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Katherine Zieman. Singing the New Song: Literacy and Liturgy in Late Medieval England. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008. xvii + 294 pp. $59.95 (cloth), ISBN 978-0-8122-4051-1.
Reviewed by Andrew Galloway
Published on H-Albion (October, 2008)
Commissioned by Margaret McGlynn (University of Western Ontario)
Medieval Literacy Studies in a New Key
Singing the New Song by Katherine Zieman is an important and original contribution to a range of fields that center both on literacy studies and on late medieval English vernacular literary criticism. Its argument is difficult to sum up in a single sentence without sounding far more abstract than its lucid, theoretically acute, and historically rich discussions themselves do, but that is because the book's implications extend so far. Its six chapters pivot on the modes of "literacy" in a culture where liturgy--song, chant, and ritual setting--defined clerical identity, and where expanding numbers of non-beneficed clerics and nonclerical intellectuals used and engaged textual authority. William Langland and Geoffrey Chaucer found themselves carving out new poetic turf, since they were learned but not (apparently, in the case of Langland) clerically beneficed, and were able to use liturgy's peculiar gaps between comprehension and mere formal evocation of authority and piety.
The study is also hard to sum up swiftly because the author is committed to reassessing from the ground up the history and the theoretical implications of the materials she treats, and she does so in an understated and careful way. Her own voice is a quiet but penetrating one. So, she turns from the politics and "cultural capital" (after Pierre Bourdieu) of who is using knowledge or song keyed as "clerical," to theory of Althusserian "interpellation" in the definitions of identity fostered and reassigned by liturgy and other clerical texts, to specific criticism of Langland and Chaucer (and John Gower in a minor way), as those poets' uses of liturgical texts exploit a general unsettling and remapping of the textual territory traditionally marked as clerical. This sounds highly theoretical, and it is, but the book manages to move from a level of historical research on clerical schooling that would have pleased A. F. Leach, to a fascinating and extremely up-to-date elucidation of the late medieval "politics of understanding," which focuses on the uncontrollable power of the Mass and ofliturgy in a period when lay contractual control of prayers and Masses was proliferating. It even offers economic theory in the broadest sense: in the final chapters, Zieman finds a way to discuss liturgical song and its transformation into a kind of commodity in a complex gift-exchange system (the late medieval chantry system) in terms that illuminate the wry presentation of self-interested liturgy in Langland and the ideal of "intentionless song" in Chaucer.
Big as the conceptual steps involved are--and Bourdieu's notions of "symbolic capital" are central to the whole framework, though their centrality is not flagged--Zieman takes pains to be precise and specific, and, as I have already suggested, to think things through herself rather than avert (as so often is the case in academic literary studies) to theoretical notions left wrapped in the words of their most famous modern expositors. As a result, many parts of this book, especially on the institutional contexts and uses of clerical literacy, can be read profitably by readers without any background in the ideas of Bourdieu or Louis Althusser, on the one hand, or any background in the history of the liturgy, on the other. The application to literature of the context of the medieval modes of liturgy and the decline of those modes that Zieman traces are wonderfully pellucid, though intricate. Mainly because of that intricacy, the study is addressed to a community of academic specialists and graduate students in late medieval literary study, who will be readier to follow a sometimes rapid sequence of claims that build complexly on ideas of "symbolic capital" in order to trace the workings of the idea of "literacy" as that shifts through a highly complex range of modes and political, institutional, and literary implications.
That kind of complexity is, in fact, something we have needed. Like most current studies of late medieval English literary history, this is a study of the late medieval transition of knowledge marked as "clerical" into knowledge marked in less fixed terms; unlike most such studies, though, it also displays the hardening of clerical claims to "own" particular kinds of liturgical expression. It documents what might be called (with apologies to Anne Hudson) the "premature counter-Reformation," as the late medieval clergy, already threatened before the Reformation proper by their own increasingly mobile uses of Masses and the liturgy as much as by lay inroads into sacred texts and textuality itself, circled their wagons around particular realms of bookish "clergy." It is thus dialectical rather than teleological; it marks contradictions, not just "progress" toward modern notions of secular life, and modern notions of literacy.
Its critique of the last notion is trenchant, and perhaps the study's most profound contribution. Studies of medieval literacy have opened new understandings of "mode" before--the work of Brian Stock on how aurality remains, yet is shifted, in medieval textual understanding was an early and major guide; a rich range of more recent contributions, including some by Zieman anticipating a number of the points made in this study, appear in the useful 2003 collection of essays edited by Sarah Rees Jones, Learning and Literacy in Medieval England and Abroad. But Zieman presents the most important new definition of a mode of medieval literacy to appear in decades, and she does so as a means to arrive at a kind of "voice" of late medieval literature that is alien and fascinating. Using as background a large and rich range of knowledge about late medieval liturgy and its changing institutional contexts, Zieman insists on challenging very acutely the modern idea of voice (including textually defined voice) as "personal expression," or at least as something the speaker understands and pays attention to as he or she utters or writes it. Even speech-act theory in the modern world--even deconstruction--assumes that the agent is committed to the meaning of the utterance in some fairly precise (if not fully controllable) way. Using medieval liturgy allows Zieman to focus on a more collectively and traditionally authorized understanding of voicing, which can tolerate without irony quite a significant "gap" between the form used and the "attention" or understanding of the user.
In the last chapters, Zieman applies this idea of a "gap" in personal understanding, and the accompanying claim to the social collectivity of the song itself, to literary works--Langland's Piers Plowman and Chaucer's Prioress's Tale. This set of finely careful readings of how the "choral ideal" falls apart in these works also allows Zieman to show how the mode of communal "voicing" and thus identity was becoming impossible to sustain except as a nostalgic ideal. In these chapters, the book offers subtle aesthetic claims. Langland emerges as the more cynical, one might say dissonant, voice; he shows efforts to proclaim communal, Christian identity collapsing under the force of self-interest, because of personal efforts to insert particular kinds of individual understandings and vicarious authority into religious texts (which are all understood to be a kind of "song" in this study's interesting perspective). Chaucer, who is more directly ironic about personal appropriations of and agency over scripture, is viewed as more haunted by the trace of the ideal. His evocations of Latin liturgy (and, it seems, any religious Latinity) not only show the failure of the ideal in the lived world--and of Chaucer's own constant self-conscious manipulation of tradition and authority--but also show a poignant residue of desire for "sanctification" of language and poetry.
Zieman clearly mentions, but does not dwell much on, the violence against the Jews that such longing for sanctification and the "choral ideal" seems to involve for Chaucer especially (Langland too, though that goes unnoticed). The book began by discussing the anti-Judaicism in the very premise of a "new song" (by which the New Testament replaced the "old song" of the Hebrew Bible), but does not emphasize the violence of that basic issue. The study moves from ideology into aesthetics and abstract form, and this leaves the poetry in a thinner atmosphere than the contexts where the book began. This progression sympathetically evokes, though, the career of the elusive ideal of a communal Christian identity that the study has pursued throughout.
The book thus opens up literacy studiesin two new directions. One focuses on how a range of ideas of "literacy" function in the late medieval economy of symbolic capital; some of Zieman's most remarkable claims on that topic appear in her chapter on "Extragrammatical Literacies." The other new direction is her strong demonstration of the medieval tolerance for a "gap" between understanding and voicing, and the use of that gap to investigate both the communal, nonpersonal identity of Christian culture and its decay into ironic subversions and nostalgia in some of the period's most satiric poets. This is a finely wrought and very suggestive book, which redefines the nature and uses of medieval literacy and literary "voicing" together, in a field whose complexity Zieman both patiently unfolds and uses to challenge deep-seated assumptions about "text" and "song," and literacy itself.
If there is additional discussion of this review, you may access it through the network, at: https://networks.h-net.org/h-albion.
Andrew Galloway. Review of Zieman, Katherine, Singing the New Song: Literacy and Liturgy in Late Medieval England.
H-Albion, H-Net Reviews.
October, 2008.
URL: http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=15699
|This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License.


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Bishops and the Machinery of Church Government
Next Previous
Bishops and the Machinery of Church Government
The Official Position of the Archbishops and Bishops in the Church of England
When Henry VIII broke the relationship of the English Church with Rome he appropriated for himself the title 'Supreme Head' of the Church of England, which Elizabeth changed to 'Supreme Governor'. This title has been retained until today. As royal prerogative has decreased it has been replaced by the power of Parliament, and the governorship of the Church likewise has passed to that body and more particularly to the party in power at any given time. At no point from Henry VIII until present times has there ever been the suggestion that the archbishop of Canterbury, who has ranked as 'Primate of all England' since the pontificate of Innocent VI (1352-62), has any practical authority over the Church of England except in a few minor aspects.
The archbishop of Canterbury exercises some of the dispensing powers held by medieval Popes under a statute of 15341 which enables him, among other things, to permit clergy to hold more than one living, grant special licences for the celebration of matrimony at any time and place, and to grant academic degrees. Technically he still holds powers from medieval times to depose or suspend a bishop for good cause and undertake visitations of any diocese, however these powers have not been used since the Reformation so after a lapse of four hundred and fifty years and more their authority must be open to question. Apart from this his functions in crowning the Monarch, acting as host to the Lambeth Conference, presiding over the Church Assembly and later over General Synod and the Convocation of Canterbury are largely honorary. His honorary rank as 'Primate of all England' does mean that he is often called upon to be the spokesman of the Church over national issues and sometimes to advise the prime minister. It frequently means that he is the one to introduce Church measures into Parliament. As such he exhibits a degree of moral authority. The force of such moral authority is very much dependent on the individual archbishop and is affected by his personality and charisma. As archbishops are chosen by prime ministers, until recently almost independently of the Church, they have frequently been chosen for their ability to speak to the nation and in the House of Lords in a way which will not be a challenge to the government in office. It has been suggested that more controversial figures, like Bishop Bell of Chichester, may have lost the opportunity to become archbishop on these same grounds.
The archbishop of York, who ranks next as 'Primate of England' has no dispensing powers and has only jurisdiction and visitation rites within the province of York, he is not even regarded as the potential successor to the archbishop of Canterbury although this may sometimes occur. He shares the presidency of General Synod and presides over the Convocation of York, but these functions give him influence and a hearing rather than other forms of authority.
Apart from the two archbishops, the bishops of London, Winchester and Durham, and the twenty one most senior diocesan bishops have seats in the House of Lords. This gives them a forum in which they may voice their opinions on ecclesiastical affairs, but these are voices of influence and not of ecclesiastical authority. Within their dioceses all bishops can exercise a certain degree of practical authority. They appoint diocesan chancellors, archdeacons and rural deans. They have little control of their cathedrals as they do not appoint the deans as they, like the bishops, are appointed by the prime minister. The dean and chapter of each cathedral are virtually autonomous.2. It is the bishops or their suffragans, who ordain all new clergy and receive the oath of canonical obedience from their clergy. In practice it would be difficult for them to refuse ordination to a man who came with the correct references from the theological college and a curacy agreed with a church in the diocese. Oaths of canonical obedience too tend to be nominal, as over this whole period clergy frequently disobeyed their bishops over ritual and liturgical practice. As the bishops exhibited great reluctance to use the ecclesiastical courts their only sanctions were the witholding of licences forcurates and some financial grants. Bishops do have the authority to present clergy to livings which are in their gift, but for those livings held by lay patrons, colleges and trusts it is almost impossible for the bishop to refuse to institute the patron's nominee however unsuitable they may regard the cleric to be.3 Likewise Parson's Freehold prevents them removing unsuitable incumbents, uniting many parishes or exercising discipline in many instances4. They do carry out visitations by process of a questionaire or through their archdeacons but they have few sanctions to enforce obedience to any problem areas unless the clergy, church wardens and congregation support them. Within their dioceses they presided over the Bishop's Conferences which until 1970 preceded the Diocesan Synods. Here they have a voice of influence rather than authority, for there are few major decisions they can make extra to those sanctioned by Church Assembly, General Synod and even more especially by Parliament. As the bishop presides over most boards and committees within his diocese, and as apart from ritual matters most clergy are willing to accept his authority, the bishop's influence is often considerable and in practice he can wield quite a large amount of authority especially when he has a strong personality. As Kenneth Kirk, Bishop of Oxford, stated in the 1940's,
'Our ingrained tradition is so strong, that the bishop's words on administrative and financial matters were he ever to speak on them at all - would probably outweigh in popular esteem anything any committee could decide5'
The influence of Michael Ramsey as Archbishop of Canterbury was particularly strong. Owen Chadwick, in his life of Michael Ramsey,showed how he exercised this in his relationship with the government and through the House of Lords to win more freedom for the Church from the control of the State. On a personal level too Chadwick showed how Ramsey helped to improve relationships with the Roman Catholic Church leading to future dialogue6.
Episcopal Influence
The influence of bishops, particularly the archbishops of Canterbury, is considerable especially over moral issues and sometimes over political issues where they coincide.
This influence has grown during the period as they have had increasing access to the media and have been able to voice their opinions through newspapers, radio and television to their fellow Anglicans and beyond them to the rest of the community. This influence does not constitute authority and is sometimes the opinions of individual members of the episcopate rather than the whole body, nevertheless its significance should not be discounted7.
An interesting example was when Cosmo Lang's opinion was sought by Stanley Baldwin, the Prime Minister, over the abdication of Edward VIII8 though Lang had studiously avoided making public utterances in the matter. Subsequent archbishops have not been so reticent and Archbishop Fisher was more forthright in his condemnation of the British intervention in Suez9. There is no record of episcopal protest having a significant effect on government policies during this period.
The bishops meet together as a group in the Convocations, in Church Assembly and later in General Synod, and as a smaller group in Parliament. Outside these bodies there is no conference of bishops where they meet just as a group to make any decisions on behalf of the Church, although less formal gatherings do take place often at the request of the archbishops of Canterbury.
For some years experimentation has taken place in various dioceses whereby suffragan bishops have been given areas of pastoral responsibility and authority functioning as a team with the diocesan bishop rather than the suffragans functioning largely as clergy who have the ability to confirm and ordain when the bishop felt overworked10. These experiments led to the 1971 report Bishops and Ministry11 which suggested a form of collegial episcopacy within dioceses whereby there was a small group of bishops each working in given geographical areas, and as a team responsible for decision making. It suggested that suffragan bishops be replaced by full bishops who would be appointed by the method used for the appointment of diocesan bishops12. Although this report was designed to remove the anomaliesin the position of suffragan bishops it did suggest an interesting concept of bishops working together in the exercise of authority and responsibility outside of the Convocations and General Synod, even though the groups of bishops would be fairly small. The Report claimed that this expression of episcopal collegiality had its roots in the early Church and was based on a Cyprianic concept whereby each diocesan bishop held the fulness of apostolic authority within his own diocese13. Although the Report used the idea of collegiality not for the Church of England as a whole but for a college of bishops in each individual diocese. No doubt the report has affected the internal workings of some dioceses, but there has been no change in the method of appointment of suffragans and so the concept has yet to come to possible fruition.
The divergence of opinion in belief and practice found throughout the Church of England during this period has also been found within its bishops, who contain representatives from all the main groupings, and has prevented the bishops from speaking with one voice on various topics. As Archbishop Garbett of York wrote in 1947,
'It is undeniable that there is occasionally lack of unanimity among the bishops on certain questions of doctrine, worship and practical politics. This is inevitable if all Church parties are to be represented on the episcopal bench. An unanimous episcopal vote would be the result of the exclusion of all who held the views of a minority. As long as the Church of England is comprehensive there must be some variety of opinion among the bishops14'
Such divergences have sometimes hindered the passage of ecclesiastical legislation, such as the 1928 Prayer Book.More generally they have prevented even the House of Bishopsfrom taking a stand over a unified approach to doctrine within the Church or against fellow bishops, such as Henson and Barnes, whose writings have been felt by many to be against the position generally held by most of the Church.
The question of where the seat of authority is to be found in Anglicanism, and of the role of the archbishop of Canterbury, wasdiscussed by the bishops at the 1978 Lambeth Conference and was answered by Dr Coggan, then the Archbishop of Canterbury. He contended that for Anglicanism authority did not rest in the Lambeth Conferences, or in the Anglican Consultative Council, nor ?would it rest in a Doctrinal Commission if one wereestablished. It certainly did not rest in the archbishop of Canterbury, as he made clear when he said,
'There are those who would say perhaps that authority ought to be centred in the person of the Archbishop of Canterbury himself, but down the years the feeling against that has, I think rightly, been strong. It is not, I believe of the genius of Anglicanism to have at its head someone who is papal or patriarchial15... I do not think there is a quick or easy answer to the question 'where is authority to be found?' Nor do I think it is of the genius of Anglicanism to define too rigidly, though there is always, on the part of some of us, a craving for rigid neatness16.'
Gareth Bennett was later to condemn these remarks of Dr Coggan by stating,
'that a notion of authority so obscure in conception and so imprecise in its exercise might in fact be no authority at all17.'
Although this was spoken in the context of a Lambeth Conference it is undoubtedly true for the Church of England itself. No archbishop during this period has attempted to claim for himself any primatial role of authority, only the exertion of influence. The role of bishops in the authority structure as a whole has decreased as the laity have received more power through General Synod, yet in both General Synod and in the Church Assembly the clergy could exercise a veto on the wishes of the House of Bishops. Coggan said that it was not the nature of Anglicanism to be headed by a patriarchial figure, the Church of England has never had such a figure and has shown no enthusiasm for getting one. The overall authority which acts as a constant check on new developments is the State, which has carefully restricted the powers of any new piece of authority structure to arise in the Church, and the State has exhibited no desire to increase the power of bishops or archbishops.
The Convocations had their origins in Pre-Reformation England. The Convocations of Canterbury and York were revived in the 1850's after over 130 years when they had not been permitted to conduct any Church business.
Each Convocation consists of two Houses, an Upper House of all the diocesan bishops in the province with some suffragan bishops, and a Lower House consisting of lesser clergy. An archbishopsits as president over the Upper House and over joint meetings of both Houses, although the Sovereign has the power to appoint a vicegerent to preside over the archbishops, though the only ?instance of this was Henry VIII's appointment of Thomas Cromwell, a layman, to this post. Convocations cannot sit without a Royal Licence and although they can and do pass many resolutions none of these have any legal power within the Church but do have varying amounts of influence. Prior to the establishment of General Synod they had the right to pass Canons, subject to Royal Assent, but this was surrendered to the General Synod at its inception18.
In Convocations the Upper House (Bishops) is usually the initiating body and the Lower House's work is that of revision and advice but even so both Houses must agree before any resolution is said to have the approval of Convocation. Should the Lower House refuse to support a resolution of the Upper House it cannot be overridden and the bishops are defeated although this rarely occurs. After resolutions are made, bishops can be asked to introduce a bill in the House of Lords, archbishops can be requested to petition the Crown, and measures could be sent to Church Assembly or later to its successor General Synod.
Church Assembly
The Church Assembly was established under an Enabling Act of 1919 to give the Church a better forum for discussion and to initiate ecclesiastical legislation. It consisted of the Convocations of Canterbury and York which formed two Houses of Bishops and Clergy, and a House of Laity elected by the laity in each diocese. The laity were excluded from discussion and decision making on doctrine and worship which kept these areas of debate completely in clerical hands and meant that the bishops had more influence in these major areas. Even as late as 1952 when Archbishop Fisher told the House of Laity that they would be consulted over Canon Law revision he made it clear that this was a concession.
The Constitution of the Church Assembly expressly stipulated that,
'it does not belong to the functions of the Assembly to issue any statement purporting to define the doctrine of the Church of England on any question of theology, and no such statement shall be issued by the Assembly.19'
This Constitution was prepared by a group within the Church and although referred to in the Enabling Act was not drawn up by Parliament. However it is fairly certain that had they not imposed limits on themselves the bill might have incurred more difficulties on its passage through Parliament.
The Enabling Act contained safeguards to preserve Parliament's ?supremacy, an Ecclesiastical Committee of fifteen members of the House of Commons would examine any proposed legislation to ensure this before such measures were submitted to Parliament when they would be accepted or rejected by that body but were not able to be amended by Parliament.
Archbishop Davidson, when he spoke on behalf of the Enabling Bill in the House of Lords, said of it that, 'Parliament retains its right not only in theory but in fact',
'Remember that these powers are definitely and in set terms limited by Parliament in each individual case of their exercise.20'
From the start the bishops knew and were prepared to accept these Parliamentary constraints as the price for a small measure of freedom.
The establishment of the Church Assembly was not universally welcomed in the Church even among the bishops. Hensley Henson strongly opposed it as he was concerned that minority groups in the Church could use it as a forum to extend their influence to the detriment of what he saw as the broad basis of Anglicanism21. He accused the new Church Assembly of being, 'almost confessedly hostile to every feature of the establishment,' and stated that, 'in principle the Enabling Act is an Act of Disestablishment22. in spite of all the Parliamentary restrictions to prevent this, as at the time he felt the Church was safeguarded from internal friction. However he later came to value the Church Assembly and to admit that it did much useful work in the measures it did get through, in its reforms and reports23.
Measures in Church Assembly were not introduced by individual members, even bishops. Rather, members proposed a committee be established to consider a subject and the committee, if appointed, prepared any measures to come before the Assembly. Although many such proposals came from the archbishops and bishops it did mean that their ideas came before the Assembly through their influence and because others agreed to their importance rather than by any power of authority. The measures proposed by committees still had to proceed through the voting system which provided another check on episcopal dominance.
It was said that the debate in the Church Assembly resembled, 'the school debating society with the headmaster in the chair'24 as everyone was anxious to avoid conflicts and friction and there was general reluctance in opposing official policy. Thus most of the committees it set up and the reports they subsequently produced tended to be ones initiated by the bishops, although these committees had many non-episcopal members. The ?measures supported by the bishops were not attacked in the way that would later happen in General Synod, probably because the clergy and laity did not have effective voting power to change them, or perhaps, on the laity's behalf, a greater sense of deference to bishops.
Although most of the measures proposed by the Church Assembly were accepted by Parliament there were several notable exceptions. The most important of these were those concerning Prayer Book revision in 1927 and 1928 when Parliament refused twice to accept measures which had majorities throughout Church Assembly and which were supported by nearly all bishops. This was not the first time Parliament had rejected the Church's measures, having already refused the Shrewsbury Bishopric Measure and a measure concerned with London churches in the 1920's.
Following the rejection of the 1928 Prayer Book, Church Assembly deliberately avoided controversial measures for many years and so no further confrontations with Parliament arose which might have led to calls for disestablishment. Thus the Church Assembly did not bring in many of the measures that were becoming increasingly necessary for the Church in the twentieth century.
Hensley Henson, who after the failure of the 1928 Prayer Book Measure, became a staunch advocate of more independence for the Church, and a fierce critic of its leadership for not demanding this, felt that the arrangements for Church Assembly severely weakened the archbishops and prevented them from giving a proper lead to the Church. The archbishops were expected to take the chair in the debates. He claimed that the true position of the archbishops of Canterbury should be, 'analogous to that of the prime minister in the House of Commons', but by having to chair debates he was reduced to that of the 'Speaker'.25' Because of this,
'The Assembly does not always receive from the Archbishop the guidance which it needs, and is entitled to expect, for his Grace's position in the chair is rarely compatible with his intervention in debate, never really compatible when the subject of debate is one on which there is acute difference of opinion.26'
By the 1950's the laity came to feel the need for wider participation, and the archbishops were persuaded to consider a greater role for them by establishing a committee to enquire into their future role which reported in 1958, The Convocations and the Laity.
After much debate and further committees a report was produced in 1966, Government by Synod which laid the foundation for the establishment of the General Synod to replace Church Assembly27. The Synodical Government Measure which resulted was accepted by Parliament and received ?the Royal Assent in 1969.
General Synod
General Synod has three Houses, Bishops, Clergy and Laity. All the bishops have the right to sit in Synod, clergy and laity are elected. Although its powers to make Canons, pass measures and conduct relationships with other Churches, Anglican and non-Anglican, would appear extensive they are still very much subject to exterior authority. Canons have to receive Royal Assent and measures have to pass first the scrutiny of the ecclesiatical committee and then, if the committee deems it necessary because of the nature of the canon, it must come before Parliament for assent before having any force whatsoever just as the measures of Church Assembly.
In the General Synod the composition of the House of Bishops and the House of Clergy is identical to that of the Convocations at any given moment. Although the three Houses meet separately they usually meet together for all major business. The Archbishops of Canterbury and York are the joint presidents of General Synod and usually take the chair if present but can choose to be chairman on any particular occasion or one of the panel of other chairmen including lay persons can take their place.
If a General Synod measure concerns doctrine, services or ceremonies it has to be debated and voted in each House separately, but it is finally put to the Synod in the form proposed by the House of Bishops, when it is subjected to the same voting procedure as the other measures, so this gives the bishops only a small amount of extra authority.
The clause reserving to the bishops the right to express in their terms proposals on certain matters states,
'A provision touching doctrinal formulae or the services or ceremonies in the Church of England or the administration of the sacraments or sacred rites thereof shall, before it is finally approved by the General Synod, be referred to the House of Bishops, and shall be submitted for such final approval in terms proposed by the House of Bishops and not otherwise.28'
Bishops usually chair the boards councils and committees of the Synod.
Appointments to General Synod Commissions are made by a standing committee which includes both archbishops and representatives of all three houses so even here the bishops have only a share in the choice of members. Measures which come before Synod usually originate from the work of these Commissions, it is very rare that measures originate in the House of Bishops29.
To get motions through General Synod they have to have a majority in all ?three Houses, and on major issues a two thirds majority. On some issues, such as Anglican-Methodist Unity Scheme and the Convenanting Proposal, the House of Clergy have rejected motions which received the necessary votes in the House of Bishops. Most of these failures which thwarted the hopes of the bishops were brought about by the Anglo Catholic group of clergy and, in the case of the Anglican-Methodist Unity, by a combination of Anglo Catholic and Evangelical clergy.
The bishops exert some influence in the General Synod but this falls far short of the authority to persuade the other two Houses to vote in the same way as them if they feel differently about a motion. It is interesting that here again the Anglo Catholic group of clergy which makes the greatest theological claims for bishops as successors of the Apostles is prepared to work against them on major issues of theology and Church unity.
The archbishops' and bishops' lack of authority, as showm by the veto which can be imposed by the other two Houses in General Synod, has raised important questions. It has been suggested that the bishops' authority is undermined and their proper functions usurped. As John Halliburton expressed it,
'They have after all not only a seniority but a Commission to the ministry of discernment. This needs not only to be recognised but to be asserted; and the constitution of the General Synod stands in need of essential modification in this respect30.'
Those who, like Henry Chadwick, regarded synods composed of clergy and laity, as well as bishops, as being the embodiment of the consensus fidelium and in the spirit of the early Church,pointed out,
'The consensus of bishops in council is therefore integrally linked to the wider, universal consenus of the faithful, both clerical and lay; and that wider consensus has often exercised, gradually but decisively, a controlling critical interpretation of the decrees and definitions of even general councils. The reception of the believing community is integral to the process of authoritative doctrinal or ethical decisions.31
Yet even Chadwick stated that,
'The moral unanimity of a council of many bishops has always been understood to have decision making and binding force for the ?community represented32
suggesting the Synod's role in the authority structure of the Church is not to overrule the bishops on major issues.
Some bishops also felt that General Synod was not functioning in the way that it was intended and the concept of partnership between bishops, clergy and laity was not intended to weaken episcopal authority. Although it was admitted that often the bishops did not provide a united position from which to influence the other Houses, this was especially true of moral issues such as homosexuality. Even where the bishops were largely united, such as over the Anglican-Methodist Unity Scheme, their influence alone was unable to persuade the other Houses to follow them. It is certainly the opinion of one retired archbishop of Canterbury that in his opinion the,
'General Synod now has too much power and there is the danger that we forget that ours is an Episcopal Church.'33
The position of the bishops in General Synod where their decisions can be overuled by either the House of Laity, the House of Clergy, orboth, clearly puts them in a different relationship to the Church of England than that of bishops in either the Roman Catholic or Orthodox Churches. This is of course bound up with the whole Church of England understanding of the role of bishops in the authority structures of the Church.
It is clear too that this has led members of the Free Churches to see bishops as 'moderators' and 'superintendent ministers' in their functions when they have been involved in unity talks with the Church of England, and caused them perplexity when Anglicans could not accept this verdict as will be shown later in this thesis.
This undermining of episcopal authority is clearly an issue in Anglican/Roman Catholic reunion discussions. It is hard to reconcile a Church that holds a high doctrine of episcopal authority with one that ever enables bishops be outvoted by clergy and laity. This will be discussed further in the chapter on ARCIC34.
The Lambeth Conferences
The Lambeth Conferences of bishops from the worldwide Anglican Communion first met in 1867 at Lambeth and has continued to meet ?there at approximately ten year intervals ever since. It provides a forum for discussion on major topics affecting the Churches. The conferences pass resolutions indicating areas of general agreement but none of these are binding on the member Churches. Generally these take the form of statements of basic principles or hopes for the future such as the 1920 Lambeth call for the reunion of Christendom. Sometimes there are shown to be considerable areas of division among the bishops as over the Church of South India in 1930. The 1948 Conference seemed to deliberately avoid controversy in that it avoided all mention of the Doctrine in the Church of England which had appeared in 1938, and the debates among English clergy and bishops over Bishop Barnes's The Rise of Christianity both of which were then recent news. Sometimes the bishops proclaimed a change in attitudes, as in 1958,then for the first time they universally supported family planning. This support was restated in 1968 shortly after the papal encyclical Humanae Vitae. The 1968 Conference, among many other topics, discussed the role of the Thirty Nine Articles. It endorsed the main conclusions of the Archbishops' Commission on Christian Doctrine Report, Subscription and Assent to the Thirty Nine Articles (1969), but suggested that individual Churches within the Anglican Communion could consider whether or not to have the Articles bound up with their Prayer Books and whether assent to the Articles be still required of ordinands. If it were required, it was suggested the assent be in a form that set the Articles in their historical context35. Only the Church of England would not be able to choose whether or not to implement these fully.
As with almost all Lambeth Conference resolutions the wording includes 'suggests' or 'recommends'. There was always the awareness that these resolutions had no binding force but rather a varying amount of moral influence upon the Churches that comprise the Anglican Communion. Nowhere was this more true than Resolution 5i of the 1968 Conference36 where the bishops welcomed proposals for the Anglican-Methodist Unity Scheme and stated that it,
'believes the proposed Service of Reconciliation is theologically adequate to achieve its declared intentions of reconciling the two Churches and integrating their ministries.'
This resolution was reached after considerable debate and not without the belief of some English bishops that the rest of the Anglican Communion was not sufficiently aware of all the implications37. Bishop Cyril Eastaugh of Peterborough wrote to the Church Times on 13th September 1968 that,
'The resolution on this matter passed by the Lambeth Conference must not be taken as a considered and responsible decision of the bishops.'
It clearly had no influence on future voting in the Church Assembly and General Synod.
The various parts of the Anglican Communion which are represented at the Lambeth Conferences have always expressed their complete freedom in rites, ceremonies, usages, observances and discipline, even where,
'this freedom naturally and necessarily carries with it the risk of divergence to the point even of disruption. In case any such risk should actually arise it is clear the the Lambeth Conference as such could not take any disciplinary action38.'
Various Lambeth Conferences have talked about the importance of episcopal ordination in any Church reunion scheme with the Free Churches.
The Lambeth Conference of 1930 in its section on the Unity of the Church upheld the concept of the historic episcopate dating back to the time of the Apostles or at least the the second century, as asserted in the 1888 Lambeth Quadrilateral, having the functions of,
'the general superintendance of the Church and more especially of the Clergy; the maintainance of unity in the one Eucharist; the ordination of men to the ministry; the safeguarding of the faith; and the administration of the discipline of the Church39.'
However they refused to include further definitions,
'we must insist on the Historic Episcopate but not upon any theory or interpretation of it40'
They stated that, from any other Church with which they entered into a union,
'we do not require of others... any one theory or interpretation of the Episcopate as a condition of union... we are content to believe that the acceptance of the Episcopate itself, in its continuity of succession and consecration, and in the discharge of its historic functions, will bring the united Church those gifts of Grace which, as we believe, the Providence of God has associated with it.'41
This attitude towards episcopacy, demanding it to be accepted with no theological basis, was to be that which prevailed in the Church of ?England in future years and caused endless problems during attempts at reunion with other Churches especially the Methodists. If the Anglican Communion had an agreed theology of episcopacy and therefore insisted on other Churches accepting this, debate would have been more straightforward. To insist on the acceptance of episcopacy with no theology of episcopacy led to constant bewilderment and frustration in the Free Churches. The Lambeth bishops, just as the Church of England bishops, were in such a dilemma because of the various episcopal theologies accepted among their members, therefore they were unable to produce a theology of episcopacy which commanded universal support. The accompanying definition of the function of a bishop could be applied to a 'superintendent minister' or similar person in the Free Churches, the only additional authority seemingly conveyed is by the continuity of succession.
Again in 1958 the Lambeth Conference stated the need of an episcopally ordained ministry, asserting the importance of,
'the principle of continuity by succession, which appears to be indispensible, at least from the human point of view.42'
They insisted that episcopal ordination is essential in any reunion scheme as,
'we cannot enter into the fulness of Christ's life in the Church without the recognised embodiment of this element of his ministry.43'
The position of the archbishop of Canterbury vis-85-vis the Lambeth Conferences is unique. The first Conference was summoned after many requests to the then archbishop for such a conference. At that timemost of the Anglican Communion still lay within British colonies or dominions. A tradition having been established, the bishops still continue to meet in England, although since 1958 the venue has moved from Lambeth to the University of Kent. William Temple, when referring to the 1930 Lambeth Conference, said of the Anglican Communion,
'This Communion is a commonwealth of Churches without a central constitution, it is a federation without a federal government'44
Without a constitution or a federal government it is virtually impossible to give such a body a head, unless that head had autocratic powers which would render it totally unacceptable to Anglicanism. Archbishop Ramsey believed that archbishops of ?Canterbury had a continuous role here, not one of authority or as in any sense a dominating figure in worldwide Anglicanism but as a symbol of the origins of all these Churches and of their unity in fellowship. As he said in 1973 at his presidential address to the Diocesam Synod of Canterbury,
'if an Archbishop of Canterbury will identify himself with the Communion as a whole and try to be less an English prelate than a servant of the Anglican Communion as widely as he can, then the see of Canterbury will continue to have its symbolic role.45'
Yet in the same speech he had to admit to tensions between the Church of England and other Churches in the Communion which felt, 'suspicious of the Church and State relation in this country'. They had won their freedom and independence from State control and they had authority within their own Churches to decree, legislate and appoint in the way they believed was right for their Churches.Yet the very Church from which they owed their descent did not have this freedom or make many efforts to demand it, even its power to implement some of the resolutions passed by the Conferences was severely restricted. Archbishops of Canterbury might serve as host and chairman to the Conferences but their role could never be more, even as in England their authority and control over their fellow bishops was so nominal as to be almost non-existent. It had become a long standing part of the Anglican tradition that there should be no figure at the head of the Church who would in any sense command obedience from its bishops, clergy and laity.
Archbishop Coggan stated that the greatest value he believed emanated from the Conferences was fellowship, and the friendships formed and deepened46. In this he was probably echoed by most of the participants, each member Church was too independent of the others, especially afterthe 1920's, for the Conferences to exert anything more than a certain degree of influence.
1) 25 Henry VIII, c.21
2) The factual details of what a bishop can or cannot do in his diocese are well set out in E.Garth Moore and Timothy Briden, Moore's Introduction to English Canon Law, 2nd edn. (1985),p.21ff
3) This position has been slightly changed by the Patronage Measure of 1986, but not in respect of Crown livings.
4) Most of these areas are dealt with at greater length in the chapter on Discipline
5) E.W.Kemp, The Life and Letters of ?Kenneth Escott Kirk, (1959), p.96
6) Owen Chadwick, Michael Ramsey : A Life, (1990)
7) Accounts of such influence and archepiscopal protests are to be found in Edward Carpenter, Cantuar : The Archbishops in their Office, (1971), especially pp.408-502
8) Ibid.p.462
9) Ibid.p.508
10) These experiments were summarized in Paul Welsby, Episcopacy in the Church of England, (1973), a General Synod consultative document p.11ff
11) ACCM, Bishops and Ministry, the report of the Ministry Committee Working Party ?on the Episcopate, (1971)
12) Ibid.p.28
13) Ibid.p.25
14) C.Garbett, The Claims of the Church of England (1947),p.117
15) The Report of the Lambeth Conference 1978, (1978),p.122
16) Ibid.p.123
17) G.Bennett, To the Church of England, (1988), p.196
18) Technical details of Convocation and General Synod are to be found in Moore and Briden, Moore's Introduction to English Canon Law, (1985), 2nd edn, p.25ff.
19) Constitution 1514(2) quoted in The Church Assembly and the Church, published by the Church Assembly (1930), p.16
20) The Church Assembly and the Church, pp.115-6
21) Owen Chadwick, Hensley Henson, (1983),pp.186-7
22) H.H.Henson, Anglicanism, (1921),p.ix
23) H.H.Henson, The Church of England (1939), Cambridge, p.227
24) Guy Mayfield, The Church of England (1958), p.133
25) H.H.Henson, The Church of England, (1939), Cambridge, p.227
26) Ibid.p.228
27) A good brief account of the emergence of General Synod is to be found in Paul Welsby, A History of the Church of England : 1945-1980, (1984), OUP, p.146ff.
28) Synodical Measure, 1969, Sch.2.Sec. 7(1),p.12
29) Information supplied by A.W.Nunn the Private Secretary to the General Synod
30) J.Halliburton, The Authority of a Bishop, (1986), p.50, see also D.W.Gundry 'The Need for Revision' p.57, in The Synod of Westminster : Do we need it? ed. Peter Moore (1986)
31) In Vogel,A.A., ed., Theology in Anglicanism, Wilton, Connecticut(1984),p.26
32) Ibid.p.26
33) Lord Coggan in a private letter to the author of this thesis
34) It is interesting that Bishop Mark Santer, the co2Dchairman of ARCIC II commented, 'If episcopal authority is submerged by synodical majorities, then synodical government is as corrupt and sick as the arbitrary use of episcopal power,' Mark Santer, 'The Way Forward', in Communion and Episcopacy ed. Jonathan Draper, Ripon College, Cuddesdon (1988), p.111
35) Resolution 43, The Lambeth Conference 1968 (1968), pp.40-41
36) Ibid.p.43
37) Alan Stephenson, Anglicanism and the Lambeth Conferences, (1978), pp.249-251
38) The Lambeth Conference 1930, (1930), p.154
39) Ibid. pp.114-115
40) Ibid.p.115
41) Ibid.p.119
42) The Lambeth Conference, 1958 (1958), 2.88
43) Ibid.2.89
44) W.Temple, Thoughts on Some Problems of the Day,(1931),p.77
45) Quoted in Alan Stephenson, Anglicanism and the Lambeth Conferences, (1978), pp.288-9
46) D.Coggan, Convictions, (1975), p.153f

subset: commoncrawl


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Noah's Ark
Noah's Ark is a worst-case-scenario furniture installation.
Exhibition: Copenhagen Design Week Kvæsthusmolen, Ofelia Beach, 1-6 Sep 2011.
The rising sea level is compared with The Flood from the well-known Bible tale Noah's Ark. With this unconventional installation, we intend to create a discussion about the climate changes created by excess consumption.
Sponsored by: Kirkens Korshær & Folkekirkens Nødhjælp
By: Monique Engelund & Sophie Alexandrine


text:
Architect Shahed Saleem is reimagining the British mosque after he was tasked by communities to design Muslim places of worship across the UK.
Mosques – which are mostly locally funded initiatives from congregations – rarely serve just as places of prayer, but also as community centres, food banks, and even gym spaces.
In 1990 there were about 400 mosques in Britain – now there are around 1,800.
"What I'm interested in is making buildings that could only happen in this place, in this time, with this culture that we have now," Saleem said.
"Also, the buildings should be reflective [of] Britishness, and with that I mean us accepting, acknowledging, and taking on the fact we are a product of this country, of this place, and we can't pretend that we're not."
Saleem, a senior research fellow at UCL's Bartlett School of Architecture, is completing an ambitious project on Muslim architecture in Britain – charting the evolution from the earliest buildings in the late 19th century to mosques being designed today.
He added: "If we can use our architecture to explore the new identity, as it was forming, in this country it can be something useful – and more accurately represent our conditions in our [current] circumstances."


text:
Most people buy a car more often than they hire a Mobile
Disco and can be unsure how to choose the right DJ service.
The job of hiring a Mobile Disco is also made more difficult
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However picking the right music tracks that help build the
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When you are planning a party the most important thing
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A party is normally judge to be a success if there has been
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text:
A&E's "Bates Motel" is only two months away; are we excited yet? The prequel series to PSYCHO premieres on Monday, March 18 at 10 PM ET/PT, and in an effort to prep you for your stay, the channel has passed along three new promos for the show, which you can watch below.
Called, in order, "Hand," "Breath" and "Dance Party," all three give varying looks at the weird world Norman Bates and family will be inhabiting. The "Dance Party" ad is particularly interesting, as it shows off a side of the series that we haven't seen before.
In �Bates Motel,� following the tragic death of her husband, Norma Bates buys a motel on the outskirts of the idyllic coastal town of White Pine Bay, seeking a fresh start. As Norma and Norman get ensconced in their new home, they discover this town isn't quite what it seems, and the locals aren�t so quick to let them in on their secrets. But the Bates� are done being pushed around and will do whatever it takes to survive � and will do whatever it takes to protect their own secrets.
The series stars Academy Award nominee Vera Farmiga (�Up in the Air,� �The Departed�), Freddie Highmore (�Charlie and the Chocolate Factory,� �Finding Neverland�), Max Thieriot (�Disconnect�), Olivia Cooke (�Blackout�) and Nicola Peltz (�The Last Airbender�). Season one also co-stars Nestor Carbonell (�Lost,� �The Dark Knight Rises�) and Mike Vogel (�Pan Am�).


text:
We are delighted to show you our web-brochures of over 350 furnished holiday homes. All the properties we recommend have been personally inspected and chosen by the Unique team who seek welcoming and comfortable 'home-from-homes' - preferably in picturesque locations.
We have all lived in and loved Scotland virtually all our lives, so we know this unique and beautiful country very well; and our experience and knowledge of the Scottish holiday homes industry - acquired over the last 30 years - has afforded us an unrivalled knowledge of properties throughout Scotland as well as an excellent relationship with our owners and regular visitors.
If you do not see anything in these web pages that appeals to you, we may still be able to help since we are constantly adding to our list, and during the summer season can provide information on many other furnished properties in Scotland whose owners have advised us of vacancies in the summer months.
Just e-mail or chat to us (there's a link on every property page) or pick up the phone and tell us what you want.
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(Or from outside the UK:
Tel: 44 1835 822 277. Fax: 44 1835 822 618)
If you live in the UK we can send you our printed booklet. See: printed Holiday Cottage Brochure.


text:
Find out more >
More information
Attention is the world's most valuable commodity. This course is all about showing you how to use new and very new media to get people's attention. You'll learn how to turn that attention into an audience, and to grow an audience into a community.
This course teaches you to understand your role as both consumer and content provider. You will make, create and leverage all types of media, whether for entertainment, education, advertising, idea-generation or changing the world.
Our Media and Film courses are ranked in the top 20% of all UK universities.
(Guardian University Guide 2019)
of our Media students are satisfied that their course has provided them with opportunities to apply what they have learnt.
of our graduates are in work or further study, six months after graduation.
Leeds Trinity University is 2nd in Yorkshire for overall student satisfaction, behind only the University of Leeds.
You will study key theoretical aspects of media and marketing, learn how the media works and explore how different branches have developed and continue to develop. You will get to choose some of your own projects, sometimes in groups, and you will pitch, propose and plan your assignments, practicing the skills you'll need in this fast-moving industry.
Our hands-on approach means you learn through doing, interacting with both tutors and industry professionals in classroom, online and social media tasks. You will mix day-to-day tactics with strategic planning to understand all roles and tasks within a marketing campaign or media launch. You will also go on two professional work placements where you will gain invaluable experience.
You will graduate with a strong portfolio of work and professional experience that will showcase your talent to prospective media and marketing employers, preparing you for an exciting career!
Read our full course terms and conditions.
Year 1
In year one you will study a range of cores modules that will cover a combination of practical and theoretical subjects related to your degree. These will include Analysing Media and Culture, which will explore subjects such as advertising, news and identity via a range of theoretical concepts. Image Creation provides an introduction to the terminology of digital imaging, DTP, website and mobile design. An examination of software and hardware used in the industry, with key terms such as resolution, colour depth, layout, typography, interface, structure of HTML and multimedia asset creation and delivery will be explored. Online Storytelling introduces the practical skills and knowledge required to put media online, and an overview of the online platforms and applications needed to facilitate that process. Online Platforms explores how different media can be combined on platforms, or presented across channels to create a holistic and coherent online presence. Marketing Fundamentals will explain the nature of the marketing concept and its application in a range of commercial and non-commercial contexts.
Year 2
Core modules include: Researching Media, Film and Culture, which introduces you to a range of approaches to research in the fields of media, film and culture, and to the processes involved in formulating a research proposal. Online Community Management will look at online community management and customer service, social content and engagement planning and introduce social media analytics, including those for advertising on social networks and online communities. Marketing Communications is designed to provide a framework to better understand the individual elements of the marketing communications mix and their effectiveness, within today's marketing environment. Your second year work placement will build upon year one work, helping develop skills in team and group work. Option modules include the following: Script to Screen, Digital Effects, Radio and Podcast Production, Documentary: Theory and Practice, Digital Narratives, and PR in Practice, Media, Culture and Society, Understanding Disney, Myths, Meaning and Movies, Television Genres, Service Marketing, Politics, Culture and Everyday Life and a Negotiated Study module.
Year 3
In your final year you will study one core Media module - Media, Film and Culture Research A which builds on skills introduced in years one and two. You will apply specific research skills to an extended piece of independent work. The topic of which will reflect your personal interests. You will also choose between either Marketing Strategy and Planning or e-Business and e-Marketing. You will have a greater choice of option modules in year three, which will include the following: Creative Media, Advanced Documentary and Advanced Short Film Production, Contemporary Cult TV, Contemporary Cultural Issues, Film and Television Adaptation, Science Fiction, Transmedia Production, PR Management, Entrepreneurship and Creativity, Professional Learning Through Work, Business Ethics, Leadership, International Marketing and a Negotiated Study module.
On this course you will study a range of modules which may include the following:
Year 1 - 17.4% of scheduled learning and teaching; 260 hours of scheduled learning and teaching; 990 hours of independent teaching; 240 hours on placement
Year 2 – 18.3% of scheduled learning and teaching; 244 hours of scheduled learning and teaching; 851 hours of independent teaching; 240 hours on placement
Year 3 – 13.6% of scheduled learning and teaching; 163 hours of scheduled learning and teaching; 1,037 hours of independent teaching
Undergraduates on the Media and Marketing degree programme are taught by academic staff from both departments and modules are delivered through a combination of lectures, workshops and small group seminars as well as practical "hands-on" sessions, with a particular focus on social media and online technologies.
On this programme students undertake two 20-credit Professional Development and Placement modules, which include six-week professional work placements in the summer term of Level 4 and Level 5. Media and Marketing students have the opportunity to gain work experience in both the Media and/or the Marketing sectors. Before their work placements, students are fully prepared and briefed and afterwards, they are encouraged to reflect on the experience. Our professional work placements are a pivotal part of the degree programme and invariably help students to find their first job after graduation.
At Level 6, all students undertake a 40-credit Media Research module and they also have the opportunity to do a range of marketing modules which have professionally-focused and industry-relevant assignments. A further option is the "Professional Learning through Work" module, which will involve the negotiation of a special project with an employing organisation, which is approved by academic staff at Leeds Trinity. All of these module options are designed to provide students with the opportunity to develop their critical thinking skills, to showcase their understanding and to generate a network of industry contacts, which will help to get them into their chosen career areas.
At Leeds Trinity we aim to provide an excellent student experience and a personal approach to helping students achieve their academic and professional potential. We have a strong tradition of supporting student employability, with relevant skills embedded in the curriculum and professional work placements included in all our undergraduate programmes.
The key themes of our strategy are student confidence, professionalism and social responsibility. To help students achieve their potential we emphasise learning as a collaborative process, with a range of student-led and directed activities. This approach ensures that students fully engage in shaping their own learning, developing their critical thinking and reflective skills so that they can identify their own strengths and weaknesses, and use the extensive learning support system we offer to shape their own development. Our full Learning, Teaching and Assessment Strategy can be accessed here.
All students are encouraged to develop professional skills and links with employers throughout their degree and offered the opportunity to get involved with production projects which can be campus-based or involve liaising with external clients. This allows students to build up their skills, CV and portfolio in preparation for competing in the jobs marketplace. Students also have the opportunity throughout the course to engage in extra-curricular activities and volunteering.
Extensive use is made of Moodle on this degree programme, the Leeds Trinity Virtual Learning Environment (VLE), to support 24/7 learning and to provide access to e learning resources both on and off-campus.
Year 1 – 94.2% coursework; 5.8% written exams
Year 2 – 78.33% coursework; 5% written exams; 16.7% practical exams
Year 3 – 96.7% coursework; 3.3% written exams
A variety of assessment methods are used, matched to the learning outcomes for the programme, to enable students to demonstrate the full range of knowledge and skills that they have developed. There is some scope for students to be involved in negotiating and evaluating some assessment.
Assessments tailored to this course include the production of portfolios of work, individual and group presentations as well as coursework reports research projects and more traditional seen and unseen exam papers.
In addition to each of your module assessments you will take a programme level assessment in each of the first and second year of your programme. This is designed to assess your understanding of everything you have been taught and to help you to understand how different elements of your degree fit together to make a coherent programme.
You will be given weekly directed activities to complete in each module. These will contribute marks towards the final module assessment and reward engagement with the content of the module. They will also help you to check your understanding of what has been taught. Some of these activities may include further reading or preparation tasks for seminars.
Some of the tasks will be completed online and may include quizzes which provide you with instant feedback on your understanding of the module content. In some modules lecturers may place some of the taught content on videos which you may be required to watch prior to attending a class. This will free up time for you to work on meaningful projects in class.
On this programme there are some assessments which are marked on a pass/fail basis rather than graded. Please note that these assessments are excluded from the calculations made to produce the figures published in the Key Information Set (KIS) for this programme/subject.
Other requirements: For the old GCSE system we require grade C or above and for the new GCSE grading system we will accept grade 4 or higher in English Language.
We welcome students with a wide range of qualifications such as A Levels, BTECs and accredited Access courses. We treat every application on its own merits; we value highly the experience you illustrate in your personal statement.
If you have achieved a qualification such as a foundation degree or HND, or have gained credit at another higher education institution, you may be able to enter the course at Level 5 or 6. For more information, read our student guide to the Recognition of Prior Certified Learning.
We accept a variety of international equivalent qualifications and Leeds Trinity interviews international candidates. Typically, this is a call at a mutually convenient time.
If you are unsure about the acceptance of a particular qualification you can check with our Admissions Team on 0113 283 7123 or email email@example.com.
Tuition fees cost £9,250 a year for this course in 2018-19. Part-time tuition fees would be pro-rated accordingly to the number of credits you're studying. Depending on government policy, tuition fees may rise with inflation in future years. Find out more here.
Living costs will also need to be taken in to consideration. Find out more about accommodation and costs here.
Leeds Trinity offers a range of bursaries and scholarships to help support students while you study. Get more information about bursaries and scholarships here.
Tuition fees cost £11,250 per year for this course starting in 2017-18. Part-time study is not available for international students on a Tier 4 Student Visa. Tuition fees for 2018-19 will be set in summer 2017. Find out more
We have strong links with a number of key employers in the region and further afield. These include the BBC and YTV, independent production companies working in film, television and new media, Marketing, PR and advertising agencies, Leeds International Film Festival, and Media departments in schools and colleges.
We also boast our very own in-house professional production company, Trinity Vision. Trinity Vision works with local businesses and community organisations to develop video and media content, including promotional videos and idents. Clients of Trinity Vision include: The NHS, FisherKing Publications, Kirkstall Forge, Leeds City Council, Tour de Yorkshire and Tour de France, Made In Leeds TV, Fettle Animation/BBC4 and Leeds Bradford Airport.
As a student at Leeds Trinity, you can apply for a professional work placement at Trinity Vision and gain experience in camera skills, editing and new media. It's a great way to get noticed by potential employers and many of our placement students have gone on to work for Trinity Vision and its external clients after graduation.
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Creative writing alumna Kathleen Strafford on Her Own Language
Niqab-wearing women fear "burka ban" after Brexit
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text:
I'm still annoyed at Manohla Dargis for thinking that Jennifer Lawrence isn't starved-enough to play Katniss Everdeen in The Hunger Games, but her conversation with A.O. Scott about where Katniss fits in both the American literary tradition and in the world of female action heroes is excellent. And I want to zero in on her observation here:
By suggesting that Katniss occupied feminine and masculine positions (and is therefore not locked into either), I was inching toward the idea that gender absolutes are less confusing than inapt. I mean, is killing masculine? Is nurturing feminine? Katniss nurtures and she kills, and she does both extremely well. Katniss is a fantasy figure, but partly what makes her powerful — and, I suspect, what makes her so important to a lot of girls and women — is that she's one of the truest feeling, most complex female characters to hit American movies in a while. She isn't passive, she isn't weak, and she isn't some random girl. She's active, she's strong and she's the girl who motivates the story.
Katniss does evoke the American Adam, and she charts her own course. She's a rugged individualist who picked herself up by her fashionable bootstraps, but at the same time she's rooted to her home and to her friend Gale, who gives her companionship, and to her sister, Prim, who gives her love and a reason to live. And while the Hunger Games register as the ultimate social Darwinian nightmare, Katniss triumphs by changing the rules and by forming bonds with other tributes, specifically Rue and Peeta. Last, Rue (who's played by a biracial actress in the film and is described in the book as having "satiny brown skin") may narratively function somewhat like Leatherstocking's Indian companions, yet she is far from the clichéd "noble savage" type.
I found the way the movie handled Rue's death extremely striking. Rue is speared, Katniss shoots and kills Rue's attacker, she puts Rue to rest in a striking act of political symbolism — and then she cries, hard, in a way that involves her entire body. The scene was striking because it's so contrary to the way we've tended to frame female action heroines in recent years. They handle acts of violence calmly. The depictions balance out the theoretically masculine skill of competently executing violence is not to make female characters feel the cost of that violence, but by emphasizing that their sexual desirability isn't compromised by that competence. Black Widow can wear a corset and be tied to a chair and still wreck a bunch of men. The ability to defend themselves or their country doesn't render men obsolete for these heroines — in fact, it's violence that heats up the dulled sex lives of the characters in Mr. & Mrs. Smith.
By contrast, the feminine attributes that Katniss is given in addition to her ability to kill, be it animals or people, belong to her. She may be a skilled hunter, but she feels the weight of her murders, which is what they are, no matter how justified. Like Hermione Granger, who does her hair for the Yule Ball and then goes back to her normal routine on the ground that it's too much trouble afterwards, The Hunger Games is acutely aware of the work that goes into conventional female beauty. Katniss's appearance is a construction, the work of a stylist and a a prep team, and one she has a complicated and ambivalent relationship with. Unlike many makeover narratives, which are actually about the moral improvement of men who realize they have overlooked women with physical and intellectual value, neither Peeta nor Gale is transformed by the revelation of a stylized Katniss.
And I wonder if that positioning is why, as A.O. Scott puts it, The Hunger Games has upended the accepted wisdom that: "It's generally assumed that girls can aspire to be like Harry Potter or Spider-Man, or can at least embrace their adventures without undermining their own femininity. But at least within marketing divisions of the culture industry, it is an article of faith that boys won't pretend to be princesses." If a character is set up to specifically be not you, and if that character is offered up for your approval and consumption, for the reassurance of your fears and anxieties about what happens when women are empowered, it's much harder to identify with them than it is to watch a character and wonder what you would do in their situation.


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Primetime Missions is a public charity 501(C)(3) tax free Corporation. We were formed to support seniors with recreational vehicles, who would like to travel and volunteer, but need resources to travel. Most volunteers have low to moderate incomes. Our work is to rasie money to offer reimbursement for fuel costs, site fees, perhaphs some food costs if necessary, tools or supplies needed for...
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Sweet Fennel oil is pale yellow with a sweet, aniseed odour. Excellent for improving digestive disorders or to improve the appearance of cellulite. It is also great for aches and pain especially lower backache.
A pale yellow oil with a sweet, aniseed odour. Not to be confused with Bitter Fennel, which should not be used in aromatherapy. This oil is distilled from seeds selected from several East European countries. Its main use outside aromatherapy is in flavourings for aniseed-type liquors, particularly in France.
Absolute Aromas Fennel Sweet 10ml pure essential oil (Foeniculum vulgare var.dulce), is a colourless to pale yellow oil with a strong, sweet-spicy aniseed aroma. Fennel has long been used to reduce bloating and improve digestion when drank as a tea. Sweet Fennel, in the form of fennel tea, has long been used to reduce bloating and improve digestion.
Method of Extraction:
Steam distillation from the seeds.
Did you know?
Ancient Chinese tradition shows the use of fennel for a cure of snakebites.
Do not use when pregnant or breast feeding. Do not use on children under the age of 2. Do not use on sensitive or damaged skin. Avoid using on people with endometriosis or oestrogen dependent cancer. Do not use at more than 1% dilution on the skin or mucous membrane.
Important - Please read before purchase
While we try to ensure that product information is correct, on occasion manufacturers may alter their ingredient lists. For additional information about a product, please Contact Us on 0800 252 875.
Content on this site is for reference purposes and is not intended to substitute for advice given by a medical practitioner, pharmacist, or other licensed health-care professional. Discontinue use and consult a doctor if adverse reactions occur.
Information stated regarding dietary supplements is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease or health condition.
Keep out of reach of children. Store in a cool, dry place. Do not use if seal under cap is broken or missing.
UK delivery
Standard delivery (Orders under £20): £3 · Delivery time: 2-4 working days
FREE delivery (Orders over £20): FREE · 2-4 working days
International delivery
We ship worldwide! Delivery times vary from 4-8 working days for Europe and 5-14 working days for the rest of the world. Flat rate delivery charges can be found here.


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Most of us will use a "weaker" password for our .Mac account than for our Mac itself. It's certainly what we've done to date anyway, since .Mac services were nowhere near as critical.
My .mac password is, id anything, stronger than the one for my computer since I figure I'm sending it over the Internet routinely, and it provides access to my IMAP email. My Mac itself is protected by its firewall, by disabling remote control services, and by controlling physical access to the machine itself. This is, surely, just as it should be. What I expect to see from Apple is an update, requiring your login password or, better still, a separate remote password.


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Soil2O products are specially designed for use as soil conditioners for water and nutrient retention in agriculture and crop yields. Soil2O is a soil amendment that expands in the presence of water to increase the water holding capacity of soils and potting mixes, thereby reducing the frequency of irrigation, as well as the leaching of valuable nutrients.
Check Out Our Case Studies » Download Our "Agricultural Moisture Retention" Brochure »
As water availability becomes scarce, conservation of the earth's precious water supply is extremely critical. Until now, industries that depend on water to thrive have relied on precipitation and irrigation. But what if you could enhance and supercharge water to last up to twice as long?
Plant roots are greedy creatures, always demanding water and nutrients. Unfortunately, water and nutrients are not always available when plants' roots want them. Soil2O has the power to absorb water and nutrients within the soil, which is then slowly released where the plant needs it most, at the roots. As moisture seeps out of reach and the soil dries out, Soil2O continues to supply plants so they live long and thrive.
Watch the video below to learn more about Soil2O.
For sodding, use between 1.15-2.3 lbs per 1000 square feet on the high range. Use .45-1.0 lb per 1,000 square feet on the low range. For seeding or sprigging, use between 2.0-4.5 lbs per 1,000 square feet. The product needs to be tilled a few inches into the soil, and then seed or sprig. Soil2O granular has a lasting effect of three to five years.
Our topical product is a technological breakthrough for the turf management and agricultural industry. It is a specifically formulated fine particle blend that has been designed with anti-caking characteristics that allow it to be dispersed by all types of commercial spray equipment or used directly with irrigation systems on already established turf and plants. Soil2O Topical has a lasting effect of three to four months.
Patents Pending. Copyright © 2012 GelTech Solutions. All Rights Reserved.


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The Annual General Meeting of our company on June 22, 2016 resolved to use the unappropriated net retained profits for fiscal year 2015 of €69,208,298.30 as follows:
Distribution of a dividend of €0.11
per ordinary share carrying dividend rights €32,459,879.98
Distribution of a dividend of €0.17
per preferred share carrying dividend rights €35,054,925.65
Amount to be carried forward to new account €1,693,492.67
The dividend will be paid out by the depositary banks via Clearstream Banking AG from June 23, 2016, after general deduction of 25% withholding tax (capital yields tax) and the 5.5% solidarity surcharge due on the capital yields tax (altogether 26.375%) and, if applicable, church tax on the withholding tax.
In the case of shareholders based in Germany the dividend will be paid without deducting capital yields tax, solidarity surcharge and, if applicable, church tax if they have submitted to their depository bank a "Non-assessment note" issued by the responsible tax authority. The same applies in whole or in part to shareholders who have issued their depository bank with an exemption order, provided the amount of the exemption stated in this order has not already been used up by other income from capital investments.
In the case of shareholders based outside Germany the capital yields tax including solidarity surcharge withheld may be reduced under double taxation agreements existing between the Federal Republic of Germany and the respective state.
Wolfsburg, June 2016
The Board of Management


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Microsoft has given the options for creating picture passwords with the Windows 8 operating system. This can be done with the help of a mouse or on touch screens. It is an innovative alternative as an option to the password system. Most Windows 8 users are not even aware of such a feature.
The password now enables you to log in to your computer or your devices by using a picture rather than an alphanumeric chain of characters. What you are doing, in fact, is sketching out a gesture with a custom sequence on top of your photo or picture to verify your identity. To give an example, if you are going to use a family photo, you may sketch a straight line from one person's eyes to another person's eyes. These will be saved as gesture or picture passwords.
These kinds of passwords would be a nice replacement to the conventional passwords. Actually, they should have been initiated much earlier. Microsoft has designed these picture password feature keeping the mobile devices and touch screens in mind. It is quite convenient on a virtual keyboard. Remembering a series of complex gestures is easier still than remembering a complex string of characters. The flip side to this is that the hackers would get around to breaking these kinds of passwords as an additional support to the conventional password system. You have to remember that picture passwords can be registered only as an after step to the traditional password registration.
To set up a picture password in Windows 8, you have to press the Win-W key combination and search for `Picture Password'. Under the Settings category, you will find an entry `Change to Create Picture Password'. The wizard is launched by doing that. Click the `Create' button on the wizard and first assign a plain text password to your account. Once you finish that step, then choose a picture and go through the type of gestures that you can assign to that picture. The types could be taps or clicks, straight line drags or circles.


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Clinical Trials Associate I - Clinical Pharmacology
Vanderbilt Health
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August 12, 2018
Nashville, Tennessee
Academic / Research
Discover Vanderbilt University Medical Center:
Located in Nashville, Tennessee, and operating at a global crossroads of teaching, discovery and patient care, VUMC is a community of individuals who come to work each day with the simple aim of changing the world. It is a place where your expertise will be valued, your knowledge expanded and your abilities challenged. It is a place where your diversity — of culture, thinking, learning and leading — is sought and celebrated. It is a place where employees know they are part of something that is bigger than themselves, take exceptional pride in their work and never settle for what was good enough yesterday.
mission is to advance health and wellness through preeminent programs in patient care, education, and research.
Click Here To View The VUMC Promise of Discovery
Performs a variety of duties involved in the collection, interpretation, and documentation of data in support of clinical trials. Assists in ensuring adherence to protocols, appropriate regulations, and deadlines. Ensures quality of information received.
Data Entry
Calling/Faxing for medical records (hospitals/patients)
Helping with study visits, gathering necessary volunteer files they need, answering questions, going through Confirmation Letters and Follow-Up Visit letters, escorting from curbside to study rooms.
Email/Send documents as needed.
Filing volunteer items and regulatory items in binders
Distribute and gather training forms for all study personnel. Ensure that training is kept up to date for all study personnel
Keep volunteer binders and regulatory binders up to date for all studies (move to new binder if needed, make copies of labs/physical exams, etc.)
Help with volunteer visits days.
Assist with hotel rooms/flights reservations if necessary
Reimburse volunteer for study payments or travel reimbursements
Reserve the CRC for patients; answer messages that come through on the CRC calendar
Schedule patient visits on Outlook Calendar and invite additional study personnel if needed
Available during patient visits to assist study coordinator and pick-up study drug
Printing off necessary documents
Attend trainings, or update online trainings when necessary
Labeling of study samples, helping with transporting and proper storage of samples from CRC to the freezers in the lab
Sending samples to designated labs for analysis
Supply Ordering and keeping study rooms properly stocked and clean
Help ensure patient orders are accurate.
Assist with invoices for all studies
Check and sort faxes/mail
throughout the day
Assist with billing plans, FACTr, VICTr and IRB submissions
VUMC Recent Accomplishments
Because we are committed to providing the best in patient care, education and research, we are proud of our recent accomplishments:
US News & World Report:
#1 Hospital in Tennessee, #1 Health Care Provider in Nashville, #1 Audiology (
Bill Wilkerson Center
), 12 adult and 10 pediatric clinical specialties ranked among the nation's best, #15 Education and Training
Truven Health Analytics:
among the top 50 cardiovascular hospitals in the U.S.
Becker's Hospital Review:
one of the "100 Greatest Hospitals in America"
The Leapfrog Group:
grade "A" in Hospital Safety Score
National Institutes of Health:
among the top 10 grant awardees for medical research in the US
Magnet Recognition Program:
Vanderbilt nurses are the only group honored in Tennessee
Nashville Business Journal:
Middle Tennessee's healthiest employer
Internal Number: 1803736
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Vanderbilt Health
Vanderbilt University Medical Center is home to Vanderbilt University Hospital, The Monroe Carell Jr. Children's Hospital at Vanderbilt, the Vanderbilt Psychiatric Hospital and the Vanderbilt Stallworth Rehabilitation Hospital. These hospitals experienced more than 61,000 inpatient admissions during fiscal year 2015. Vanderbilt's adult and pediatric clinics treated nearly 2 million patients during this same period.Vanderbilt University Hospital and the Monroe Carell Jr. Children's Hospital at Vanderbilt are recognized again this year by U.S. News & World Report's Best Hospitals as among the nation's best with 18 nationally ranked specialties. Vanderbilt University Medical Center is world renowned because of the innovation, work ethic and collegiality of its employees. From our health care advances to our compassionate care, Vanderbilt owes its accomplishments and reputation to staff and faculty who bring skill and drive and innovation to the medical center day after day. World-leading academic departments and comprehensive centers of excellence pursue scientific discoveries and transformational educational and clinical advances across the entire spectrum of health and disease.As th
e largest employer in middle Tennessee, we welcome those who are interested in ongoing development in a caring, culturally sensitive and professional atmosphere. Most of us spend so much of our lives at work, we want to be part of maintaining a workplace in which people support one another and encourage reaching for excellence. Many high-achieving employees stay at Vanderbilt because of the professional growth they experience and because of their appreciation of Vanderbilt's benefits, public events and discussions, athletic opportunities, beautiful setting and, above all, sense of community and purpose.Vanderbilt and its employees share a set of mutual expectations that have been created with productivity, legality, fairness and safety always in mind. We believe that our investment in training and compensating employees multiplies in value when we enable individuals to deliver their best performance for the benefit of us all.
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Sunday May 23, 2010 marked the end of the ground breaking series "Lost" on abc. After six incredible seasons, fans around the world gathered to witness how this epic television series would end.
I was invited to a special finale party by the Preston and Steve show (on WMMR), which is currently the number one radio morning show in Philadelphia. The finale party was held in a unique setting; the shark exhibit at the Adventure Aquarium located in Camden, New Jersey.
Guests in attendance were members of the morning show along with contest winners, employees of both the show and the aquarium. Dharma patches, free snacks and stickers were being given away and trivia contests were conducted in between commercial breaks where winners were awarded season DVD's and even a chance to swim in the shark tank. Local media also attended to cover the event and get fan reaction. When it was all said and done, everyone had their own opinion on whether or not the finale delivered but no one could argue that it was truly a memorable night and we were all thrilled to share the experience together.
4 Comments
I think that no matter whether you felt satisfied with the season or not, you have to agree that that was a well done episode. I for one enjoyed it even if it didn't answer every question with a definate answer. I can't wait to buy this last season on DVD.
It was a decent ending, answering most of the questions and explaining what the "sideways" portion was about. Just makes me wanna watch it all over again from the beginning. I really didn't get into LOST until this last season started and I started watching Season 1 thru 5 on Netflix. Really couldn't stop watching after I started. But man, what a journey. It's a shame that Mr. Eko didn't want to be on the island after the first season and then even when he was offered to show up on the finale, he wanted 5 times the money of what they offered to show up for the episode. Oh well.
I felt closure with the finale and thought it was beautifully done. I was tearing up when Jack died on the very spot where he woke up on the island all those years ago with Vincent by his side. I think people are upset because they don't have closure; we will never see Hurley's reign as the new Jacob, his relationship with Ben as his second in command or what kind of life Sawyer, Kate, Lapidus, Miles and Ricahard had once they left the island. Still, I think this was the best show on television and possibly the best series ever made. I'm quite content; sad that's it's over but happy the show went out with a bang. It was never canceled and got to tell it's story and remained popular. There's nothing worse then a show that starts out strong but then dies because ppl stop caring.


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By Scott T. Sterling
One Direction's Harry Styles has revealed a new video featuring the singer and his band performing "Two Ghosts" in a recording studio.
Related: 'Dunkirk' Director Compares Harry Styles to Heath Ledger
The clip wasn't filmed in just any old studio; the moment was captured at the legendary Abbey Road Studio in London.
Styles' intimate rendition of "Two Ghosts" is taken from the Apple Music doc, Harry Styles: Behind the Album. It's one of 10 performances slated for an upcoming spin-off film, Behind the Album: The Performances. The release date has yet to be revealed.
Harry Styles · Headlines · Latest Headlines · Music · pop


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NEWARK—Get a "Ticket to Ride" with the New Jersey Devils for their evening tribute to the Beatles at Prudential Center on Feb. 9 when the team faces off against the St. Louis Blues at 7 p.m.
Throughout the evening, fans will be treated to live performances by The Return: A Beatles Tribute Band. The band will perform the National Anthem, as well as sets during both intermissions. The Return perform a song list packed with all the Beatles classics people love. From their Cavern Club days in their hometown of Liverpool to their last concert together at Candlestick Park in 1966, the Return is the closest you can get to a real Beatles show.
In addition, all throughout the game all contests including 'Who Am I?' and Beatles history trivia, video tributes, "Twist and Shout" fan cam, prize packs and Devils dancers' performances be themed around the iconic rock group. A special package is available for the evening that includes a ticket to the game, hot dog and medium soda all for $30 (box office ticket $52).
For more information and to get tickets, visit www.newjerseydevils.com/beatles or call 1-973-757-6250.
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