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Professional Writing (MPW) Curriculum – Nonprofit Professionals
Those working in the non–profit sector often wear many hats: web developer, communications professional, copy editor, public relations coordinator, fund raiser, grant writer, etc. Through courses directly applicable to responsibilities in the nonprofit world, the MPW program optimizes the practical skills necessary to function in a dynamic, expansive communications role that requires the generation of persuasive content in a variety of contexts. For students currently working in the non–profit sector, or for those who hope to in the future, below is the suggested program of study within the Professional Writing Program.
Suggested courses for Nonprofit Professionals
|REQUIRED COURSES | 6 credits – Click Course for Description
|Introduction to Professional Writing
This foundational course is designed as an introduction to professional writing genres, models, standards, and formats of the online Master of Professional Writing degree. The course features practical writing and editing experience in a collaborative work environment. The class will establish a basic level of writing skills among MPW students and will begin with the development, or enhancement, of students' skills in analysis, synthesis, summarizing, and expository writing. In the latter part of the course, students focus on the techniques that make professional writing flow and hold the reader's interest. A workshop approach helps beginning writers learn to craft their work so that it reads smoothly and communicates effectively. Topics include creating leads that command interest, developing a story idea without floundering, making graceful and unobtrusive transitions, enriching the theme, and perfecting the ruthless art of self-editing. Students write short essays and critique their own published work.
|3 Credits
|Professional Writing Portfolio
This course must be taken as each student's last course in the MPW program. This capstone course is a self-directed, guided independent practicum in which the student will produce a written project to the specifications of a "client" in one of the disciplinary areas of study. At the same time, students will have the opportunity to participate in a workshop-style program in which they will analyze the editorial and communication interests of various consumers of writing services (corporate communication offices, magazines, online venues, etc.). The workshop will explore many areas of the business of being a writer and cover copyright and contracts, cover and query letters, standard business practices - and strategies for success.
|3 Credits
|8 SPECIALIZATION COURSES* | 24 credits – Click Course for Description
|Grant Writing
This course focuses on teaching the conventions and fundamentals of writing successful grants for nonprofit organizations, educational institutions, and government agencies.
|3 Credits
|Technical Writing
This course teaches students how to prepare letter reports and technical reports about subjects that require technical explanations, diagrams, charts, and jargon understood by technical readers. In addition, this course teaches students how to present technical information to technical readers so they understand the concepts and can apply them in their work.
|3 Credits
|Political and News Writing
This course is designed to give students a working knowledge of the practice of reporting and writing for newspapers, magazines and online venues. Through comprehensive writing projects and student prepared news blogs, students practice with the leading edge techniques and tools required for writing.
|3 Credits
|Use of New and Social Media
This course seeks to give students the skills and confidence to create interesting and informative digital presentations based on simple presentation design and delivery options.
|3 Credits
|Business and Organizational Writing
This course teaches students the rhetorical principles and writing practices necessary for producing effective business letters, memos, reports, and collaborative projects in professional contexts. All sections are offered in networked computer classrooms to ensure that students taking the course are prepared for the writing environment of the 21st century workplace. The course teaches the rhetorical principles that help students shape their business writing ethically, for multiple audiences, in a variety of professional situations.
|3 Credits
|Science and Environmental Writing
This course focuses on the practice of writing about science, environment, medicine, and technology for audiences ranging from the general public to scientists and engineers. It starts with basic science writing for lay audiences, emphasizing organization and clear writing techniques and also explores problems of conveying highly complex technical information to multiple audiences, factors that influence science communication to the public, and interactions between scientists and journalists.
|3 Credits
|Writing for Digital Media
This class will prepare students to enter these fields by teaching the strategies and skills needed to make compelling interactive experiences. Specifically, students will focus on developing their abilities to conceptualize, design, and create multimedia applications. Areas of focus will include: strategies for understanding and documenting audience needs and expectations; basics of effective user interface design; and typical process and artifacts involved with multimedia application development.
|3 Credits
|Web Design and Development I
This course will provide an introduction to the technical skills needed for designing on-line content and interactive multimedia. Current multimedia tools for use in creating web-based products will be taught with ample opportunity for practice. Students learn authoring tools and multimedia techniques while covering topics, including non-text-based communication, integration of visuals, the animation of text and graphics, and digital video web-deployment.
|3 Credits
*Note: These are not the only course options available to students. Students may choose from our entire offering of electives to customize a program that will work for their goals and interests.


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For the fourth time, Montgomery Ward was entangled in a lawsuit over the destiny of the lakefront. For the fourth--and, as it turned out, the last--time, the Illinois Supreme Court upheld Ward's position. Grant Park must remain clear of buildings, the court ruled on this date, and the officials who had wanted to build the Field Museum in the park had no choice but to look elsewhere. The ruling was crucial in protecting Chicago's breathtaking lakefront, one of the city's chief glories.
Ward's lawsuits were based on a few words written in 1836, when the three commissioners of the Illinois and Michigan Canal set aside a soggy stretch of lakefront east of Michigan Avenue that was to remain "forever open, clear and free." That noble declaration was put aside in 1852, when the new Illinois Central Railroad built a trestle in Lake Michigan so its trains could reach the Chicago River. The trestle and its breakwater were unsightly, but they protected Michigan Avenue and its mansions from fierce lake storms.Over the years, the water between the shore and the trestle was filled in with such things as debris from the 1871 fire. The resulting scruffy patch was called Lake Park. Stables, squatters' shacks, mounds of ashes and garbage, and the Illinois Central tracks cluttered the landscape. Ward, who looked down on this mess from the Michigan Avenue skyscraper where his mail-order empire was based, filed suit in 1890 to have it cleaned up and kept open and clear. That was the beginning of a 20-year fight with city and park officials over the future of the land.
At first, few could believe that Ward wanted to keep such valuable land open. A downtown lakefront was no place for a park, one alderman snorted: "It should be used to bring revenue to the city." Then officials embraced the idea and started to fill in the lake to make the park bigger. But park officials wanted to put buildings on this open land, renamed Grant Park in 1901. Ward counted 20 proposals at one point, including Marshall Field's natural-history museum.
In the 1890s, Ward had agreed to the construction of the Art Institute in the park, but he later regretted it. "I fought for the poor people of Chicago," he told the Tribune in the only interview he ever gave on the subject. "Here is a park frontage on the lake, comparing favorably with the Bay of Naples, which city officials would crowd with buildings, transforming the breathing spot for the poor into a show ground of the educated rich. I do not think it is right."
The Field Museum was eventually built on the lakefront outside Grant Park, and after World War I, Daniel Burnham's Plan of Chicago fueled an ambitious series of landfill projects. Burnham Park was created on the South Side to link Grant and Jackson Parks, and Lincoln Park on the North Side was expanded farther north, reaching Hollywood Avenue after World War II.
The debate about the lakefront did not end with Ward's court victory. A large water-filtration plant next to Navy Pier, the soaring Lake Point Tower residential building, and the McCormick Place exhibition hall were built over the objections of lakefront preservationists. Grant Park, however, fulfilled Ward's hopes and became the city's front yard. Music festivals, symphonic concerts, fireworks displays and the Taste of Chicago food festival annually attract huge summertime crowds to Grant Park, the gem at the center of a 20-mile-long necklace of lakefront parks and beaches.

subset: commoncrawl


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Georgia Law Alumni Reception in Atlanta
Thursday, February 28, 2013 - 6:30pm to 8:30pm
JAMS; 1201 West Peachtree Street, NW; Suite 2650; Atlanta, GA 30309
Georgia Law Alumni in Atlanta are cordially invited to a cocktail reception with special guest Associate Dean Paul Kurtz. Business Attire. Please RSVP by February 18, 2013 to 706.542.7959.
Special thanks to our hosts at JAMS, The Resolution Experts: Honorable Norman S. Fletcher '58; Joan C. Grafstein '79; Albert M. Pearson, III; Honorable Jonathan C. Peters '74; Honorable J.D. Smith '71; and R. Wayne Thorpe '79.
Parking at One Atlantic Center will be fully validated.
Contact Name:
Suzanne Griffeth; Director of Alumni Relations
Contact Email:


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Kent Carson had a full life -- travel, a fiancee, a job as a branch bank manager.
He was so healthy he never missed a day on the job, until the late summer of 2012, when he suddenly began suffering flu-like symptoms and saw his temperature rise to 103 degrees.
When he finally got to the doctor, he was told to go to the emergency room immediately. The next day, as he lay in a hospital bed, doctors told him he had Legionnaire's Disease.
In the weeks ahead, he would lose both his legs below the knee and his left arm below the elbow.
"They showed me my feet and hands, and they were all black," Carson said. "Not purple or blue, but black. It was a choice between keeping my limbs and dying, or getting the amputations and living. It was the toughest choice I have ever had to make."
A year later, the 56-year-old learned to navigate the world on prosthetic legs. He and his fiancee moved to a ranch house in Aurora so all the living space would be on the first floor. Carson just got his driver's license and is about to equip the car with hand controls.
"The next step," he said, "is to go back to work. I want to get back to normalcy."
To do that, though, he said he would have to replace the hook where his left hand used to be with a bionic hand that functions much more like a natural hand. It has five fingers and would be powered by the muscles left in his arm.
The only problem is that his insurer, Blue Cross Blue Shield of Minnesota, won't pay for it, and Carson is on his third appeal.
"Try hitting Ctrl-Alt-Delete with a hook," he said. "You can't tie your shoes; you can't zip a zipper."
In the kitchen, he isn't able to lift a frying pan or pull out a plate from the cupboard, and he can't use his right hand because he uses a cane to stay steady.
"You don't have a thumb, and most things like that you cannot do without a thumb. Besides, the hook scares people when they see it."
In a statement, Blue Cross Blue shield of Minnesota said when "medically necessary, prosthetics should be able to restore natural appearance and function while providing comfort and ease of use... but a prosthesis with individually powered digits... is considered investigative due to a lack of clinical evidence demonstrating its impact on improved health outcomes."
Carson says he doesn't get it. Other insurers, including Blue Cross Blue Shield of Illinois, have paid for these prosthetic hands, which cost between $80,000 and $120,000, and he was prescribed the hand by doctors at the Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago.
For now, Carson has no choice but to wait for one more insurance company's decision, a final one from an independent review board.
"I'm missing two legs and an arm, and I need a cane to walk," he said. "I need that left hand to have my life back."


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As you may have noticed, in fact most of you won't have cus you don't care(most being ALL), I haven't been here for while. Now I'm back and there is one new thread. People, this can only prove I am the life of the party, therefore I ask you all to change your names to 'SCRUFFIE'S SLAVE OF DAMNATION CUS I'M DAMNED NOT CAUSE I CAN DAMN PEOPLE' and you religious system is now, by my command.
Scruffie=god=the alpha and the omega=everything holy
Got that? Good.
Also, Kane, with your odd obbsession with the relationship between scots and sheep, you may be interested to know, a couple of weeks back a few dozen sheep made a perfect circle in the highlands. Are they casting an evil spell to kill us all? I think so.


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Loyola Ballet celebrates National Dance Week with performances, Russian masterpiece
Loyola press release - April 23, 2012
The Loyola Ballet celebrates National Dance Week and Loyola University New Orleans' centennial with a mixed repertory program on Saturday, April 28 at 8 p.m. and Sunday, April 29 at 3 p.m., in Louis J. Roussel Performance Hall, located in the Communications/Music Complex, on Loyola's main campus. The performances, directed by Laura Zambrano, include classical, contemporary and character works.
The performance features special guest artist and Loyola alumnus, Kenneth Bryan '99, playing the role of Abderachman in Marius Petipa's last true masterpiece, "Raymonda." During rehearsals for "Raymonda," Irina Vassileni-Uralsky, a graduate of the famed Bolshoi Ballet Academy and former Bolshoi Ballet dancer, taught master classes and coached the students. Vassileni-Uralsky's residency was sponsored by the Loyola Student Government Association.
Other works on the program include:
- "Ocean and Pearls," a pas de trois restaged by Zambrano after Arthur Saint-Leon and set to music by Riccardo Drigo.
- "Shostakovich Suite," a work performed by students from Loyola's Preparatory Ballet Program and choreographed by faculty members, Leigh Brockman, Cheryl O'Sullivan, Laura Zambrano and Associate Professor Emerita Gayle Parmelee.
- "Solo Por Un Tango," a contemporary work set to music by Gotan Project and choreographed by Michelle Brenes, a graduating senior with a ballet minor and psychology major.
- "Topotukha," a Russian character work performed by guest artists Komenka Ethnic Dance Ensemble.
National Dance Week, hailed by former President George W. Bush as "an opportunity for people to celebrate and recognize dance as a unique and inspiring art form," was established to bring greater recognition to the art of dance. Held annually in April, the week features dance organizations from across the country that celebrate by presenting educational and programmatic concerts for all ages.
Tickets are $12 for general admission and $8 for all students, seniors, children and Loyola faculty/staff, and are available online at http://www.montage.loyno.edu or by calling 504-865-2074. Tickets will also be available at the door 30 minutes prior to the performance. Free parking is available in the West Road Garage, which is accessible from St. Charles Avenue.
For more information, contact Zambrano at email@example.com or call 504-865-2778.


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- Inside Athletics
- Tickets
- Fan Zone
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- Donate Now
JOHNSON CITY, Tenn. (Feb. 26, 2009) - Typically it has been the second half where the Lady Bucs dominate this season, but on Thursday night it was the exact opposite.
Junior guard Siarre Evans (
Evans finished the game with 26 points, 12 rebounds and a career-tying six steals. Now in seven games this month the
The win marked ETSU's fifth straight and moved the Lady Bucs into a tie for first-place with
"We came out focused and ready to play early on," commented head coach Karen Kemp, whose team knocked off
"Siarre is such a winner and competitor," added Kemp. "Every night she steps out on the floor she is going to give it everything she has. After our win at Upstate the other night, I told the team Siarre put them on her back and she is capable of doing so at any given moment. In my mind she is the best player in the league."
Scoring is what Evans did early as the Lady Bucs grabbed the opening tip and she drove in for the first two points of the game. After that bucket, ETSU held the momentum by limiting
However, Kennesaw found some rhythm, as the Owls clipped the deficit to 11, 24-13, after Greteya Kelley's lay-up with 8:20 on the clock. Fortunately, the Lady Bucs responded and Evans' third trey of the half put ETSU ahead 14, and Gwen Washington's (
But once again Kennesaw continued to fight and claw its way back into the contest, as DeAndrea Bullock's free throw at the 1:10 mark lowered the ETSU lead to nine, 37-28, and the Lady Bucs went into their locker room with a 10-point lead (41-31).
ETSU shot 41.0 percent for the half (16-39) and went 6-of-8 from the free throw line, compared to the Owls' 27.5 shooting clip and 7-for-13 showing at the charity stripe. The Lady Bucs did an excellent job with their ball control in the first 20 minutes, as they only turned the ball over five times; however, ETSU gave
The Lady Bucs looked to have things under control to start the first four minutes of the second half when Washington's 3-pointer put ETSU up 16, 51-35, but the Owls quickly cut it down to seven (57-50) thanks to Kelley's lay-up at the 10:56 mark.
Then, with less than four minutes to play, Jennifer Baker would pull Kennesaw State to within six (65-59) after she sank two free throws, but Evans moved the Lady Buccaneer lead back to eight with 2:52 to play.
Again, the Owls didn't fold and made it a 67-61 contest, but a key offensive rebound by Shannon White (
After the offensive rebound, sophomore point guard Kami Phillips (
For the game, ETSU shot 34.2 percent (26-76) and finished only 4-of-20 from beyond the arc (20 percent). The Owls, who shot 48.1 percent in the second half, moved their shooting percentage up to 35.8 for the contest (24-67). ETSU forced Kennesaw into 21 turnovers and converted them into 20 points; however, the Lady Bucs were out-rebounded 54 to 52.
To go along with Evans' stellar play, junior post Latisha Belcher (
The Lady Bucs close out regular season play on Saturday afternoon when they host Mercer. Tip time is set for 1:30 p.m.
For more information on Lady Buccaneer basketball, visit www.ETSUBucs.com.


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Silvana's Innovative Interior
Like this entry? Favorite it below!
- Name:
- Silvana
- Location:
- Canneto Pavese Italy
- Square Feet:
- 165
- Division:
- International
- What I Love About My Small Home:
- Light, colors, and atmosphere
- Biggest Challenge of Living in a Small Space:
- Fill such a little space with everything necessary for a nice living place with innovative and confortable solutions


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After exiting the court bench nearly two decades ago, Michael Tangi devotes much of his time to family and hobbies.
For a decade starting in the mid-1980s, Michael Tangi was among the highest-profile public figures in eastern Stark County.
The sole judge of Alliance Municipal Court, Tangi attracted attention for occasionally bringing tough judgment on defendants. For example, he sent a woman with 30 cats to jail when she broke her promise to get rid of 27 of them, according to a story published in The Repository.
But after losing a re-election bid in 1995 to Republican challenger Robert Lavery, Tangi, a Democrat, focused on family and skiing rather than public life.
"I became a judge because it was a lot easier than being a trial lawyer," said Tangi, who continues to live in Alliance. "A couple lawyers called me and wanted me to help them work on cases. But I said no. I retired. I put my license in escrow. I worked hard when I was a trial lawyer."
Tangi grew up in Alliance, obtained a bachelor's degree from Kent State University and his law degree from Ohio State University College of Law.
Tangi, who had been a member of the Stark County Metropolitan Housing Authority board, became a judge in 1986 when then-Gov. Richard Celeste, a Democrat, appointed him to the Municipal Court bench. He succeeded John Gwin, who died while still a judge.
Tangi won election in 1987 to fill Gwin's unexpired term by defeating Republican challenger James Puckett, who at one time was Alliance mayor.
In 1989, Tangi was unopposed and won election to a full six-year term.
As a judge, Tangi constantly was hearing allegations of criminal acts against local and area residents.
However, "I generally put a high standard on humanity," Tangi said. "A good 90 percent of them are fine people. That is what the job is, seeing people who have got problems."
Local attorney Shawn Robertson, who defended clients in Alliance Municipal Court, recalls when the Stark County Public Defender's office temporarily stopped handling misdemeanor criminal cases in Alliance Municipal Court because of financial constraints and Tangi had appointed him to the cases.
"Judge Tangi had a reputation," said Robertson, who began practicing law in the early 1990s. "He had the reputation that jail was a very real, distinct and possible reality. You had to try to win the case."
Tangi's political fortune changed in 1995, when then-City Law Director Robert Lavery set his sights on becoming a judge. Tangi lost by 647 votes.
He still harbors some ill feelings about the loss to Lavery, who will retire at the end of the year after serving three consecutive terms. Lavery, as Tangi recalls, had some campaign help from a Minerva business operator.
"He beat me by 500 votes in Minerva," Tangi said. "But I beat him by 150 in the other districts."
Alliance City Council President John Benincasa said there was no effort to recruit Tangi to re-enter the political sphere locally after he lost the election. Benincasa has been active with the Alliance Democratic Party.
"I guess he had other interests at that time," Benincasa said. "He followed those interests. We didn't see much of him. Even prior to that election (1995), he was not active on the local level. He was more active on the county level."
Now, at age 86, Tangi spends time visiting his wife, Patricia, who resides in a private nursing facility in the Sebring area.
"I was 69 when I lost my election," Tangi said. "I skied until I was 79. I skied Europe and every place in this country. I skied every winter. I have been known to ski in 10 (degrees) below zero."
Tangi's two children are attorney Thomas Tangi of Jacksonville, Fla., and Tamara Iselin of Burke, Va.
Reach Malcolm at 330-580-8305 or firstname.lastname@example.com
On Twitter: mhallREP


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OT: Is Michigan the Wolverine State or the Great Lakes State?
My 16 year old cousin and I are very close and in reality she's basically like a sister to me. She was given this fun quiz by her humanities teacher about state nicknames such a Illinois, "Land of Lincon" state, Maine "The Pine Tree state" etc. She always thought Michigan was the Wolverine state which is what I thought but it turns out the accepted nickname is the Great Lakes state? Where did the Wolverine State orginiate from? I don't listen to wikipedia anymore so I'd rather hear it from a source who lives there.


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Suspect vehicles flees scene after 19-year-old hit on 300 block of South Tenth Street.
A 19-year-old man was struck by a car in a hit-and run crash in Taft Sunday night and Taft Police are looking for the vehicle that hit him.
The victim, whose name was not immediately available, was hit in the 300 block of South Tenth Street about 10 p.m.
The victim suffered major injuries and was taken from the scene by ambulance to Taft Airport where he was transferred to a helicopter and flown to Kern Medical Center.
Taft Police Sgt. Ray Buford said the victim was walking northbound down Tenth Street at North Street across from the Kern County Fire Station when when was struck.
Witnesses told police the suspect vehicle, described as a dark colored older model (possibly 2000) 4-door car, possibly a Mitsubishi Galant, may have swerved towards the victim.
Buford said evidence indicates the victim may have been in the roadway when he was hit.
The vehicle continued north on Tenth Street and then turned east on Kern Street.
Anyone with information should call Taft Police at 763-3171


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RAW: Deer on highways pose serious danger to drivers—and deer
The Mammoth Lakes Police Department would like to caution motorists to be extra alert for migrating deer on U.S.395 and S.R. 203. Large numbers of deer are on the move at this time of year and they pose a real threat to motorists. Serious injuries or death can occur if you strike a deer at highway speeds. Evidence of multiple vehicle versus deer encounters is visible while traveling on 395.
The bears are also out of hibernation and are active in and around Mammoth Lakes. The public is cautioned against feeding bears. Well-meaning people sometimes feel they are doing the right thing by putting food out for the bears. Just the opposite is true. When bears become reliant on food sources provided by humans, they stop looking for natural food sources and become problem bears. The Town's Wildlife Specialist, Steve Searles, and MLPD officers are trained and equip to condition bears to avoid human food sources. Their efforts are thwarted by people feeding bears, and that can end in tragic results for the bear.
Please help to keep our bear population healthy and safe. Enjoy their presence, but don't intentionally feed them, never leave food in a vehicle, and always lock or secure trash dumpsters.
Source: Mammoth Lakes Police Department


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Michigan's Prevailing Wage Law and Its Effects on Government Spending and Construction Employment
Prevailing Wage Law Wastes Taxpayers' Money
Michigan's Prevailing Wage Act of 1965 requires contractors to pay artificially high union wages on all state-financed projects from road repair to school construction. This study examined the performance of Michigan's economy for two 30-month periods prior to and during the law's suspension by a federal district court and found that taxpayers could save hundreds of millions of dollars annually if the law were permanently repealed. The study also reveals prevailing wage laws' negative effect on job creation in the construction industry and their discriminatory impact on black and other minority workers. 21 pages.


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Before becoming the first African-American baseball player to enter the major leagues, Jackie Robinson served in the U.S. Army. In fact, it was his time in the Army – during which he coached athletics – that inspired him to pursue a career in baseball. In honor of what would have been Robinson's 96th birthday, we've created a quiz that'll help you expand your knowledge of Robinson and other celebrities who served in the armed forces.
©2015 Legacy.com. All rights reserved.


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Staff warned: 'It can happen here'
For those who say it can't happen here, a local police chief says it can and it has.
On March 6, 2006, anyone at Wapakoneta High School was in danger when a student brought an explosive device made from a gasoline can to school in his backpack.
For complete story see the Saturday, May 18, edition of the Wapakoneta Daily News.


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Calling the shots: Fans rule in Globetrotters latest tour
When Anthony "Buckets" Blakes and his teammates set foot on the court at the Webster Bank Arena, they will bring years of practice and playing to the evening's festivities. Just don't ask them to explain the rules.
"We won't know, right up to the beginning of the quarter," said Blakes of what the Harlem Globetrotters' "You Write the Rules World" 2013 tour has wrought on the players. "And the fourth quarter is unique. It's a live vote determined by applause."
Fans throughout Globetrotter Nation have been calling the shots since late December, when the 240-city tour kicked off and will continue to direct play through the final game in April. The team arrives in Bridgeport to take on the Washington Generals Friday, Feb. 22.
Prior to the game, fans are encouraged to go online to vote for rules they want to see during the game. Perhaps the team will have to play with two basketballs at once, or earn double the points.
"We could end up putting our four-point into play," Blakes said, of the shot that is launched 35 feet away from the basket.
You could choose to see more Globetrotters in the penalty box more of the time, as well as their opponents, or decide that five Globetrotters have the power to take on six of their opponents. Fans can vote in advance of the team's appearance at http://www.harlemglobetrotters.com.
" `You Write the Rules' has made the games extremely exciting and given the crowd a hand in the game," said Blakes, who is in his 11th season with the team.
He said this year also represents the first time the team will be joining forces with the Susan G. Komen organization to raise funds for breast cancer. Look for a special pink basketball to come out during the game, and fans who purchase pink wristbands will contribute toward the cause.
Blakes said he has long enjoyed playing with the team. In its more than 85 years, it has featured a long list of players who have teamed dynamic athleticism with serious showmanship.
"These are not only great basketball players and athletes, but great people and great entertainers," he said.
"It's fun out there, but it is a competitive match," Blakes added. "You gotta go hard."
The organization has given fans a steady roster of basketball legends over the years, including "Sweet" Lou Dunbar, Fred "Curly" Neal, George "Meadowlark" Lemon and Reece "Goose" Tatum.
Blakes, who grew up and still lives in Arizona, said he always aspired to be an athlete and was a standout in multiple sports, including basketball, football and track. By college, he had zeroed in on basketball, enjoying a successful junior and senior year as team captain and a leader in scoring, rebounding and assists for the University of Wyoming.
He went on to the Continental Basketball Association and later into the NBA Developmental League before getting the call from the Globetrotters. His first game with his new team took place at Madison Square Garden. "That was pretty memorable for me," Blakes said.
Eleven years later, Blakes said he still loves what he does, particularly his work mentoring young people -- something the team largely does through community outreach programs such as The ABCs of Bullying Prevention and S.P.I.N. (Some Playtime Is Necessary), a trademarked effort that encourages an active lifestyle for kids. Players also tend to remain on the court after the game to pen a few autographs and get in a few photos.
"I play for the world's greatest team," Blakes said. "I'm definitely living my dream."
email@example.com; 203-964-2241
Webster Bank Arena, 600 Main St., Bridgeport. Friday, Feb. 22, 7 p.m. $132, $47, $32, $21. 800-745-3000, ticketmaster.com.


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Topic: [The Great Ork Gods] Early ideas. (Read 7394 times)
Jack Aidley
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[The Great Ork Gods] Early ideas.
November 19, 2003, 07:08:01 AM »
�You�re Green, You�re Ugly and the Gods Hate You.�
The Great Ork Gods is (yet another?) game based on the twist of playing the Orks for a change. It�s intended to be light hearted in tone, and to offer a few sessions of fun rather than a long term campaign. Example games might be: Burn and Pillage! Recruited by the Evil Overlord! Catch those Hobbits! Hunted!
Basic Mechanics
You have no stats, feats, skills or attributes. Instead you have a measure of how much each different Ork God hates you. Each will be a number in about the 1 to 5 range. Whenever you attempt an action it is decided which God opposes your action (for example, combat would be determined by the God of War, while lifting a rock would be determined by the God of Strength). Now, in addition to playing an Ork, each player controls one or more Gods, whenever an action is opposed by one of the Gods you control you get to decide what the difficulty factor is for the action (from 0 to 9) � this should be your fair, balanced assessment of how hard it should be (heh).
The player then rolls a number of dice equal to the Gods hate, if ANY of the dice comes up less than or equal to the difficulty factor the action fails.
If a player�s actions would be opposed by one of �his� Gods, the GM rules on the difficulty factor. Also Orks CANNOT perform magic. They can try all sorts of outrageous stuff, but they can�t do outright magical effects; e.g. no creating fireballs, teleporting, turning invisible or walking through walls.
The Gods
I�m not yet sure of what Gods there will be, or quite how to assign them, so I�m looking for help/advice on this part of it. Here�s my list of Gods so far:
God of Physics � The God of Physics is special � he hates everyone, like really a lot. Orks always have a Hate of 4 or more in this God.
God of Death � When an Ork should, or could, die, he must face the wrath of the God of Death or perish. But hey, there�s always more Orks.
God of War � Controls combat.
God of the Gab � In the unlikely event they try to talk to anyone.
God of Stealth � Orks can be sneaky too.
God of Artefacts � If you want to make something, work doors, light fires, etc.
God of Movement � If you want to run along a tight-rope, leap over a stream, etc.
God of Strength � Pretty obvious?
I�ve considered always assigning the Gods of Physics and Death to the GM, but I�m not sure it�s really necessary.
Any comments on the idea, mechanics, or God List welcome. I�d also be interested in knowing about any other games that employ a similar principle (assuming there are some).
- Jack Aidley,
Great Ork Gods
, Iron Game Chef (Fantasy):
Clinton R. Nixon
Posts: 2624
[The Great Ork Gods] Early ideas.
Reply #1 on:
November 19, 2003, 07:16:46 AM »
Ork! by Green Ronin has a very similar principle. It uses only one god, but he definitely hates you, and resistance to tasks is determined by how much he hates and and doesn't want you to succeed.
Don't let that discourage you - you're on to a good idea here, and Ork! was, too. (I'm proud to say I own the fifth copy taken out of the first box off the print run.)
Clinton R. Nixon
CRN Games
Mike Holmes
Acts of Evil Playtesters
Posts: 10459
[The Great Ork Gods] Early ideas.
Reply #2 on:
November 19, 2003, 09:38:07 AM »
Seen Raven's Orx? Just thought I'd mention it - has little relation to this, really.
How about there are potentially infinite gods. When a player wants to do something, he invents the god on the spot, and the level of hate is generated at that point (I'm thinking randomly). Anyhow, the GM is free to go to the character sheet at any time to force a roll against any already generated god. Outside of that, it's always the player's choice to appeal to an old god (with GM approval), or create one with a new slant. Thus if the God of Strength particularly hates me, then if I want to lift a rock, maybe I'll appeal to the god of stone.
I'm also thinking that the gods hate to be bothered. So each roll against a particular god increases his hate of the character by one. Keeps players searching for new gods. Also, perhaps the god can be ameliorated somehow.
Just a thought. More importantly, however, what do Orcs in this game do? What sort of action happens in adventures? And why no magic for orcs? I wanna be the shaman!
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My name is Raven.
[The Great Ork Gods] Early ideas.
Reply #3 on:
November 19, 2003, 11:42:26 AM »
I suggest some sort of additional tactical balancing mechanism for player-Gods in regards to the difficulty of tasks. Otherwise, you can just say, "Nine! Nine! Nine!" all the time, and get beaten up by your friends after the game.
Something where the higher the difficulty set is, the greater number of penalty tokens of some sort the player accrues? Of course, there would have to be something beneficial for occasionally assigning higher difficulties, and avoiding too low difficulties, so that doesn't really work.
Perhaps the gamemaster guesses a difficulty, and the closer the player is to assigning that difficulty, the better -- the further off they are, the worse?
Another item which comes to mind is a web of deific relationships which affect the players of those Gods? The God of War and the God of Love don't like each other much, so when one makes something difficult for someone, the other tries to make sure they give the guy an easier time -- sort of a slap in the face to their rival.
Rev. Ravenscrye Grey Daegmorgan
Wild Hunt Studio
Posts: 3453
[The Great Ork Gods] Early ideas.
Reply #4 on:
November 19, 2003, 01:59:52 PM »
Also feel free to mine my
Before the Flood
game for ideas.
Jack Aidley
Posts: 488
Collected responses
Reply #5 on:
November 20, 2003, 04:06:46 AM »
Thank you for your comments, I'll reply in turn:
Quote from: Clinton
Ork! by Green Ronin has a very similar principle. It uses only one god, but he definitely hates you, and resistance to tasks is determined by how much he hates and and doesn't want you to succeed.
It's funny how often this happens. You think you have an original idea and it turns out to have striking similarities to what someone else thought of in the same situation. From what I can track down about Ork! on the net, it looks different enough from what I have in mind for Great Ork Gods to be worth continuing with, although I think I'll have to get hold of a copy.
Quote from: Mike Holmes
How about there are potentially infinite gods. When a player wants to do something, he invents the god on the spot, and the level of hate is generated at that point (I'm thinking randomly).
I had considered that line of thought. However there are two reasons I chose against it. Firstly, I like the idea of the players taking responsibility for individual gods, and those gods having influence; ad hoc gods would weaken this concept. Secondly, I wanted the Orks to have a defined character, with strengths and weaknesses - but with those strengths defined by how much, or how little, the different Gods hate them. Ad hoc gods essentially provide a way to 'dodge' an Orks existing character (strength hates you, appeal to stone; death hates you, appeal to the god of stabbing, etc). Which is not to say I don't think it would work, it just doesn't quite fit with what I wanted.
Quote from: Mike Holmes
I'm also thinking that the gods hate to be bothered. So each roll against a particular god increases his hate of the character by one. Keeps players searching for new gods. Also, perhaps the god can be ameliorated somehow.
I have been thinking about ways of increasing hate. I have an idea where the Orks acquire hate as they continue to survive, but also accumulate some kind of advantage as well. Balanced so that Orks follow a curving power that rises initially but falls off afterwards. I don't know how I'd do it yet, and it would also require play over a longer period than I initially imagined. I'd also considered having a way of pleasing the Gods. But, again, I think it goes against my original concept of the Gods hating you. I like the idea that it can only get worse.
Quote from: Mike Holmes
Just a thought. More importantly, however, what do Orcs in this game do? What sort of action happens in adventures?
In essence I see the players trying to acheive the things they usually try to stop. A game might start with a ordinary seeming raid on a village (pillage and burn, I think - not rape and pillage) the Orks rampaging through, killing those who stand in their way and infighting a bit. Throw in some hero's to protect the village and you can have some fun. Or a rival Ork tribe turning up to stake their claim. I'm hoping to acheive a feeling where the players need to co-operate to succeed but need to compete to gain any rewards.
Another example adventure might be a good old fashioned find-and-retrieve, whether it's a mystic artefact, or an individual. The Orks will generally be serving under some kind of Evil Overlord who has troll, ogres and just plain Big Orks to keep them in line. Maybe the PCs are gathering ingredients for a diabolic rite?
I figure in a typical game, something should get smashed, there should be a fight or two, the PCs should mess something up, and at least one of the PCs should die (there's always more Orks).
Quote from: Mike Holmes
And why no magic for orcs? I wanna be the shaman!
I specified no magic to place a limit on what the Orks can achieve. Since this is a pretty loose mechanic, I saw potential for abuse here. I agree the concept of Shaman has potential, but it's not part of my orginal vision for the game. I will need to think on it.
Quote from: Greyorm
suggest some sort of additional tactical balancing mechanism for player-Gods in regards to the difficulty of tasks. Otherwise, you can just say, "Nine! Nine! Nine!" all the time, and get beaten up by your friends after the game.
In a word, reciprocity. Since each player controls at least one god, they can get back at other players who treat them unfairly. I'm hoping for a situation where the players start off being fair and nice to one another, but when it comes to the crunch they heartily put the boot in. Kind of like it works in Munchkins (as in, Steve Jackson's card game). I haven't seen how this works in Actual Play yet, but I think it could work out well.
- Jack Aidley,
Great Ork Gods
, Iron Game Chef (Fantasy):
Posts: 117
increasing hate
Reply #6 on:
November 20, 2003, 06:52:07 AM »
A mechanic for increasing/decreasing hate came to me while reading this thread (btw, I DIG this game idea).
How about if every time an Orc fails against a certain god, he gets a +/- the amount he suceeded/failed to his next hate roll with that god. So if an Orc is on a roll, he stays on a roll.. and if the gods really hate him, they keep hating him. The Orc Gods love a winner and really hate a loser.
And, since I like the possibility of inter-player rivalry (seems pretty Orcish to me!) how about if an Orc offs a rival that is a big loser or winner, he gets the absolute value of the rivals largest hate modifier. Let's face it, the Orc gods love to see a loser go down, but they also love to see a winner put in his place (basically, the Orc gods are a bunch of total ***holes). Making char-gen really simple and no real penalty for death would keep this rivalry fun and light-hearted.
Some mechanic for rewarding looting, pillaging, etc might be in order (and would explain a lot of Orc behavior). Although my inner Orc tells me "pillaging is it's own reward". ;)
Chris Geisel
Acts of Evil Playtesters
Posts: 1113
Master of the Inkstained Robes
[The Great Ork Gods] Early ideas.
Reply #7 on:
November 20, 2003, 07:45:44 AM »
You know, perhaps the "shaman" is the only one who's able to decrease hate values.
How? I don't know. But it seems an appropriate place for a shaman to be.
Alexander Cherry,
Twisted Confessions Game Design
Maker of many fine story-games!
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Jack Aidley
Posts: 488
[The Great Ork Gods] Early ideas.
Reply #8 on:
November 21, 2003, 03:56:50 AM »
Hi Loki,
So if an Orc is on a roll, he stays on a roll.. and if the gods really hate him, they keep hating him. The Orc Gods love a winner and really hate a loser.
I don't know. I get the feeling that this kind of system would be really annoying in actual play. I've always found that dice tend to produce such runs anyway (clumping is a natural property of truly random systems).
New Idea for a Mechanic: Respect and Boons
I'm thinking the Orks will get one 'stat': Respect - although I really need a more Orkish name for that, any ideas?. Respect is a measure of how much weight the Ork has with his brethryn. Every session of play the Ork can spend their Respect Points on Boons, the points being refreshed at the start of each session:
Every time the dice are rolled the player can choose to spend one respect point to reduce the difficulty by one, or three points to reduce it by two. The points must be spent before the roll. Difficulty cannot be lowered below one in this way.
Alternatively a God can choose to grant a boon, also costing the Ork a respect point. In this case the God assigns a difficulty of zero (automatic success), in a change to the above, this will be the only way a difficulty of zero can occur.
I'm thinking each Ork will start with d6 or so Respect points. At the end of every session extra respect points are granted as follows:
: A respect point is granted per player. These points are divided among any Orks that survive the whole session. If this would give an uneven distribution of points, the extra are assigned according to who got the most other respect points. Failing that they are randomly assigned. If no Orks survive the whole session, no such points are assigned.
: If an Ork kills another player Ork they gain a respect point, if they kill an Ork of higher Respect they gain two.
: The GM will assign goals at the start of the session, and can add more as the game goes on. These goals should be acheivable by only one Ork. A respect point is granted for any goals the Ork hits. Example goals might be: Retrieve the ring, be first to the well or kill the elven wizard.
Tread mill
: Any Ork who gains no respect from the above loses a point of respect. Orks who don't succeed fade away.
Finally at the end of each session each Ork gains one additional point of Hate, but the Ork (or Orks) gaining the most Respect gain Two points instead. I'm not sure as whether to assign the Hate randomly, by player choice, by choice of the other players, or according to some in-game criteria.
What do you think, does it sound good?
I'd also appreciate some feedback on the basic mechanic as described above - do you see it as working out OK? Are there any problems you see with it?
- Jack Aidley,
Great Ork Gods
, Iron Game Chef (Fantasy):
Posts: 117
[The Great Ork Gods] Early ideas.
Reply #9 on:
November 21, 2003, 05:30:33 AM »
Quote from: Mr Jack
So if an Orc is on a roll, he stays on a roll.. and if the gods really hate him, they keep hating him. The Orc Gods love a winner and really hate a loser.
I don't know. I get the feeling that this kind of system would be really annoying in actual play. I've always found that dice tend to produce such runs anyway (clumping is a natural property of truly random systems).
You are probably right about that. It just sounded good to have the Gods keep putting the stones to the Orcs.
I think the game as outlined will probably work well. Incidently, I took one of the earlier poster's suggestion to look at the Green Ronin game (actually I read the reviews) and you might do the same (
). There are a lot of similarities in "feel" and I bet it'll give you some ideas/feedback to see what they've done.
In fact, the concept behind their method of having the God (there is only one) set difficulty levels is worth ripping off wholesale. Instead of God assigning a difficulty number, he decides how much he hates you. If you're in his good graces, he rolls 2d6: the result is the difficulty number. If you're a hobbit-loving disgrace to goblindom, God rolls 3, 4 or 5d6(!). The result is the difficulty number. I like the added randomness (sometimes the little guy wins) and think that the element of the dice will give the player running the God more leeway to try to screw over the Orc--since it relieves him of some of the responsibility. That's funnier than the jerk God just saying "difficulty level is 150. Beat that, monkey-boy!". Plus it removes the necessity for the very un-Orcish notion of "fairness". :)
Chris Geisel
Mark Thomas
Posts: 8
[The Great Ork Gods] Early ideas.
Reply #10 on:
November 21, 2003, 10:00:08 AM »
I like the base idea here, and this is just a random thought on a slightly different mechanic (numbers below for the sake of example):
Difficulty is fixed (2)
Base dice rolled are fixed (2d6)
Task resolution is the same as the original concept.
At the beginning of the session each player is given N hate-dice per god they control. When an orc-player is making a task roll versus an area a god-player thinks they have influence, the god-player explains their influence and adds one or more of the god's hate-dice to the orc-player's roll. More than one god can influence a task, but perhaps only one god per god-player. The task is resolved using the base dice plus any hate-dice added by other players. After the roll the orc-player adds any god-dice assigned to the hate-dice pools of any of their own gods.
This places something of a limit on the difficulting picking -- you can only assign dice you have. It also provides for revenge -- the player receiving hate-dice gets to spend them later.
Just a random thought.
Posts: 117
[The Great Ork Gods] Early ideas.
Reply #11 on:
November 21, 2003, 11:36:07 AM »
Very cool idea. I *really* like that spending your hate puts hate in the hands of your (new) enemy.
Does that mean that there is a finite amount of hate floating around the game?
Chris Geisel
Ron Edwards
Global Moderator
Posts: 16490
[The Great Ork Gods] Early ideas.
Reply #12 on:
November 21, 2003, 12:08:22 PM »
Mark, that's a good idea - and Jack, if you want to go with something like that, I urge you to check out Orkworld (Wicked Press), in which the mechanic Trouble plays a central role in exactly this way.
Mark Thomas
Posts: 8
[The Great Ork Gods] Early ideas.
Reply #13 on:
November 21, 2003, 12:44:01 PM »
Quote from: Loki
Very cool idea. I *really* like that spending your hate puts hate in the hands of your (new) enemy.
Does that mean that there is a finite amount of hate floating around the game?
In my thinking it was fixed, but I could see ways to make it flexible:
One god can nullify another god's hate with a die of their own, resulting in both dice getting removed from play.
Over the course of several games new dice are added.
The GM tosses hate dice to players that do cool stuff.
I think there's probably a way to reverse the thought behind this and use it as a more friendly task aid system too.
Posts: 9
[The Great Ork Gods] Early ideas.
Reply #14 on:
November 22, 2003, 07:48:14 AM »
If you wanted Ork-like combat in your game, you could also have a Combat XP system that works as follows:
An Ork gains one Respect for every (100/200/whatever you decide) Combat XP he earns. For every combat-capable creature the Ork deals a killing blow to, he gains 10 Combat XP. (He gets 1 XP for every noncombatant creature or person at least the size of a squirrel he kills but cannot get more than 10 XP for a single action that kills a lot of noncombatants, or otherwise you get the "pour burning oil on an ant hill for XP" trick that doesn't work well for Ork culture generally.) You might want to award different amounts based on the toughness of the foe. Anyway, the Ork only gets the XP if he strikes the killing blow.
In a D&D 3e game I ran once, an amusing situation happened where PC A was fighting a goblin, PC B finishes he goblin and runs up to hit PC A's goblin, and kills it, possibly saving PC A from taking any more damage. PC A yells at PC B and hits him for taking his kill. The two decide to have a duel. PC A is a twinked-out munchkin character, PC B is rather average. PC B manages to win the initiative, gets incredibly lucky, and nearly kills PC A with a critical hit; he gets a shocked look on his face for a moment, then gasps and drops his sword and quickly patches PC A's wounds. PC C, who thinks the whole thing was stupid, angrily charges at PC B and tries to punch him, but rolls a 1 and punches his target's shield instead, falling to the ground holding his hand and yelping in pain. NPC D tries to yell at all of them but instead falls to the ground laughing. (Note: in case you don't know, you get the same XP from a hostile encounter you overcome regardless of whether or not your party kills the enemies, and you get the same XP whether or not you actually struck any blows in the combat.)
Now, imagine the chaos that would erupt if there actually was a benefit to striking the killing blow, and you only got combat XP for killing enemies. I imagine players would see a 100 XP knight and try to figure out ways to convince their friends to wound the knight so that they could sneak in and deal the finishing blow.
Just a thought.
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text:
Hagel Confirmation Battle Awkward for McCain
The animosity between Sen. John McCain and Chuck Hagel has been on full display. But any push to derail Hagel's Defense nomination vote this week could prove awkward for Sen. McCain, who needs to work across the aisle on immigration reform. WSJ's Sara Murray has details on The News Hub. Photo: Getty Images.
This transcript has been automatically generated and may not be 100% accurate.
... the the ... can soften his style ... Chuck Hagel as defense secretary ... that's a big change from last week when he said ... it's ... take history a story made judgment about searcher ... and euro on the wrong side of it in your refusal to answer whether you are right or wrong about it ... I've got to have an impact on my judgment as to whether to vote for your confirmation or not ... below is that the McCann last week and is on a sunny distinctly different from mine is down this way we also Mari on Capitol Hill to talk more about this um ... John McCain and soft ... well I think the stock market there's really no love lost between these two guys ... are different in this week is the term making who does believe checking Gershwin confirmed he came and said ... look I'm not to filibuster this ... that's our Italy the Senate that small is linking to Shellharbour Your ... filibuster in cash earnings to bridge too far ... so to find and basically is coming and saying he's not gonna get a stake is not now and and will leave the really were the odds on nom on Hagel ... yes that's right they need to know ... to this Republican retreat yesterday told his colleagues in this ... look I don't think we should the filibuster in this era not only is he saying he started hearing ... these Christmas cards to fall asleep ... it's interesting stuff is pretty much and is the holding of stickles gone for Nagel ... sch yes I know that the separation processes they can get tripped up all kinds of raisins or the other thing we're still in the forest where ... there's an entire case on hold on the government's reluctance to the full Senate floor ... at the top contenders like China Corning Tech creates from Texas or so ... and ... so it is a ... pretty unusual but things to get ... held up in this way you like the way you just mind for ... calm I counted no money ... that's really unusual for having been nominated to filibuster haven't heard anyone be an accident at the rejected at times I would like ... usually this ... tradition is the president gets to keep his cabinet including nominate someone less their ... seat reservations that person can ask her ... Texas Senator John now ... aam and his nomination process ... interesting ... intersection which will then and now because it was a big advocate for John Tyler ... high back in eighteen even this is where the new capital rules has actually agreed to ... allow senators to corporate tax receipts for being a womanizer tasting alcohol abuse problems ... and hear John McCain calls this ... the worst smelling his time is that it is as ... authentic is totally views the way there is this what can count on that this guy was ... qualified for the job instead he turned into a character assassination basically ... was in the financial scandals that ... will in it that thank you very much there Mari of the Wall Street John you read more about on the vs day don't come and in tomorrow's final


text:
Shakespeare Death Mask (Frontal View)
In Western cultures a death mask is a wax or plaster cast made of a person's face following death. Death masks may be mementos of the dead, or used for creation of portraits. It is sometimes possible to identify portraits that have been painted from death masks, because of the characteristic slight distortion of the features caused by the weight of the plaster during the making of the mold.
J. G. Holland Scribner's Monthly, An Illustrated Magazine for the People (New York, NY: Scribner & Co., 1874)


text:
Dermochelys Coriacea Classification Essay
|Leatherback sea turtle
Temporal range: Holocene0.012–0 Ma
Conservation status
|Scientific classification
Blainville, 1816[2]
|D. coriacea
|Binomial name
|Dermochelys coriacea
(Vandelli, 1761)[2]
List of synonyms
The leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), sometimes called the lute turtle or leathery turtle or simply the luth, is the largest of all living turtles and is the fourth-heaviest modern reptile behind three crocodilians.[4][5] It is the only living species in the genus Dermochelys and family Dermochelyidae. It can easily be differentiated from other modern sea turtles by its lack of a bony shell, hence the name. Instead, its carapace is covered by skin and oily flesh. Dermochelys is the onlyextant genus of the familyDermochelyidae.
Taxonomy and evolution[edit]
Dermochelys coriacea is the only species in genus Dermochelys. The genus, in turn, contains the only extant member of the family Dermochelyidae.[6]
Domenico Agostino Vandelli named the species first in 1761 as Testudo coriacea after an animal captured at Ostia and donated to the University of Padua by Pope Clement XIII.[7] In 1816, French zoologistHenri Blainville coined the term Dermochelys. The leatherback was then reclassified as Dermochelys coriacea.[8] In 1843, the zoologist Leopold Fitzinger put the genus in its own family, Dermochelyidae.[9] In 1884, the American naturalistSamuel Garman described the species as Sphargis coriacea schlegelii.[10] The two were then united in D. coriacea, with each given subspecies status as D. c. coriacea and D. c. schlegelii. The subspecies were later labeled invalid synonyms of D. coriacea.[11][12]
The turtle's common name comes from the leathery texture and appearance of its carapace. Older names include "leathery turtle"[5] and "trunk turtle".[13] The common names incorporating "lute" and "luth" compare the seven ridges that run the length of the animal's back to the seven strings on the musical instrument of the same name. In Roman mythology, the instrument was played by Mercury, the messenger of the gods.[14]
Relatives of modern leatherback turtles have existed in some form since the first true sea turtles evolved over 110 million years ago during the Cretaceous period. The dermochelyids are relatives of the family Cheloniidae, which contains the other six extant sea turtle species. However, their sister taxon is the extinct family Protostegidae that included other species that did not have a hard carapace.[15][16]
Anatomy and physiology[edit]
Leatherback turtles have the most hydrodynamic body design of any sea turtle, with a large, teardrop-shaped body. A large pair of front flippers powers the turtles through the water. Like other sea turtles, the leatherback has flattened fore limbs adapted for swimming in the open ocean. Claws are absent from both pairs of flippers. The leatherback's flippers are the largest in proportion to its body among extant sea turtles. Leatherback's front flippers can grow up to 2.7 m (8.9 ft) in large specimens, the largest flippers (even in comparison to its body) of any sea turtle.
The leatherback has several characteristics that distinguish it from other sea turtles. Its most notable feature is the lack of a bony carapace. Instead of scutes, it has thick, leathery skin with embedded minuscule osteoderms. Seven distinct ridges rise from the carapace, crossing from the cranial to caudal margin of the turtle's back. Leatherbacks are unique among reptiles in that their scales lack β-keratin. The entire turtle's dorsal surface is colored dark grey to black, with a scattering of white blotches and spots. Demonstrating countershading, the turtle's underside is lightly colored.[17][18] Instead of teeth, the leatherback turtle has points on the tomium of its upper lip, with backwards spines in its throat (oesophagus) to help it swallow food and to stop its prey from escaping once caught.
D. coriacea adults average 1–1.75 m (3.3–5.7 ft) in curved carapace length (CCL), 1.83–2.2 m (6.0–7.2 ft) in total length, and 250 to 700 kg (550 to 1,540 lb) in weight.[17][19] In the Caribbean, the mean size of adults was reported at 384 kg (847 lb) in weight and 1.55 m (5.1 ft) in CCL.[20] Similarly, those nesting in French Guiana, weighed an average of 339.3 kg (748 lb) and measured 1.54 m (5.1 ft) in CCL.[21][22] The largest verified specimen ever found was discovered in the Pakistani beach of Sanspit and measured 213 cm (6.99 ft) in CCL and 650 kg (1,433 lb) in weight.[23] A previous contender, the "Harlech turtle", was purportedly 256.5 cm (8.42 ft) in CCL and 916 kg (2,019 lb) in weight,[24][25] however recent inspection of its remains housed at the National Museum Cardiff have found that its true CCL is closer to 1.5 m (4.9 ft), casting doubt on the accuracy of the claimed weight, as well.[23] On the other hand, one scientific paper has claimed that the species can weigh up to 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) without providing more verifiable detail.[26] The leatherback turtle is scarcely larger than any other sea turtle upon hatching, as they average 61.3 mm (2.41 in) in carapace length and weigh around 46 g (1.6 oz) when freshly hatched.[20]
D. coriacea exhibits several anatomical characteristics believed to be associated with a life in cold waters, including an extensive covering of brown adipose tissue,[27] temperature-independent swimming muscles,[28]countercurrent heat exchangers between the large front flippers and the core body, and an extensive network of countercurrent heat exchangers surrounding the trachea.[29]
Leatherbacks have been viewed as unique among extant reptiles for their ability to maintain high body temperatures using metabolically generated heat, or endothermy. Initial studies on their metabolic rates found leatherbacks had resting metabolisms around three times higher than expected for reptiles of their size.[30] However, recent studies using reptile representatives encompassing all the size ranges leatherbacks pass through during ontogeny discovered the resting metabolic rate of a large D. coriacea is not significantly different from predicted results based on allometry.[31]
Rather than using a high resting metabolism, leatherbacks appear to take advantage of a high activity rate. Studies on wild D. coriacea discovered individuals may spend as little as 0.1% of the day resting.[32] This constant swimming creates muscle-derived heat. Coupled with their countercurrent heat exchangers, insulating fat covering, and large size, leatherbacks are able to maintain high temperature differentials compared to the surrounding water. Adult leatherbacks have been found with core body temperatures that were 18 °C (32 °F) above the water in which they were swimming.[33]
Leatherback turtles are one of the deepest-diving marine animals. Individuals have been recorded diving to depths as great as 1,280 m (4,200 ft).[34][35] Typical dive durations are between 3 and 8 minutes, with dives of 30–70 minutes occurring infrequently.[36]
They are also the fastest-moving reptiles. The 1992 edition of the Guinness Book of World Records lists the leatherback turtle moving at 35.28 km/h (21.92 mph) in the water.[37][38] More typically, they swim at 1.80–10.08 km/h (1.12–6.26 mph).[32]
The leatherback turtle is a species with a cosmopolitan global range. Of all the extant sea turtle species, D. coriacea has the widest distribution, reaching as far north as Alaska and Norway and as far south as Cape Agulhas in Africa and the southernmost tip of New Zealand.[17] The leatherback is found in all tropical and subtropical oceans, and its range extends well into the Arctic Circle.[39]
The three major, genetically distinct populations occur in the Atlantic, eastern Pacific, and western Pacific Oceans.[4][40] While nesting beaches have been identified in the region, leatherback populations in the Indian Ocean remain generally unassessed and unevaluated.[41]
Recent estimates of global nesting populations are that 26,000 to 43,000 females nest annually, which is a dramatic decline from the 115,000 estimated in 1980.[42]
Atlantic subpopulation[edit]
The leatherback turtle population in the Atlantic Ocean ranges across the entire region. They range as far north as the North Sea and to the Cape of Good Hope in the south. Unlike other sea turtles, leatherback feeding areas are in colder waters, where an abundance of their jellyfish prey is found, which broadens their range. However, only a few beaches on both sides of the Atlantic provide nesting sites.[43]
Off the Atlantic coast of Canada, leatherback turtles feed in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence near Quebec and as far north as Newfoundland and Labrador.[44] The most significant Atlantic nesting sites are in Suriname, Guyana, French Guiana in South America, Antigua and Barbuda, and Trinidad and Tobago in the Caribbean, and Gabon in Central Africa. The beaches of Mayumba National Park in Mayumba, Gabon, host the largest nesting population on the African continent and possibly worldwide, with nearly 30,000 turtles visiting its beaches each year between October and April.[40][45][45] Off the northeastern coast of the South American continent, a few select beaches between French Guiana and Suriname are primary nesting sites of several species of sea turtles, the majority being leatherbacks.[21] A few hundred nest annually on the eastern coast of Florida.[5] In Costa Rica, the beaches of Gandoca and Parismina provide nesting grounds.[41][46]
Pacific subpopulation[edit]
Pacific leatherbacks divide into two populations. One population nests on beaches in Papua, Indonesia, and the Solomon Islands, and forages across the Pacific in the Northern Hemisphere, along the coasts of California, Oregon, and Washington in North America. The eastern Pacific population forages in the Southern Hemisphere, in waters along the western coast of South America, nesting in Mexico, Panama, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.[40][47]
The continental United States offers two major Pacific leatherback feeding areas. One well-studied area is just off the northwestern coast near the mouth of the Columbia River. The other American area is located in California.[47] Further north, off the Pacific coast of Canada, leatherbacks visit the beaches of British Columbia.[44]
Estimates by the WWF suggest only 2,300 adult females of the Pacific leatherback remain, making it the most endangered marine turtle subpopulation.[48]
South China Sea subpopulation[edit]
A third possible Pacific subpopulation has been proposed, those that nest in Malaysia. This subpopulation, however, has effectively been eradicated. The beach of Rantau Abang in Terengganu, Malaysia, once had the largest nesting population in the world, hosting 10,000 nests per year. The major cause for the decline was egg consumption by humans. Conservation efforts initiated in the 1960s were ineffective because they involved excavating and incubating eggs at artificial sites which inadvertently exposed the eggs to high temperatures. It only became known in the 1980s that sea turtles undergo temperature-dependent sex determination; it is suspected that nearly all the artificially incubated hatchlings were female.[49] In 2008, two turtles nested at Rantau Abang, and unfortunately the eggs were infertile.
Indian Ocean subpopulation[edit]
While little research has been done on Dermochelys populations in the Indian Ocean, nesting populations are known from Sri Lanka and the Nicobar Islands. These turtles are proposed to form a separate, genetically distinct Indian Ocean subpopulation.[41]
Ecology and life history[edit]
Leatherback turtles can be found primarily in the open ocean. Scientists tracked a leatherback turtle that swam from Jen Womom beach of Tambrauw regency in West Papua province of Indonesia to the U.S. in a 20,000 km (12,000 mi) foraging journey over a period of 647 days.[17][50] Leatherbacks follow their jellyfish prey throughout the day, resulting in turtles "preferring" deeper water in the daytime, and shallower water at night (when the jellyfish rise up the water column).[32] This hunting strategy often places turtles in very frigid waters. One individual was found actively hunting in waters that had a surface temperature of 0.4 °C. (32.72 °F).[51] Leatherback turtles are known to pursue prey deeper than 1000 m—beyond the physiological limits of all other diving tetrapods except for beaked whales and sperm whales.[52]
Their favored breeding beaches are mainland sites facing deep water, and they seem to avoid those sites protected by coral reefs.[53]
Adult D. coriacea turtles subsist almost entirely on jellyfish.[17] Due to their obligate feeding nature, leatherbacks help control jellyfish populations.[4] Leatherbacks also feed on other soft-bodied organisms, such as tunicates and cephalopods.[54]
Pacific leatherbacks migrate about 6,000 mi (9,700 km) across the Pacific from their nesting sites in Indonesia to eat California jellyfish. One cause for their endangered state is plastic bags floating in the ocean. Pacific leatherback sea turtles mistake these plastic bags for jellyfish; an estimated one-third of adults have ingested plastic.[55] Plastic enters the oceans along the west coast of urban areas, where leatherbacks forage, with Californians using upward of 19 billion plastic bags every year.[56]
Several species of sea turtles commonly ingest plastic marine debris, and even small quantities of debris can kill sea turtles by obstructing their digestive tracts.[57] Nutrient dilution, which occurs when plastics displace food in the gut, affects the nutrient gain and consequently the growth of sea turtles.[58] Ingestion of marine debris and slowed nutrient gain leads to increased time for sexual maturation that may affect future reproductive behaviors.[59] These turtles have the highest risk of encountering and ingesting plastic bags offshore of San Francisco Bay, the Columbia River mouth, and Puget Sound.
Very little is known of the species' lifespan. Some reports claim "30 years or more",[60] while others state "50 years or more".[61] Upper estimates exceed 100 years.[62]
Death and decomposition[edit]
Dead leatherbacks that wash ashore are microecosystems while decomposing. In 1996, a drowned carcass held sarcophagid and calliphorid flies after being picked open by a pair of Coragyps atratus vultures. Infestation by carrion-eating beetles of the families Scarabaeidae, Carabidae, and Tenebrionidae soon followed. After days of decomposition, beetles from the families Histeridae and Staphylinidae and anthomyiid flies invaded the corpse, as well. Organisms from more than a dozen families took part in consuming the carcass.[63]
Life history[edit]
Leatherback turtles face many predators in their early lives. Eggs may be preyed on by a diversity of coastal predators, including ghost crabs, monitor lizards, raccoons, coatis, dogs, coyotes, genets, mongooses, and shorebirds ranging from small plovers to large gulls. Many of the same predators feed on baby turtles as they try to get to the ocean, as well as frigatebirds and varied raptors. Once in the ocean, young leatherbacks still face predation from cephalopods, requiem sharks, and various large fish. Despite their lack of a hard shell, the huge adults face fewer serious predators, though they are occasionally overwhelmed and preyed on by very large marine predators such as killer whales, great white sharks, and tiger sharks. Nesting females have been preyed upon by jaguars in the American tropics.[64][65][66]
Apparently, the adult leatherback aggressively defends itself at sea from predators. A medium-sized adult was observed chasing a shark that had attempted to bite it and then turned its aggression and attacked the boat containing the humans observing the prior interaction.[67]Dermochelys juveniles spend more of their time in tropical waters than do adults.[54]
Adults are prone to long-distance migration. Migration occurs between the cold waters where mature leatherbacks feed, to the tropical and subtropical beaches in the regions where they hatch. In the Atlantic, females tagged in French Guiana have been recaptured on the other side of the ocean in Morocco and Spain.[21]
Mating takes place at sea. Males never leave the water once they enter it, unlike females, which nest on land. After encountering a female (which possibly exudes a pheromone to signal her reproductive status), the male uses head movements, nuzzling, biting, or flipper movements to determine her receptiveness. Males can mate every year but the females mate every two to three years. Fertilization is internal, and multiple males usually mate with a single female. This polyandry does not provide the offspring with any special advantages.[68]
While other sea turtle species almost always return to their hatching beach, leatherbacks may choose another beach within the region. They choose beaches with soft sand because their softer shells and plastrons are easily damaged by hard rocks. Nesting beaches also have shallower approach angles from the sea. This is a vulnerability for the turtles because such beaches easily erode. They nest at night when the risk of predation and heat stress is lowest. As leatherback turtles spend the vast majority of their lives in the ocean, their eyes are not well adapted to night vision on land. The typical nesting environment includes a dark forested area adjacent to the beach. The contrast between this dark forest and the brighter, moonlit ocean provides directionality for the females. They nest towards the dark and then return to the ocean and the light.
Females excavate a nest above the high-tide line with their flippers. One female may lay as many as nine clutches in one breeding season. About nine days pass between nesting events. Average clutch size is around 110 eggs, 85% of which are viable.[17] After laying, the female carefully back-fills the nest, disguising it from predators with a scattering of sand.[54][69]
Development of offspring[edit]
Cleavage of the cell begins within hours of fertilization, but development is suspended during the gastrulation period of movements and infoldings of embryonic cells, while the eggs are being laid. Development then resumes, but embryos remain extremely susceptible to movement-induced mortality until the membranes fully develop after incubating for 20 to 25 days. The structural differentiation of body and organs (organogenesis) soon follows. The eggs hatch in about 60 to 70 days. As with other reptiles, the nest's ambient temperature determines the sex of the hatchings. After nightfall, the hatchings dig to the surface and walk to the sea.[70][71]
Leatherback nesting seasons vary by location; it occurs from February to July in Parismina, Costa Rica. Farther east in French Guiana, nesting is from March to August. Atlantic leatherbacks nest between February and July from South Carolina in the United States to the United States Virgin Islands in the Caribbean and to Suriname and Guyana.[72]
Importance to humans[edit]
People around the world still harvest sea turtle eggs. Asian exploitation of turtle nests has been cited as the most significant factor for the species' global population decline. In Southeast Asia, egg harvesting in countries such as Thailand and Malaysia has led to a near-total collapse of local nesting populations.[73] In Malaysia, where the turtle is practically locally extinct, the eggs are considered a delicacy.[74] In the Caribbean, some cultures consider the eggs to be aphrodisiacs.[73]
They are also a major jellyfish predator,[75][76] which helps keep populations in check. This bears importance to humans, as jellyfish diets consist largely of larval fish, the adults of which are commercially fished by humans.[77]
Cultural significance[edit]
The turtle is known to be of cultural significance to tribes all over the world. The Seri people, from the Mexican state of Sonora, find the leatherback sea turtle of significant cultural significance because it is one of their five main creators. The Seri people devote ceremonies and fiestas to the turtle when one is caught and then released back into the environment.[78] The Seri people have noticed the drastic decline in turtle populations over the years and created a conservation movement to help this. The group, made up of both youth and elders from the tribe, is called Grupo Tortuguero Comaac. They use both traditional ecological knowledge and Western technology to help manage the turtle populations and protect the turtle's natural environment.[79]
Leatherback turtles have few natural predators once they mature; they are most vulnerable to predation in their early life stages. Birds, small mammals, and other opportunists dig up the nests of turtles and consume eggs. Shorebirds and crustaceans prey on the hatchings scrambling for the sea. Once they enter the water, they become prey to predatory fish and cephalopods.
Leatherbacks have slightly fewer human-related threats than other sea turtle species. Their flesh contains too much oil and fat to be considered palatable, reducing the demand. However, human activity still endangers leatherback turtles in direct and indirect ways. Directly, a few are caught for their meat by subsistence fisheries. Nests are raided by humans in places such as Southeast Asia.[73]
Many human activities indirectly harm Dermochelys populations. As a pelagic species, D. coriacea is occasionally caught as bycatch. Entanglement in lobster pot ropes is another hazard the animals face.[80] As the largest living sea turtles, turtle excluder devices can be ineffective with mature adults. In the eastern Pacific alone, a reported average of 1,500 mature females were accidentally caught annually in the 1990s.[73] Pollution, both chemical and physical, can also be fatal. Many turtles die from malabsorption and intestinal blockage following the ingestion of balloons and plastic bags which resemble their jellyfish prey.[17] Chemical pollution also has an adverse effect on Dermochelys. A high level of phthalates has been measured in their eggs' yolks.[73]
Global initiatives[edit]
D. coriacea is listed on CITES Appendix I, which makes export/import of this species (including parts) illegal.
The species is listed in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as VU (Vulnerable),[1] and additionally with the following infraspecific taxa assessments:
Conserving Pacific and Eastern Atlantic populations was included among the top-ten issues in turtle conservation in the first State of the World's Sea Turtles report published in 2006. The report noted significant declines in the Mexican, Costa Rican, and Malaysian populations. The eastern Atlantic nesting population was threatened by increased fishing pressures from eastern South American countries.[88]
The Leatherback Trust was founded specifically to conserve sea turtles, specifically its namesake. The foundation established a sanctuary in Costa Rica, the Parque Marino Las Baulas.[89]
National and local initiatives[edit]
The leatherback sea turtle is subject to differing conservation laws in various countries.
The United States listed it as an endangered species on 2 June 1970. The passing of the Endangered Species Act of 1973 ratified its status.[90] In 2012, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration designated 41,914 square miles of Pacific Ocean along California, Oregon, and Washington as "critical habitat".[91] In Canada, the Species at Risk Act made it illegal to exploit the species in Canadian waters. The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada classified it as endangered.[44] Ireland and Wales initiated a joint leatherback conservation effort between Swansea University and University College Cork. Funded by the European Regional Development Fund, the Irish Sea Leatherback Turtle Project focuses on research such as tagging and satellite tracking of individuals.[92]
Earthwatch Institute, a global nonprofit that teams volunteers with scientists to conduct important environmental research, launched a program called "Trinidad's Leatherback Sea Turtles". This program strives to help save the world's largest turtle from extinction in Matura Beach, Trinidad, as volunteers work side-by-side with leading scientists and a local conservation group, Nature Seekers. This tropical island off the coast of Venezuela is known for its vibrant ethnic diversity and rich cultural events. It is also the site of one of the most important nesting beaches for endangered leatherback turtles, enormous reptiles that can weigh a ton and dive deeper than many whales. Each year, more than 2,000 female leatherbacks haul themselves onto Matura Beach to lay their eggs. With leatherback populations declining more quickly than any other large animal in modern history, each turtle is precious. On this research project, Dr. Dennis Sammy of Nature Seekers and Dr. Scott Eckert of Wider Caribbean Sea Turtle Conservation Network work alongside a team of volunteers to help prevent extinction of leatherback sea turtles.[93]
Several Caribbean countries started conservation programs, such as the St. Kitts Sea Turtle Monitoring Network, focused on using ecotourism to highlight the leatherback's plight. On the Atlantic coast of Costa Rica, the village of Parismina has one such initiative. Parismina is an isolated sandbar where a large number of leatherbacks lay eggs, but poachers abound. Since 1998, the village has been assisting turtles with a hatchery program. The Parismina Social Club is a charitable organization backed by American tourists and expatriates, which collects donations to fund beach patrols.[94][95]Mayumba National Park in Gabon, Central Africa, was created to protect Africa's most important nesting beach. More than 30,000 turtles nest on Mayumba's beaches between September and April each year.[45]
In mid-2007, the Malaysian Fisheries Department revealed a plan to clone leatherback turtles to replenish the country's rapidly declining population. Some conservation biologists, however, are skeptical of the proposed plan because cloning has only succeeded on mammals such as dogs, sheep, cats, and cattle, and uncertainties persist about cloned animals' health and lifespans.[96] Leatherbacks used to nest in the thousands on Malaysian beaches, including those at Terengganu, where more than 3,000 females nested in the late 1960s.[97] The last official count of nesting leatherback females on that beach was recorded to be a mere two females in 1993.[40]
In Brazil, reproduction of the leatherback turtle is being assisted by the Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources' projeto TAMAR (TAMAR project), which works to protect nests and prevent accidental kills by fishing boats. The last official count of nesting leatherback females in Brazil yielded only seven females.[98] In January 2010, one female at Pontal do Paraná laid hundreds of eggs. Since leatherback sea turtles had been reported to nest only at Espírito Santo's shore, but never in the state of Paraná, this unusual act brought much attention to the area, biologists have been protecting the nests and checking their eggs' temperature, although it might be that none of the eggs is fertile.[99][needs update]
Australia's Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 lists D. coriacea as vulnerable, while Queensland's Nature Conservation Act 1992 lists it as endangered.
See also[edit]
- ^ abWallace, B.P.; Tiwari, M. & Girondot, M. (2013). "Dermochelys coriacea". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN. 2013: e.T6494A43526147. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-2.RLTS.T6494A43526147.en. Retrieved 12 January 2018.
- ^ abRhodin, A. G. J.; van Dijk, P. P.; Inverson, J. B.; Shaffer, H. B. (14 December 2010). "Turtles of the world, 2010 update: Annotated checklist of taxonomy, synonymy, distribution and conservation status"(PDF). Chelonian Research Monographs. 5: 000.xx. doi:10.3854/crm.5.000.checklist.v3.2010. Archived from the original(PDF) on 15 December 2010.
- ^Uwe, Fritz; Havaš, Peter (2007). "Checklist of Chelonians of the World"(PDF). Vertebrate Zoology. 57 (2): 174–176. Archived from the original(PDF) on 17 December 2010. Retrieved 29 May 2012.
- ^ abc"WWF - Leatherback turtle". Marine Turtles. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). 16 February 2007. Retrieved 9 September 2007.
- ^ abc"The Leatherback Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea)". turtles.org. 24 January 2004. Retrieved 15 September 2007.
- ^"Dermochelys coriacea". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 14 September 2007.
- ^"Testudo coriacea". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 14 September 2007.
- ^
Common Name: Leatherback – named for its unique shell which is composed of a layer of thin, tough, rubbery skin, strengthened by thousands of tiny bone plates that makes it look "leathery."
Scientific Name:Dermochelys coriacea
Description: Head has a deeply notched upper jaw with 2 cusps. The leatherback is the only sea turtle that lacks a hard shell. Its carapace is large, elongated and flexible with 7 distinct ridges running the length of the animal. Composed of a layer of thin, tough, rubbery skin, strengthened by thousands of tiny bone plates, the carapace does not have scales, except in hatchlings. All flippers are without claws. The carapace is dark grey or black with white or pale spots, while the plastron is whitish to black and marked by 5 ridges. Hatchlings have white blotches on carapace.
Size: 4 to 6 feet (130 – 183 cm). The largest leatherback ever recorded was almost 10 feet (305 cm) from the tip of its beak to the tip of its tail and weighed in at 2,019 pounds (916 kg).
Weight: 660 to 1,100 pounds (300 – 500 kg).
Diet: Leatherbacks have delicate, scissor-like jaws. Their jaws would be damaged by anything other than a diet of soft-bodied animals, so they feed almost exclusively on jellyfish. It is remarkable that this large, active animal can survive on a diet of jellyfish, which are composed mostly of water and appear to be a poor source of nutrients.
Habitat: Primarily found in the open ocean, as far north as Alaska and as far south as the southern tip of Africa, though recent satellite tracking research indicates that leatherbacks feed in areas just offshore. Known to be active in water below 40 degrees Fahrenheit, the only reptile known to remain active at such a low temperature.
Nesting: Nest at intervals of 2 to 3 years, though recent research has indicated they can nest every year. Nests between 4 to 7 times per season, with an average of 10 days between nestings. Lays an average of 80 fertilized eggs, the size of billiard balls, and 30 smaller, unfertilized eggs, in each nest. Eggs incubate for about 65 days. Unlike other species of sea turtles, leatherback females may change nesting beaches, though they tend to stay in the same region.
Range: Most widely distributed of all sea turtles. Found world wide with the largest north and south range of all the sea turtle species. With its streamlined body shape and the powerful front flippers, a leatherback can swim thousands of miles over open ocean and against fast currents.
Status:U.S. – Listed as Endangered (in danger of extinction within the foreseeable future) under the U.S. Federal Endangered Species Act. International – Listed as Vulnerable in 2013 (facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future) by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
Threats to Survival: Greatest threat to leatherback sea turtles is from incidental take in commercial fisheries and marine pollution (such as balloons and plastic bags floating in the water, which are mistaken for jellyfish).
Population Estimate*: Between 34,000 and 36,000 nesting females.


text:
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