual characteristic's and accounts for shared variance among such characteristics as well as for the hypothesized non-direct effects. We did that in order to examine the two-stage model we theorized– the influence of early-child attachment styles on personality characteristics (self-esteem and authenticity) as the first stage, and the influence of these personality characteristics on the creation of a false Facebook-self, as the second stage. This chronological process representation captures the intricacies of interactions among our predictors and the ultimate outcome variable – false Facebook-self. To this end, we used path modeling with maximum-likelihood estimations in the structural equation modeling (SEM) facilities of AMOS 20.0. The hypothesized model indicated good fit to the data (x[3]2 = 7.902, p > 0.05, x2 /df = 2.63, NFI = 0.97, CFI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.08). The standardized path coefficients, their levels of significance (above the arrows) and the squared multiple correlations (SMCs, in the boxes) are provided in Figure 4. As can be seen, all hypothesized paths were significant and in the expected direction. Hence, our theory as expressed in the model was supported. Both attachment styles had negative effects on self-esteem and authenticity, which in turn had negative effects on the false Facebook-self.
The overall aims of this study were to introduce the concept of false Facebook self as a potential driver of psychological problems and to examine key psychological factors driving the creation and maintenance of this false Facebook-self. Based on our findings, some degree of false Facebook-self was reported by the research participants (M = 2.32 on a 5-point Likert scale, SD = 0.5), which means that on average, users believe that their Facebook-self differs from who they really are and represents in part a person which adheres to social pressures, exaggerates positive facets, and downplays weaknesses. Although the average score is below the middle point (three on a 5-point Likert scale), there were 19 participants (7.5% of valid responses) who reported higher false-self than the middle point. These levels seem reasonable because the participants in this research were relatively functional students, and consequently did not present extreme levels of false Facebook-self, which may be even perceived as delusional and require treatment. Future research can attempt to find such individuals and explore their clinical needs. In addition, it is possible that our sample included more cases of severe false Facebook self, but the Facebook self was underreported due to social desirability bias. This is a point which merits further research.
The Facebook-self represents the way a Facebook user is presenting himself or herself to the Facebook community. We focused on the falseness of one's Facebook-self as an indicator that can shed light on his or her Facebook behavior and possible psychological problems. Many studies have analyzed the characteristics and behaviors of Facebook users, but to the best of our knowledge there is no research analyzing the falseness of the Facebook users, and more specifically the personality factors that contribute to this falseness.
In this study, individual differences related to self-esteem and authenticity in real-life were found to reduce the magnitude of one's false Facebook-self. Both avoidant and anxious attachment styles were found to negatively impact these individual differences, and by doing so, indirectly influence the formation of false Facebook-self. Hence, our results show that the false Facebook-self is driven, in part, by shortcomings in one's personality, which may relate to his or her upbringing and the consequent social traits he or she has developed. Specifically, false Facebook-self is enhanced when self-esteem and general authenticity are low, and these traits tend to be lower among individuals with avoidant and anxious attachment styles. This is consistent with Bowlby's (1969) attachment theory and extends it to an online context. It also extends findings regarding the connection between insecure attachment styles and dishonest behaviors, such as lying and cheating (Gillath et al., 2010), as well as connections between insecure attachment and authenticity in real life (Marshall and Smith, 1986), to an online context. We hence in this study extend our knowledge regarding offline behaviors to the growing in prevalence online world of social interactions.
This study's findings also point to the fact that Facebook and the range of positive social reward it provides to users has created a playground for people that have difficulties in interacting with others, in which they can rationally chose to present a false self-image. These users who may have had difficulties in their early years of development tend to create a non-secure attachment style, have lower self-esteem and are often not very authentic in their real life. These "disadvantages" do not disappear in the virtual world, but the perceived distance from others in the virtual world gives these users the ability to communicate with others; an ability which they usually lack in face-to-face environments. Still, in many cases these social interactions on social networking sites are done using false self-representations which can be relatively far from their real selves. As argued by false-self theories, this divergence may be a source for various psychological problems.
It is important to note that false-self presentations is not necessarily a concern for all users, as evident in the variation of false Facebook-self scores we obtained in this study, and the many users with low self-reported false Facebook-self scores. Some users may have the exact same profile as the "false" ones, but present a true Facebook-self and can leverage the positive benefits of the online social networking site to a fuller extent. In contrast, others may have more extreme cases of false Facebook-self, and these individuals may require treatment due to possible adverse consequences of this falseness, as prescribed by false-self theories. The current study examined a convenience sample of functional young-adults who perhaps not surprisingly presented low-medium levels of false Facebook-self. These individuals, excluding some extreme cases, may not require treatment. However, further research is needed for substantiating this conclusion, and perhaps future research can (1) detect more severe cases, (2) perhaps examine whether treatment is needed, and(2) test the efficacy of various treatments with regards to dealing with one's level of false Facebook self.
The unique contribution of this study is in introducing and emphasizing the importance of the false Facebook-self and the factors that contribute to its appearance. We suggest that false Facebook-self is an important phenomenon to study because it can serve as a gateway issue to more problematic behaviors which may lead to psychological problems and even pathologies, such as Facebook addiction. While this proposition requires further research, the results of this study show the psychological characteristics (attachment, authenticity, and self-esteem) that can lead to the creation of a false Facebook-self. By doing so, we pave the way for further research on this topic.
These findings have possible implication for both diagnosis and treatment of problematic Facebook use. The findings can also be used for prevention and psycho-education purposes. Such psycho-education efforts should reduce the negative circumstances leading to a false presentation within Facebook. In addition Facebook users who will be found to have high levels of false Facebook-self might have the opportunity to go into prevention treatment, where the risks of mal-usage of Facebook will be explored with them. These suggested solutions should be explored in future research, since the current research design does not cater to examining prevention treatments and their effects.
Additional possible treatment procedures should be examined in future research. For example, future research can examine the efficacy of cognitive beliefs challenging of cognitions which lead to the presentation of the false Facebook-self, or the efficacy of "replacement" of unhealthy portions of the false Facebook-self with more functional portions, and others. In addition to the cognitive treatment, other treatments can be examined in future research, especially when extreme cases of false Facebook self are detected. Based on theoretical similarities between the narcissistic personality structure and the characteristics of false Facebook-self found in this study, techniques that may work and require further research include behavioral treatment and psychodynamic therapy. We hence call for future research to examine the need for and efficacy of such techniques.
Ultimately, we believe that future studies should further explore the concept of false Facebook self, its antecedent, consequences and treatments (Tarafdar et al., 2013; D'Arcy et al., 2014). Such studies are essential because the use of social networking sites has become the main rather than secondary means of social interaction for many people. At the same time, problematic and excessive use of such sites can be associated with pathologies (Turel et al., 2014), and prevention and teratement techniques may be in order (Turel et al., 2015). This study has made initial strides in this direction, by focusing on the Facebook-self concept and its antecedents. We hence call for more research on this important, yet underexplored topic.
Conflict of Interest Statement
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Supplementary Material
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: http://www.frontiersin.org/journal/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00099/abstract
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Keywords: social networking sites, Facebook, false self, attachment theory, self-esteem, authenticity
Citation: Gil-Or O, Levi-Belz Y and Turel O (2015) The "Facebook-self": characteristics and psychological predictors of false self-presentation on Facebook. Front. Psychol. 6:99. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00099
Received: 11 November 2014; Accepted: 19 January 2015;
Published online: 17 February 2015.
Edited by:Damien Brevers, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium
Reviewed by:Gilly Koritzky, University of Southern California, USA
Liana Fattore, National Research Council, Italy
Copyright © 2015 Gil-Or, Levi-Belz and Turel. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Ofir Turel, Information Systems and Decision Sciences, Mihaylo College of Business and Economics, California State University, 800 North State College boulevard, Fullerton, CA 92834, USA e-mail: firstname.lastname@example.com


text:
Another Rays game, another blown lead in the ninth inning. The fifth of that variety this year, to be exact, the tenth blown lead after seven innings, and the 29th overall blown lead of the season. Awesome.
As I watched Fernando Rodney give up the lead yesterday, I couldn't help but think back to my business management classes from college and one specific lesson that stuck out in my mind: biases.
Businessdictionary.com states that the anchoring bias is "the act of basing a judgment on a familiar reference point that is incomplete or irrelevant to the problem that is being solved. An example is when a consumer judges the relative value of a product or service from a company on the basis of the cost in some previous period of time. Or, an investor may judge that a stock price is overvalued or undervalued based on that stock's previous high share price."
Obviously everyone keeps bringing up Rodney's 2012 record-breaking season and the mechanical adjustments he made to become that pitcher. People expect to see 2012 Rodney on the mound, but 2013 Rodney is nowhere near as effective.
2013 Fernando Rodney's stats look like this, per ESPN.com: 19.1 innings pitched allowing 16 hits, 13 earned runs, walking 18 batters while striking out 26, with five blown saves and an ERA of 6.05. That's certainly a lot higher than the .60 ERA of 2012 Rodney who only blew all of two saves the entire season.
As discussed earlier this month, and shown here in Jason Collette's post at Baseball Prospectus, Rodney's mechanics have been altered and this "foot tapping" has been introduced in 2013. The post shows a .gif of Rodney's delivery in 2012, where he was sliding, rather than tapping his foot. Now here's Brennan Boesch's RBI double yesterday where you'll see Rodney's foot tap twice. And here's Brett Gardner's game-tying RBI single in which Rodney taps his foot once.
During the post-game press conference, Joe Maddon told reporters, "this has been awkward to watch…as long as Rodney does not lose confidence in himself, I will not lose confidence in him." He also mentioned that many times this season, Fernando has been "one pitch away from being pretty darn good." Sigh.
Rodney was not available for comment since he left the clubhouse yesterday without talking to the media.
Roger Mooney of the Tampa Tribune thinks that if/when Rodney is demoted, it most likely won't be announced. I guess Maddon could always go back to last year where he spent the first half of the season tiptoeing around the word 'closer'.

#rays Maddon is always going to defend his players publicly. If he does demote Rodney , probably will just happen without an announcement
— RMooneyTBO (@RMooneyTBO) May 26, 2013

Per Marc Topkin of the Tampa Bay Times, Roberto Hernandez did not take batting practice with the other Rays pitchers yesterday, but Maddon said that Hernandez is still set to start Wednesday's game in Miami. We could also tie in the 'sunk costs' bias with Hernandez. Perhaps one more bad start for him and the Rays should just eat his salary and either call up another starter from Durham, or if Price is back soon enough, just keep Odorizzi in the rotation and either DFA or demote Hernandez to the bullpen.
Speaking of Price's return, he talked to the media yesterday and said that there is no real timetable for his return just yet. Price is able to come off the DL as early as May 31st, but seeing as how he hasn't started throwing again yet, I don't think that date is very realistic at all.
The Rays face the Yankees again at 1:40 today as they try to avoid a sweep. Alex Cobb will take the mound against CC Sabathia.
-If you're going to Monday's Rays game against the Marlins at the Trop, you can get there early and watch the two team's wives and girlfriends take part in the Citrus Classic at 1:00 PM. The Rays' wives have been collecting pledges this weekend to benefit Autism Speaks and the Rays Baseball Foundation will be matching donations as well.
-Angel Pagan hit a walk-off inside the park two-run homerun yesterday and it was glorious.
-Marlins pitcher Alex Sanabia claims that he didn't know spitballs were illegal. Yeah, ok.
-Miguel Cabrera does not need you to throw strikes over the plate in order for him to hit a homerun, as demonstrated in this .gif from Drew Sheppard of Fangraphs.
-This was a really interesting read from Isobel Markham about female sports journalists and their looks. The article states, "That role [sideline reporter] is either filled by actual journalists," said espnW reporter Jane McManus, "or Miss Florida, who is, you know, an attractive young woman." Laura McKeeman actually knew what she was talking about so I'm not sure why the 'Miss Florida' comment was necessary.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Autumn 2015 Color Showcase
Summer may be drawing to a close and autumn may be just around the corner, but don't despair! The changing of the seasons doesn't need to be a harbinger of cold, unpleasant weather to come. A new season means a new wardrobe, new projects, and new color palettes to experiment with in your graphic designs and paper crafts.
Pantone's Autumn Color Report predicts the trendiest colors for the coming season. This season's hues are strongly inspired by nature, as earthy colors combine with retro throwbacks to create a diverse mix of subdued neutrals and bright, punchy accents that are perfect for any home crafter or professional designer. Combine colors to focus your reader's attention on your focal point, or incorporate contrasting tones to add depth and visual interest to your designs.
Let's dig in to Pantone's ten autumn colors.
Dried Herb
Dried herb is a subdued olive green. It makes a beautiful neutral backdrop for punchier colors, but its almost military-inspired, earthy tones are classic and perfect for any project.
Add some flavor to your designs with these papers and paper products:
Desert Sage
Desert sage is another cool neutral. It's greenish gray tones are quiet and soothing, but colorful enough to create an interesting backdrop for any design or craft.
Cool off with these Desert Sage paper suggestions:
Stormy Weather
Stormy Weather is a strong, powerful blue gray. It's dark tones imply quality and luxury, and it's only a short step away from a neutral hue, so it adds a little bit of color without being too bold.
Here are some great papers to help you weather the storm:
Oak Buff
Oak Buff is a warm, comforting shade. Just picture the sun peeking out from behind the clouds after stormy weather (pun intended). It's golden yellow tones are happy and bright, but Oak Buff is still neutral enough to comfortably pair with many other colors.
Kraft Paper is an excellent all-purpose paper. It pulls out the brown tones of Oak Buff. Try these suggestions:
If you're looking for something a little warmer than Kraft Paper, try these golden recommendations:
Marsala is Pantone's color of the year, so it's no surprise to see it pop up on their Autumn Color Report. Marsala is rich, robust, and warm, and its earthiness is perfectly in line with this season's nature-inspired hues.
Get on board with the biggest color trend of the year with these papers:
Biscay Bay
Biscay Bay is a lush, tropical teal. It's brighter and punchier than the other natural, neutral tones in Pantone's Autumn Color Report, and it's the perfect tone for moving into the cooler days of fall – just take a look at Biscay Bay, and feel yourself being whisked back to those sunny days on the beach.
Step into the warm waters of Biscay Bay:
Reflecting Pond
Reflecting pond is deeper and cooler than Biscay Bay, but it's still warm enough to recall those summer memories during the cooler months of autumn. It's depth conveys a seriousness that will benefit any design or paper craft.
Take some time to reflect on these paper recommendations:
Cadmium Orange
Cadmium Orange is one of this autumn's coolest retro throwbacks. It's fun and optimistic without being overbearing, and it's warm and subtle drama are perfect for adding bright contrast to your designs.
These papers will add a ray of sunshine to your designs and paper crafts:
Cashmere Rose
Cashmere Rose is another retro throwback. It's a soft and gentle pink, but it's bright enough to add a sense of fun and whimsy without overwhelming the eye – or being too cotton-candy.
Try one of these papers:
Amethyst Orchid
Amethyst Orchid is vibrant and a little sensual. It's a bold purple hue that conveys a sense of power and richness without being obnoxious or pretentious.
Add some luxury to your designs and paper crafts with these papers:
Autumn is Coming
This autumn's hues are heavily inspired by nature and earth tones, but there are enough bright colors, like Biscay Bay and Cadmium Orange, to add a much-needed pop of color to any graphic design or paper craft project. Any of these colors will make a stunning backdrop – even the bright ones – for any message.
Alex. "Pantone 2015 Fall Fashion Report." iWork3.


text:
SHRIMPS' boss Jim Bentley said he felt "numb'' after seeing his side concede a 94th minute goal for the second home game in succession to drop vital points.
After Stevenage took the points through Luke Wilkinson's injury time header Bentley said: "It's hard to be honest; the job's hard and things like that don't help.
"I feel numb; we shot ourselves in the foot in the first half which was probably as bad as it's been, maybe in the last 12 or 18 months.
"Last week, there were lots of good signs; today we thought 'do we go more defensive with (Alex) Kenyon or more offensive with (Liam) Mandeville?'
"You've got to be adaptable but it's so frustrating because we speak about mindsets and what we expect of them.
"When we turn in a performance like that in the first half, it takes me to lose my voice to get them going.
"We were terrible in the first half but we finished it with Rhys Oates and Jordan Cranston having a couple of shots, so we looked like we had recovered from it.
"I was thankful it was only 1-0 at half-time; we didn't win first or second balls, we didn't track runners.
"In 90 per cent of games, even when the result hasn't gone for us, we've been clapped off but, today, we were open to criticism.
"I could hear it – because it's a lonely place in the dugout – and they have every right but the crowd were excellent in the second half."


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Back to Main Designer Spotlight Page
Carmen Wyant
By Rita Vainius
An unusually large "yours, mine & ours" family is how Carmen Wyant describes her home, growing up amid 6 sisters and 4 brothers in north central Montana. As she puts it, "Everyone older than me belonged to Dad (M.P."Tex" Polk); my younger sister, Cheri' & myself were my Mom's, my younger brother, Louis, is the "ours" & one foster brother, Don." Carmen's father worked in the oil fields while mother Lois tended home and children. Lois had her sewing work cut out for her in keeping "all those girls" clothed. Carmen recalls, "We had homemade prom dresses & her sewing machine seemed to be a permanent fixture on the kitchen table, so I grew up almost sewing by osmosis." Carmen sewed many of her own clothes as she got older and confides, "I was probably the only freshman at college with a sewing machine in her room."
Over the years, Carmen has held a variety of jobs from road construction to bartending and currently works at the Mission Mountains Mercantile in a management position. She began marketing her designs in the summer of '98 and would like nothing better than to design and teach full time, a goal she has set for herself within two years. Carmen's family has been most encouraging of her needleart pursuits. Lois often accompanies her daughter to trade shows and is remarried to a "great guy" Harold, who makes all of the ends for Carmen's Blue Hydrangea Sewing Rolls, in addition to house-sitting for her menagerie of 4 dogs, 2 cats and 4 horses, while she is away. On occasion, when not away on business (building log homes), Carmen's husband, Tim, pitches in too. Carmen stresses, "For all his grumbling about the time I spend with a needle in my hand, my husband has been wonderful about this mid-life career move. He's never let me down when it came to something I really wanted to do." While they were courting, Carmen was embroidering a quilt top and laid it out in her future mother-in-law's living room to tie it together. For their nuptials, Carmen made her bridesmaid's dress, embellishing it with flowers around the neckline and a rainbow on the skirt. She also executed the detailed embroidery on her sister Cheri's gown. For her own bridal attire, Carmen relied on Lois' able hands, "Mom crocheted mine and had yarn left to crochet my niece's flower girl dress, the ring bearer's's pillow and a dress for Cheri's youngest. One of my wedding gifts...was my great grandmother's crocheted bedspread with the matching bolster cover and throw pillow top. It is an heirloom that I treasure - not just for the handwork, but for the history & the story that goes with it." Carmen comes from a long line of female ancestors of Scottish and English descent, who engaged in handwork, "It just seems to be something we do!"
Shortly after her marriage, Carmen found a kit with counted cross stitch and decided to give it a try. There was no looking back from that point on and when she discovered evenweaves there absolutely no stopping her! She began attending the Spirit of Cross Stitch shows, "I went mostly to take classes from some designers I admired...I started designing...because it seemed to be the next logical step. One day I was feeling rather depressed about fast approaching middle age (me? middle-aged? when did that happen?). I decided that I didn't want to be sitting around 25 years from now saying 'I could have done that.' I wanted to at least be able to say 'I tried that' if not 'I did do that.'"
When Carmen first saw the Caron Waterlilies fibers, she was not sure how she would employ them,"Since they were silk, [they] scared me silly anyway. Then I took a class with Lauren Sauer...The design called for Waterlilies Fir. This was also the first time I ever worked 'in hand' [stitching without use of a hoop, scroll frame or Q-snaps]...I fell in love with silk and use it in everything I do and work mostly 'in hand' to this day... the inspiration I get from the colors in the Caron threads is unsurpassed."
Carmen's design ideas can stem from anywhere; her first needleroll design was inspired by an antique Japanese kimono; the next, by a wild plant found throughout the northwest - beargrass. The peony design began as a bouquet from her garden, ants & all, " I like to inject a little humor (the ants) or something that will give the stitcher a little grin if I can work it in." The Heartsease piece evolved from the linen used; its shade reminded Carmen of antique pansies. The form it took resulted from the needlecase itself, "I went to market...with this vague idea of looking for...needlecases...to work up into a piece. When I saw these, the whole thing just came together in my head." Lenten Rose was inspired while perusing a flower catalog and out of Lenten Rose has sprung a companion piece, Christmas Rose.
© 1999 The Caron Collection / Rev. 3-30-00 / Voice: (203) 381-9999, Fax: 203 381-9003
CARON email: firstname.lastname@example.com / Webmaster firstname.lastname@example.com


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Fresh from the recent conference at Georgetown University, on the dynamic coupling of aspectus and affectus, the next Ordered Universe colloquium takes another theme close to Grosseteste's heart: calendrical reform and its related subjects, time, astronomy, medicine, as well as the dating of Easter. The colloquium takes place next week on the 19th and 20th April, at All Souls College, University of Oxford. We will be taking a longer view of compotus in England, and the background to Grosseteste's own characteristic contribution to the area, the Compotus correctorius. Principally the scholars gathering in Oxford will examine Durham Cathedral Manuscript Hunter 100, a computistical album from the early twelfth century. Investigating the antecedents, and the details of the compendium, allows different light to be shed onto the culture of medieval scientific investigation. Exploring both the texts and images, as well as the communities in and for which the manuscript was produced, the colloquium will provide an in-depth analysis. Other papers will broaden the scope, thinking about the implications of compotus texts from theological and societal perspectives, before ending with a full treatment and discussion of Grosseteste's place in compotus studies, and the importance of the Compotus correctorius in his scientific canon. With experts including Faith Wallis, Eric Ramírez Weaver, Alfed Lohr and Philipp Nothaft, as well as Ordered Universe regulars, the programme looks exciting!
We are extremely grateful to All Souls College, and especially to Dr Philipp Nothaft for supporting the colloquium, financially and organisationally as to Durham University and Dr Rosalind Green in the same capacity.


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Final @XLCenter game this season...coming up! #Built4Banners https://pbs.twimg.com/media/DWHVG_qV4AAxaLT.jpg
.@I_AMCV is on 🔥! Already in double-figures tonight, shooting 3-of-5 from long range. #Built4Banners https://pbs.twimg.com/media/DWHbNLFU0AEmdJy.jpg
Halftime in Hartford where Sterling Taplin leads all scorers with 14 points. #ForOurCity https://pbs.twimg.com/media/DWHiL1NX0AEaRnE.jpg
Huskies sink eight three's in the first half and are led by @I_AMCV 's 13 points at the break. #Built4Banners https://pbs.twimg.com/media/DWHiGuKU0AA7cRy.jpg
📸's from the first half against @TUMBasketball . @JalenAdams25 with six of UConn's 10 assists. https://pbs.twimg.com/media/DWHig9kVMAAhA36.jpg


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Airbnb, one of the crown jewels of our exciting, broken new "sharing economy," is supposed to let ordinary folks make some extra cash by renting out their spare rooms or unused homes. But according to a new report, Airbnb manipulated its data to hide the fact that a lot of renters in New York City are businesspeople with multiple properties listed on the site. That could be a big deal in Airbnb's ongoing battle to show that it doesn't violate the short-term housing laws in NYC, its single biggest market.
In December, Airbnb responded to criticism from City Council members by releasing a new set of numbers, which claimed that only 10 percent of New York City Airbnb hosts were listing multiple rentals. These "multi-listings" are a major reason that officials allege Airbnb users are running illegal hotels, so the company has incentive to downplay them as much as possible.
And, according to a bombshell report by Murray Cox of Inside Airbnb and sharing-economy skeptic Tom Slee, that's exactly what Airbnb did. The numbers the company released in December were supposed to represent a typical day for Airbnb in the city — they chose to look at November 17, but Cox and Slee claim that just before that date, Airbnb purged 1,000 "entire home" listings citywide. Many of them were the controversial "multi-listings."
The upshot is that while 19 percent of the listings were "multi-listings" for most of the year, the figure was only 10 percent on that day in November. Cox and Slee say it's already going back up after the purge, and now sits at around 13 percent.
City officials already want to flag "entire home" listings as illegal hotels, but Airbnb's party line is that its renters are just folks, not illegal proprietors, and the city shouldn't be hitting them with heavy fines.
"Airbnb officials argued the data showed that renters, whom they repeatedly characterized as middle class, were simply using the service to supplement their incomes," the New York Post reported in December, just after Airbnb had released its numbers.
So, to Cox and Slee, the motive and the evidence are unambiguous — Airbnb "Photoshopped" its data.
Speaking to The Guardian, an Airbnb spokesperson wouldn't confirm or deny that the data had been manipulated through a "purge," but did offer an alternate explanation for the discrepancy: Maybe there were just lots of extra listings in October, when tourists come in for Halloween and the New York City Marathon, and the number of listings went down in November.
"The facts are clear for all to see – the vast majority of our hosts are everyday people who have just one listing and share their space a few nights a month to help make ends meet. Airbnb is an open people-to-people platform where listings come on and go off throughout the year," according to Airbnb's official statement.
The facts do certainly appear to be clear — they just might not be the facts Airbnb wanted all to see.


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Company news
07 Jun 2017
This year marks the 175th anniversary of Case IH and to celebrate, Case IH New Zealand is giving away a brand new Farmall 50 B tractor!
Case IH New Zealand Operations Manager Tim Fanning is extremely proud of the legacy behind the brand he leads, as well as the innovative products the company continues to develop as it looks towards the future of agriculture. "The Case IH 175th anniversary is a testament to truly understanding what our customers' value most – things like quality, efficiency, power and precision. But we have never rested on our laurels. You only have to look at the autonomous tractor prototype released in 2016 to see that we continue to look towards the future".
Case IH are running a competition that they hope will allow their loyal customers to celebrate their 175 year anniversary with them. The aim of the competition is to find the tractor that best represents Case IH's proud history and heritage in New Zealand. To enter, people simply need to send in a picture of their tractor (Case IH, Case, International Harvester, David Brown or Farmall) and tell Case IH why they think it deserves to be chosen. The winner as judged by Case IH New Zealand will win a brand new Farmall B 50hp tractor!
Tim is looking forward to seeing the entries they receive into the competition, stating "there are literally thousands of our tractors all around New Zealand that are ingrained in our country's proud farming heritage. Names like Farmall and International Harvester live in the hearts and memories of generations of Kiwis that were raised on the farm. To help us celebrate this significant milestone in our history, we want to hear from our customers about what makes their tractor special. Please send in a picture and share a few words, we'd love to hear from you and we're giving away a new Farmall 50B tractor to the winner!"
You can enter this competition by visiting www.caseih.co.nz. The competition will run for two months, from the 1st June until the 31st July. The winner will be decided by Case IH management and will be announced on the 11th August 2017.
Case IH is imported in New Zealand by C B Norwood Distributors Ltd.
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text: In Spy Safe House escape room, you and a team of 2-8 teammates assume the role of New York City's top FBI agents in charge of exposing and rooting out potential Soviet spies. Your mission, should you choose to accept it, is to infiltrate a new suspect's apartment to find physical evidence that he is a spy working for the Soviet government to expose America's secrets! In a city full of people, noise, and secrets, not much is known about this infamous spy – nothing about his background, his mission or even his real name – just his penchant for paranoid behavior. While the spy is distracted your team only has 60 minutes to crack all of his clues, codes, and contraptions and escape the locked apartment before he catches you and the jig is up! A medium-difficulty escape room, Spy Safe House is perfect for sleuths of all ages, but don't let the "medium" fool you though, this spy is well trained and has plenty of tricks up his sleeve that could stump even the most observant operatives! Expect to see some of spy gadgets and tricks you've seen in the movies – this spy is pulling out all the stops, and he's determined to take his discoveries back to his comrades! Maze Escape Rooms Austin locates on North Lamar in central Austin, TX and offers some of the most interesting escape room experiences in the city that are the latest generation escape games. Each of our 60 minute adventures interweave technology and practical design elements into both game puzzles and storytelling to create unbelievable experiences for any occasion. Whether you're looking to host a birthday party, a corporate team-building event, or just something fun to do with friends or family, our games have something for everyone!


text: Incrimination Found by Natalie in Cleveland, Ohio I found this list at Wal-Mart. Should I have worn gloves when I picked it up, or do I just watch too many crime drama shows? You must be logged in to post a comment. Login or Register Tags ClevelandListOhioPreparationWal-MartWTF Share Comments KR says: on April 19, 2012 at 10:31 pm LOL! It's probably quite innocent–those are all common mold-remediation supplies.


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Mistakes are part of everyday life, but some of them can cost you dearly. Thankfully, you can avoid five of the most common trade show mistakes that sadly, drag down entire performances time and again.
Here are the five most common, and avoidable, trade show mistakes:
- Not setting objectives
This is the number one most common mistake. Like with any other form of marketing, goals need to be clearly established and there needs to be objective metrics to measure success. Getting a booth, table and displays is an investment. You need to know that the cost was worth it.
- Not having a proper budget
Proper budgeting is an essential part of any business activity. It goes hand-in-hand with setting objectives. Bad budgeting has sunk many small businesses. Trade shows can be notorious for raising costs and increasing fees when deadlines are missed, so extra care needs to be taken. Only by having a budget and sticking to it, can ROI be accurately measured.
- Unoriginal show selection
Exhibitors often put their schedules on auto-pilot when exhibiting happens in the same stage, year after year. They don't bother to change their show schedules or even train their employees upfront. This results in stale, boring presentations, with staff unable to answer anything other than canned questions.
- Too much clutter
Well-intentioned exhibitors often put in too many products and components in a small place. They try to show potential customers everything they can offer, but instead end up with a cluttered area that turns away more people than it attracts.
- Forgetting essential equipment
Forgetting to bring a laptop with the presentation slides, forgetting the hand outs, or just packing the wrong AV cables can ruin your display. This problem is easily remedied by making a checklist.
Presenting at a trade show is an investment in your business' future. Treat it as such. While it's impossible to prepare for unforeseen circumstances, you can avoid these five common trade show mistakes. All it takes is proper planning and caution.
Good luck!


text: It's not an entirely simple issue, but once governments start telling ISPs to block sites, they probably won't stop at the most obvious things. Stuff We Don't Like will be next, and Bonsai Kitten won't be far behind. You can see what the internet would have been like if smart people hadn't sneaked it out there before anyone noticed when you look at facebook (or compuserve and AOL back in the day). It isn't a place where any idiot can throw up a blog without worrying that someone will pull it if they don't like it.


text: Welcome to the AccelTex Solutions Reseller Program AccelTex Solutions values our Reseller Partners, and only sells through our partners. Accelerating your wireless productivity has never been easier or more beneficial. Our program rewards our partners directly with measurable dollars for the revenue you generate and the industry insights and initiatives you share and provides protection for your hard work in seeking out new business. AccelTex Solutions Reseller Program The AccelTex Solutions Reseller Program is building a community of trusted and empowered reseller partners that specialize in enterprise wireless. As a part of the program, membership benefits include: AccelTex Incentive Program (AIP) Technical and pre-sales support Communications about products, trends and more Marketing, sales tools and support To become a part of the AccelTex Solutions Reseller Community, please review and complete the new customer applications and reseller certifications and begin realizing the benefits of membership immediately. New Customer Application Click Here to View the AccelTex Solutions New Customer Application


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Onapua........the sailing vessel
Saturday, January 4, 2014
Stepping the Mast and new standing rigging
Today I had my new mast stepped and new rigging fitted. Here to give me some fantastic help, were neighbors, Doug, and his wife Michelle.
And of course, Daniell, the crane operator.
We first fed the wiring through the deck.
Have you heard that the sun shines out of you know where? Well it is true and now I have proof.
When you are up there, it seems a lot higher than looking from the ground up.
That was easy now that it was over!
So now I had to cut the wire rope to the correct length.
There is a cone that slides inside the inner wire for these Norseman fittings.
Give them a shot of 3M 4200 caulk.
Here are the old and new side by side.
And finally the boat with all new standing rigging regaled in all her new LED lights.
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text:
All it took was a little blurb from The Wall Street Journal that the Fed is considering some limited form of quantitative easing and the dollar fell, commodities ticked higher and the market spiked. We had been just drifting around and not gaining any further traction until that little news item hit.
So far we are holding on to the gains but the Apple (AAPL) announcement of iPad3 is coming up and traders are wondering whether this well-anticipated event might produce a "sell the news" response.
Overall we continue to see some pretty routine oversold bounce action. Oil and metals are now leading following the QE talk but breadth is solid at around 3-to-1 positive.
Watching this action makes me thing about all the "V"-shaped bounces we have seen the past couple years. They almost always start out exactly like we are seeing today, but they keep on drifting higher on low volume and gain additional fuel as the nonbelieving bears are squeezed. Technically it just isn't reasonable to expect the market to go straight back up after a day of selling like we had Tuesday, but it has happened more times than I can count in the past two years.
I have a few trades going, such as Global Cash Access (GCA) and InvenSense (INVN), but overall I just don't have much on my radar right now.
More from James "Rev Shark" DePorre:


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From our signature collection
Our classic fit and flare dress is flirty, fun and a staple dress for your winter wardrobe. Made from 100% merino wool the raised ottoman detail is perfect to slim you down and feel fantastic. It is an ultra stylish country classic you can wear in a multitude of occasions.
100% Extra fine merino wool
Flirty flared skirt
Fully fashioned
Designed and made in England
Small - To fit size 6-8
Medium - To fit size 10-12
Large - To fit size 14- 16


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Tuesday, August 4, 2015
6:00–8:30 p.m.
Redwood Estates Pavilion
21450 Madrone Drive, Los Gatos, CA
A free event!
Join us for the 15th Annual Mountain Residents Night Out, a community safety event and barbecue. Meet the locally assigned deputies, fire department staff, CHP officers, and representatives from many other local community organizations. Participating organizations provide a wide range of public safety information and fun activities for all ages.
Free raffle!
Barbecue dinner by Nonno's of Redwood Estates: $5.00. Nonno's will provide a barbecue dinner for this great price. Veggie burgers are also available. Advance dinner tickets are recommended, and can be purchased at Nonno's in Redwood Estates. Tickets may also be purchased at the event.
Hosted by the Loma Prieta Community Foundation and the Redwood Estates Services Association. Questions? Phone RESA at 408-353-1866.


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Staff Member
Carol Schall, Ph.D.
Director of Technical Assistance, Director of Virginia Autism Resource Center
firstname.lastname@example.com | Curriculum vita: MS Word
Dr. Carol Schall is the Co-Director of the Virginia Commonwealth University Autism Center for Excellence, the Director of the Virginia Autism Resource Center, and the Principal Investigator in the development of the Community Based Functional Skills Assessment for Transition Aged Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorders, a grant funded by Autism Speaks. She has over 30 years experience supporting adolescents and adults with ASD as a teacher, administrator, researcher, and consultant. Dr. Schall is also the co-developer and research coordinator for Project SEARCH Plus ASD Supports. Additionally, Dr. Schall has consulted nationally and internationally on issues related to adolescents and young adults with ASD.
Vocational Rehabilitation Service Models for Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders granted by Disability Rehabilitation and Research Project through the National Institute on Disability Rehabilitation and Research at the United States Department of Education (NIDRR) Grant Award # H133A080027, $1,500,000 across 5 years from 2008 to 2013
Role: Principal Investigator, Study Two
Endorsed Positive Behavior Support Facilitator Training granted by The Virginia Department of Behavioral Health and Developmental Services to the Partnership for People with Disabilities and the Virginia Autism Resource Center at Virginia Commonwealth University ($150,000 per year, on-going 2006 – present)
Role: Consultant, Trainer, Mentor
Role in Preparation: Co-Author
The Virginia Autism Resource Center granted by The Virginia General Assembly granted to Grafton School, Inc. on-going, 1982 – present
Role: Director
Enhancing Lives of Individuals with Brain Injury through Positive Behavior Supports granted by The Center for Neurotrauma Initiatives granted to the Partnership for People with Disabilities at Virginia Commonwealth University ($106,000 for 3 years 2006 - 2009)
Role: Consultant, Trainer, Mentor
Role in Preparation: Co-Author
Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company, Reviewer (2006-Present)
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disabilities, Ad Hoc Reviewer (2006 – Present)
International Association for Positive Behavior Support Conference, Reviewer of Call for Papers for the 4th, 5th, and 6th Conferences (2006 – Present)
Wehman, P., Schall, C., McDonough, J., Graham, C., Brooke, V., Riehle, E., Brooke, A., Ham, W., Lau, S., Allen, J. & Avellone, L. (2017). Effects of an employer-based intervention on employment outcomes for youth with significant support needs due to autism. Autism, 21(3), 276–290.
Wehman, P., Brooke, V., Brooke, A., Ham, W., Schall, C., McDonough, J., Lau, S., Seward, H. & Avellone, L. (2016). Employment for adults with autism spectrum disorders: A retrospective review of a customized employment approach. Research in Developmental Disabilities, , 61-72.
Schall, C., Wehman, P., Brooke, V., Graham, C., McDonough, J., Brooke, A., Ham, W., Rounds, R., Lau, S. & Allen, J. (2015). Employment Interventions for Individuals with ASD: The Relative Efficacy of Supported Employment With or Without Prior Project SEARCH Training. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(12), 3990–4001.
Wehman, P., Schall, C., McDonough, J., Kregel, J., Brooke, V., Brooke, A., Ham, W., Graham, C., Riehle, E., Collins, H. & Thiss, W. (2014). Competitive Employment for Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Early Results from a Randomized Clinical Trial. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(3), 487–500.
Wehman, P., Schall, C., Carr, S., Targett, P., West, M. & Cifu, G. (2014). Transition From School to Adulthood for Youth With Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 25(1), 30-40.
Wehman, P., Targett, P., Schall, C. & Carr, S. (2014). Meaningful employment for individuals with autism spectrum disorders. , 0, 237-264.
Schall, C., Wehman, P. & Carr, S. (2014). Transition from high school to adulthood for young adults with ASD. , 0, 41-60.
C., Wehman,
Transition from school to work for students with ASD; Understanding the process and achieving better outcomes.
Pediatric Clinics of North America,
Wehman, P. H., Schall, C. M., McDonough, J., Molinelli, A., Riehle, E., Ham, W., & Thiss, W. (In Press). Project SEARCH for youth with autism spectrum disorders: Increasing competitive employment upon transition from high school. Submitted to The Journal of Positive Behavior Intervention.
Wehman, P., Smith, M., & Schall, C. (2009). Autism and the Transition to Adulthood: Success beyond the classroom. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Book Chapters:
Schall, C., Wehman, P. & Carr, S. (In Press). Transition from High School to Adulthood for Young Adults with ASD. In F. Volkmar (Ed.) Adolescents and Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders.
Schall, C., Target, P., & Wehman, P. (In Press). Application for youth with autism spectrum disorder. In P. Wehman (Ed.). Life Beyond the Classroom: Transition Strategies for Young People with Disabilities, 4th Ed. Baltimore: Brookes.
Schall, C. (2011). Positive behavior support. In P. Wehman & J. Kregel (Ed.s). Functional Curriculum for Elementary, Middle and Secondary Aged Students, 3rd ed. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. Inc.
Schall, C. (2010) Quality educational outcomes. In C. Thoma & P. Wehman (Eds.). Student Lead IEP's: A Guide for Special Educators and Families. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Schall, C. (2006). First responders and developmental disabilities: On the front line of an epidemic of violence. In M. T. Compton, & R. J. Kotwicki (Eds.). Responding to Individuals with Mental Illnesses: A Guide for Law Enforcement Officers, First Responders, and Security Agents. Boston, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Inc.
Schall, C., Doval, E., Targett, P., & Wehman, P. (2006). Applications for youth with autism spectrum disorder. In P. Wehman (Ed.). Life Beyond the Classroom: Transition Strategies for Young People with Disabilities, 4th Ed. Baltimore: Brookes.
Chapman, C., Kincaid, D., Shannon, P., Schall, C., & Harrower, J. (2002). Families and the Tri-State Consortium for positive behavior support: A unique collaboration for people with challenging behavior. In J. Luschyn, G. Dunlap, & R. Albin (Eds.). Families and positive behavior support: Addressing problem behaviors in family contexts. Baltimore: Brookes.
Schall, C. (June 2012). Supporting Individuals with ASD in the Transition from School to Work. The National Autism Leadership Conference and Webcast. Chantilly, VA.
Wehman, P., Schall, C. & McDonough, J., (May, 2012). The Effect of Project Search and Supported Employment on Employment Outcomes for Adults with ASD. The National Transition Conference, Washington DC.
Wehman, P., Schall, C., Brooke, V., & McDonough, J. (April, 2012). The Effect of Project Search and Supported Employment on Employment Outcomes for Adults with ASD. 2012 NARRTC 34th Annual Conference, Alexandria, VA.
Schall, C. (April 2012). Autism and the Transition to Employment. Novaemployment. New South Wales, Australia.
Schall, C. (March 15, 2012). The Effect of Supported Employment on the Community Employment of Adults with ASD. The 9th International Conference of the Association of Positive Behavior Support. Atlanta, GA.
Schall, C., (March 16, 2012). Statewide Systems Change and the Provision of ASD Services and Supports. The 9th International Conference of the Association of Positive Behavior Support. Atlanta, GA.
Schall, C. (March 5 – 6, 2012). Positive Behavior Support for Students with ASD. Alabama Transition Conference, Opelika, AL.
Schall C., (January 30, 2012). Identification and Special Education Eligibility for Students with ASD. Hampton, Virginia
Schall, C. (October 13, 2011). Supporting Adults with ASDs in the Workplace
Using Positive Behavior Support. Autism New Jersey, Organization Autism Research. Atlantic City, New Jersey.
Schall, C. (October 4, 2011). Supporting Adults with ASDs in the Workplace
Using Positive Behavior Support. Arizona Transition Conference. Scottsdale, AZ.
Schall, C. (October 4, 2011). Supporting Youth and Young Adults with Autism Spectrum in Learning How to Get a Job and Work. Arizona Transition Conference. Scottsdale, AZ.
Schall, C. (September 16, 2011). Supporting Adults with ASD in the Workplace Using Positive Behavior Support. Webcast, Richmond, VA.