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106 116
PEEFACEWHILSTthe matter containedin this
intended as a popular exposition of the subject it includes information which may assist the reader
or airship.
by many investigators forming a basis upon which future plans can be calculated. An account of some of this workis
and though necessarily incomplete will give an idea of what has been accomplished and that which may be possible. Further sources ofinformation are indicated so that the reader
he desires to do
not been considered advisable to include mathematical formula or to attempt calculations fordesigns as these are beyond the scope of the book. Flying machines of the past are taken to be the
the grotesque or mythical aerial of machines which, though placed on record in various publications, have probably only existed in
Flying machines of
the present are taken to be those which hav been constructed and tried within the last two or threeyears.
As regardsis left
the reader
Readers who will consult the pages of also. Engineering, the Encyclopedia Britannica (subject
aerial navigation
and their work with extended information upon These sources and machines.have been consulted in the preparation of this volume, and to them the authors extend their
They also wish to grateful acknowledgments. pay a tribute of respect to the brave pioneers who have sacrificed their lives in endeavouringto advance the art of mechanical flight.
new matter
added to the
been necessary in other parts. Rapid development has taken place in the use of flying machines and in the art of aerial navigation. Thefication has
accomplishment which is prominent from all is the wonderful flight of M. Bleriot across
the English
Farman and
96 miles at Brooklands track, Farman has flown 112 miles at Rheims and 150 miles in 4 hours 22
and back, flying around and above the Tower about 300 feet from the top, the totalheight of his flight being thus about 1,200 feet,
and length approximately 30 miles. The construction of aeroplane flying machines is nowconducted on a commercial scale andis
one of the
businesses of the day. An important feature is the sudden advance into favour and success of the
monoplane type
equal between
and the
and has
lives of
Captain Ferber and Lefebvre, each of these was a skilful aviator, and such accidents,
including that to the dirigible balloon ''Republique," which resulted in the loss of four lives, are no
in otherlife
In fact the
loss of
particulars given of the various machines should be regarded as of a general character al;
Clark and
the photograph of the Wright Glider, Plate XIII, and for the loan of the drawing of the launchinggear, Plate
A T the ** howreceiving
of regarding any attempt to navigate the air as an indication of madness on the part of
The custom
the experimenter Las passed away, and is now replaced by a feeling of anxiety that one's own country shall not be forestalled in the art ofaviation.
The subject is attractive because of the large amount of chance or luck which exists in respecttoit.
apparatus which can not only ascend into the air with a load, but can be driven in any desireddirection under all conditions of
There mentertionin
may bywhich
Work on
at very majority of
heavy expense,experimenters
in this field
queror of the air can fairly assume that without actual experiment of some sort no reliance can beplaced upon his designs, however pretty they may look on paper. Designers of airships have ranged
for the solution of the problem by un appara" tus which is lighter than air." The examples are balloons. Others hold a contrary opinion, directing
their efforts to the perfection of machines which " are heavier than air," disregarding entirely the
buoyancy, andraise itself
machine must
as well
as have the
in a horizontal
are term having examples aeroplanes, the been introduced to define this type of construction, and machines in which some form of screwpropeller or vibrating planeis relied
to pro-
the lifting
division of
designers appears to be those who have adopted the principle of buoyancy as affording a temporary expedient which would serve until further dis-
covery would render practicable the use of machines " heavier than air." The earliest designers seemto
but probably no reliable information exists as what was actually accomplished. Designs of more or less fantastic shape have been proposed, but only appear upon paper any real attemptsto;
inventors were no doubt men of and deserved to have gained some success, but they were not sufficiently cautious or methodical, and in making ambitious trial nights with their machines met with fatal disaster. A great deal of very useful and reliable work has, however, been accomplished by men of scientific the novice can, ability, and placed on record therefore, make himself acquainted with the results of these experiments and utilise them as a startingpoint for his own work, whether his faith is in a Such ship which is lighter or heavier than air. data will give him an idea of the size and propor-
parts to accomplish a given result. considering the problem of aerial navigation necessary to realise that the atmospheretion of
Init is
Because air is decidedly real and tangible thing. invisible the mind does not easily picture its existence, hence the novelty of imagining it to be ofservice in sustainingobjects.
experience of descents in which the air appeared Air has a definite to be a substance like jelly.weight, 100 cubic inches weighing 31 grains the wind which we feel exerts a palpable pressure,;
merely air in a state of eddies and flow of This wind pressure is capable of exert-
ing an enormous
of force, architectstall
designing large or
require to take this fact into serious consideration. A wind which if? blowing with a velocity of 10 to
half to
15 miles per hour would exert a pressure of oneone pound upon every square foot of surface directly exposed to it, and yet is only a
very modest breeze indeed. A storm wind blowing at about 50 miles per hour presses with more than 12 Ibs. upon each square foot of surface directly
exposed to it, whilst a hurricane wind exerts more than four times this pressure.aIt is therefore quite reasonable to assume that medium which is capable of producing such
can be utilised as a means of communicaTo be completely successful, however, an airship must not only be able to lifteffects
load, but have the power to proceed such winds in a horizontal direction. Buoyancy alone is not sufficient, it will enable
and a
the ship to proceed with a favourable wind astern, and to ascend and descend, but not to proceed
An against a wind of the most moderate force. airship competes against other forms of travel on land and water. In each the traveller is alreadyable to proceed in any direction, irrespective of the conditions of the weather, except in rare instances of storm and stress even then he may;
be able to maintain his position until the weather If airships are to justify their existmoderates.ence they must be able to do thisit
having regard to the particular sense in which any one may be used. The first airships to achieve any degree of success, were balloons. They depend entirely upon the prinbasis,
on a commercial
INTRODUCTIONciple of
any bodyit
is less
rise. For example, if a sealed tin can containing air is forced below the surface of a tank of water and then released it will at once rise to the surface, because it is much lighter than
If the
until its weight is exactly equal to that of the equivalent bulk of water, it will remain in equilibrium below the surface. Any slight change init
the weight of the can and its contents will cause to rise or fall until a state of balance is produced
due to the varying density of the water at the The weight of water displaced by the can in every instance exactly balancing the weight of the can and its contents. Thedifferent depths.
density of the atmosphere varys to a very much extent than the density of water for aIt is therefore possible to adjust the position of
dense as
air for
body must therefore be so much larger to support a given weight in air than in water. Anyapparatus used for the purpose of propulsion must
14also be very
It does
ever, that
need be
provided that the shape and proportions are suitable to the conditions of working.
lifted. The shape does not the problem, it is merely a The less the weight of the question of size. component parts of the balloon the smaller it will
need to be to lift a given load. For this reason such materials as silk, cane, and rope or thin steelwire are
the balloon to take the place of the air displaced must be less dense than air, because the difference
quantity of air
and that of an equivalent a measure of the lifting power best arrangement would be a
the balloon as that would give the greatest possible difference between the weights of the cubic space in the envelope or container and the equivalent quantity ofair.
actually been thought of by early designers but owing to the fact that the atmosphere exerts a
pressure of approximately 15 Ibs. per square in. all directions, the envelope must be strong enough to withstand this pressure if it contains ain
to withstand the
a large surface as possessed by an average balloon would weigh more than the air displaced and the If the envelope contains balloon would not rise. a gas the pressure of the air can be balanced, or more than balanced, by the expansive property of the gas, therefore the envelope can then be made of exceedingly light material. It then remains to procure a gas which is much lighter than air such a gas is hydrogen, 100 cubic ins. of which will only;
weigh about 2' 14 grains, or about one-fifteenth the weight of a similar quantity of air. This is the substance which will give the greatest lifting power as it is the lightest thing known. Owingto the expense of generating pure hydrogen, however, coal gas, which is hydrogen mixed with
frequently used
for inflating
Being a commercial product it is comparatively cheap and gives a good lifting effort, but the very best effect is produced by pure hydrogen. The difference between the weights of the completely equipped balloon and that of the quantity of air displaced need only be about 10 Ibs.in favour of ascension, such
margin gives
of extra
attached to
the balloon in form of paper or sand so that a reserve of lifting power is obtained. When the
aeronaut desires the balloon to rise he throws away some of this weight thus increasing the
by opening a valve thus deWith this power of buoyancy. ascending and descending he can place the ballooncreasing theat
different elevations and move horizontally according to the direction of the air currents met This gives a certain amount of control with.
without the use of propelling apparatus, as air does not necessarily travel in one direction only atall
degrees of elevation.
to rise
If the balloon is made means there must be a can remain in the air. The
continual release of gas diminishes the reserve of lifting power until finally, when all the extra
weight has been thrown away and the balloon is to descend, it cannot be made to rise again or the descent be checked, because the lifting power is not sufficient to sustain the load.
the balloon
ascends the
pressure diminishes, becoming less the higher ths This permits the gas inside elevation attained. the balloon to expand, the effect being that as the
pressure outside decreases that inside increases, and, unless a means of escape is provided, the envelope would burst with disastrous results to
A loss of gas thus takes the occupants of the car. place additional to that required to regulate the buoyancy, and it is intensified by the effect ofexpandto cool
shadow and sunshine, which causes the gas to as it becomes heated by the sun's rays and
when they
INTRODUCTIONfrom the objectdifferent
the aeronaut who is merely voyaging from one place to another would preferably keep his balloon at a fairly constant moderate altitude. This can be done where the nature ofaltitudes
power by using what is called a guide an invention of immense value in ballooning and due to a celebrated English aeronaut, Charlesof lifting
Green. The arrangement consists of a long heavy rope attached to the car of the balloon and allowed to hang vertically downwards so that it touchesthe ground.It
away. Whilst this rope is suspended away from the ground its entire weight is acting against thelifting effort of
the balloon.
creases the rope will touch the ground and as the balloon descends an increasing amount of its lengthwill rest upon the ground. The balloon will obviously be relieved of the weight of this portion and therefore its buoyancy will be increased
accordingly, the descent will be checked and a state of equilibrium produced. In fact as the balloonrises
so will the guide rope rest with more or less of its weight upon the ground and act as an automatic
regulator of the lifting effort. The shape of a balloon is determined by the use to which it will be put. If it is to be used as
FLYING MACHINESit
it is
merely to be
a dirigible balloon the shape will be elongated in the direction of its horizontal axis, because the shape should be such as to offer the smallestpracticable
of resistance
when proceeding
against the direction of flow of an air current. The shape which gives best results in this respectis
somewhat similar to that adopted for the Whitehead torpedo, and agrees with the experiments of Captain Kenard, in France, who found that an elongated balloon which is larger in diameter at the forward end and smaller at the rear end, requires less power to drive it through the air than if it had ends of equally pointed shape. The envelope of a drifting balloon only has to bear the strain of supporting the car and its load, except under abnormal circumstances. The shape,however, does not tend to become distorted. A dirigible balloon, however, is subjected to the pressure of the air current against which it may be moving its envelope must therefore be able to withstand this strain as well as that due to the;
and sustaining the car one of the difficulties which the designer of a dirigible balloon has to deal with. If the aeronaut releases some of the gas for the purpose of descending he is depriving the envelope of its internal support, and may come to disaster andload.
by reason
descead without losing gas and ascend without in fact, you must not interfere sacrificing ballast with the reserve of lifting power.;
century by General Mensuir, and used by Dupuy de L6me in his balloon, as well as by Santos
kept at pressure by means of a fan. The gas can thus expand without unduly straining the envelope by pressing against
the pocket which collapses, losing more or less of the contained air, and making more space for thetracts theIf the gas congas inside the main envelope. pump inflates the pocket again with air,
so that the reduction in bulk of the gas is compensated. Escape valves are provided for the air, a regular stream flowing through the pocket under
normal conditions.beingtilted to point
elevated and
upwards or downwards by an
alteration of
M. Santos Dumont
his guide rope for this purpose, shifting its position so that the weight pulls at front, rear, or centre,
which he
desires the
Attempts have been made to direct airships by means of sails, but without much success. There ar tw* other methods which have been usad,
20namely, by
crew propellers and by vibrating Neither of these has yet been planes or wings. Mr. Laurence proved to be the superior one.Hargrave, in Australia, has made models propelled by both methods, each flying well. Sir Hiram Maxim, Mr. Horatio Phillips, S. F. Cody, in England, Messrs. Santos
in France,
America and
McCurdy in Canada, and others have done well with screw propellers driven by steam, petrol, electric, or compressed-air engines, though the two first-named inventors did not permit their machines to have free flight. The problem of aerial navigation by machines heavier than air resolves itself into two main comviz., power of sustaining a load in air and power of maintaining a proper balance. If these can be achieved, the factor of propulsion is
most ableOtto
13 years of age, and continued 25 years, eliminated the question of motive power, and confined himself entirely with the problem of balance. He decided that soaring birds ascend by skilful use of the pressure produced by currents of air, and that no externaltrials of flight at
source of power
is needed to imitate them, all the apparatus required being sustaining surfaces cor-
rectly designed and constructed, with of course an His invesacquired art in using them properly. tigations were published in 1889 as a book, called " "
als Grundlage der Fliegekunst Bird Flight as the Basis of the Flying Art "), and his opinion was that birds fly by dexterity("
Der Vogelflug
Making some experiments whilst suspended from a support by means of a rope, he actually succeeded in raising himself about 30 ft. from the ground by means of wings, which he vibrated by his own power, his weight and that of the machinebeing,
majority of his experiments consisted in gliding flights taken from the top of a hill having a
that he regarded
as a sport, in
mechanic assistant
The appaalso participated. ratus consisted of fixed aeroplanes, to which he attached himself, always facing the wind. Not-
withstanding the proficiency and experience thus gained, Lilienthal met his death whilst engaging in the attempt to make a flight of greatest possible length in the capacity of his apparatus. A sudden
gust of wind appears to have been too heavy for to adjust his equilibrium to meet it, and the
soundness of his opinions upon this point were unluckily proved by the aeroplanes being thrown
backwards from their proper angle. The apparatus thua deprived of the supporting effect of the wind
PLYING MACHINESrapidly to the ground, and the accident preyed and able experimenter.
at this
Professor Langley, another very clever worker problem in the United States, constructed
a model machine which would travel against the wind and yet keep at an average horizontal level. He considers that a machine can be designed and made which would carry out this principle of
fluctuationsto his
satisfy himself
was so, he made some accurate experiments by using a very sensitive anemometer, which recorded as well as indicated the velocity and fluctuations of wind during short intervals of
An account of the experiments is given in the Proceedings of the Smithsonian Institute, " The Internal Work of the July, 1904, entitled Wind," showing graphic curves of wind velocitiestime.plotted against intervals of time.
changes take place with great rapidity and to an extraordinary extent. Existing records as taken by an ordinary anemometer, registering at longintervals of time,
showed wind
velocity variation;
only from 20 to 27 miles per hour but the true fluctuations as recorded by the special anemometer
were enormously more than this, and occurred with great suddenness. As an example, the velocity would vary within the space of one minute from about 80 miles per hour to zero, then
to 1 4 miles per hour, and regain its former Telocity within the space of two minutes, including some
ciple of bird flight was Le Bris, who made some actual flights in France. was a sea captain,
and seems
have had a very good grasp of the problem. From observations on soaring birds made by him during his voyages, he came to theto
conclusion that
the forward edge of the bird's wing an aspirating action is produced, by which the bird is actually
into the
shot an albatross, and having spread its wings, presented the forward edges to the wind, He states just as the bird would do in flight.that as a result he felt the bird pulled forward into the wind as he had anticipated. His soaring
machines consisted of aeroplanes of concave shape, similar to a bird's wing, to which he attachedhimself.
To start his flight he obtained an initial velocity by being driven in a cart or glided from a convenient height. A very interesting account is given " at length of these trials in Chanute's book, Pro-
Le gress in Flying Machines," pago 104, etc. Bris seems to hare abandoned his experimentsthrough financialstraits
energy due to advancing age, rather than to failure That lifting effort can be produced by the action of an air current upon the edge of a curved surface, as distinct from the lifting effect produced by an air current moving against an inclined flat surface, has been demonstrated by Mr.of his ideas.
Horatio Phillips in England. He does not, however, appear to have experienced or relied upon the
His aspirating effect mentioned by Le Bris. ideas seem to have been confined to producing a lifting effect, and rather to the contrary he showsthat thelift
some amountone.
and novel
states, as a result
of his experiments,
extending for 27 years, that anything approaching a flat surface is useless for supporting heavy loads in the air. His idea consists in the use of asurface, curved both above and underneath. such a plane encounters a current of air directly against its forward edge there is produced a difference of pressure between the upper and under surfaces, and the plane tends to rise. By
multiplying the number of planes any desired amount of lifting effect should be produced. He
proved that this idea was correct by experiments upon a variety of shapes of plane, and constructed a machine which actually flew round an experimental track. The advocates of each system,"
study and experiments with soaring apparatus. He convinced himself that flat surfaces present undue resistance, his final aeroplanes being of the
concavo-convex form.hilly
were made on
country against the wind, the experimenter launching himself and his apparatus from the top of a hill itself, or from the roof of a tower constructed for the purpose on thehill.
He was
82 feet. Daring 1891 he tried aeroplane wings, having an area of 172 square feet, the apparatus weighing 53 Ibs. Including himself, the total weight raised was 229 Ibs., which shows that the aeroplane would sustain and lift a weight of 1'33 Ibs. per square
was necessary
keep the
Lilienthal generally proporapparatus steady. tioned his aeroplanes to have three-quarter square foot of surface per pound weight to be raised and
The propelling power calculated (fursustained. nished by the wind) was at the rate of 6 H.-P. approximate, to every 1,000 square feet of surface. Lilienthal was killed by a fall when making oneof his flights
the cause
apparently du to a sudden gutt of wind striking the aeroplanes and overbalancing the apparatusin a "
of Arts,
Aerial Flight," delivered before the Royal Society London, April and May, 1909, shows thata certain curve determinedit is
an aeroplane will follow by the force by which ance and other factors.
and rising again, and so on. The theory and experiments described in these lectures are interesting and valuable, they afford an explanafalling
upon. his skill to adjust it whilst flying, to meet varying conditions of wind and speed. Mr. Lanchester by the aid of his formulae is able to predict the stability of
finds that
the albatross has a very small margin over the critical figure and that it obtains this by holdingits feet flat
its tail
them behind
porting surface.
paratus was unstable, the calculation giving a result considerably within the critical figure.
A nameis
known amongst
that of
an invention which is in use all over the This engineer devoted attention to aerial navigation in 1850 and comat the present day.1).
ft. in diameter at the largest in length over all. Motive power was provided by a steam engine driving a screw propeller having two blades and a diameter of
elongated shape, 39part and 144ft.
avoid risk of
was bent downwards and draught produced by a steam blast. Steering depended upon a rudder Mr. Giffard ascended from of sail construction. Paris on 24th September, 1852, obtaining a speedboiler
of 4
to 6| miles per hour with a screw speed of 110 revolutions per minute.
Dupuy de Lome.Another engineer of repute, Mr. Dupuy de a French naval architect, commenced upon the design and construction of a dirigible balloon during the siege of Paris in 1870 it was, however, not completed until 1872. He dealt with his experiments in a very thorough manner, and applied his knowledge and experience of navigation in water to navigation in air. The balloon of elongated shape (Fig. 2), had a maximum diameter of 48 ft. and a total length of 118 ft., the capacity for containing gas was 120,000 cubic ft. It was propelled by a screw made of sails 29 ft. diameter, 26 ft. pitch, driven by 8 men at 27 J revolutions
per minute.
and slip ratio 23 per cent., the balloon advancing 20 ft. for each revolution of the propeller. In the trials a speed of about 6J miles per hour was obtained, and it waa considered
by 12 degrees approximately, the day being windy. This balloon had an available ascending power of 5,515 Ibs. The weight of the structure was The men who worked the propeller 3,885 Ibs. weighed together 1,325 Ibs., and are supposed to
Pie. 2.
Dapny de Ldme'sH.-P.
Dirigible Balloon.
Gaston Tissandier.Tissandier, in France,
Some experiments were made in 1881 by Gaston who also used a screvr pro-
But practicalpartly
than with a steam Another advantage is that an electric engine. motor does not give out products of combustion,
of the balloon.
made with
balloon being constructed assistance of the information gained. This experimental model balloon was of elongated form,
about 11
ft. in length by 4ft. 6 ins. diameter at the largest part. It had a capacity of 11\ cubic
DIRIGIBLE BALLOONSpure hydrogen being used to inflate it, giving a lifting power of about 4 Ibs. The screw propeller was driven by means of a very light electricfeet,
battery of accumulators weighing nearly 3 Ibs. gave electric current to the motor. With thepropeller rotating at 890 revolutions per
mulator battery of two cells weighing 1J Ibs. and a propeller having a diameter of 21 ins., the speed was approx. 4'4 miles per hour for 10 minutes. A further trial with a battery having three cells gave a speed of 6 '8 miles per hour approx. Reported tests of the motor seem to show that it was doing work at the rate of about 314 foot Ibs.
with a single cell connected to it, and its shaftrunning at 300 revolutions per minute. With three cells it was giving about 700 foot Ibs.
Some particulars of the equipment are as follows: Balloon of elongated pattern, 91 ft. in length by 30 ft. diameter at the largest part;of motor,
screw, 9 ft. diameter weight geared by spur wheels to run at 1,800 revolutions per minute when the screw was making 180 revolutions per minute. Fig. 4weight, 2,728 Ibs.; ;
shows the arrangement of the propeller and At the trials made in 1883 the speed obtained was about 6 miles per hour, and in 1884 about eight miles per hour. Apparently the experimenters were able to keep the balloon head to wind, and at these speeds to steer easily when running with the wind and to return to thegearing.
place of departure. It was, of course, necessary to provide some means of generating the electricity required by theelectric
battery of 24
DIRIGIBLE BALLOONSin use at
any moment could be varied, thus reguof the motor by altering the
The highest voltage applied to its terminals. voltage would be about 40 volts, as the cell used was of the bichromate of potash form, which givesnearly two volts.
Another electrically-driven balloon (Fig. 5) was by Captains Eenard and Krebs, whose experiments were made in France during 1884 andtried
1885. The total length of the balloon was 163 ft. and largest diameter 27 ft. ascending power, two tons (4,480 Ibs.) volume of balloon, 65,709 cubic feet length of car, 36 ft. Various parts weighed as follows: Balloon, 1,9J2 Ibs. silk covering and car and suspending gear, network, 280 Ibs. 335 Ibs. rudder, 101 Ibs. propeller, 90 Ibs. electric motor, 216 Ibs. gearing and shaft, 170 Ibs. battery of 32 cells, complete (accumulators of;;; ;
34special design),
diameter of propeller,
battery was designed to give nearly 9,000 watts to the motor during four consecutive hours; about 9 B.H.-P. would be therefore available
of trips were one occasion it travelled from Paris to Chalais and back, encountering a head wind of three to three and a-half miles per hour velocity, the voyage being
A numberOn
Maximum repeated upon the following day. height attained, 1,308 ft. A speed of over 13 miles an hour was obtained, the balloon answering the rudder and returning to the point of deThe balloon parture in five out of seven trips. was successfully driven against a wind having avelocity of 11 miles per hour. of about llf miles per hour
A maximum speed
other trials
was reached, but in the average speed was about 15^ miles
per hour. Speed of screw propeller, 30 to 40 To measure the speed revolutions per minute.of the balloon
aerial log
This con-
sisted of a small
fijled with about 200 and held in equilibrium. silk thread, 109 yards in length, and wound upon a reel. This small balloon being liberated would recede from the car as soon as the thread had run out its length a pull would take place. As the end of the thread had been attached to the finger of the observer he would feel the pull, and
Fig. 6
to run out, and thus ascertain the speed at which he was travelling. The electric motor shaft
rotated at a
per minute.regulating
Santos Dumont.
Fig. 7.
by screw propellers rotated by petrol engines. His No. 9 was of comparatively small size (Fig. 7) designed to be easily controlled and used for short -distance trips. As originally made, its capacity was 7,770 cubic ft., giving a lifting power to take about 66 Ibs. of ballast. It wasafterwards enlarged to 9,218 cubicft.
petrol engine was of 3 H.-P. size, weighing and a load of 132 Ibs. of ballast was
This balloon had a speed of 12 to 15 miles per hour, and was driven with the large end forward to make it respond more readily to thecarried.
He actually proceeded losing any gas or ballast. along the streets of Paris to his house early onemorning and alighted at the door, leaving the balloon in the roadway whilst he entered andpartook of breakfast, then entering the car again ascended and made his way to the starting place.
larger balloon
with which
prize by from the Aero Club grounds at St. Cloud, Paris, to the Eiffel Tower and back, rounding the tower en route, the total distance of seven miles, plus the turn round the tower, beingtravelling
of the
largest diaft.,
meter 20lifting
giving a
by a 4-cylinder 12 H. -P.
gave a tractive effort of balloon was used having a capacity of 2,1 18 cubic ft. it was placed in the main balloon at the under;
and a pump driven by the engine continually The air was allowed to escape passed air into it. through a valve, and thus a definite pressure was maintained.side,
The Mellin
Spencer & Sons, of London (Fig. 9), is also a comparatively recent example of the dirigible It was made of varnished silk balloon. length, 75 ft. maximum diameter, 20 ft. weight, with the netting, 290 Ibs. capacity, 20,000 cubic ft. car was 42 ft. in length, made of bamboo motive;
power, a
cylinder and magneto ignition ; speed of engine, 2,000 revolutions per minute, driving the screw Propropeller at 200 revolutions per minute.
DIRIGIBLE BALLOONSpeller of light pine ; weight, 28 Ibs. 8 ft., and 4 ft. in width at the ends.
following data for the construction of balloons have been calculated in actrials of
Messrs. Giffard
and Dupuy de Lome, and with the results given by steam engines of the most improved type at
The paper
According to these calculations he would have obtained better results by using more favourable proportions and modern steam power. He
could thus have carried an engine of 32 H.-P., which would have driven the propeller at three times the speed, and produced with the higherpitch a velocity of 20 miles per hour.
DIRIGIBLE 3ULLOONSGiffard's balloon
velocity of 10 miles per hour should have resulted it was so much less because of theonly.;
small size of the propeller, which was only about one-fifth of the correct area.
With regard
length gives better steering properties and diminished resistance in proportion to capacity. The proportion of length to diameter was 3'66 inGiffard's balloon,
From first to last the airships of Messrs. Paul and Pierre Lebaudy in France, have been uniformly successful, and the mishaps they have had, especially the more serious one which practically destroyed the first vessel, were not dueto radical defects in the design of the respectivecraft.
latest dirigible,
French War Ministry is having built for on the Eastern frontiers. The previous " The Lebaudy," which on trial kept the
servicevessel,air for
a period of over three hours, circling to and fro between Moisson and Frenuese in a wind blowing at the rate of eight miles per hour, and attained a velocity of 26 miles per hour with the wind and 11 miles per hour against it, formed the basis of
PLYING MACHINESvessel,
The newvolume
of gas at the rear end of the envelope, the cubic contents of which is 3,200 cubic metres
(113,000 cubicis
The length
of the envelope
60 metres (196 ft.), and diameter at thickest The envelope is part 10-3 metres (33 ft. 9 ins.). so reinforced that it will remain inflated for over three months.
stability, the
give the vessel greater vertical and lateral new airship has at the rear end of
fins, as shown in the photographs. " " Patrie's other noticeable features of the
gas envelope are the vertical and horizontal steadying planes under the balloon and the peculiar prow. Below the gas envelope is the usual car,
but it is of very small size compared to that of the supporting balloon. Under the deck extends a frame of steel tubes. This is shaped like aninverted pyramid, whole car can restthis
Panhard petrol motor (that is, 20 H.-P. more than used in the earlier airship " Lebaudy ") driving two screw propellers, one on each side of the navigator's car. These propellers are mounted on a frame of steel rods, and areactuated by a shaft passing out at the sides of the car and through bevel gearing. The motor is an exceptionally flexible one, and can be madeto
DIRIGIBLE BALLOONSing from
200 to 900 revolutions per minute. pipe is carried to the back of the car, and ends in an efficient muffler. In the "Patrie," the flat plane which forms
The exhaust
part of the underside of the balloon is situated nearer to the front end, with the car suspended not from the middle, but rather towards the rear
The keel frame, or plane, ends in a large rudder, which is of the balanced type, and is Most of the actuated by cords from the car.end.tensional
rope for sake of strength and lightness. " " Among the minor improvements, the Patrieis fitted
with an
which warns
the navigators whenever the pressure of gas in the balloon reaches a predetermined maximum.capacity is given at 1,260 kilo(2,772 Ibs.), so that the airship, besides carrying a petrol supply for 10 hours, can take a crew of three persons and 850 kilogrammeslifting
(1870 Ibs.) of ballast or other material, or a larger crew and a proportionately small load. The first trials of the " Patrie" were made on
At 8.20 a.m. the airship 16, 1906. was taken out of the special shed erected for it. The weather was fine, with a fair breeze blowing,and after several preliminary trials close to the ground to test the working of the propellers, it was let go. On board were Georges Juchmes(the pilot),
FLYING MACHINESDepart-
Chalais Meudon), and two mechanics, and proceeded at a height of just over 100 metresof
(328 ft.), manoeuvring quite successfully against the stiff breeze. The vessel then encircled thevillage of Lavacourt at a speed of 15 miles per hour, and, returning, stopped dead over the shed. It was housed without a hitch, and on the 22nd
of thetests,
same month was again put through further and in the second trip of the day, from
2 p.m. until nightfall, owing to the use of the it was found that only 22 Ibs. of ballast had
been expended. The Panhard-Levavasseur motor was worked at about two-thirds speed, and with a maximum speed of only 30 miles per hour, the high average of 22 miles per hour was maintained throughout the trip. During its fourth trial, on
November 24, it faced a 20-mile-an-hour wind, and on November 26 made the best performancedistance of 57f miles in 132 Patrie" broke away from her moorings one night during a gale, and was blown away and lost at sea. No one was on board.ofall,
sailing a
Count de la Vaulx.
Another French aeronaut, Count de la Vaulx, has recently made over ten ascents, all perfectly successful. Count de la Vaulx was one of theearlier
45of a triple
made moresystem of
present machine
many respectsbutit
to the earlier
was made
the following
January, and although no definite data are available, owing to the brisk wind prevailing at thetime, the trials aresuccessful.
Since then the airship bus covered 12^ kilometres (7f miles) in 22 minutes at an altitude of from '200 to 300 metres (650 to 980 ft.). On this occasion, February 4, 1907, 73 kilogrammes (160 Ibs.) of ballast were carried, and 50 cubic
metres (1,765 cubic ft.) of hydrogen gas were added to the balloon, only this small amountbeing required after it had been inflated for 47 Six days later two journeys, to Montesson days. and to Vesinet and back, were made with only 55 kilogrammes of ballast (120 Ibs.) on board. The gas vessel has a capacity of 725 cubic metres(25,580 cubic ft.), and in practice only a small amount of ballast out of that carried was used. Most of this was only employed to modify the
descent in alighting.
The general arrangement of the airship is a cigar-shaped balloon of regular outline, with a
girder or rod slung from it, having a propeller at the fore end and a rudder at the other. The car
containing the engine is a small one, hung below and the power is transmitted, therefore, by a telescopic shaft and two sets of bevel gearing.this,
Count Zeppelin.
his life
manyfor the
although only three flights were made in that year, and the results obtained were more or less
they were marred by a series of unfortunate accidents. One trial was made onsatisfactory,
June 30th of the above year. In July the craft was propelled against a breeze stated by variousat the rate of
During one
flight it
hour, although by
was partly unmanageable. The attempts showed, however, that the huge airship was, within thelimitscircles
vast expense in building and experimentan airship, and the outlay for
the balloon house and accessory machinery, quite exhausted the inventor's resources, and Count Zeppelin was not able to proceed to any further
The proportions of the airship of 1900 were remarkable. The gas envelope was of polygonal shape in cross section, and no less than 420 ft. long by 40 ft. diameter, it being bluntly pointed at the front and rounded at the rear. Toenable the shape of the envelope to be retainedit
of a
covered with
cotton fabric.*
The envelope
was divided
The craft with which the recent experiments were made was about 10 ft. shoiter, but, owing tothe diameter being larger, the capacity was increased by 32,000 cubic ft. to 370,000 cubic ft.
The total weight of the later airship is one ton less than the original vessel, the total being 19,8001bs. with ballast and equipment. Liquid ballast was still employed, the water being contained in bags which could be opened by valves from the navigator's deck.it
The gas bag of the later ship was, understood, only divided into six compart-
ments, each of which were fitted with suitable valves under the control of the man in charge.engines t*
Instead of having only two 32 H.-P. petrol as motive power, the later machinefive
employed overPegamoid,it is
understood, was used in the latter balloon, t Two 16 H.-P. Daimler motors
extra expenditure of weight of only 11 Ibs., the One figures being 170 H.-P. for a load of 880 Ibs.
engine was placed at each end of the vessel, each actuating two propellers situated near to the gasvessel
on either
steering apparatus was in duplicate, and so arranged that one man could actuate the fore andafter rudders
without moving.
During the ascent of November, 1905, trouble was again experienced with the steering gear on the forward portion of the vessel, which becamepartly submerged in the lake, although the rear of the airship was sustained in the air by the gas and
one motor. In 1906 the airship was afloat, at one time, for a period of two hours and attained an altitude of 1,000 ft. above the Lake Constance. During that time it appeared to be under perfect control, describing circular paths and other similar evolutions. It is also said to have held itself against a 33 miles an hour wind, but this is a doubtful claim. Another report gives 12 miles per hour. The end of the airship was occasioned by the
was destroyed.
In the latest arrangement (Zeppelin No. 4) the was of aluminium, covered with " Conti"
rubber fabric (Egyptian cotton treated with rubber), capacity 459,000 cubic ft. approx. two cars were attached rigidly to the keel, each about 26 ft. by 6 ft., and a cabin in the centrenental;
In each car was fitted a Daimler benzine motor, 110 H.-P. size, to drive a three bladed propeller of 7 ft. 3 in. diam. At each endbetween them.of the balloon
were two
for obtaining vertical stability; Plate II gives a general view showing the direction rudder at the
rear and
This dirigible balloon has attained a speed of 35 miles per hour with a light favouring wind. It made a voyage from Lake Constance and theof Rhine to Lucerne and Berne, then returned by Zurich, a total distance of 225 miles. It has made a flight of twelve hours' duration,falls
On Augustmakingduration.
engaged in 24 hours'
Some 216 miles had been travelled in 8J hours, the balloon had descended and been anchored to effect adjustments to the motors. Count Zeppelin was absent, and a sudden violent storm occurred at two o'clock in the afternoon. The balloon broke away from its moorings, and was dashed on to a tree, the after part caught on and the whole balloon was completely fire,destroyed.
The construction of balloons on Count Zeppelin's system is being continued in Germany. Zeppelin II has taken part in military manoeuvres and has accomplished a number of one of 38 hours' duration which, howvoyages:
50Henri Deutsch.
The new airship of Mons. Henri Deutsch de la Meurthe, built to the plans of Mons. Surcouf,shown in the accompanying photographis
(Plate III)
one of the largest in France, the gas envelope measuring 201 ft. in length, 35 ft. maximum diameter, and having a capacity of 3,500 cubic metres (123,500 cubic feet).
dirigible lies, as
be seen by a comparison with Mons. Deutsch's earlier machine (Plate IV) in the novel formgiven to the rear end of the gas vessel.
eight supplementary cylindrical balloons, which are placed cruciform fashion on the cylindricaltail of the main balloon, are intended to steady the craft, and are thought to be preferable to The the use of canvas covered frames or fins.
other noteworthy feature of the design is the This is a car frame slung from the balloon.
braced girder of rectangular cross section tapering to a point at each end. The motor used on the " Ville de Paris " was afour-cylinder Argus developing 70 H.-P., and the propellers were geared down 5 to 1. In the earliervessel the propeller
fixed to this
at the
end, but the removal of the rudder from a position just under the rear end of the gas envelope to endof thepeller at the front
frame necessitated the placing of the proend of the car frame. The trials were attended with a series ofIt
unfortunate accidents.
under control of the guide rope, the crew of the vessel being made up of four persons, Mons. E. Surcouf at the helm.Considerable trouble was experienced with the carburettor freezing, owing to the cold weather and movement of the airship. This was further
the engine stopped every few minutes and the flight had to be discontinued.
Whilst in the air, however, the machine appeared to be quite steady, but in the operation of alighting the guide rope caught in a tree, and in endeavouring to free it the navigators renderedIt swooped down amongst damaging itself considerably, and came down in a neighbouring field, the high wind causing the gas vessel to buckle and become deflated. On examination it was found that the car had also
suffered considerable
of control appears to be the " Ville de Paris." the design of the "
with their La Patrie," seem to have made such " " remarkable progress. The Ville de Paris has made a journey from Paris to Verdun at a speed Distance 146 miles, time of 20J miles per hour. 7 hours 6 min. She was presented to the French
in 1908.
Wellman. In connection
with the Wellman airship Expedition to the North Pole, extensive preparations were made at Dane's Island, a point
midway between the North Pole and Cape North, Lapland. To cover the intervening 600 miles, a dirigible balloon, of which we include herewitha general view (Fig. 10) and photograph of the propelling machinery (Plate V), specially designed to suit the needs of the expedition, was constructed in a large hall 200 ft. long by 75 ft.
wide and 85
has entirely novel features. The gas vessel is constructed to hold 224,000 cubic feet of hydrogen. Two motors (Plate VI) are
employed, both of de Dion's manufacture, one giving 45 H.-P. and the other 60 H.-P.
To maintaincondition
a separate 5 H.-P. traction of the gas by the cold motor is carried to compress air and conduct it to an internal balloonette which is formed in the
lower part of the main balloon, the partition being shown by the dotted line in the drawing.
The car is a strong frame of constructed steel tubing, and has a completely enclosed central section which comprises engine room and living room.
is designed only for moderate speed, the same thing, to hold its own against
About 10
For maintenance of a vertical equilibrium a modification of the usual guide rope is employed. As stated in Chapter I, the ordinary guide rope is simply a line or chain trailing over the surface ofthe earth;
reason to
the extra weight of the rope which would have to be carried prevents the upwardrise,
'j/fc t IBoaf"^of
Liyin 9 * Sltepinq
General Arrangement
the airship to descend relieves it of some of the suspended weight, and the effect is the same as re-
In the Wellman airship the guide rope and its weigh about 1,200 Ibs., and it is constructed to act equally well upon water as upon The lower end has four steel cylinders about ice. 10 ft. apart attached to the steel cable, with wood runners outside. The cylinders are go arrangedaccessories
that they will float in water. The excess cable " of the equilebreur" or guide rope which, by the way, also acts as a retarder, is carried in asteel
The Wellman airship duly started on her voyage to the North Pole from Spitsbergen, but after struggling for two hours against a heavy wind lost her bearings amongst some highmountains, a descent was made upon a glacier and the voyage abandoned for that year. She was exhibited in London at the Aeronautical Exhibition held at
following particulars
feet, weight 3,600 Ibs.: gas capacity 258,500 cubic feet lifting force with hydrogen 9 tons. Motor 80 H.-P., driving two screw propellers each 11 feet diameter placed one;
enough petrol is carried for days' travelling speed 18 miles per hour. The car is of steel, 110 feet in length and weighs;
1| tons with equipment 1 tons provisions, 300 water, 10 sledge dogs, 3 sledges and equipment for three explorers are to be carried.;
A new start from Spitzbergen was made on August loth, 1909, but through an accident to one of the trail ropes, which are long canvas bags used to store provisions, it broke away and upset the balance of the airship, only two hours havingelapsed since the commencement of the voyage. She was towed back, but a further accident seems
DIRIGIBLE BALLOONSto
Clement Bayard.
One of the later French dirigible balloons, of Its non-rigid type of construction (Plate VII). length over all is 151 '7 feet diameter, 34' 7 feet;
It is fitted with a
105 H.-P. petrol engine, which is direct coupled to and drives a two-blade tractor screw propeller, 16 ft. diam., at 380 revolutions per minute. Thereare four small auxiliary steadying balloons at the rear, which are in connection with the main
air-pipe for maintaining the pressure in the The proballoonettes is shown in the centre.peller
shown at the front end of the car. some elevating planes, and at the the rudder. The fabric of the balloon isis
this are
rubbered cloth.Gross.
of construction.
the ground.
Germanwith two
Army manoeuvres
screw propellers, three-blade pattern, which are placed in the centre above the car and driven by belt gearing from two 75 H.-P. petrol engines.Capacity of balloon, 176,000 cubic feet;
PLYING MACHINESThis airship has made of successful voyages, including one out The of 176 miles in about 13 hours.
suspended by steel cables from a frame of and aluminium fastened to the under part of
the balloon.Parseval.
Major von Parseval, in Germany, has consome successful dirigible balloons, which have some peculiar features. The car is suspended on trolleys arranged to run along steelstructedcables attached to the balloon, so that it can alter its position automatically. The balloon has the
shape of a cylinder, with approximately hemiThe capacity is 113,000 cubic spherical ends. feet length, 190 feet diameter, 30 ft. approx.; ;
Propelling power is by a petrol engine of 110 H.-P., which drives a special four-blade propeller, 13 feet9 inches diam., placed above the rear end of the The blades are made of cloth, weighted in car.
such a way that, being flexible, they spread and take a correct form when rotating. The " Par" seval II has been successfully used in militaryinano3uvres.
FLYING MACHINESLawrence Hargrave.Mr. Lawrence Hargrave, of Sydney, New South Wales, has attacked the problem by means of kites with which he has ascended into the air, and models which have been made to fly sothat their action could be observed.
used were of box pattern, made of calico, stretched upon frames of American redwood. Mr. Hargrave connected four of these to a strongline,
which was held to the ground by bags of sand. A sling seat was suspended to the lower kite so that the experimenter could be lifted by the combined pull of the four. Several ascents were made, on one occasion with the wind having a a spring balance velocity of 18'6 miles per hourconnected in series with the line indicated thatthe kites were exerting a pull of 180 Ibs. with the wind at 21 miles per hour, the pull indicated a force of 240 Ibs. The kites weighed together;
7 Ibs.,
aeronaut 166Ibs., lifted
by a kite surface of 232 square feet. Mr. Hargrave stated that he found this a safe method of experimenting, and appears to have ascended and descended
making a
weight of 211
and stable in their action and needing no careful These particulars of the kites used adjustment. are taken from Engineering of February 1.5 th, 1895, Vol. LIX, where Mr. Hargrave givesdetails of his experiences.
This inventor's experiments cover a period of and were carried out in a scientific spirit,studied in a
very thorough subject being manner. He made a number of flying models which have flown experimental trials, giving his results for the benefit of other workers in the problem of aerial navigation. These machinesgive evidence of a high degree of constructive
and mechanical knowledge on the part of In his first models he used elastic rubber bands as a motive power, 48 of them weighing about 10 ozs., and each stretching to 30 ins. with about 30 Iba. weight. The machineskill
their designer.
PLYING MACHINES(Fig. 11),
59Ibs. of
weighed 33f
470 foot
could be
stored in the
sufficient to propel it
through a
sails was 2,130 square inches, and the centre of effort 14'6 inches
Fig. 11.
weighed 1'28
192 feet in a horizontal direction, when the elastic bands gave out 193 foot Ibs. of energy. The following results were obtained on other trials Horizontal flights of 203 feet and 209 feet with:
PLYING MACHTNKSof
an expenditurerespectively;
surface, the centre of effort being 14'2 inches behind the centre of gravity. A small fore and aft sail was fitted for the purpose of obtaining
Fig. 12.
This is an instance of forward motion being produced by means of vibrating wings moving up and down in a vertical direction. They were not provided with any directsteadiness of flight.
twisting or feathering motion, but a feathering action took place due to the flexibility of the material of which the wings were made.
Mr. Hargrave, however, made experiments with means for producing the forward motion. The model shown in Fig. 12 is fitted with a screw instead of wings. Its weight was 2 Ibs., and sail area 2,090 square ins., the centre ofa screw propeller as the
behind the centre of gravity. of 196 foot Ibs. of energy, the machine flew 120 feet horizontal. In these three machines the percentage of sail area ineffort
being 10'5
With an expenditure
advance of the centre of gravity was as follows No. 1 model, 19'3 per cent. No. 2 model, 20 per cent. No. 3 model, 23'3 per cent. Fig. 13 shows another machine, in which the forward motion is produced by vibrating wings, worked by a small engine, the motive power being:
details of this
model are
as follows (complete working drawings are to be found in the Proceedings of the Koyal Society of
Area of body 216 square The backbone is tubular, and forms the ins. reservoir for the compressed air it is 48 J ins. in length by 2 ins. diameter, and has a capacity of At first 144-6 cubic ins. The weight is 19^ ozs. 30 per cent, of the sail area was placed in front of
of wings,
arrangement did
not prove successful, and the proportion was reduced to 23'3 per cent. The engine cylinder used for vibrating the wings has a diameter of 1^ ins. ;stroke of piston, 1 J ins.;
weight of engine, 6
PLYING MACHINESair pressure,is
which connect the wing rods to the cylinder the piston rod is fixed and the cylinder moves up and down, air under pressure being admitted from thereservoir to the cylinder through a valve moved by tappets, during the entire length of each stroke.
Fig. 13
As with the previous models, the wings, of paper, have no direct feathering motion, but depend upon the give of the material. Their weight is 3 ozs. This machine flew apacking.
which are
Other modelspressedlargerscribed,air
were also made, using commotive power. One of than the machine previously deas
being 6
251 cubicis
weight 15^
body planeof
The engine
cylinder has
length of
wings, 31 ins.voir
216 square
to 57 Ibs. per
its weight charged square inch at the piston 59 ozs. An expenditure of 509 foot Ibs. of work gave 46 double vibrations of the wings, carrying the machine through a flight of 512 feet.
Another engine was tried with this machine, the cylinder diameter being 2 ins. stroke of ins. piston, 1 weight, 9 ozs. pressure of air,; ;
69 Ibs. per square inch at the piston. With 54 double vibrations of the wings the machine had a
343 feet in 23 seconds, an estimated expenditure of energy being 742 foot Ibs. for a speed of 10 miles per hour approximately.flight of
Trials were
obtained as follows
wings per..
a forward thrust of2'3 2-4 2-5
'75 Ibs.*
dittoditto ditto
Ditto Dittois
engine, but the boiler is made of 12 ft. of copper in. diameter, coiled into a tube of asbestos pipe,sheet.It weighs 20 J ozs., including steam and water connections. Water is fed to the boiler by in. diameter from a triangular a feed pump tank fixed underneath the body of the machine. Capacity of engine cylinder, 2 '2 cubic ins. water
external surface of
113 squarefuel,
with air, tank fixed at the top of the boiler. When the engine was working at the rate of 182 double vibrations of the wings in 80 seconds, 6'9 cubicins. ofspirit.
ins. of
The total weight of the machine is 64' 5 ozs. of which 12| ozs. are for the strut and body plane. Spirit and water weighed 5 ozs., and the engine gave 0'169 H.-P. when driving the wings at 2'35 double vibrations per second. With 10 ozs. more spirit and water, Mr. Hargrave calculates that the machine would fly a horizontal distance of 1,640 The boiler is empty at starting, and, first yds. The spirit of all, is warmed by a Bunsen flame.tankflame,
then heated until the vapour ignites the being maintained by some asbestos put into the coil. As the boiler becomes red hot, the wings are vibrated for a few strokes the pumpis;
on the
flash principle,
to work.
large machine is designed to have 480 square of horizontal plane, weight 260 Ibs., requiring
Mr. Hargrave has regularly published accounts experiments in the Transactions of the Royal Society of New South Wales. The matterof his
extensively into
by means of vibrating wings. The following comparison between two of his machines appears in Vol. XXIII, one of them being screw propelled, and the other havingmechanicalflight
serve as the boss of the screw propeller. It had three cylinders, '88-in. bore, each being in line
PLYING MACHINESall
in the
same planein.;
ing pressure of
per square
The propeller speed, 456 revolutions per minute. blades were each of an area of 32 '7 square ins.,set at an angle of 20 degs. diameter of propeller, 36 ins.
The Hoffman
are of aeroplane principle, motion being produced by a screw propeller having two pairs of blades
placed so that one pair is behind the other. For starting purposes the machine stands upon hinged supports which automatically fold up to the body
soon as flight commences. One of these models has wings of 9 ft. span and weighs 7 Ibs. The wings were also tried in the form of an aeroas
plane divided into several sections, but did not Steam and prove successful in this arrangement. carbon dioxide engines were used for the motive
Horatio Phillips.
has displayed
much ingenuity
and engineering skill, in England, is Mr. Horatio He has tried Phillips, of Wealdstone, Harrow. his ideas by means of an experimental machine which is of a larger size than that which might be
FLYIN* MACHIKEScalled a
model though
to fly with an aeronaut on board. It has actually risen by its own contained motive power to aflight of
height of several feet and through a horizontal about 50 yards. The length of the bodyis 25 ft. by 3 ft. in width the proarrangement is a screw 6 ft. 6 ins. diameter, driven by a compound steam engine, the boiler being carried with the engine upon the machine and the area of propeller blade surface;
4J square
of aeroplanes is used for lifting and sustaining the machine in its flight. This looks like a common
the result
years of experiment and thought, and is the embodiment of Mr. Phillips' ideas upon the
The question of flight by means of aeroplanes. blades are not flat in section but concavo-convex,the curves being shaped accurately to a definite design based upon the results of experiments. The upper side of the blade is convex with the
curvature near the leading edge. The is concave, but with a small amount of convexity near the leading edge. Width of each blade is 1 ins. only, and length 19 ft. total size
under side
of entire frame,
by 8
in depth
ing and lifting surface equals 140 square ft. area. Each blade has a maximum thickness of one-
The concave side is hollowed eighth of an inch. to a depth of one-sixteenth of an inch, they are made of wood, and fixed in a steel frame. When
these blades are propelled in a horizontal direction they are really moving through a current of air,
the velocity of which will depend upon the speed at which the blades are moved. The air current is deflected in
edge, including a partial vacuum above the top surface of the blade. An air current also passes under
the blade up into the concave under-surface, producing a pressure against it. The result of the
combined efforts of pressure underneath and vacuum on the top causes the blade to rise and
FLYING MACHINESexert a lifting effort. each individual blade
69produced by
effect is
total lifting
whole number of blades fixed in the frame is the power of the machine. According to
FtFig. 15.
he has produced a
lifting effect
produced by a current of
moving over a
FLYING MACHINESexperiT. W.
shown by a very simple but instructive ment suggested to the writer by Mr.
Cut a piece of Clarke, the aeronautical engineer. card A (Fig. 14) about 2 ins. by 3 ins. acrossdo paste a piece of paper B of similar size to one of its edges as indicated by the sketch. Bend the paper to a curve as Fig. C and blow a current of air across the card towards it as indicated bywill;
The paper will rise instead of being deflected downwards. Blow as hard as you will you cannot cause the paper to be depressed,the dotted lines.
always rise and move against the blast of bend the paper to a reverse curve as The paper will not lift Fig. D and blow again. at all but be depressed by the air current. The experiments which have enabled Mr. Phillips to determine the most efficient form of blade were made by him on behalf of theit
Aeronautical Society of Great Britain. He placed a variety of shaped wood blades in a current of
and measured the lifting power and thrust backwards by a suitable apparatus. Fig. 15 gives an idea of the various blade sections tried. In addition, an experiment was made with a wing of a rook dried and prepared, so that it could be placed in the apparatus and tested as a comAn account of parison with the wood shapes. these experiments is to be found in Engineering, Vol. XL, August 14th, 1885, page 160, from which the table of results on opposite page is takn.air,
surfaces of all the shapes are hollow, and to obtain the best efficiency from a
The under
given surface the amount of concavity and convexity must bear a certain definite proportion tothe velocity of the air current. The actual weight of the flying machine in working order was 360 Ibs., and it carried a load
of 56 Ibs. in addition.
could be controlled, the machine was attached to a pillar fixed in the ground by wires, and the
movement wasthe centre.
which the pillar was was not allowed to rise more than about three feet from the ground, and wasin a circle ofIt
steadied by a wheel at the forward end of the body which travelled upon a circular track 628 feet in circumference, contact being maintained by a weighi, of about 17 Ibs. pressing the wheel
72in a
The guide wheel was direction. by a wire to the central pillar. Speed of propeller about 600 revolutions per minute the machine not only raising itself but a weight of 72 Ibs. as well, under various conditionsalso connected;
of wind.
best results
Apparently the sustaining blades give when they are horizontal. It seemsis
that there
to propelling power. The results obtained were not so good when the area of blades was increased
particulars of a trial
without any increase of propelling power. Other run are Speed 40 miles per: ;
weight of machine, 330 Ibs. It flew 1,000 feet without descending, and lifted a load of 55 Ibs., the lifting planes thus sustaining 2 Ibs.(approx.) per square foot of under-surface area.
Ader.until 1892 Mr. Ader, a French has constructed in France some flying machines apparently intended for purposes of
From 1882
The first one of these weighed 53 Ibs., and measured 26 feet across the wings, which worked with a vibrating movement by muscular A later model had wings of 54 feet power. measurement across. It weighed 1,100 Ibs., and five years were spent upon its construction. The motor was contained within the body. Some amount of secrecy has been observed with regard to these machines and the experiments made with them, as the money for their constructionwarfare.
and trials, to a sum of about 26,000, was provided by the Minister of War. The wings were made of silk, and though of jointed construction, didnot vibrate, but served as aeroplanes, propulsion being effected by two screw propellers having four
This each driven by a steam engine. said to be a triumph of mechanical work four cylinder compound type, weight 70 Ibs., and to have given 20 to 30 H.-P. its parts being cut from solid forged steel. Supporting wheelsblades,
Pig. 16.
Ader's Machine.
body so that the machine can upon the ground whilst acquiring the necessary speed at which the aeroplane wings commence to produce a lifting effect. About 20 to
30 yards of level surface is required. According to Mr. Ader he was successful in making the machine fly several hundreds of yards, and to rise 50 or 60 feet into the air. Official trials were made at the camp of Satery, but the Minister of War does not seem to have considered themsatisfactory, as no more money was provided, or the inventor did not prefer to continue. Parts of
Remarkable work has been done in England by the well-known engineer, Sir Hiram S. Maxim,
who not only made many experiments with models but constructed a steam flying machine of suchsize that engines ofits
fitted to drive
Maxim is an and his earlier work was done in the United States, where he received a trainIn the early days of ing in mechanical work. electric lighting he was actively engaged in elecscrew propellers.birth,
American by
work, inventing the Maxim incandescent lamp, the Maxim dynamo and regulator and arc lamps. The invention of his wonderful automatictrical
over the
might well be anticipated that the inventor could produce an invention requiring such skill, perseverance, and originality as that displayed in the design of the Maxim automatic machinegun would attack the problem of aerial navigation in an equally skilful and original manner. This has been the case. Sir Hiram Maxim,
unlike some inventors of airships who attempt to produce a perfect machine at the first essay and which usually wrecks itself and kills its designer on the trial trip, has proceeded to acquire practical
wisely declining to go up in the air on his machine he can control it and know what it is going
to do.
time, hetesting
his experiments in
1889 byair,
of aeroplanes adjusted to various angles, the apparatus being suspended at the end of an arm about 60 feet in length, and
which revolved in a circle at varying speeds up to 90 miles an hour. Having thus acquired a greatdeal oflarge steam-driven
given on Plateall its
aeroplanes fixed in position in the background is the large building erected for housing
and making it. This machine is a marvel of mechanical skill in combining strength, lightness, and power, and consists of a platform carrying a light framework of steel tubes and wire staysthe aeroplanes and propelling the latter comprises two compound condensing steam engines each having two cranks and driving a screw propeller made of wood covered
which support;
with varnished canvas. The propellers are nearly 18 ft. in diameter and 16 ft. pitch. They run at 350 to 400 revolutions per minute each engine gives approximately 175 H.-P. and weighs only 300 Ibs. Steam is supplied from a water tube boiler of similar pattern to those of Yarrow and Thornythis boiler, with its wind cutter, is mounted croft on the platform, and can be clearly seen in the; ;
sq. in.,
firing is
in a large number of jets. 100 Ibs in one minute. The weight of the entire machine is about 7,000 Ibs. the width across the;
ft. The experiments with this machine were made by running it along a railway track laid in Baldwyn's Park, in Kent, where Sir Hiram Maxim at that time resided.
roughly, 120
Strong wood guard rails were fixed alongside the running rails throughout the entire length of the track, and were so situated that the machine could not rise more than a few inches from the ground. Friction rollers were provided on outriggers attached to the platform, and came into contact with the over-hanging portion of the guard rail as soon as the aeroplanes lifted to the pre-arranged amount. The machine was supported on the running wheels
lift itself
through a short distance without the runeach spring ning wheels ever leaving the track was connected to a recording dynamometer apparatus so that the amount of rise and lifting power could be ascertained. The speed was up to 40 miles per hour, and the machine was brought to rest at the end of the run by means of a series of weighted ropes stretched across the track, which passed over pulleys and had sufficient slack to allow the machines to be checked by their accumulated drag as they were each picked up incally;
On one
the lifting power of the aeroplanes was so great that one of the outriggers buckled, allowing the rear part of the platform to rise free away fromthe track, the guardrail
then gave
way on one
the machine slewed round, and would have gone up into the air, but Sir Hiram Maxim, who was
on board with an assistant, immediately recognised that an accident had happened and shut off steam, the machine coming to the ground a short distance to one side of the track. There were no marks of the running wheels on the ground between the spot where the machine alighted and the track, which proved that Sir Hiram Maxim had really succeeded in making a flying machine which would lift itself from the ground by meansof its self-contained
dynamic energy
a total of 363 H.-P. 150 are lost in the slip of the screw propellers, 80 are expended in merely driving
effective in
producing a
A thrust of 2,100 Ibs. is exerted by lifting effort. the screw propellers when the machine is prevented from moving and 2,000 Ibs. when it is inflight.
The problem of aerial flight was not yet completely solved it was necessary to ensure that the machine could be steered, and kept on an even keel. Experiments were commenced with model machines in a very ingeniouswith the horizontal.;
The models
consisted of cigar-shaped
bodies carrying aeroplanes and driven by screw propellers the motive power being obtained from;
the energy stored up in a heavy flywheel pivoted in the body of the model and connected to thepropeller.
the top of which the models commenced their flight which was observed, and the behaviour of the steering and balancing arrangements noted.
held at starting by a
clip, so
could be instantaneously released, and the propeller engaged with a claw clutch which was spun
to speed
by means
pulling on a cord which passed round multiplying wheels. As soon as the propeller and its flywheel were spun up to full speed, the model was released
and made its flight. These experiments came to an end by the expiration of Sir Hiram Maxim's tenure of Baldwyn's Park, and the flying machine was dismantled. The engines of this machine were made of thinsheet steel in almost every part, everything being hollow or ribbed the propeller shafts were also;
hollow steel tube, the flanged couplings were connected by a large number of very small boltsof;
One of these the pistons were double-acting. engines, together with one of the screw propellers,and the complete model of the flying machine shown on Plate IX is at the present time to be seen in the Machinery Gallery of the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington also the experimental machine used for determining the;
of the recoil
when makingat
His experiments20,000 of his
A considerable amount of information regarding the details of the propelling machinery, with an illustration of the boiler, is given in Engineering for August 10th, 1894, Vol. LVIII, page 196,and in anearlier
17th, 1893,
page 226, Sir Hiram Maxim gives some of the figures of his trial runs with curves, showing the At a lifting effect produced by the aeroplanes.speed of 27 miles per hour, the indicators at the rear-supporting wheels recorded a lift of nearly 3,000 Ibs., and those at the forward wheels more
than 2,500
Another diagram records propellers was 700 Ibs. a total lift of 6,500 Ibs. at 27 miles per hour.area of the main lifting plane is given as that of the small plane 126 2,894 square ft. square ft. the area of the bottom of the machine; ;
A portion of the total lifting 140 square ft. amounting to 500 Ibs., is stated to be due to a head wind, which thus assisted to raise the machine by its effort upon the aeroplanes; 600 Ibs. lifting effort was therefore due to the thrust exerted by the screw propellers. This thrust at full power was 1,960 Ibs. Further particulars
FLYING MACHINESand
" Artificial of these experiments are given in " Natural Flight by Sir Hiram Maxim.
S. Pilcher.
Mr. Percy S. Pilcher achieved some success in England with aeroplanes, his experiments extending over six years, during which he made trials with five different patterns. They were all of sufficient power to lift a man, and Mr. Pilcher
made many
ascents, in the
accident which caused his death whilst trying the last model, No. 5, which had given best results.
His aeroplanes (Fig. 17) were in the form of concave wings, constructed with a cane framework, over which was stretched a material known asspinnakersilk.
A smaller
machine by his Motive power was produced by a horse elbows. moving upon the ground and pulling the machine by a rope, a losing purchase being provided to augment the velocity. At starting, the experifixed to the
menter ran upon the ground, the aeroplanes lifthim as soon as the speed became sufficient. At this stage the lift would be continued and increased owing to the pull of the horse, which raningwhilst the flight
in progress.
the ex-
perimenter desired to descend he released the rope attachment by means of a cord provided for this
Fig. 18.
purpose, and soared to the ground by his own momentum. It was the intention of Mr. Pilcher
an oil engine to provide the power when perfecting his machine, propelling but the fatal accident intervening put an end toto afterwards use
the experiments.
Professor Langley.
An advocate of aeroplane machines is Professor Langley, of the United States of America. His apparatus, constructed in 1903, is capable ofsupporting a man, and has successfully flown a distance of three-quarters of a mile without anyone on it. The trials took place over the river
Potomac, a high floating structure carrying the machine to favourable places for starting. Fromthis elevated position at the top of the structure the machine was launched upon its flight. In case of
the water, and the wind would be more steady and less liable to eddies than if the experiments were
conducted over a stretch of land. The material used for the construction of the frame parts is steel, and for the aeroplanes silk. Motive power is by means of screw propellers approximately 4 ft. indiameter, running at a speed of 1,000 revolutions The length of the machine is 15 ft. per minute.;
side planes are inclined at an angle of 135 degs. to each other the plane at the rear is to act as a governor (Fig. 18).its
weight, 30
uses a machine which is quite from the Voisin design used by Messrs. Delagrange and Farman, or that of the brothers Wright. It is of monoplane type. Plate X shows his No. 11 machine, 23 feet across main plane, surface area 160'5 sq. ft., weight 506 Ibs., fittedBleriotdifferent
with a 35 H.-P. eize 7-cylinder RE.P. (Kobert Esnault Pelterie) motor, and has flown 656 feet The No. 8 at about 45 miles per hour estimated.
machine wasmotor,
6 ins.
a moveable vertical plane above this At the rear to control the transverse stability.
the body are two planes which act as rudders, one for elevation and the other for direcThis machine made the first record under tion.ofofficial
observation for a monoplane on June 29th, flew against a wind for a distance of
1,688 feet in 47 seconds, or rather more than 24 miles per hour. It was at last wrecked on September 12th, 1908, owing to the sudden stopping of the motor, having made a number of
Though falling from a height of about 100 feet, M. Bleriot escaped serious injury. The No. 9 machine is fitted with a 60 H.-P. size Antoinette motor, 16 cylinders, and has madeflights.
It is 32'8 several flights during October, 1908. across the main plane, supporting surface 267'5 square feet, weight with operator 11 cwt.isft.
23Gf squareft.
propeller 9is
Wright and
84Voisin Fibres.is
PLYING MACHINESExperimentersdiffer as to
the best place. Sir Hiram Maxim is of a decided opinion that it should be at the rear.Possibly
This aeroplane, like those used by detrimentally. Messrs. Farm an and Delagrange, has to reach arise
During 1908, M. Bleriot made a cross country in France from Toury to Artenay and
two stoppages were made during the trip. Also a cross-country flight of 25 miles from Monduirnear Etampes to Croix, Briquet, Cheville, near Orleans, making one stop of 10 minutes on the way. He has the distinction of being the first, and at the moment of writing, the only man tofly
was accomplished on
his No. 11
morning of Sunday, July 25th, 1909, the course being from Barracques, a little village near Calais, to Dover. (For description and illustrations see The Model Engineer for Aug. 12th,1909, also Flight, of July 31st, 1909, for detailed drawings of machine). M. Bleriot, nearing the English coast, found that he had gone too far to
in the early
the east and had to turn west, in a parallel direction to the shore for some distance in order to
The descent was reach a landing place at Dover. made into a meadow near the Castle. His flightwas thus a truefeat of aerial navigation, and not merely a rush across. The time occupied was 37 minutes. A speed of over 42 miles per hour
constructed, and the particulars Width of its principal dimensions are as follows across main planes, which are set at a liftingfirst:
angle of4
20, 2825;
breadth of plane, 6;
overall length,sq.ft.
area of
3-cylinder Anzani petrol engine of 25 H.-F., air M. Bleriot took the precaution of attachcooled.
ing an inflated indiarubber air vessel to the frame of his machine in case of a forced descent into
the sea.portions,
rear plane
into three
which are not apparent in the photoThe central portion, which has an area graph. of 17 sq. ft. and a span of 6 ft. 1 in., is rigidly fixed to the frame the outer portions, which are each 2 ft. 10 ins. span, and have each an area of;
8 square
of lifting angle.
The breadthframeof the
of all three is 2
piano wire stays, and the planes are covered with rubbered cloth. Control is by warping the mainplanes the rear edges are flexible, so that either can be pulled downwards to some extent. The;
two moveable rear planes work together and act as elevating planes. They are connected to and operated by a hand lever, which has a universal movement (British Patent No. 21,497 of 1908), and warps the main planes also. The aviator canthus adjust all the planes by the movement of one hand. The vertical rudder is operated by a The front wheels are fitted with indiapedal. rubber tension springs. This is one of the smallest successful flying machines yet made. The sectionof the planes approximates to Fig. 1, page 69.
When it was reported, early in 1906, that M. Santos Dumont, the intrepid aeronaut whose work in connection with dirigible balloons has been summarised in the foregoing chapters, wasgiving up further efforts in that direction and was about to build a heavier than air machine, it wascessful
not generally thought that he would be so sucwith the first machine of the new
tained so large a measure of success in the fall of 1906, is shown in the accompanying photographs.
"No. 14
(Plate XI),
constructed on thesets
superposed aeroplane
In front slight angle to the horizontal as shown. of the aviator's platform protrudes a long " girder," at the end of which is a box rudder
position of the engine will be seen in the An Antoinette motor photograph (Plate XI). with eight inclined cylinders is used giving 50 H.-P. and driving an aluminium screw propeller, 6 feet The speed of the diameter, having two blades. engine is 1,500 revolutions per minute. The span of the wings is 12 metres (39 ft. 4 ins.), and the total lifting surface 80 square metres (860 square The weight of the machine, without the ft.). weight of the operator, is 160 kilogrammes (352 The engine weighs only 72 kilogrammes Ibs.). which works out at 3'16 Ibs. per H.-P. The experiments with this machine ranged from July to the end of the summer. At the earlier trials at Bagatelle, Paris, Santos Dumont drove the machine across the field at a speed of 40 kilometres per hour (24| miles per hour), with the propellerat approximately 1,000 revolutions per minute, for over 100 metres. Towards the end of the run the aviator tipped the guide aeroplane slightly and the two front wheels of the carriage
fitted with three wheels) rose off then the rear wheel left ground first terra nrrna and the machine soared for a distance(it;
was then
a free
60 metres (nearly 200 feet), at a height of 6 to 8 feet above the ground; Plate XI showing him starting the ascent. Several trials had been made during the day (October 23rd), but about half-past four, after some slight preparations had been made, he started off at about 25 miles per hour and soared the distance above mentioned. It appears that the aviator could have gone further but he becameflight for fully
rather nervous, owing, it is said, to a slight rolling tendency and the presence of people ahead he then cut off the ignition and the machine came to earth. It did not strike the ground heavily, only;
Santos Dumont's machine is not provided with a rear vertical rudder, and the rolling tendency may have something to do with this. As a resultof the flight of October 23rd, the
Aero Club of
France, although the distance was not accurately measured, awarded him the Archdeacon Cup, as " " there was no doubt that his No. 14 bis actuallyflewfor
allotted distance of
recently constructed a small monoplane which he named " La Demoiselle" (Plate XII). It is " " similar to the Bleriot design; engine twincylinder
operator driving
placed in front the main planes are 18 feet span and 6 ft. 5 ins. in width, supporting surfacetotal weight 242 Ibs. on the dihedral principle, but, unlike " " the Bleriot and "Antoinette" machines, the aviator sits beneath instead of being above the main planes. The total length of machine is 20 feet. At the rear end is a tail having horizontal and vertical planes. It works upon a universal joint and serves as both elevator and rudder for direction. The tail is elevated or depressed from a hand lever and moved sideways from a hand A lever worked by the back of the wheel. operator warps the main planes, all these movements being independent. The framework is largely composed of bamboo with wire stays. The machine runs upon two front wheels and a
115 square
feet approx.,
It is designed
the rear.
small size this machine has proved very successful. It has risen from the ground in the record shortestdistance,
a run of
about 44 yards and getting quite clear at about 77 yards. On 17th September, M. Santos Dumontstarted in his
machine from
Wideville, a distance of about 10 miles, in some fifteen minutes, descending in the park of the
Comtesse de Galand. He has made some experiments to show the stability of the machine bycarrying a weight of about 40 Ibs. attached out of balance to one side of the framework. The
upset, even
the weight was suddenly dropped. The aviator may remove his hands from the steering wheel and the flight will continue undisturbed. M. Santos
Dumont has given any rights which he might maintain to the world at large. It is, therefore,free to
to copy.
detailed description,
with illustrations and drawings, will be found in It is the smallest Flight, for October '2nd, 1909. flying machine yet made which has actually proved successful. M. Santos Dumont frequently carries it at the back of an ordinary motor car.
and Wilbur Wright. brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright were the first men to publicly demonstrate the art of flying. They are the first who have achieved human flight by means of power driven machines heavier than air, and in which the direction and height was under the control of the aviator. The earlier experiments of these inventors were restricted to glides with controllable aeroplanes similar to that shown by Plate XIII, which carried the operator and were started from eminences.Orville
a motor-driven
diagrammatically by our sketch, weighing 925 Ibs., Messrs. Wright claimed the following successes:
Sept. 26.29.
12 12
3. 4.5.
25 33 38
Mr. Chanute, a well-known authority, also independently reported that he witnessed a flight of 1,377 feet in 23i seconds in 1904, the conditionsprevailing being a wind running at about six miles After having travelled about 500 feet, per hour. a gust of wind struck the aeroplane, tilting it in
and Mr. Orville Wright, not being able to preserve the equilibrium, alighted by running with the wind instead of against it, as was usual The machine was slightly damaged. Plate XIII shows a Wright pattern glider made by Messrs. T. W. K. Clarke & Co., Aeronauticaltheair,.
Engineers of Kingston-on-Thames, England. It 33 feet span across the main planes and Unlike the weighs rather more than 150 Ibs.
Some of the details lying prone. have been devised by the makers. (See Flight September 18th and 25th for drawings and desinstead
Plate XIV shows the launching rail and gear also made by Messrs. Clarke which is on the system used by Messrs. Wright to start their This glider proved of power-driven machines. much utility to the user, Mr. Ogilvie, for whom it was made, as preparatory to his power-drivencription).
Wright Aeroplane. The brothers Wright show remarkable skill as Mr. Orville Wright broke all records aviators. on Sept. 14th, 1908, at Fort Meyer, in the United He flew for a period of 9 minutes 6 States, seconds over the parade ground, the machine also
carrying a passenger, at a speed of 38 miles per hour. Ascending alone, he remained in the airfor 74 mins. 20 sees., circling at an altitude of 250 to 300 feet. At a later date he met with an accident, one of the propellers breaking during a flight. The machine- fell from a height of about 70 feet. One of Mr. Wright's legs was broken, and Lieut. Thomas E. Self ridge, United
States Army, who was a passenger, so severely injured that he died the following evening. This accident put a stop to Mr. Orville's experiments for the time being, but Mr. Wilbur Wright
continued toin France.
On August
The probable actual (328 feet). distance covered was about 84 miles. Another100 metresflight
on Dec. 18, 1908, had a duration of 1 hour 55 mins. nearly, the distance covered being 61 miles by circling round. These are the official the distance, including turnings, was 74^ figures:
height, 33 to 50 feet ; the accidental closing of a tap on the oil supply causing a termination. Immediately after Mr. Wright flew to a
height of about 360 feet, passing over a captive balloon anchored 330 feet high in the air.
Another flight was made on December 31st, 1908, Anvours Camp, on a triangular course of two sides each 1,090 yards, and a third of 218 yards.at
The machine remained in the air during slightly over 2 hrs. 18 mins., travelling a total distance Mr. Orville Wright has flown equal to 74 miles.12 miles in 16 minutes, and for 1 hour 12 mins., carrying a passenger on his machine, a distance equal to about 45 miles being covered he has;
speed of over 54 miles per hour. During the visit of the British and foreign war ships to the United States in October, 1909, Mr. Wilbur Wright flew over several of the shipsattaineda
An instructive and descriptive comparison between the Wright and Voisin machines (used by Messrs. Farman and Delagrange) is given, with many details, in a paper read by Mr. F. W.Lanchester before the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, Dec. 8, 1908. Reference has been
to this
machines given here. Messrs. Wright's machine (see Plate XV), consists of two main planes, having a total supporting surface of 500 square feet, i.e., 250 square feet each. They are curved and connected by a jointed frame so that the operator can cause thesurfaces to twist for the purpose of guiding theflight.
The frame is of hickory wood, covered and main planes 40 ft. in length by width. They are 6 ft. vertically apart;
underneath, and the machine alights upon these. In front of the main planes are two small horizontal
planes used
between these are two small D-shaped planes, which act as dampers to the steering. A double vertical rudder placed behind the main planesdetermines the direction.
centre, four-cylinder vertical type, 4| ins. diameter cylinders by 4 ins. stroke approx., weight said toIbs., speed 1,200 revs, per minute, 24 to 30 horse-power approx. It drives a pair of twobladed propellers, 8 ft. 6 ins. diameter, 9 ft. to
be 200
9 ft. 6 ins. effective pitch, by chain gearing speeding the propellers down to a ratio of 33 to 10, so that they run at about 450 revs, per minute, andin opposite directions to neutralise to tilt the machine ; total weight of
There are
The Wright English Patent The specification gives some the method of using the machine. a considerable number of claims mostly1,100Ibs.
for combinations of
patents, Nos. 24076 and 24077 of 1908, which are supplementary to the first one (see Flight
with flexing the elevating plane. Messrs. Wright if not entirely, upon their skill for the success of their machines. The aeroplane does not take care of itself in
PLYING MACHINESflight,
to enableetc.
but requires the direction of the operator it to deal with variations of air currents,
Control levers worked by hand are conto the main planes and to the rudder.to
main planes are moveable an angle and interconnected to the control lever, so that when one is raised theotheris depressed. are locked together
The when
the machine
going to turn, so that the inclination of the direction-rudder takes place simultaneously, and co-operates with the angular
Fig. 19.
along a railway 75 ft. in length by the action of a weight. Fig. 19 is a diagram showing the the weight. principle; T is the truck, and
suspended at the top of a derrick by means of a rope passing over guide wheels as indicated and attached to T. When T is released the weight reaches falls, the movement ceasing as soon asis
can begin its flight at any moment. Sufficient petrol and water for a flight of 1'20 miles iscarried.
These inventors have considered the problem automatic stability and have applied for a
British patent, No. 2913 of 1909, which deals with the matter. It consists of a relay apparatus worked by compressed air, which controls theelevator and rudder.
illustrated description
horizontal-running screw propeller as a means of There appears overcoming the force of gravity.liftingless
some doubt, however, as to whether or no the power of these screws would be more ordestroyed
regard to the latter point, Mons. Dufuax St. Cloud, in 1905, with a machine consisting of a tubular frame work 16 ft. long,
demonstrated at
having a pair of propellers revolving in oppoA site directions at each end of the machine.3 H.-P. petrol motor was employed, and the total weight lifted was 51 Ibs., which is 17 Ibs. perfor this
A comparison of the power required machine may be made with the results obtained by the use of aeroplanes (see pages 71unit H.-P.
Henry Farman.
XVI, shows
A further reference the general construction. can be made to Plate XVIII, as that machine isalso
The type as developed by Chanute. main frame is of ash 32 feet 9 inches across and approximately 6 feet 6 inches square; the tailsurface
box is nearly square as viewed from the front and has a length of about 10 feet planes are;
of varnished
535 square feet and the weight including the Engine is by Antoinette, 8 operator 1540 Ibs. cylinder vertical having cylinders 4'35 inches cliam. by 4' 15 inches stroke reported to give 49B.H.-P. at 1,100 revs, per
drives direct a
single two-bladed propeller 7 feet 6 inches diameter having an effective pitch of about 3 feet placedjust behind the
main planes as shown by Plate The weight of the engine is stated to be Four swivelling wheels are fitted underitself
impact. be effected direct from the ground, thus providing a distinct difference to the Wright aeroplane which
The front wheels is started from a special track. are clearly shown in Plate XVI ; the rear wheels are under the forward part of the box tail. Apair of small wood balancing planes are placed in front of the main planes, the rudder is inside
the box
Henry Farman was the first aeroplanist to make his machine to turn a corner. At Issy le Moulineaux, near Paris, he won the ArchdeaconHenri Deutsch prize by flying from a given point to another 500 metres away and back again without touching the ground, turning round attime was 1 min. 28the far point for the return journey. The total sees, the actual distance over
which the machine remained in the air was, however, nearly double the measured kilometre. It was the first occasion on which a circularflight
Many other flying performances have been accomplished by Mr. Farman. He has continued in the air without coming to the ground during full twenty minutes, circling at a height of aboutten feet and covering a distance of about twelvemiles.
More remarkable still is his flight across country from Chalons sur Marne to Kheims, seventeen miles, without touching the ground. During this performance the height at which heflew;
was from 70 to 150 feet time occupied just over twenty minutes. In accomplishing this he is the first man to actually fly from one town toanother.
According to report his opinion is that the problem of flying by machine depends upon maintaining a balance when making sharp turns. He has carried a passenger on his machine during a flight of three miles and on other occa-
FLYING MACHINESsions,
one passenger was a lady. At Rheims, Aug. 27th, 1909, he flew a distance of 112 miles in 3 hrs. 4 mins. 56 sees., creating a record for distance, and surpassed this on Nov. 3rd, 1909, at Chalons Camp, by flying a distance of 150 miles in 4 hrs. 17 min. 35 sees., breaking all world's records. In each the flight was unbroken
by any intermediate
made a
carrying a passenger on his machine for 1 hour 16 min. 35 sees. Latest developments are theassist stability in
addition of moveable tips to the main planes to varying currents of air, sledge
main planes arranged as two pairs He is fitting a third plane placed side by side. over the other two for purposes of experimentsfour under the
and has adopted bicycle handle steering. A recent change in the Voisin machine is the removal of the elevating plane from the front to a position inside the tail and the propellers to a Mr. position in front of the main planes.
Farman is also using a 7-cylinder Gnome rotary engine placed behind the propeller.Mr. Delagrange.
very similar to
that used by Mr. Henry Farman, the makers being Messrs. Voisin Freres of Billancourt, Seine, France.
Plate XVIII shows the general arrangement. The motor can be seen just behind the operator it is by Antoinette, and 50 to 60 H.-P. size. The;
propeller is connected direct as Plate XVII. number of successful flights have been made.
llth, 1908,
Issy le
Moulineaux, Mr.
Delagrange flew a distance of about 2 miles in 6 minutes 30 seconds. On September 7th of the same year he created a record by a flight of 29 minutes 53| seconds, manipulating his machine through circles with apparent ease and attaining a speed of over 37 miles per hour. He has also made a cross country flight of some 12 miles nearChartres.
machine, also
Mr. Farman,for elevationit
wheelor left
Mr. DelagrangeLatham.
an aviator noted
for the
rapidity with which he learnt his art and came into the foremost rank. He is an exponent of
the monoplane type of flier, and has consistently used the Antoinette machine. Plate XIX is a
photograph ofengineis
machine in actual
placed at the front end and drives a tractor screw, which, being in a state of rapid rotation, is indicated by a circular haze in front.
an engineer,andspeed.
principle, the
main planes not being in a straight line with each other, but inclining upwards at an angle indicated the object being to obtain automatic lateral by The overall span of the main planes is stability.
feet. They are of curved section, having considerable thickness in the centre and sharp edges.
The breadthand 6ft.
machinebeing to
each side ofof
the centre
are set at
Overall length
tail plane is width of tail plane, 9 ft. Total area of main planes, 385 square feet they are of lattice construction, each carried on two lattice beams, and are therefore hollow. The covering is
end of
partly with rubber-coated fabric. Propulsion is from an 8-cylinder 50 H.-P. petrol engine, which drives a two-blade tractor and screw 6 ft. 10 ins.
diameter at 1,100 revs, per min. A 16-cylinder 100 H.-P. engine is also used. Total weight of machine is 1,040 Ibs. It is controlled by an elevating plane at the rear and by warping the rear edges of the main planes, either being pulledas required. A vertical rudder of triangular shape at the rear of the body gives The movements are effected by indedirection.
pendent hand wheels, one of which acts upon the main planes and the other upon the elevating plane, and a pedal which acts upon the vertical
102rudder.of this
Some detailed drawings and paiticulars machine are given in the aeronautical paper Flight, for Oct. 23rd and 30th, 1909. Mr. Latham has flown for 37^ minutes at a speed of over 43 miles per hour at Chalons Camp, making a record at the time, for 1 hour 1\ rnins., creating a world's record at the time for monoplanes. 7 miles,direction,
has made a cross country flight of going half the distance in a definite
back to his flying turning and without coming to earth, his speed being at the rate of about 50 miles per hour. His greatest achievement is the flightstarting
which he made over the English Channel on July 27th, 1909. Starting from the French coastnear Calais he succeeded in flying to within about a mile and a half of the English shore at Dover, but owing to his engine stopping he was com-
down into the water from which and the machine were rescued unharmed. A few days previously he had made an attempt, but his engine, a 50 H.-P., stopped when he hadpelled to glide
accomplished about seven miles of the distance. The engine used at the second attempt was of 100 H.-P. size. At the Blackpool meeting, 22nd October, 1909, Mr. Latham made a successful flight of 10J minutes in a very gusty wind, which was blowing at a rate of 28 miles per
Recently Mr.partyarriving
and flying home with his guns and bag of game at the end of the day.S. F.
machine when;
It is of larger size
the span across the main planes is 52 feet. are curved, and the edges of each are;
total area,
square feet vertical distance between them is 9 feet. The planes at the front are for balancing and elevating purposes, being held simultaneously
up or down together,
and inde-
pendently for balancing. There are two vertical One is placed immediately rudders for direction. over the front planes and the other is carried in a
frame which projects to the rear. They are shown light in the photograph. The small planes to right and left are auxiliary balancing planes used when small turns have to be made. The machine is controlled by means of the planes and rudders mentioned, and also by warping the
main planes, the adjustments being effected by a combined hand wheel and lever, which has a universal movement. Propulsion is by an eightcylinder 80 H.-P. petrol engine, which drives by chains a pair of two-blade screws placed between the main planes one on each side of the operator.
unique feature is the kangaroo pattern tail, is shown behind the running wheels in the
It is made of a number of pieces of wood bound together to act as a spring buffer when the machine is running on the
tandem fashion, one above the other on a slope. The framework is largely constructed of wood and bamboo the weight of the machine complete is;
flying a mile at Aldershot, being the first man to Heaccomplish this feat in Great Britain.flights of 1
Cody succeeded
attained a height of 30 feet. He has also made miles, 3 miles, 4 miles, a continuous flight of one hour three minutes in which he
reached a height of 150 feet and a cross country On several occasions he flight of about 4 miles. has carried a passenger as well as himself on his
A drawing showing details is given in the aeronautical paper Flight, for August 21st, 1909.machine.Curtis.
XXI shows the Curtis biplane in flight. an American machine. Mr. G. H. Curtis has made a number of successful flights, one of half a mile, another of one mile, also a circularPlateIt isflight of 2
miles at
also 29
miles in 52 minutes.
flew 12 miles
in 15 min. 50f sees, at Eheims Aviation meeting, 1909, also winning the Gordon Bennett Cup prize.
FLYING MACHINEScontrol,
and was quicker to start in actual flight than any other at that meeting. It occasionally commenced to fly after running less than 50 yds. Plate XXII shows the Curtis engine and propeller.
designer and
tended to navigate the air was at one time certain to be looked upon as at least to some extent wanting in mental balance, the persontried to fly
with such an apparatus was decidedly At the present regarded as being hopelessly mad. day an experimenter can point to the names of such men as Chanute, Langley, Lilienthal, Maxim, Pilcher, Santos Dumont, Farman, the Wright Brothers, Bleriot and Delagrange, men of scientific mind, engineering ability, and intelligence Their experiments are of a very high order.
examples of sound, logical reasoning, conducted with great care and though two of them unhappily met with fatal accidents whilst practising the art of flying, they had foreseen that such results would occur under certain conditions, and were taking a The fact remains that many reasonable risk. flights have now been made with safety, some of them in moderately rough weather. Those;
in giving coreful
follow will be not only justified but wise consideration to the methods
adopted by preceding exponents of man flight. Sir Hiram Maxim, as the account of his work on
record shows, could have flown up into the air upon his machine, but, as he had not solved the
question of maintaining equilibrium and steering, he prevented it from rising beyond a certain limited amount. In this way he was able to make trial flights with absolute safety and toacquire
a considerable
of information.
Horatio Phillips, with confidence in his ideas based upon much accurate experimental work,preferredto
of rise, so that
he could observe
Yet more recently M. Santos Dumont, intrepid as he is, acted with extreme caution when he took his remarkable flight upon the "No. 14 bis" machine, and the experiments of the successful fliers of to-day are still conducted with every care to keep on the safe side. Otto Lilienthal practised so much with his soaring wing apparatus that he came to regard his trials as a sport, and it may be that his idea will It is a actually come to be an existing fact. question of perfecting the means and acquiring the art. The primary thing to do is to keep near to the ground, no matter whether the flight is made by means of a machine propelled by engine power or with supporting planes lifting by virtuesafety.
the soaring or gliding principle. The experience gained will not necessarily enable the person to take flights of high altitude. Lilienthal,of
the ground
however, considered that soaring and flying near is much more difficult than at high
due to the hollows and elevations of the earth's surface. Santos Dumont advises the aeronaut to keep close to the earth, he does noteddies,
its place at great heights. Airships or flying machines of even modest size propelled by engine power are very costly things
to build
and try if they are to lift the experimenter from the ground. Soaring apparatus, however, is comparatively cheap to construct and try. Mr. Hargraves has also shown that excellent flying models can be made at trifling expense, and helays
much stress upon this point in the accounts which he gives of his work to the New South Wales Koyal Society. Wood, elastic, canvas, whalebone, cord, tin cans, and wire for engine cylinders and gear appear to be the kind of materials which are required, together with a verytools. He proceeded with the idea that every model was of some value. Though it had not been a success in flying, it
moderate equipment of
would be a recordchester,
Mr. Lanis
gliders, in his,
of opinion that designers of flying machines will in future confirm their calculations by means of
models.Lilienthal advises experimenters practising with soaring apparatus attached to the body to make trials with small wings at first and only in moderate He says that when soaring with only 86 winds.
square ft. of sustaining wing surface he was tossed up into the air upon several occasions. This wing area had previously been 107 square ft., but had
been reduced by trials. He advises that the flier can release himself at once from the apparatus in case of need that is, if he finds the wind taking control and the wings about to be thrown upwards in a dangerous manner, he can let go and save;
It is also
not safe to
the wind has a velocity of over 23 miles per hour unless sufficient skill in soaring has been attained by practice. In his account hetrials if
make the spread of wing greater so that I can restore equilibrium by a simple change of centre of gravity." The wing breadth should be limited, so that this transfer ofsays:
I neverft.,
than 23
centre of gravity can be instantly effected so far backwards or forwards as to meet the action of
the supporting air resistance to the limit of movement. It should not be more than 8' 2
151 square
ft., suffi;
cient to sustain the weight of an average man the weight of these wings will be 44 Ibs. approxi-
In making a flight, the experimenter should not merely trust himself, like an inert thing, to the caprice of the wind, but try to exert a dominating and intelligent influence to control his apparatus. For example, if one wing is rising by the effect of the air current, he should move his legs towardsit
and keep
be to allow the legs to hang towards the falling wings, but this is just the wrong action, as it
would contribute to upsetting the equilibrium of the apparatus. To quote Lilienthal " It does not take very long before it is quite a matter of:
indifference whether we are gliding along 6 feet or 65 feet above the ground we feel how safely " the air is carrying us." Soon we pass over;
ravines as high as houses, and sail for several hundred metres through the air without any danger, parrying the force of the wind at every movement." Mr. Pilcher leaves the following advice in the
Keep the
position of the
tendency changes of the wind will act more quickly upon the aeroplanes than upon the heavier body." In the United States, Mr. A. Chanute, an engineer, has given a great deal of attention to He appears to favour aerosoaring machines. plane wings placed over one another, and gives
If they are placed high, the is for them to tilt the machine. The
the body of the experimenter, like Lilienthal and Pilcher. His assistants have carried out some
proportions of wing-sustaining surface used are 5 square foot per pound weight speed of flight, 22 miles per hour calculated; ;
per horse-power
effort of
Mr. Chanute, in an illusaccount given in Cassier's Magazine for June, 1901, states the underlying principle of maintaining equilibrium in the air to be this:
that the centre of pressure shall at all times be upon the same vertical line as the centre of
due to the weight of the apparatus. In but in a wind the centre of pressure is constantly moved. The centre of gravity may be shifted backwards and forwards to coincide again with the verticalgravity,
through the new centre of pressure. Lilienthal and Pilcher accomplished this by adjusting their personal weight to new positions as As an alternative, the required at the moment.line passing
centre of pressure may be adjusted into a vertical line with a fixed centre of gravity by altering the angle of incidence or by shifting the position of
the sustaining surfaces. These latter methods have been tried by Chanute in three different 1. ways By fixing a horizontal tail (Penaud pattern) at an angle to the sustaining surfaces. This strikes the air with its upper or lower:
alters the angle of incidence of the wings, and therefore alters the centre of pressure. 2. The wings pivotted at their roots, so that they
The arrangement
that the impinging air shall automatically alter the angle of incidence, and therefore adjust the3. The surfaces hinged so as centre of pressure. to rock in a vertical direction, and arranged so
that the impinging air automatically shifts the angle of incidence, and by this will adjust the
The last method is believed centre of pressure. but Mr. Chanute says that one to be preferable cannot be sure, as all the adjustments are very;
In his opinion the important condition man shall remain stationary, and it will be advisable to make use of about one square foot of sustaining surface per pound to be lifted untildelicate.is
that the
the problem of maintaining equilibrium is solved. This means speeds of about 20 to 25 miles per
hour to makeground.
whenof a
reaching the
K. Clark and Co., of Kingston-on-Thames (see Plates XIII and XIV), are given in Flight, September 18th and 25th, 1909, " How to Glide " by and a series of articles onMessrs. T.in the same journal for 16th, 23rd and 30th and November 13th, 1909. Mr. Wilbur Wright also related the gliding experiments of himself and
made by
his brother Orville before the Society of Western Engineers of Chicago on September 18th, 1901,
and June 1st, 1903. These accounts are reproduced in The Aero Manual, first edition, 1909. All of these articles form most interesting and valuable reading. There is also the paper readbefore the International Aeronautical Congress, October 1907, by Chanute, on " Soaring Flight,
26, 1909).
Mr. C. E. Duryea proposes that safety in experiments with large flying machines shall be promoted by suspending them, during the preliminary trials, from captive balloons. Mr. L. P. Mouillard makes some rational re-
marks, entitledmenting."skill,
A Programme
acquirement of
cycling, and so on, and says that the one great element of success is to take no chances of accidents. The problem will be
as in
by a timid man, almost a coward, but one also reflective and ingenious, who will
accumulate in his favour all the elements of success, and eliminate carefully every element of accident (Proceedings of the International Conference on Aerial Navigation, 1893). Lilienthal states that he found the management of hisapparatus became verydifficult
the wind
velocity exceeded 11 to 13 miles per hour, and advises experimenters not to leave the grounduntil they have become expert. He also always faced the wind so as to obtain better control.
This means the equivalent of the well-known " caution to would-be swimmers, Don't go intodeep water until you can swim."practising tofly,
you are
upon the wind ground until you have the necessary skill to manage the apparatus and adjust it to the varying velocities and directions of the air currents.
don't let the wings take you up more than a few feet from the
wings up to a
Though the advice to keep near the ground is sound for the beginner the practice is not free from danger. This is proved by the fatal accident which happened to Captain Ferber who was an accomplished glider and aviator. He was flying very low at the Boulogne aerodome on September 22nd, 1909 when making a turn one of the main planes came into contact with the ground, the machine turned over crushing him so badly that he died a short while after the occurrence. This accident would not have taken place if he had been flying high. Captain Ferber at that time had adopted the name of De Hue as a flying name. Apart from risks of such a nature, a machine in flight near the ground is subjected to Mr. Paulhan, eddies and unstable currents of air. who is remarkably skilful, has stated that he is;
flight at
when at a high altitude. He made a high Sandown Park, near London, on Novemtheodolite.of 977 feet, At Brooklands track on 1909, he flew 96 miles in 2 hours 49
measured by a
November 1st,
minutes 20 seconds, stopping only because his supLater in the same ply of petrol was exhausted. day he flew to a height of about 400 feet, then stopping his engine glided down and landed with He has also made a cross country ease and safety. flight of 1 hour 35 minutes' duration. The machine The which he uses is a Farman (see Plate XVI).
rapidity with which Mr. Sommer learnt to fly is evidence that the art may be very easy to acquire. This aviator purchased, almost by chance, a
second-hand Farman flying machine, and pracspeaking commenced at once to fly with it. On the same day on which it was delivered to him he flew a distance of about 3J miles at a height of about 30 feet, on the following day he flew for half an hour, 9 days later he flew across country from Chalons to Savernay and back, and has continued to accomplish a succession of flights, one of them lasting 2 hours 27 minutes 15 seconds. In case of accident Mr. Bleriot works on thetically
theory that it is impossible for the aviator to save both himself and the machine. His method is to place himself on one of the planes just before collision with the ground by this means he has;
saved himself from injury though he has had a number of falls. He considers that if the aviator
LIKE other
appliances, flying machines will in their design, construction, and use follow a course of development. Those which achieve the firstreal successwill
and are put to some useful purpose seem clumsy and inefficient to the designers of machines at a time when, say, 50 years of progress and use have passed. Compare a modernbicycle with those made 30 years ago, and note the improvement in design and construction. A
story has been told of an English engineer, a bicycle rider, who went to reside in the East during the early cycle days. Missing his favouriterecreation, he decided to try and make a bicycle, even if a crude one, so that he could have somerides.
The native mechanic, however, to whom he explained his design, absolutely refused to have anything to do with it. A machine with three wheels or four wheels he would make, but one having two wheels placed one behind the other was the idea of a madman. It would not keep upright, and he would not waste his time upon The ancient Briton, when he such a thing. launched his boat upon the water, probably regarded it as about the limit of naval architecture,
yet from the same shores the thing which is called an Atlantic liner to-day carries passengers by the
From the primitive boat to the modern how many successive improvements in!
Can we say
to try and form some idea flying machines will be like is to consider the results already obtained and the opinions expressed by those who have made exof
In both of
the principles available, namely, that of buoyancy, as exemplified by balloons and that of machinesheavier thanair, as exemplified by aeroplanes, a great deal of work has been accomplished, and each is still faced with difficulties. The exponents
of either type can advance arguments to show that the other is impracticable. Sir Hiram Maxim has stated that it is not possible to construct a
balloon strong enough to stand a speed of 15 miles per hour against a wind, as it would be forced outof shape
and torn toconstruction
art of
his balloon
Zeppelin endeavours to maintain the shape of by the use of an enveloping framework which encloses the balloon proper, and whichis
The ciently large to leave an air space between. resistance to a balloon offered by the opposingair increases
Double the speed does not mean double the resistance, but a great deal more in fact it increases;
as the cube of the speed. It is, therefore, of great importance to shape the balloon so that it willoffer
minimum amountit
According to Chanute,
can be reduced to 12 per cent, of that which would be offered by a disc having a diameter equal to that of the largestcross section of the balloon.
Some experts agree that a speed of about 44 miles per hour is possible.With regard to aeroplanes, Sir Hiram Maxim obtained a lift 18 times as great as the drift withsmall
when he made
A wood plane will carry more than 100 Ibs. of weight per horse-power used to drive it, but the large planes made of flexible material stretched upon a frame did not carry more than 40 Ibs. per horse-power. Professor Langleymaterial.
the driving power expended than large planes made of stretched paper. The loss of lifting
power seems
not retaining its shape. Therefore aeroplanes, to give the best obtainable lifting efficiency, should
In his experiments with small sizes and weights, Langley's aeroplanes propelled by screws carried at the rate of 250 Ibs. per horsepower. The real weight used was only a fewbe inflexible.pounds, so that, according to the preceding state-
ments, this efficiency would not be maintained with large planes unless they could be made of
some absolutelylifted
rigid material.
Regarding weight
per unit of area, according to Maxim, more than 3 Ibs. can be lifted per square foot of surface
well designed, his planes having a width of ins. and length of 6 ft. carried 8 Ibs. per square
foot of surface.flat
a large
plane is used the whole surface does not do Most of the lifting is done by the equal work. forward portion, and the plane must be curved to
an increasing angle
to do a fair share of the work, again increasing the amount of driving power required.
several aeroplanes are used one behind the other the leading plane a similar result takes place
does the greater part of the work, for the reason it works in air which has not been disturbed.Lilienthal believed flat aeroplanes offered undue and determined that it is necessary to
upon thoseflat
the surfaces of concavo-convex shape based of the wings of birds. Phillip's ex-
flat or nearly surfaces were unsuitable (he says useless) for If flight is to be carrying heavy loads in the air.
possible he finds that each square foot of sustaining surface will have to be capable of supporting If the sustaining area a weight of at least 3 Ibs.
approaches a proportion of one pound carried per square foot, such a machine would not have sufficient
and be
damage from
120strong winds
Phillips maintained that no flat aeroplane would support 3 Ibs. per square foot if driven at a practicable speed and angle of inclination. With his
system of curved planes he claimed that 8 Ibs. per square foot was lifted at 40 miles per hour horizontal speed.
The proportionAccording
of lift to
necessary to support 1,000 Ibs. in air this multiplied by 39 feet per second (according to him) as
horse-power required.
the lowest practicable speed will show about seven He says to double the
speed at least twice the power and nearly twice the weight of propelling engine (steam) would be necessary. Including water in the boiler, heallows
Mr. Hargrave in his communications developed. to the Koyal Society of New South Wales, how-
warns experimenters against placing too much upon thrust diagrams. He gives an instance of an experiment with one of his model machines which was driven by compressed air, theever,
off at;
f stroke
air pressure,
170 Ibs. per square inch weight of engine and When the blades of the screw screw, 6J ozs. propeller were set at a pitch angle of 20 degs. ahigh thrust was obtained on the indicator, but the machine flew a very short distance. When the
blades were set at an angle of 45 degs. a low was indicated, but the machine flew 50 per cent, further. He reasons from this that thethrust
be automatically adjusted by
behind the supporting arms, but says that it is matter for consideration for those who prefer the screw propeller to flapping wings. This shows that there is still much to be discovered with regard to the behaviour of surfaces in motion through the air. According to one account of Langley's
experiments with aeroplanes moved horizontally through the air at the end of a rotating arm, thepropelling power required to move the plane decreased as the velocity increased. Under the initials J. H. K. a writer in Engineering, June 13,
1890, gives an account of some trials made with It is stated that one horselifting screws in air.
will lift 33 to 35 Ibs., and the opinion is given that the power required when the machine is under weigh will be much less than generally Further, that to support a body in air, supposed.
the quantity of air per second which moves under it should be equal in weight to that of the body as
drawn down by
F.E.S., in the same journal also states that the results of some experiments made by him on the
ascensional power of aerial screws did not give sufficiently promising results to induce him to
Screws working
whether applied
purpose of propulsion in horizontal direction or Various experilifting in a vertical direction. menters have shown that such screws should, ifproperly designed, give efficient results as with screws correctly designed and working in water.
of trials
G. Walker, A.M.I.C.E., made a number with large air propellers in the latter partlifting
obtainable per horse-power applied to rotate them. His results were issued as a Eeport to the Boyal Society of Great Britain, and an account will be
found in Engineering of February 16, 1900. The propellers were 30 ft. in diameter, and consisted of canvas stretched upon a lattice frame. They were rotated at various speeds up to 60 revolutions per minute. Five were tried A having four blades, each 6 ft. wide, placed as shewn in the accompanying sketch, giving 350 square ft. area B having two blades of same width as A, giving 175 square ft. of area, the two rear blades being removed C had four blades as A, but they were each only 3 ft. in width, giving an area of 175 square ft. D also had four blades each 3 ft. in width and placed as A, but with 6 ft. radial length nearest the centre removed from each blade, leaving four tips 9 ft. in length, giving an area of 103 square ft. E was the same as A,:
except that the angle of the blades was 21 degs. to the plane of rotation instead of 12 degs., theinclination of the others.
general results of
the experiments show that the thrust varies as the square of the revolutions the horse-power;
required to drive them varies as the cube of the revolutions the thrust per horse-power varies inFor a given indicated versely as the revolutions.;
horse-power propeller E gave the greatest thrust at 16 indicated horse-power the thrust was 260 Ibs
and C, 212 Ibs. D, 192 Ibs. B, 132 Ibs. reAt the same number of revolutions spectively. A gave about double the thrust of B. For equal; ;
speeds the thrust per horse-power for proE were nearly equal B was the;
thrust of
required 18'7
and required
aeronautical purposes screw propellers will give improved results, if made with a series ofor 20), placed tandem fashion (Fig. that there is no disadvantage in placing them in this the resulting conway, provided
As suchthis
framescrew propellersdriven ina
approximate todirection,
confirmed by the practice of experimenters, such as Chanute and Wright, who have come to use two or morestraight
aeroplanes superposed in preference to extending the surface area in one plane. Narrow blades
seem to be as efficient as wide ones within limits, and the portion near to the centre does not add
much to the thrust. It is important to design the supports to the blades so that they will offer a small resistance to the air, or a large proportion
Fig. 20.
of the driving power will be wasted. The power mentioned is that indicated at the cylinder of the steam engine used to drive the propellers, and it
does not represent the actual power applied to the propeller shaft, a certain amount would be lost in overcoming the friction of thebelt, etc.
Hargrave in his experiments did not observe any tendency of the flying model to list by reason of the effort of the body of the machine to rotate on the screw propeller shaft. He concludes that for propelling purposes the screw and vibrating wing, or trochoided plane as he calls it, are about equally effective. Comparison may be made between the two by the following table of resultsgiven by him.
28ins. diameter,
two blades
each 6ins. in length, Gins, wide at the tips, and Sins, wide at the inner ends, In giving a total surface area of 126 square ins. the his account he states that a feature ofpitch,
the small amount of thrust required a comparatively heavy body horizontally through the air when it is supported by a large flat surface. Apparently large area of surface isis
successful models
PLYING MACHINESand
position, the body plane kept practically level, did not tilt at an angle.
According to Langley the greatest weight that can be sustained by an aeroplane with one-horse power is 209 Ibs. a man can only continuously exert about one-tenth of a horse-power, and the best he could do by his own effort would be to support and drive through the air a weight of 20 Ibs., that is he could not possibly sustain himself in this way. Wilde has made experiments upon the discharge and reactive force of elastic fluids, which proved to him that reactive force produced;
this manner cannot be utilised to produce ascending power for aerial navigation. In Engineering, Vol. V, is published an exceed-
ingly interesting communication, entitled "On the flight of birds, etc., in reference to the subject of Aerial Navigation," by M. de Lucy, of Paris.
and other
beings which use the air as a means of locomotion, contends that weight instead of being anobstacleis
by the simple experiment Take half a sheet of Hold it horiforeign or similar thin note paper. zontally above your head and try to launch itof the ballasted aeroplane.It will lengthways in flight through the air. and fall to the ground. Now take a piece of lead foil such as part of a bottle capsule, or anything that will serve as a weight, and clip
may be
Launch the paper again it will now take a steady flight for some distance, falling gradually in a Some little adjustslanting path to the ground. ment may be necessary to obtain a weight which suits the area of the paper. The experiment should be made in still air, and the paper be held flat.
fundamental conditions
are weight, surface and force. The rate at which a body will fall through air will depend upon the
it exposes to the air in As an example take a weight. bullet and a sheet of notepaper. If the paper is
held withtofall,
the descent will be slow, owing to the resistance offered by the air. The bullet, on the
contrary, will fall rapidly and reach the ground in a much shorter space of time if released at the
same height. But make the same sheet of paper into a compact ball, and roll the bullet out flat,so thatit
of foil,
rates of descent will be quite altered. of lead will be the same as before,
The weightbut in the
of a thin sheet
The to resistance of the air against its surface. weight of paper will also be the same as before,butit will travel comparatively quickly as its surface will offer very small resistance to the air. As the speed of a surface moving through air in-
the direc-
downwards, the
force of gravity is being repeatedly neutralised by the upward thrust of the air against the movingsurface.
But theits
must continue
because as
velocity decreases the thrusting effect of the air also decreases, and the downward
due to gravity, again predominates. The net result, however, is that the fall is opposed by the air, and its rate can be largely controlledpull,
by extending the area of surface, the effect produced by gravity is not the same as upon a body falling in a vacuum. Air resistance is indirect relation to the area of the surface bodies,
and to the square of their velocity. De Lucy concludes that the secret of flight is in this principle of the air resistance increasing with thevelocity until to gravity.it
balances the
pull due
He points out that all creatures which fly are heavier than the air they displace by their bulk, that is they do not depend upon the principle ofbuoyancy.creatures
is always in inverse ratio to the weight to be carried in air. That is, the heavier the creature the smaller is the size of its wings relatively to the weight which they are required
wing surface
the power very near to the point of attachment to the body. Therefore, the wings being larger in proportion
as the weight of the creature is less, it must be more power in flying than a heavier creature with smaller wings in propor-
tion to its weight. Insects are the strongest of all creatures relatively to their size. Taking a
weight of one kilogramme (2'2 Ibs. approx.) as a standard of reference, de Lucy finds that a gnat, for example, would require wings having an area of 11 square yds., 8 square ft., 92 square ins., tosupport this weight, and a bee 1 square yd., 2 square ft., 74 square ins., only. A gnat weighs
than a stag beetle, and has fourA sparrow wing surface. weighs ten times less than a pigeon, and has The sparrow twice as much wing surface. weighs 339 times less than the Australian crane and has seven times more surface, all relatively to weight supported. This latter bird is remarkless
460 times
able for
longest and most remote journeys of all travelling birds. With the exception of the eagle they are the birds which take the highest flights.
The shape of the wings, their texture and number, and matter of which they are composed are of secondary importance. The most important partis the extension of supporting surface. Secondly, the place of attachment of the wing Nature places this point relatively to the body. above, but close to the centre of gravity, to pre-
kinds of
upon its momentum to resist the force of gravity. Without a considerable amount of weight in proportion tothisits size it
could not
use of
Like a
gained a certain amount of speed, it for an interval of time to proceed through the air without falling and without flapping its wings. De Lucy has discovered a law that a wingedanimal, weighing from eight to ten times more than another has always two times less surface.
heaviest bird, say, for example, the Australian crane. De Lucy assumes this bird to develop an horseaverage power of 20 kilogrammes (about
Taking the weight of a man and flying apparatus to be 100 kilogrammes (220 Ibs.approx.) the force required to enable him to fly would be,power).
according to his reasoning, 200 kilogrammetres (about 2 horse-power), that is following the law of decrease of force required in proportion to
weights and volumes and a supporting surface of 9 square metres (10 square yds., 6 square ft., 126 To support ten times this weight, square ins.). that is to support 1,000 kilogrammes (2,200 Ibs. approx.), he takes half of the surface for 100
kilogrammes as a basis, and finds that for 1,000 kilogrammes to be sustained the surface necessary
is 22 square metres, 50 square centimetres (31 Folsquare yds. 2 square ft. 123 square ins.). lowing the same reasoning, the surface to support 10,000 kilogrammes (22,000 Ibs. approx.) would be 112 square metres, and for 100,000 kilo-
same law
360 square metres. would follow the the greater weights, but states, how-
ever, that experience is the great word. De Lucy arrives at the conclusion that a flying apparatus designed to support a man and to be
moved by theheavyforits
force of that
Aerial navigation can and necessary to propel it. will be only successful with large machines.
increases by simple proportion, but surand volumes as the square and cube. If a
flying apparatus is made of very large size, its weight will be insignificant relatively to the volume. As an illustration, he states that a small
of a certain
thickness of silk and inflated with hydrogen gas cannot raise itself, but if the diameter is increased
10 times,
Others do not agree with this idea, and believe that large machines are not practicable because a design may work well in a small size itwill not necessarily be successful when made of From similar reasoning it has been large size. argued that all flying machines will be failures
from a useful point of view. Wilde somewhat agrees with the reasoning of de Lucy, as he is ofjectiles,
opinion that aeroplanes are of the nature of proand is confident that the problem will be
He suggests the idea of a parachute with action reversed by a vibrating movement as the one remaining method, failing the discovery ofsolved.its
of matter.
Contemplating these various opinions and results of observations which show that the experimenters and observers have brought considerable intelligence to bear upon the subject, and the evidence given by the rapid development andwonderful success in actual flight of power-driven may fairly conclude that aerial navigation will be principally by machines heavier thanaeroplanes, weair.
Probably various types of airship or flying apparatus will remain in use, each being that suitable
Balloons with yet for some particular purpose. further improvements can serve within certain limits. Apparatus to be used by individuals will
by that practised by Lilienthal, Pilcher, Chanute, and others, first as a sport and then for
ordinary purposes of locomotion, again within The experiments of Le Bris and Phillips, limits.
however, indicate that we do not know all that can be accomplished by utilising not only the lifting but the aspirating effects produced by air currents in contact with curved surfaces, and thelimits of
movement with
gliding apparatus
Large methods
screws to
fixed planes to maintain the load during flight and to assist in safe descent. The supporting
will bewill
and theto
neutralise the effect of gravity. Weight will be incidental and not a thing to be eliminated, as far
In marine navigation we as possible, at all cost. have a great range of appliances, from the canoe For land locoto the ocean liner and battleship.
of many machines, each applicable to certain purposes, and all requiring skill in their use people cannot even walk without having acquired by practice the ability to;
To support ourselves and move in the air so. we must be prepared to accept similar conditions,creating appliances by degrees, one improvement following another, the skill and knowledge to use
them being acquired gradually and through many Just as the ability to make and manage a modern steamship has required many years of application, so will that required to make and manage the equivalent airship demand its full tollfailures.
of study
The wreckloose
failure of the
Wellman Polar
dirigible balloons
become un-
FLYING MACHINESof the
manageable in heavy winds. The success brothers Wright, who depend entirely
personal manipulation to secure stability, whilst Messrs. Delagrange and Farman largely rely upon
can be accomplished by several methods. This confirmed by the variety of the designs of flying machines which have accomplished actualflights.
An interesting addition to the subject are the observations of Sir Hiram Maxim upon
vertical ascending and descending currents of air. They are given in his recently-published book, " Artificial and Natural Flight," a volume which also contains
practical information
Mr. Lanconstruction of aeroplane machines. chester in the paper referred to on page 93, giveshis
opinion that the secret of stability lies in and that higher speeds of flight must be attained if flying machines are to come intovelocity,
every-day use.
Some discovery or development in materials or motive power may have far-reaching results. Notwithstanding the drawbacks and limitations which at present almost prohibit its use as a motive power on flying machines, electricity may yet be a potent factor in the future of aerial Large flying machines will not be navigation. necessarily required to start and alight from ground level or at any odd place. Suitable terminal and intermediate stations, specially designed to enable ascension and alighting to be made with
A flying machine will facility may be provided. have the enormous advantage that no road or track is required other than perhaps some short length used for purposes of starting and alighting, and there will be no obstacles to impede a machineinits
Very high
therefore be anticipated, and capability to make journeys in shorter time than by any other means
This alone may be expected to create machines a class of traffic peculiar to themselves and of which they will have a monopoly. The experience of the present development of the art of flying, and opinions expressed by aviators, seem to predict that aerial navigation will be the safest of all forms of mechanical transit. Many flights have been made after sunset, practically in Mr. Cody has flown in moonlight, the dark. showing that flying machines can be used atof transit.for flying
to Carpentry.
handbook for amateurs and apprentices. It is well illus trated from photographs and should prove of great use to all who wish to dopractical
carpentry work.
Describes the working of Petrol Motors and gives hints on overhaul and care of same. Illustrated.
A well illustrated book giving details as to construction of Yachts also hints on sailing them.
5.AIt is
struction. By ALFRED W. MARSHALL, A.M.I.E.E. book which should appeal to all builders of small Dynamos and Motors. written by a practical man and is well illustrated
By ERIC W. WALFORD.
chapter on Failures, their Causes and Remedies will be of interest to Motor Car user*. Fully illustrated.
Practical Bookbinding.By W.details ofall
own booksIllustrated
operations required.
The construction details and workshop methods used in building and repairing modern spark coils, with illustrations, will enable anyone to build their own apparatus.
ts.net; or
technical BooksSUPPLIED BY
Percival Marshall66,
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Special Features:Practical Articles by experienced writers on the construction and working of model steam, gas, and oil engines; model locomotives and railways; model boilers; model steam and electric launches, and sailing yachts lathes and metal and woodworking tools; pattern-making; brass and iron founding; forging; model dynamos and motors; electric bells, telephones, and batteries; accumuelectrical experiments, etc., etc. lators; electric lighting; influence machines Model Engineers and their Work. Illustrated Interviews with prominent model engineers, describing their workshops, their methods of working, and some of the models they have made. These are most interesting and instructive articles, and are fully illustrated from photographs.;
Practical Letters from our Readers. A correspondence column, wherein readers can describe workshop appliances or methods of their own invention, and discuss practical matters of mutual interest. ^ News Of the Trade. Under this heading short descriptions of new tools, apparatus, and materials are inserted, thus keeping the reader posted up in the latest improvements connected with his hobby. A System Of Queries and Replies, by -.vhich all readers of the Journal requiring information and advice on mechanical or electrical subjects can obtain in replies by post within a few days. All replies of general interest are published the following issue of the paper, so that while the individual enquirer can obtain the required assistance promptly, the remainder of the readers are not deprived of " " the interesting miscellany which a Queries and Reply Column always affords. Original Working Drawings and high-class illustrations are a regularfeature of the Journal. Prize Competitions, open to all readers, are announced from time to time, the subjects of which are sufficiently diverse in character to suit the tastes of both
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