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Determinants of Organizational Citizenship Behavior
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Since its introduction in 1983, the concept of Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) has received a great deal of research attention. With the widespread belief that organizational citizenship behaviors are critical to enhance organizational effectiveness (Podsakoff and MacKenzie, 1997), understanding the nature and determinants of OCB has been for long of immense interest to the organizational scholars.
The classical definition of OCB by Organ (1988) refers to "individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly recognized by the formal reward system and that in aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization" (Organ, 1988, p4). Every organization operates daily on numerous acts such as helpfulness, selflessness, and other instances that can be considered as citizenship behavior (Todd and Kent, 2006). The growing emphasis on team work and consultative activities has led to the increased need for individual initiative and cooperation making OCB imperative for the survival of the organizations (LePine et al, 2002). Previous empirical research findings support Organ's position regarding the role of OCB in maximising employee as well as organizational performance (for e.g. Podsakoff and MacKenzie, 1994; Walz and Niehoff, 1996). Considering the significance of OCB, the next essential question that emerges is, what can the organizations do in order to increase these citizenship behaviors?
A plethora of research has been conducted to study the determinants of OCB. Previous research has mainly focused on four categories of antecedents namely: individual characteristics (e.g. personality, affect etc), task characteristics (task routinization, task feedback etc), organizational characteristics (staff support, organizational inflexibility etc) and leader behaviors (e.g. transformational leadership, transactional leadership etc) (Podsakoff et al, 2000). Although previous research has identified various antecedents of OCB, the relationship between certain variables and OCB have remained inconsistent across studies. Moreover most empirical researches on OCB have been conducted in the United States, using US employees as samples (Farh et al, 2004). The studies conducted in a non western context have been limited. Podsakoff et al (2000) opined the need for future research to examine the potential impact that cultural context might have on citizenship behaviors. According to Organ et al (2006), cultural context may influence how OCB is perceived and whether employees are inclined to demonstrate OCB.
The purpose of this study is to extend further the research on leader behaviors, task characteristics, organizational characteristics and individual characteristics as antecedents of OCB to a non western context. Owing to the lack of research on antecedents of OCB in non US context and the importance of identifying them in order to encourage OCB to better organization's performance, the present study aims to explore the effect of determinants like instrumental leader behavior, supportive leader behavior, positive affect, negative affect, role overload and spatial distance on OCB in an Indian context. Previous researches, primarily conducted in the US, have empirically tested the effects of these variables on OCB. Investigating these past researches, the present study examining Indian employees, aims to explore if these findings hold true in a non western context. In attempting to do so, the present research also aims to study those variables that have failed to show a consistent relationship with OCB in the past.
This section first discusses the meaning and the extant research on OCB and its dimension. Then theories on leadership, affect, role overload and spatial distance as antecedents of OCB are discussed, followed by the proposed hypotheses.
2.1 The OCB Construct
The concept of Organizational Citizenship Behavior can be traced back to the writings of Barnard (1938), who argued that the willingness of employees to put in cooperative efforts is vital for the effective realization of organizational goals. This argument was further supported by Katz (1964) who noted the importance of spontaneous and innovative behaviors that go beyond the formal role requirement but are indispensible for organizational effectiveness. Based on these insights, Bateman and Organ (1983) and Smith et al (1983) coined the term "Organizational Citizenship Behavior".
Organ (1988) defined OCB as voluntary behavior that goes beyond the formal job description and that increases the organizations effectiveness. Since its conception, OCB has been the target of extensive research. In subsequent studies, various related positive work behavior constructs such as pro-social behavior (Brief and Motowidlo, 1986), civic citizenship (Graham, 1991), organizational spontaneity (George and Brief, 1992), extra role behavior (Van Dyne et al, 1995) and contextual performance (Borman and Motowidlo, 1993) were proposed and examined. Of all the various constructs, Organ's (1988) OCB construct is one of the most attended ones, which has encouraged several empirical researches (Jahangir et al, 2004). Although there have been various definitions for OCBs, from the beginning OCBs have been viewed as behaviors that are "relatively more likely to be discretionary and less likely to be formally rewarded in the organization" (Podsakoff et at, 2000, p549).
Despite the specifics of the various construct, scholars have always considered OCB to be comprising of several behavioral dimensions. In their meta-analysis Podsakoff et al 2000, noted that there are almost 30 different forms of citizenship behaviors that overlap with each other to a great extent. Although various dimensions of OCB have been developed, Organ's (1988) five dimension framework has been subject to most empirical research. Podsakoff et al, 1990 provided sound measure of these dimensions and have used the construct for several outstanding empirical studies (Lepine et al, 2002). Organ (1997) redefined OCB as "performance that supports the social and psychological environment in which task performance takes place'' (p. 95). However this broad definition has yet to receive adequate empirical support (Messer and White, 2006); hence the present study will adopt Organ's (1988) original definition of OCB. Organ (1988)'s five dimension framework, that highlights five specific categories of citizenship behaviors, will be used to measure OCB in this study. The five dimensions are as follows (Podsakoff et al, 1990, Podsakoff, et al, 2000):-
a) Altruism- Refers to behaviors that have the effect of helping another person with work related task or problem. For e.g. helping a coworker catch up with back log of work
b) Courtesy- Refers to behaviors aimed at preventing work related problems from occurring. For e.g. touching base with people before committing to actions that will affect them
c) Sportsmanship- Refers towillingness of employees to tolerate the inevitable inconveniences and impositions at work without complaining and filing grievances. For e.g. not complaining about trivial matters, maintaining a positive attitude even when things do not go their way.
d) Civic Virtue- Refers tobehaviors that indicate responsible participation in the political process of the organization. It represents a macro level interest in the organization as a whole. For e.g. attending meetings, keeping abreast of organizations issues are instances of Civic Virtue.
e) Conscientiousness- Refers to behaviors that go well beyond the minimum role requirements of the organization in terms of attendance, punctuality etc.
Interest in OCB has expanded to a variety of different domains including human resource management, marketing, leadership and strategic management (Podsakoff et al, 2000). According to Wagner and Rush (2000), OCB's have an accumulative positive effect on organizations functioning (as cited in Jahangir et al, 2004). Podsakoff and Mackenzie (1997, p138) opined that OCB may enhance the efficiency of an organization by increasing managerial and coworker productivity, by freeing up resources for more productive purposes, by increasing the organizations ability to attract and retain the best people, by reducing variability in organizations performance and by increasing the organizations ability to adapt to environmental changes. Previous studies have empirically tested the relationship between OCB and organizational effectiveness. In their study of pharmaceutical sales teams, Mackenzie et al (1996) found citizenship behaviors to be positively related to sales team effectiveness (as cited in Podsakoff and Mackenzie, 1997). Similar results were also found by Walz and Niehoff (1996) in their study on performance measure in limited menu restaurants and Podsakoff and Mackenzie (1994) in their study of insurance agents.
Owing to the positive effects of OCB on individual as well as organizational performance, the need to identify reliable predictors of OCB has always been of great interest to researchers. Recognizing variables that encourage employees to exhibit OCB is also of practical importance to managers, as they may increase organizational productivity by promoting OCB among their employees. For this purpose, various employee, task, organizational and leader characteristics have been identified as reliable antecedents of OCB through numerous studies. The earliest research on the antecedents on OCB focused primarily on employee dispositions and leader behaviors (Podsakoff et al, 2000). Leader behaviors are reliable predictors of OCB. Past research primarily conducted in the US, has shown supportive and instrumental leadership to be positively related to OCB. However studies have also revealed that cultural context influence leader effectiveness (House et al, 2004). Hence the present study aims to examine whether these relationships between leader behavior and OCB remain consistent in a non US context. Among dispositional variables, positive and negative affect as predictors of OCB have attracted considerable attention. According to Borman et al (2001) further research is needed to better understand the unique effect of positive mood on citizenship behaviors. Thus the present study aims to examine the unique effect of positive mood as well as the effect of negative mood on Organ's five dimensions of OCB.
In their review Podsakoff et al 2000, noted that task characteristics are important predictors of OCB and future research must pay more attention on these variables. Although role overload has shown to have an effect on OCB it has not received adequate attention. Furthermore among organizational characteristics only group cohesiveness has shown to have a significant relationship with OCB. Previous research has failed to show a consistent relationship between spatial distance and OCB. Thus the present study will also examine the effects of role overload and spatial distance on OCB. It is also important to note that majority of the research on OCB has been conducted in the West, mainly the US (Khalid et al, 2009). Thus it is imperative to see if the relationship between these variables and OCB examined in the US remain consistent in a non US context.
The present study, therefore, aims to extend the existing OCB research to a non US context by examining the effect of leader behavior, affect, role overload and spatial distance on OCB, using a sample of 125 Indian employees from a large private sector company in India.
2.2 Proposed Determinants of OCB
Having highlighted the various antecedents of OCB and gaps in previous research, this section will investigate the extant theories in relation to leader behavior, affect, role overload and spatial distance, followed by the proposed hypotheses.
2.2.1 Leader Behavior
Leaders play an important role in influencing subordinates OCBs. Past research has focused on the effect of various aspect of leadership like transformational leadership (for e.g. Podsakoff et al, 1990), charismatic leadership (for e.g. Deluga, 1995), leader member exchange (for e.g. Wayne et al, 2002) on OCB. OCB is strongly related to both formal and informal leadership (Euwema et al, 2007). In their review Podsakoff et al (2000) noted that transformational leadership in particular has received considerable amount of attention. In this study we focus on two forms of leadership i.e. instrumental leadership and supportive leadership that fit within the path goal theory framework.
Path Goal Theory of leadership
The path goal theory of leadership is a dyadic theory of supervision, which primarily deals with task and person oriented supervisory behavior (House, 1996). The Expectancy theory of motivation on which the path goal theory rests assumes that people choose the level of effort they wish to put forth at work based on their evaluation that increased effort will lead to increased performance, which will in turn lead to increased levels of reward (Organ et al, 2006). Based on this perspective, the path goal theory asserts that "the motivational functions of the leader consist of increasing personal payoffs to subordinates for their goal attainment, and making the path to these payoffs easier to travel by clarifying it, reducing roadblocks and pitfalls, and increasing the opportunities for personal satisfaction en route." (House, 1971, p 324). There are four leader behaviors that fit into the path goal theory framework: instrumental leader behavior, supportive leader behavior, participative leader behavior and achievement oriented leader behavior. Research literature has mainly focused on instrumental and supportive leader behaviors. Even though the relationship between these behaviors and OCB is not a part of the original path goal framework, many scholars have argued that these behaviors influence OCB (Organ et al, 2006). The present study makes use of the following definitions of instrumental and supportive leadership:-
Instrumental leader Behavior
According to House and Dessler (1974) instrumental leader behavior refers to behavior directed towards clarifying subordinates role expectations. House (1996) opined that instrumental leaders provide "psychological structure for subordinates by letting them know what they are expected to do, scheduling and coordinating work, giving specific guidance and clarifying rules and procedures" (p 326). An instrumental leader clarifies their subordinate's path by telling them what is expected of them and how they must achieve it, thereby reducing uncertainty about their jobs.
Supportive leader behavior
Supportive leaders are friendly and approachable leaders who express concern for their subordinate's personal well being. According to House (1971) supportive leaders are sensitive towards their team members needs. In their study House and Rizzo (1972) argue that supportive leaders reduce role conflict, stress and anxiety.
Previous research has shown instrumental leadership to reduce role ambiguity (Podsakoff et al, 1993). According to Organ et al (2006) subordinates view instrumental and supportive leader behaviors as helping behaviors, since they reduce uncertainty and look out for the welfare of the employees. Schnake et al (1995) argued that these leader behaviors influences subordinates OCB as they may feel compelled to reciprocate to these helping behaviors. This argument is consistent with Blau's (1964) social exchange theory, under which one may assume that subordinates who are satisfied with their leaders will display OCB in exchange of their leader's supportiveness. Previous studies have shown that employees reciprocate by exhibiting OCB when they receive favourable treatment from the leaders (Deckop et al, 2003). Another way in which instrumental and supportive leaders may influence subordinate's OCBs is through social learning process (Podsakoff et al 2000). Leaders act as role models to subordinates (Smith et al, 1983), in their study Krebs (1970) found prosocial behaviors to be particularly influenced by role models. Thus subordinates who have instrumental and supportive leaders will emulate these leader behaviors while interacting with other (for e.g. they will help their coworkers, care about the welfare of their coworkers, demonstrate more tolerance) thereby leading to the display of various citizenship behaviors like altruism, sportsmanship and courtesy.
According to Organ et al (2006), subordinate may develop a liking for their instrumental and supportive leaders as they reduce role uncertainty and show concern for their well being. This liking would translate into subordinates helping their leader in ways that will in enhance their OCB. Subordinate may become more tolerant towards certain setbacks at work, they may give suggestions, avoid taking long break and so on, owing to their liking towards their leader, thereby displaying OCB. This argument is further strengthened by Katz (1960) research on functional role of attitudes, which states that individuals form positive attitudes towards things that reduce uncertainty and enhance stability.
Past studies mainly conducted in the US, have found both leader role clarification and supportive leader behaviors to have both a direct as well as indirect effect on subordinates OCB (Podsakoff et al, 1996, Smith et al, 1983). In their review Podsakoff et al (2000) noted that both instrumental and supportive leader behaviors have a positive effect on employee's citizenship behaviors. However it is important to note that leader effectiveness is influenced by cultural context (House et al, 2004). The present study aims to identify the determinants of OCB in an Indian organization. Previous research has found that the authority relations in India are predominantly parental in nature (Kakar, 1971), where subordinates seek direction and support from their supervisors (Sinha, 1970). Hence by extending the existing research, this study aims to examine if the relationship between these leader behaviors and OCB hold true in an Iian context.
Hypothesis 1.1: Instrumental leader behavior will be positively related to OCB
Hypothesis 1.2: Supportive leader behavior will be positively related to OCB
2.2.2 Affect
Numerous studies have focused on examining the impact of positive affect and negative affect on OCB. According to Borman et al (2001) future research is needed to better understand the unique effect of positive mood on citizenship behavior. Furthermore previous research has shown an inconsistent relationship between negative mood and citizenship behaviors (Clark & Isen, 1982). Thus the present study aims to examine the effects of positive and negative moods on Organ's five dimensions of OCB. Affect in the context of this study refers to the employee's mood state over a limited period of time.
The term 'Affect' encompasses of both moods and emotions. Moods are "generalized feeling states that are not typically indentified with a particular stimulus and not sufficiently intense to interrupt ongoing thought process", whereas emotion are "normally associated with specific events and are enough to disrupt the thought process" (Brief and Weiss 2002, p282). While moods tend to be long lasting, emotions are short lived (Frijda, 1993). Forgas and George (2001) noted that moods affect the way people think and do things within an organizational setting. It is thus important to examine the relationship between moods and OCB. The two factor structure model of mood i.e. positive affect (mood) and negative affect (mood) has received considerable support. Research has also testified positive and negative affect as independent constructs (Watson and Clark, 1997).
Positive Affect or Mood (PA)
Enthusiasm, joy, excitement, pride are some of the positive mood states that an employee experiences when in a positive mood. Employees in a positive mood tend to be energetic and enjoy life (Cropanzano et al, 1993). Positive moods make people view things in a positive light (Carlson et al, 1988); hence it can be argued that employees in a positive mood will look at the positive side of things and be more tolerant towards any inconveniences caused at work thereby exhibiting citizenship behavior of sportsmanship. According to Clark and Isen (1982) individuals in a positive mood are more willing to offer help as they view the opportunity to display OCB more favourably than others. Rosenhan et al's (1974) argued that positive moods reduce the psychological distance between oneself and others, thereby making employees attracted to their co worker. According to Isen and Baron (1991) positive mood state also encourages co operation and reduces aggression among employees. Thus we may expect employees in a positive mood to display OCB as they are more likely to co operate and prevent problems with coworkers from occurring and thereby exhibit courtesy. Carlson et al (1988) suggested that individuals who experience positive moods will seek to maintain those affective states by helping other, as helping others in turn puts them in a good mood. Furthermore individuals in a positive mood are also likely to exhibit OCB in an attempt maintain a constructive work environment (Penner et al, 1997). George and Brief (1992) noted that positive mood is a determinant of helping behavior and interpersonal cooperation. Isen (1993) further opined that people who experience positive affect value helping others more than thinking about the cost involved in doing so. Hence this study aims to examine if there exists a relationship between positive affect and OCB in the given context:-
Hypothesis 2.1 Positive Affect will be positively related to OCB
Negative Affect or Mood (NA)
Individuals in a negative mood feel negative affective states such as anxiety, fear and anger. People experiencing negative moods facilitate pessimistic tendencies, as their thoughts and perceptions are directed towards greater negativity owing to mood congruence (Raghunathan and Pham, 1999). Previous research has found that people in negative mood make "more critical" and "self deprecatory interpretation" of their own behavior (Forgas, 2002, p 10). Research conducted by Aderman and Berkowitz (1983) noted that concern about one's own behavior makes people less likely to help others. People in negative moods also produce more avoidant and unfriendly behaviors thereby alienating their coworkers and managers (Forgas, 2002). Alienating coworkers further leads to negative interpersonal relationships which in turn make employees unwilling to help and co operate with others. Employees that experience negative mood states are also less likely to be tolerant towards any impediment at work and may complain about trivial matters at work. This can be supported by the argument that individuals in a negative mood are more sensitive to negative stimuli and react with greater intense emotions when experiencing negative job events (Brief and Weiss, 2002). Although Cialdini's negative state relief model proposes that individual's in negative mood are likely to help others, studies have shown that individuals in a negative mood to be less likely to help others (Thompson, Cowan, & Rosenhan, 1980). Considering these factors it may be proposed that:-
Hypothesis 2.2 Negative Affect will negatively related to OCB
2.2.3 Role Overload
In their review Podsakoff et al, 2000 argued that role perceptions impact some of the organizational citizenship dimensions. Past research has mainly focused on the relationship between role ambiguity, role conflict and OCB. Role overload is another aspect of one's job that may have an impact on OCB (Organ et al, 2006). Very few studies have examined the impact of role overload as an antecedent of OCB. Thus the present research will examine the effect of role overload as a determinant of OCB.
Role overload may be defined as "having too many role demands and too little time to fulfil them" (Coverman, 1989, p 967). An employee feels overloaded when he/she has too much to do in the time available (Kahn et al, 1964). Role overload influences the way employees feel about themselves and their jobs. Previous research has shown role overload to result in reduced job satisfaction, feelings of anger, anxiety and personal failure (Kirmeyer and Dougherty 1988). Thus employees that are high on role overload may be less likely to exhibit OCB. OCBs are behaviors that go beyond one's formal job requirements, thus logically exhibiting OCBs are likely to require additional time and energy (Bolino and Turnley, 2005). However employees who are overloaded with work may simply not have the time or the energy to help others or display OCB's. Employees that have high role overload may have deadlines as they have a lot of work to be do in the time available to them. These deadlines are visible to others such as their immediate supervisor in the organizations. Thus when employees are overloaded it is more likely that they channelize all their energy and time into meeting those deadlines that are visible to other than exhibit citizenship behaviors (Moore and Love, 2005). Jex and Thomas (2003) suggested that when employees have demanding workload, they are less likely to dedicate themselves to the concerns of others in their work group. Cohen (1980) also argued that increased work load decreases employees helping behavior. Considering these factors it may be proposed that employees with increased work load are less likely to exhibit OCB, owing to the reduced discretionary time available to them and reduced commitment towards their work group (Organ et al, 2006).
Hypothesis 3.1 Role Overload will be negatively related to OCB
2.2.4 Spatial Distance
Various features of the work environment may influence employee's OCB. In their review Podsakoff et al, 2000 opined that the relationships between organizational characteristics and OCB have been rather varied. Previous research has examined the effect of organizational characteristics on OCB through the substitutes of leadership model. Apart from group cohesiveness none of the other organizational characteristics within the substitute of leadership model have shown to have a consistent relationship with OCB. The present study primarily focus on the organizational characteristic of spatial distance and its impact on OCB.
Distance as defined by Leather (1978, p87) refers to a "relational concept, typically measured in terms of how far one individual is from the other". Napier and Ferris (1993) referred to the distance between the supervisor and subordinate in an organization as "Dyadic Distance". According to them dyadic distance is "a multidimensional construct that describes the psychological, structural, and functional distance between a supervisor and a subordinate" (Napier and Ferris 1993, p326). They defined structural distance within an organization as the distance caused by physical structure (i.e. work space) as well as organizational structure (i.e. the degree of centralization) and by supervisor structure (i.e. task and social contact between the supervisor and subordinate). This research mainly focuses on spatial distance, an aspect of structural distance and its effects on OCB. Spatial distance refers to the working distance between the employee and the supervisor, in this context it encompasses the distance caused due the work space as well as the task contact between the supervisor and the subordinate.
The amount of interaction opportunities within a dyad may influence an employee's motivation, ability and opportunity to display OCB (Organ et al, 2006). Ferris and Rowland (1985) argued that reduced interaction between supervisor and subordinate affect the agreement and understanding between them. Increased spatial distance between the supervisor and subordinate may lead to increased task uncertainty owing to infrequent interaction between them. Employees who are spatially distant from their supervisors may also perceive them to be less supportive, thereby making them less motivated to exhibit OCB. Bradner et al (2002) further argued that physical distance has an effect on the ability to influence and the likelihood to co-operate (cited in Lojeski et al, 2006). In their study Liden and Graen (1980) argued that employees with high quality leader member exchange contribute beyond their formal job requirements than those employees with low quality leader member exchange. Thus increased spatial distance may lead to reduced display of OCB as previous researches have shown increased spatial distance to lead to lower quality leader member exchange (Dionne et al 2002, Napier and Ferris, 1993). In their research, Sundstorm (1986) found that decreased physical distance between the subordinate and supervisor leads to increased subordinate satisfaction. Research has shown that employees who are satisfied to with their jobs are more likely to displace OCBs (Organ and Ryan, 1995). Thus one may expect employee's who are spatially distant from their supervisor to be less likely to exhibit OCB.
According to Fulk et al (1985) subordinates perception of their accessibility in terms of expressing their feeling to their supervisor determines their trust in the supervisor, thus increased spatial distance leads to low trust in the supervisor. Trust in supervisor has been found to have a positive impact to OCB (Aryee et al, 2002); as a result it may be argued that increased spatial distance may be negatively related to OCB. When the spatial distance between the superior and subordinate is high, the subordinates are less likely to be committed (Podsakoff et al, 1993) which would in turn lead to reduces OCB (Organ et al, 2006). In their study Podsakoff et al (1996) noted that spatial distance was negatively related to altruism even after controlling for other factors. Considering the above mentioned research findings it may be argued that:-
Hypothesis 4.1 Spatial Distance will be negatively related to OCB
3.1 Sample and Procedure
For this study, a standardised questionnaire was distributed across a large private sector company in India. In order to maintain confidentiality the organization will be referred to as Company X in this study. Company X is one of India's largest private sector companies with an annual turnover of US$35.9 billion. The current global recessions has had a substantial effect on the Indian market. Management at Company X expressed concern about employee's willingness to exhibit OCB due to the changes been undertaken within the organization owing to the current economic crisis. Although Company X is making efforts to ensure employees work in a secure and supportive environment, they expressed interest in knowing if management could take steps to enhance employee's OCB.
200 questionnaires along with covering letters explaining the purpose of the study were distributed during the working hours with the permission of the HR department of the company. The questionnaire was administered across various departments to executives, managers, senior managers and general managers. The rationale for administering the survey across various departments and various managerial levels was to capture the diverse opinion about their immediate supervisor's behavior, spatial distance and role overload, which vary across departments and the level of hierarchy. Respondents were asked to return the completed questionnaires in the pre addressed envelope provided to them. Of the 200 questionnaires, 125 completed questionnaires were returned giving a response rate of 62.5%. The respondents included 100 (80%) males and 25 (20%) females. Out of the total sample 36.8% employees were executives, 45.6% were managers, 9.6% were senior managers and 8% were general managers. The average age of the respondents was 35 years and average tenure was 7 years.
The questionnaire consisted of 70 items which was divided into 4 sections (attached as Appendix 1). Respondents were given clear instructions about how to fill the questionnaire and were expected to fill the questionnaire at one go to ensure that discussions with coworkers did not influence their responses. Steps were taken to ensure complete confidentiality, employees were given the assurance that responses would be used solely for the purpose of this study and the results would be reported only in aggregate form where in no individual responses could be identified. Once filled, the respondents sealed their responses in the pre addressed envelope provided to them and send it directly to the researcher.
3.2 Measures
The items for the questionnaire were taken from standardised scales; some items were modified to suit the requirement of the study.
Organizational Citizenship Behavior
OCB was measured using modified items from the OCB scale developed by Podsakoff, Mackenzie, Moorman and Fetter (1990). The scale was chosen because of its good psychometric properties (Podsakoff et al, 1990) and because it has been used extensively in several excellent studies (Lepine et al, 2002). Various dimensions of the scale as well as variations of the scale have previously been used for self report. The original scale required supervisors to assess their subordinates OCBs. In this study the items were reworded for employees to self report their OCB. Self report was important since the present study aimed at linking employee affect and OCB. According to Morrison (1994), relying on supervisor's definition of OCB is problematic when there are individual factors such as affect that influence employee's behaviors. Previous research has testified that Organ's five dimensions of OCB can be measured in an Indian context (Chaitanya and Tripathi, 2001, Krishnan and Arora, 2008). Hence the scale was considered to be appropriate for the present study. The modified scale consisted of 21 items, of which 5 items measured courtesy, 5 items measured altruism, 4 items measured conscientiousness, 3 items measured sportsmanship and 4 items measured civic virtue. Since the scale was used for self report, one item measuring conscientiousness - "Is my most conscientious employee" and two items measuring sportsmanship - "Is the classic "squeaky wheel" that always needs greasing (R)" and "consumes a lot of time complaining about trivial matters (R) were excluded from the present questionnaire as they were considered to be inappropriate for self report. The negatively worded (reverse coded) items for sportsmanship were positively reworded as it was considered inapt to ask employees to rate dysfunctional behaviors. Respondents were asked to rate their OCB on a 5 point likert scale ranging from '1-Strongly Disagree' to '5-Strongly Agree'. The internal consistency reliability for the items of the original scale ranged from (0.70 to 0.85) for each dimension. In this study, the internal consistency reliabilities for each dimension ranged from 0.71 to 0.88 and for the complete scale was 0.76.
Leader Behavior
Both instrumental and supportive leader behaviors were measured using LBDQ-Form XII developed by the Ohio State University. The LBDQ-Form XII was selected as it provides an accurate measure for the path goal theory's leadership constructs (Schriesheim and Von Glinow, 1977) and it has been used extensively in previous leadership research. Instrumental leader behavior was measured by the 10 item initiating structure scale of LBDQ-Form XII, while supportive leader behavior was measured using the 10 item consideration scale of the LBDQ-Form XII. It is important to note that the items on the scale are directed towards group rather than individual based descriptions. However Schriesheim (1979) found that there is a strong relationship between both the group and individual descriptions and that measures comprising of either type of items produced the same co relations with the outcomes (cited in Mossholder et al, 1990, p381). Selmer (1997) noted that LBDQ instrument is not only applicable in the US but has also been successfully applied in Asia. Hence the measures were considered appropriate in the present study. Items such as 'Lets group members know what is expected of them' measured instrumental leader behaviors while items such as 'Looks out for the personal welfare of group members' measured supportive leader behaviors. Respondents were asked to rate how frequently their immediate supervisors engaged in the specified behaviors on a 5 point Likert scale ranging from '1-Never' to '5-Always'. The internal consistency reliabilities for instrumental and supportive leader measures were α= 0.86 and α= 0.82 respectively.
To measure affect or mood of the respondents, the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) developed by Watson, Clark, Tellegen (1988) was used. The PANAS is a 20 item self report measure of both positive and negative affect. Positive affect was measured by 10 items such as 'excited, determined, active, inspired, alert, attentive, interested, proud, enthusiastic and strong' whereas Negative affect was measured by 10 items such as 'nervous, upset, scared, jittery, irritable, afraid, hostile, guilty, ashamed and distressed'. Previous research has shown that both positive and negative affect constructs are reliable and independent regardless of the subject population or the time frame or cultural context (Watson and Clark, 1997). Hence this scale was considered appropriate for the present study. Respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which they experienced each mood during the past few days on a 5 point likert scale ranging from '1-very slightly/not at all' to '5-extremely'. The internal consistency reliabilities for positive affect and negative affect were α= 0.86 and α= 0.86 respectively.
Spatial Distance
Spatial distance was measured using 4 items measuring spatial distance (SPAT), from the original 74 item scale of revised substitute of leadership developed by Podsakoff, Niehoff, Mackenzie and Williams (1993). The scale is reliable with good psychometric properties (Podsakoff et al, 1993). Respondents were asked to indicate the degree to which they perceived their immediate supervisor to be spatially distant from them. SPAT included items such as 'My immediate supervisor and I are seldom in actual contact or direct sight of one another' which was measured on a 5 point Likert scale ranging from '1- Strongly Disagree' to '5- Strongly Agree'. The internal consistency reliability for this measure was α=0.75.
Role Overload
Role overload was measured with the original Role Overload Scale, a three-item role overload scale developed by Beehr, Walsh and Taber (1976). The 3 items include, 'I am given enough time to do what is expected of me on my job (reverse coded), 'It often seems like I have too much work for one person to do', 'the performance standards on my job are too high'. Respondents were asked to indicate the degree to which they agreed with the given statement on a 5 point Likert scale ranging from '1-Strongly Disagree' to '5-Strongly Agree'. The internal consistency reliability for this measure was α=0.64
3.3 Analysis
The five dimension of OCB are related to one another and are equivalent indicators of OCB (Lepine et al, 2002). Thus one can assume that all the observed quantities of the statements were contributing equally as a measure of OCB. Considering these factors the present study made use of the mean of each item for analysis. An overall score of OCB was created by computing the means across all the 21 items (Allen et al, 2000). In order to maintain consistency and retain the scale range from 1-5, a similar procedure was adopted for all other items measuring each of the independent variables.
Control Variables
Previous research has found demographic features such as gender (Kidder, 1998), age, and tenure (Morrison, 1994) to influence OCB (cited in Coyle-Shapiro, 2002). Hence age, gender and tenure were included as control variables. Designation and department of the employees were also included as control variables as these factors were linked to the tenure for some employee in the given organization and therefore could potentially influence their OCB.
In order to analyse the data, univariate analysis which consisted of descriptive statistics, bivariate analysis which consisted of Pearson's co relation coefficients, multivariate analysis which consisted of multiple regressions and the Cronbach alphas for all measures were calculated using SPSS 16.0.
Since the study made use of self report to measure OCB, it was essential to examine if there were any evident biases in the responses. The descriptive statistics for the OCB scale for this sample are shown in Table 1.
Table 1
OCB Descriptives
Std. Deviation
Std. Error of Skewness
Std. Error of Kurtosis
The mean for the OCB scale was 4.125 with a median of 4.100, a skewness of .165 with a standard error of skewness as .217 and a kurtosis of -.296 with standard error of kurtosis was .430. The descriptive statistics indicate that the responses were normally distributed as the mean and median are similar and the skewness and kurtosis are less than twice their standard errors. Overall in the organization there seems to be a high equity of OCB as noted by the higher mean value of 4.12 but there seems to be no evident skewness in the responses towards OCB, as marked by the normal distribution.
Table 2 below indicates the means, standard deviations and Cronbach alpha's for all the variables studied in this research. Altruism, courtesy, conscientiousness and sportsmanship dimensions of OCB have comparable means of 4.06, 4.23, 4.41 and 4.31 respectively. Only civic virtue reported to have a relatively low mean of 3.61. Thus indicating that, the employees in the sample exhibited relatively low participation in the political process of the organization. The mean for instrumental leader behavior came out to be 4.14, indicating that the employees in the sample viewed their leaders to provide them with greater role clarification.
Table 2
Mean, Standard deviations and Cronbach reliabilities for all the variables
OCB- Courtesy
OCB- Civic Virtue
Instrumental Leader Behavior
Supportive Leader Behavior
Positive Affect
Negative Affect
Role Overload
Spatial Distance
As shown in the table 2, the mean for negative affect for the sample is low at 1.73. The low mean indicates that overall in the sample employees expressed almost no negative moods in the given time frame. The Cronbach alpha's for all scales except role overload were above 0.70 thereby indicating good internal consistency reliabilities. The Cronbach alpha for role overload was less satisfactory at 0.64. This could probably be attributed to the fact that the role overload scale is multidimensionality in nature as it measures both the qualitative and quantitative role overload and has small number of items in the scale (Kelloway and Barling, 1990).
The Pearson's correlation coefficients for the variables with OCB and its dimensions are presented in Table 3. The correlational analysis illustrates that the co relation coefficient between OCB and instrumental leaders behavior is positive and significant at r = .64, p ≤ 0.01. Thus Instrumental leader behavior is positively related to OCB, thereby supporting Hypothesis 1.1. The co relation coefficients between each of the dimensions of OCB and instrumental leader behavior also show a positive and significant relationship. Instrumental leaders behavior is positively related to altruism (ALT) at r = .37, p ≤ 0.01, to courtesy (COU) at r= .30, p ≤ 0.01, to conscientiousness (CONS) at r = .44, p ≤ 0.01, to sportsmanship (SPOR) at r = .18, p ≤ 0.05 and to civic virtue (CIVI) at r = .37, p ≤ 0.01. The results also indicate that the correlation coefficient between OCB and supportive leader behavior is positive and significant at r =.56, p ≤ 0.01. Thus Supportive leader behavior is positively related to OCB thereby supporting Hypothesis 1.2. Like instrumental leader behavior, supportive leader behavior too shows a significant and positive relationship with all the dimensions of OCB.
Table 3
Pearson's Correlation with OCB and its Dimensions
Instrumental Leader Behavior
Supportive Leader Behavior
Positive Affect
Negative Affect
- .12
Role Overload
Spatial Distance
The two tailed test of significance was used. *p ≤ 0.05 **p ≤ 0.01
Alt= Altruism, Cou= Courtesy, Cons= Conscientiousness, Spor= Sportsmanship and Civi =Civic Virtue
As seen in the table 3, supportive leader behavior shows a positive relationship with altruism (ALT) at r =.34, p ≤ 0.01, with courtesy (COU) at r =.24, p ≤ 0.01, with conscientiousness (CONS) at r =.28, p ≤ 0.01, with sportsmanship (SPOR) at r =.20, p ≤ 0.05 and with civic virtue (CIVI) at r =.39, p ≤ 0.01. Furthermore there exists a positive and significant relationship between OCB and positive affect at r =.38, p ≤ 0.01, thereby supporting Hypothesis 2.1. Among the dimensions, only three dimensions of OCB show a positive significant relationship with positive affect. Positive affect showed a positive and significant relationship with courtesy (COU) at r = .32, p ≤ 0.05, with conscientiousness (CONS) at r = .24, p ≤ 0.01 and with sportsmanship (SPOR) at r = .31, p ≤ 0.01. It was interesting to note that altruism and civic virtue showed no significant relationship with positive affect.
Although previous researches have shown altruism to be positively related to positive mood, in the present study there seems to be no significant relationship between positive mood and OCB. This can possibly be explained by the mean of positive affect. As shown in Table 2, the mean for positive affect came out to be 3.92, which suggests that the positive mood among employees was not very high. As the mean of positive affect is relatively low, it may explain why it did not show a significant relationship with all the dimensions of OCB. Another possible reason for positive affect to show an insignificant relationship with altruism and civic virtue would be the current economic crisis. Owing to the current global recession and increased layoff, the existing employees have to deal with their own increased work pressures and under such circumstances even if an employee is in a positive mood he/she may not find the opportunity or time to help others with their work or voluntarily attend meetings. The correlational analysis further indicates no significant relationship between OCB, negative affect, role overload and spatial distance. Thereby providing no support for Hypothesis 2.2, Hypothesis 3.1 and Hypothesis 4.1.
After examining the relationship between the variables, a multiple regression was conducted with OCB as the dependent variables and all other variables as the independent variables in order to examine the strength of the association between the variables. The results of the multiple regression analysis are presented in Table 4.
Table 4
Multiple regression analysis predicting OCB
Independent Variables β t Sig
Instrumental Leader Behavior .41** 4.73 .01
Supportive Leader Behavior .28** 3.42 .01
Positive Affect .16* 2.24 .02
Negative Affect -.02 - .31 .75
Role Overload .02 .32 .74
Spatial Distance -.05 - .79 .43
*p ≤ 0.05, **p ≤ 0.01
As shown in Table 4, 49% of variance in OCB was explained by instrumental leader behavior, supportive leader behavior and positive affect. Among all the variables, only three variables i.e. instrumental leader behavior, supportive leader behavior and positive affect proved to be significant predictors of OCB for the given sample. Instrumental leader behavior is the most significant predictor of OCB. The coefficient for instrumental leader behavior is β=.41 at p ≤ 0.01. Followed by supportive leader behavior which is the second most significant predictor of OCB (β =.28, p ≤ 0.01). Positive affect although relatively low in comparison to the leader behaviors also proved to be a significant predictor of OCB with β=.16 at p ≤ 0.05. In the given context, negative affect, role overload and spatial distance did not prove as significant predictors of OCB.
Since instrumental leader behavior, supportive leader behavior and positive affect proved to be significant predicators of OCB, a multiple regression was conducted with these predictors as independent variables and each of the dimensions of OCB as the dependent variable in order to determine the dimensions that were predicted by these variables. The results of the multiple regressions are present in Table 5 below.
Table 5
Multiple regression analysis predicting various dimensions of OCB
Dimensions of OCB
Independent variable
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Opened in 2009, the Vienna Hotel Guangzhou South Railway Station Branch is situated in Panyu. It offers 4-star air-conditioned rooms and a stylish restaurant. The Vienna Hotel Guangzhou South... [MORE]
Established in 1988, the Rosedale Hotel & Suites is situated in Haizhu. Rooms are air conditioned and internet access is provided free of charge. The Rosedale Hotel & Suites has 403 rooms and... [MORE]
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Natural Gas Transmission Closed Company Limited by Shares (FGSZ Ltd.)
and Eustream a.s. signed a Memorandum of Understanding on 19 June 2009
with the aim to interconnect the Slovak and the Hungarian high pressure
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February 10, 2018 at Louie's Backyard
2305 Padre Blvd, South Padre Island, Texas
SPICE Registration
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The 2018 SPICE Chili Cook-Off was the best ever! We had 18 teams, 32 chili entries and 0ver 600 people attended! Without the support and participation of all who cooked, attended and volunteered we could not pull this event off. Thank you for your support of our mission to help women in the RGV who are fighting breast cancer.
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People's Choice SpawGlass, Head Chef Chris Pennington
Walk for Women, Inc. is an organization initiated by local women to heighten breast cancer awareness and to raise money for the area residents affected by this disease and who are in need of financial assistance. Gift certificates, auction items and cash donations are always appreciated and welcome.


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Rogue Toys
Rogue Toys - Monthly Toy Swap October 13th 10am 2018
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Some zords and megazords of the past have had some kind of articulation.william-james88 wrote:Cobotron wrote:Oh! PCC. I could see that. Maybe that style of combining would offer up a little more articulation.
If there is automorphing, then you usually get less articulation. The PCC toys had no articulation (and neither do Power Ranger zords)


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Show Me, Don't Tell Me
I don't have to read your mind. It's enough that I will see what you do. Then I will know what you think and what you feel. What you do manifests what you think and what you feel. It is important to understand this phenomenon in interactions between people. It is their behaviors (not words) that show […]Continue reading →


text:
In these trying times, Jackie Mason is the Voice of Reason.
In his latest exclusive video for Breitbart News, Jackie tears up Democratic lawmakers who live like kings on taxpayer money and then proceed to waste everybody's time by blocking President Donald Trump's Cabinet appointments.
"To call themselves a Party is embarrassing. To call themselves legislators is disgusting," Jackie fumes. "To even call themselves human beings is obnoxious and disgusting."
"What are you wasting everybody's time collecting dollars and opportunities to be a legislator so you can sit in Washington and do nothing for a living and hang around there like a prince, like a king with nothing to do, and you spend all your time trying to get even with the people from the opposite party. Why? Because you lost an election and you can't tolerate it and you can't live with it."
Jackie also has a personal message for Sen. Chuck Schumer: "There must be something wrong with a person who can't be ashamed of himself while he's making a fool of himself every day."
Watch Mason's latest above.
Follow Daniel Nussbaum on Twitter: @dznussbaum


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Megaupload criminal copyright case is 'fundamental shift'
The legal, business and political implications of the Megaupload case were examined at a breakfast panel discussion held by the New Zealand Computer Society in Auckland recently.
The panelists were IT lawyer Rick Shera, InternetNZ CEO Vikram Kumar, and TPP-Watch founder Jane Kelsey.
Shera opened with an observation that the Megaupload extradition proceedings were likely to be "absolutely fascinating" from the legal point of view. The issues were complex but he was glad "New Zealand's most tech-savvy jurist," David Harvey, would be presiding over the hearing which is scheduled to take place in August.
In order for the extradition to succeed, Shera said, "there has to an extraditable offence and it has to be serious. Some say the definition of 'serious' is a offence that could carry a 12 month prison sentence, others say it's four years."
The extraditable offence also had to be "similar or akin to" New Zealand law. While New Zealand did have the Copyright Act, Shera said there were differences between the US and New Zealand legislation, and issues such as knowledge and the obligations of third parties could be significant.
Shera said it showed the struggle by copyright holders to enforce their rights was moving towards ISPs and cloud providers, as film and music companies were discovering that suing users was not best way of achieving their goals.
There had been earlier civil actions against Limewire and Napster, Shera said, but the difference here was that the Megaupload case was a criminal action. This had involved the "nuclear option of taking down websites, seizing assets, shutting down a business even before the accused has a chance to know they are being accused."
Shera questioned whether due consideration was being shown to third party rights or whether criminal proceedings delivered an appropriate remedy.
"Win or lose, Megaupload is down and the business is probably destroyed."
Vikram Kumar took up the theme of the novelty of a criminal copyright case, saying it represented a "fundamental shift that we have to start thinking about."
"We are not used to seeing copyright matters treated in a criminal context," he said, adding that many people had "reacted emotionally" to the use of armed police in the Dotcom raid.
"What we have here is the arm of the state acting on behalf of people who have alleged they have been wronged."
Kumar said there had been two categories of reaction to the case so far, the first of which had played out behind the scenes. Some of Megaupload's competitors had started clearing up their own lockers, and links to copyright infringing files were taken down. Almost immediately much traffic had shifted to other sites.
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موافقتنامه تجاری منطقه ای اقیانوس آرام/ آسیا: یک مطالعه تجربی
|کد مقاله
|سال انتشار
|مقاله انگلیسی
|ترجمه فارسی
|تعداد کلمات
|سفارش دهید
|6000 کلمه
Publisher : Elsevier - Science Direct (الزویر - ساینس دایرکت)
Journal : Journal of Asian Economics, Volume 18, Issue 6, December 2007, Pages 974–987
چکیده انگلیسی
At the same time as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the World Trade Organization (WTO) have been encouraging trade liberalized, there has been a proliferation of Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs). These RTAs also aim to reduce trade barriers, but they do so it in a preferential way. There is continued debate as to whether such RTAs are an effective way of achieving free trade, or if increased trade among members causes less trade with non-member countries? If RTAs increase total trade, this is known as 'trade creation', whereas if the extra trade occurs at the expense of non-members, this is called 'trade diversion'. Trade creation implies improved welfare, whereas 'trade diversion' may adversely affect welfare. This paper examines five different RTAs using a gravity model to see if they have been trade creating or trade diverting. Annual data from 26 countries covering five RTAs in the Asia and Pacific region for the years 1980–2000 was used.
مقدمه انگلیسی
This paper addresses the question of whether Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs) enhance welfare. This is examined by using a gravity model to analyse the effect the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN),1 Australian and New Zealand Closer Economic Relations (CER), the Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the Southern Cone Common Market (MERCOSUR) and the North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA) have had on the trade of both members and non-members of these RTAs. In the previous literature the gravity model is usually used to examine only one or two RTAs at a time. This study is unusual in that a comparable method has been used to look at five different RTAs.
نتیجه گیری انگلیسی
This study uses a gravity model to examine bilateral trade involving five trading blocs, with data from 26 countries from 1980 to 2000. The estimated coefficients from the basic gravity model show that GDP, population, distance between trading partners, as well as cultural similarity (a common language) and physical area explain much cross country trade. The study also uses some price variables, namely the real exchange rate and taxes and finds that the empirical results line up with prior expectations. That is, real exchange rate movements had the expected affects, as depreciations encouraged exports and discouraged imports. With regard to taxes, the results suggest that taxation decreases bilateral trade.


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POPVOX bridges the gap between the input the public wants to provide and the information Members of Congress want and need to receive.
With POPVOX, ACT can post a pre-written suggested letter for our members to sign and send into members of Congress. POPVOX asks for detailed contact information, including your home address and in some cases your phone number, in order to ensure that your message to Congress reaches the appropriate Congressional office.
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Miramax Home Entertainment will release Gus Van Sant's unusual film Gerry on November 11 at a suggested price of $29.99.
The film stars Matt Damon and Casey Affleck as two friends both named Gerry, who go for a hike in the desert, but stray off the main path. Lost in the desert, the two have a challenge to get home alive, and stay friends in the process.
Details are sketchy for now, but there will be a behind-the-scenes documentary called Salt Lake Van Sant. We'll have more details as it becomes available.


text:
Watch Redbelt (2008)
Is there room for principle in Los Angeles? Mike Terry teaches jujitsu and barely makes ends meet. His Brazilian wife, whose family promotes fights, wants to see Mike in the ring making money, but to him competition is degrading. A woman sideswipes Mike's car and then, after an odd sequence of events, shoots out the studio's window. Later that evening, Mike rescues an action movie star in a fistfight at a bar. In return, the actor befriends Mike, gives him a gift, offers him work on his newest film, and introduces Mike's wife to his own - the women initiate business dealings. Then, things go sour all at once, Mike's debts mount, and going into the ring may be his only option. On Gomovies - watch Redbelt 2008 in HD 1080p with high speed link on GoStream.
Actor: Max Martini, Matt Cable, Chiwetel Ejiofor, Alice Braga
Director: david mamet
Country: Usa
Duration: 99 min
Quality: DVD
Release: 2008
IMDb: 6.8
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Do you really really hate burpees, but still want to help with the Burpeethon? If you have a skill to offer, then we want you on board! Stephen, who has been volunteering with the Burpeethon since it was conceived, is always looking for people to help him with his role. You can read what he has to say below.
I'm Stephen, and I deal with some of the other things that happen during the Burpeethon that don't involve jumping up and down and getting dizzy
I help organise the sign in sheets and disclaimers. It's always handy to know who's turned up
I deal with the time keeping, setting the stopwatch for each session, giving updates to the timing so people can pace themselves, or push for the final minutes!
I play the music. Well, Spotify plays the music, I just add things to the playlist. Some works better than others, always looking for suggestions
I take some photos and videos. Admittedly not very good ones, but it's easier than someone who isn't jumping about does them. They're slightly less blurry!
I try to keep the Twitter and Facebook updated on the day for the live listeners at home!
Most importantly, I do the overall tallies, I collate the individual tick sheets, for each participant, and tot up the scores on the computer. It would be handy to have a second set of eyes to go over them, after looking at so many, my eyes start doing things all on their own, but we get there in the end!
So if you fancy helping out, but not getting all hot and sticky, there are lots of other things that can be done, so feel free to get in touch. The more the merrier!
If you think you can help Stephen, then please sign up here!


text:
Company size: 360,000 employees
Key product/service items: Samsung Electronics Company manufactures and distributes consumer electronics, communication products, semiconductor products and home appliances.
Accessibility website overview: The Samsung accessibility website details its compliance with Conformance Level 'A' of the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines. Samsung has introduced access key, navigation, color, font and flash features to ensure the best use of their site by all of their visitors.
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Samsung Electronics Building
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Contact page: http://www.samsung.com/us/support/contact


text:
Roberta Wilson is an area artist known for her bold paintings of flowers. She is also an artist with a sense of humor in her perspective of being married to sculptor Jerry Wilson and the time they have spent in their studio during the last 17 years at the Indian Orchard Mills.
"No one can complain to the other when supper is not made," quipped the Wilbraham resident who also taught for 40 years in the Palmer Public School District.
Wilson regards the other inhabitants of the arts and industrial complex at 34-40 Front St., in Springfield's Indian Orchard section, as family, and is one to help her fellow artists gain exposure for their work, while at the same time provide enjoyment to area residents.
Hence the exhibit, "Wilson & Company," that will be on view Saturdays in February in the Dane Gallery at the Indian Orchard Mills. It features the art of the Wilson family as well as artists who have been associated with them through the studios, other exhibits or art classes.
"It is always a pleasure to see the work you have done hanging on the wall and having people enjoy it along with you," Wilson said.
"Some of the people who are going to be in this show are students and for some this is their first time of having art on the wall. They are very very excited. The rest of them are professionals. We all have worked together on various projects and for them this is another opportunity to show their work."
Wilson added that the exhibit will feature more than 70 pieces of artwork including paintings, sculpture and ceramic, and said the opening reception on Feb. 11 will include light refreshments.
"We are hoping see a number of people. It will be a fine get together that everyone will enjoy," said Wilson, noting some of the art is "recent, some of it older but never shown."
Wilson added she like working in the venue of the Indian Orchard Mills.
"Having a studio space in which to work in place like mills not only gives you room, which artists need, but there are people around you with similar interests. If you need to talk with something else, they are there. If you need help with something, there are people there and they are very accomplished people themselves. It is kind of a family and kind of a professional group," Wilson said.
She added, "Our landlord Charles Brush is very supportive of all us."
Vice president of the Wilbraham Art League, Wilson has been doing large-scale paintings of flowers for many years, some of which are currently on view as part of the exhibit, "Circles of Life," at the MassMutal Center in Springfield.
Her floral paintings are highlighted in the February show, and Wilson said that for her they represent something "magical."
"If you look at any single one of these flowers in nature, they are small things," Wilson said.
"I brighten up the colors and explode them in size. Something magical happens when you do that. Making them large pleases me and makes them even more beautiful than they have been."
Jerry Wilson is a potter and sculpture who works primarily in stone. He was awarded the Robert L. Bertolli Award for Traditional Sculpture at the Academic Artist's Association National Exhibit in 2000. He and his wife have exhibited for many years in the Monson Art Council spring shows and have served on the council's art show committee.
The February show planned by the couple includes ceramicists Juliet Bacchas and Linda Spelko of Juliet Rose Pottery, in Monson, as well as Monson residents David Dupuis, a painter particularly known for his portraits, and Maureen Solomon and Tara Hengeveld, both of whom will be showing work in the medium of painting for the first time.
Painters Susan James, of Wilbraham, and Barbara Hegge, of Chicopee are also participants, as is Indian Orchard studio artist Karen A. Whitney, a teacher of fine arts at Roger L. Putnam Vocational Technical Academy, who has obtained grants to bring her students to study with the Wilsons for several years.
Painter Rebecca Carney, a Brimfield resident and the Wilson's daughter who has studied art at Greenfield Community College, is a participant, as is her daughter Meghan Carney. Wilbraham resident William Marks, another young family member who likes to draw and paint, will have work on display.
The Dane Gallery show will be open noon to 4 p.m. on Saturdays in February with a reception for the artists on Saturday, Feb. 11 from noon to 4 p.m.
For more information, contact Roberta Wilson at (413) 378-4204, or call the Dane Gallery at Indian Orchard Mills, (413) 543-3321.


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By: Denishea Bright
Sony Pictures competition for its 2nd Annual Diverse Directors Program wants new inspiring directors of diverse backgrounds to apply. After an intense workshop, which will take place in August of this year, only three lucky participants will be chosen to go on. The three winners will shadow television directors on hit scripted television shows on the Sony Pictures Lot in Culver City, CA. The program will take place from October 2015 to February 2016.
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That's Jazz Method 2 - Digging Deeper - hard copy
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Welcome to the best selling jazz piano method in the world!
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|[jira] Commented: (GERONIMO-373) Percolate errors from SocketProtocol up the stack
|Tue, 12 Oct 2004 21:36:51 GMT
The following comment has been added to this issue: Author: Alan Cabrera Created: Tue, 12 Oct 2004 2:36 PM Body: I agree, fail "goes up" and tearDown "goes down". I'm not entirely comfortable with protocols calling each other directly and much prefer an IOC type mechanism but, I'm open to discussion. The clearlinks method is dlearly dodgy; I must have been on crack when I put it in. I think that it may be an aritifact of me using, gasp, clone. --------------------------------------------------------------------- View this comment: http://issues.apache.org/jira/browse/GERONIMO-373?page=comments#action_53965 --------------------------------------------------------------------- View the issue: http://issues.apache.org/jira/browse/GERONIMO-373 Here is an overview of the issue: --------------------------------------------------------------------- Key: GERONIMO-373 Summary: Percolate errors from SocketProtocol up the stack Type: Improvement Status: Unassigned Priority: Major Project: Apache Geronimo Components: general Assignee: Reporter: David Farb Created: Tue, 12 Oct 2004 9:42 AM Updated: Tue, 12 Oct 2004 2:36 PM Environment: All environments Description: o.a.g.network.protocol.SocketProtocol does not percolate a client error or exception up the protocol stack when the client disconnects. When serviceRead in SocketProtocol gets an IOException or some other error, the socketChannel is closed, but the up protocol is not informed. Calling the teardown method of the up protocol is probably not an appropriate way to handle these exceptions. The teardown method should be called by the creator of the protocol stack. Instead, the exception/error should percolate up the protocol stack to the creator (via some sort of callback mechanism) which should then remove the stack and associated information from the server environment. Either a new method reserved for this could be defined in the Protocol interface (up.handleException(Throwable t)) or sending a null, empty or specially marked packet via up.sendUp(UpPacket upPacket) could be implemented. Since in most cases the server is waiting for a client response, if the client goes away, server components need to be informed of this fact so the server side objects can be cleaned up. There is usually no way to recover these objects, hence they are a memory leak. I would be happy to submit a fix for this, but I would appreciate feedback on the most appropriate way to do it. Thanks David Farb --------------------------------------------------------------------- JIRA INFORMATION: This message is automatically generated by JIRA. If you think it was sent incorrectly contact one of the administrators: http://issues.apache.org/jira/secure/Administrators.jspa If you want more information on JIRA, or have a bug to report see: http://www.atlassian.com/software/jira
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Good Teachers and Good Students
What are qualities of good teachers? What are qualities of good students? What are your expectations of this class?
What are qualities of good teachers? What are qualities of good students? What are your expectations of this class?
I think that the qualities of a GOOD teacher are those that can teach well and give students time to learn. I think that they should also be able to listen and understand questions that the students ask. The good student qualitites are that they can also listen and those that take notes and who are honest. My expectations of this class are that we are going to have a lot of fun and that we will all go at a same pace.
Good teachers help kids to learn and dont jsut ignore them. They respect the kids. Good Students listen to what the teacher or the other students are saying and they are willing to learn. My expectations of this class are to get better at english and to learn more about my peers and the world.
some qualities of a good teahcer are making sure that their students have fun in calss. also good qualities of a teacher are involving themselves with students and connecting with them in a personal level so they understand the way their students think. soe qualities of a good student are to make sure they are listening in class and payng attention. a good student should always follow the rules of the teacher and try to connect with the teacher. good students should do their homework and always respect the teacher.
my expectaions in this class are to have fun and to learn more about writing and get better at it.
Qualites of good teachers are they are willing to meet your needs. They help you out when you ask them to and they explain instructions clearly.
Qualities of good students are, they are not disruptive when a teacher is teaching. The students are also willing to learn, they have a good attitude about stuff and they are considerate to the class mates and teachers.
Expectations for this class is, you need to be prepared, you need to bring your container, and you need to do your homework every night no matter what.
A good teacher will act profesional while still having fun and being interesting. A good student will pay attention and contribute to the class without being a distraction. In this class we expect to have a good teacher and good students so we can get a lot done.
Qualities of good teachers include being willing to help and explain things to students. Another quality of a good teacher is one that doesn't lecture all day, they use different teaching methods that go with everyone's learning style.
Good students are motivated and willing to learn. They will do what is required to get the education that they need. Good students study, and do homework every night.
I expect that this class will be challenging, fast paced, but different. I am looking foward to using computers.
Good qualities in a teacher are that they care, they're understanding, and they do their very best to help their students.
Some good qualities in a student are ambition, self-discipline, and ability.
My expectations for this English class is to accomplish every given task and to learn everything expected.
My expectations for this class is to learn how to write more creative and how to write more.
Good qualities of a student is some one who is egier to learn. And good qualities of a teacher is some one who is willing to lisen and understand a student who may strugelling in places.
A good teacher has a sense of humor. They want you to have a good time in class and they should make learning exciting. A good teacher should also be willing to listen, understand, and work with students.
A good student needs to do his work and get it in on time. A good student also has to be motivated and be understandable.
My expectations of this class is that I will be able to do the work assigned to me and I will be challenged with it.
Some qualities of a good teacher are the teacher helps you when you need it. A lot of time students need help out of class with something they don't understand and it is always good when a teacher is willing to help. Another quality of a good teacher is that they explain a lesson well.
Qualities of a good student are they listen when the teacher talks, they do what there supposed to do, and they ask for help.
This year in English I hope to become a better writer.
To me the qualities of a good teacher are when he or she thoroughly explains what they are teaching. They ask for questions about what they just thought.
A good student is one that pays attention and participates in class discussions. They should not interrupt or talk while the teacher is talking.
My expectations of this class are that I will do all my home work and will ask questions when I do not understand.
The qualities of a good teacher are that they are easy to talk to and they answer questions in the classroom. Also, a good teacher has to be patient with the students. It is important that teachers enjoy what they are doing.
A good student is one who wants to learn and improve with undivided attention. Also a good student listens more then they talk.
My expectations of this class are to become a good writer and reader because being able to express one's self is very important to being succesful.
There are many qualities to a good teacher. They have to know how to run the class smoothly. Second, they have to treat us like adults. Finally they have to be fun and make the subject they're teaching fun.
A good student also has many qualities. First he/she has to be willing to learn. Second, they have to be excited for class, participate, and listen respectfully. Lastly, they need to enjoy school.
This year I expect to learn more about writing. I also expect to get a better grade this year than the grades I have received in the past years at middle school. I want to make it a great freshman year.
The quality of a good teacher depends on the type of students the teacher has. If the teacher has bad students, I would expect the qualities to differ from the good students. If a teacher has bad students, her work would be much harder and complicated which, in turn, would make it more complicated for the students to learn. On the other hand, if the students are good, everything will work out for both the teacher and the students because the students would pay attention, listen, and learn. So, I would say that the quality of the teacher depends on the quality of the students that she is teaching.
A good student goes home after school and goes straight to their homework no matter what. They do their homework and when it is all finished, they can go do whatever they please and don't have to worry about it late at night. A good student also writes every single homework assignment down in their planners so they can keep track of the homework they need to do and also keep track of when their homework is due. Good students are attentive in class and do what they have to do to be successful.
My expectations for this year's English class is to have fun. I want to have as much fun in this class as I possibly can. English has always been one of my strengths and I expect to keep it that way.
There are many qualities I like to see in a teacher. A teacher has to listen to the students and has to help out as much as she can. The teacher also should make a class fun by playing games. The teacher should tell us like a week before a test that there is a test coming up and tell us some stuff that is going to be on the test. That way we do well and can show people that this teacher is a good teacher and can really teach. Also I think a teacher should be chalking but not to challenging. I know that I learn best when I am being challenged.
There are a couple of qualities that make up a good student. A good student needs to listen in class. They also need to make sure they are taking notes when they are needed. We a teacher asks if anyone has questions, students should not be afraid to ask the question even if they like it sounds stupid. And of course, ask a lot of questions. That is the only way you can learn.
My expectations for this class are to have fun and to improve on my writing skills.
The quality of a good teacher, depends on the way that a student prefers the teacher. For example one student might prefer a teacher that doesnt kid around, and is serious. I prefer a teacher that doesnt sound like a text book, and is easy to get along with. To me a good teacher has more commitment to the students academic needs than punishments for the lack thereof.
A good student is a student that interacts with the teacher, but not to an annoying point. Somone who overall is a good student, but isnt perfect. The perfect kids are boring and im sure that teachers like the acamdemics of perfect kids, but not anything else.
sorry perfect kids.
My expectations for this english class is to fail at everything....
haha i bet you fell for that for a second. Truly my expectations are to do everything to the best of my ability, so even if i dont get an A on everything, i know i put effort into it.
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Some qualities that a teacher should have is letting the kids have fun and not lecture them the whole time in class...no one likes to learn that way. Also i think for a student and a teacher they need to have respect for eachother. A teacher shouldn't interupt a student while he/she is answering a question. Same with the student he/she shouldn't talk while the teacher is telling the class something important.
My expectaions in this class is i want this class to stand out from my other classes. I want to have fun in this class and not worry about not wanting to come to class.
To me a teahers qualities are very important. they should be friendly towards all the students. They also need to be honest. The teacher also has to be compassionate about teaching and able to listen to the students.
A good students qualities are important in a class. They need to be respectfull to every one and they need to be eager to learn and always do there assignments.
My expectations of this class is that it is going to be a fun learning filled environment where we can work on the laptops as much as possibel and homework that is not long and boring.
Good teachers need to be able to have fun with the kids and educate them. Good students need to deal with what they are given and be willing to learn. My expectations of this class are that I will learn a lot and have fun. I also hope to meet new people and get an A!!!!
Good qualities of teachers are being patient and being educated. They need to be patient becuase kids don't listen and screw up alot, and they need to be educated to teach the material. Good qualities of a student are hardworking and good listener. They need to be hardworking to learn the material, and they need to be a good listener to learn the material also. I expect to learn what I am supposed to and have fun doing it.
Some qualities of good teachers are willing to help the students if they need help. Also, teachers have to have spirit. I love teachers that are funny and loving being around them and not scared to ask them questions.
Some qualities of students is they have to be respectful to the teachers and students. Students should also be positive because you don't want a student to turn the teacher down or the students.Also, students should pay attention and listen because if you don't then that will get you no where.
My expectations of this class is to be a good listener, pay attention, stay postive and be respectful. Those are the best ways to be a good student and in life.
Qualities of a good teacher are brown hair last name of Smith and starbucks fans,lol jk,. To me qualities of a good teacher varies from student to student. For example if they had a very smart student i would expect the teacher to not let them coast through class but to push them real hard. Oppisite if there was a less intelligent student i would expect the teacher to show alot of patience and attention to the lesser intteligent
students needs.
For the qulities of a good stdent i would say that hardworking, attenitive, and devoted are the three main qualities for a good student. If you have those i believe you will be very succesful.
My expectations for this class are lots of learning and having fun at the same time.
The qualities of a good teacher would be the ability to teach the curriculum without being boring. By making the topics interesting.
A good student would be someone who does all there homework, checks everything they do, put in extra effort, study hard, and pay attention.
In this class, my expectations are that it's going to be interesting.
I think that the main qualities that make up good teachers are that they have fun and make you have fun, if the teacher's not energetic it causes you to loose energy. Also, I agree with what Zoey said, a good teacher does need to be there to help you when you're struggling and take their own time for their situation. But I also think a good quality that a teacher should have is patience as well as being understanding this way they can relate to the students without a lot of troubles. I think that good qualities that students should maintain are to put forth all their effort in what they do this way they can succeed. I think that students need to listen to the teacher and come to class with an open mind and positive attitude because those two features make the classroom environment and time fly by. We as well as the teachers need to remain patient then we can all get along and stay on task. My expectations for this class are to learn more about writing efficiently and how to relate in your writings to the readers.
In my opinion, would be a teacher who can does her lesson by activities not just a boring lecture. Also, the teacher sets aside time for a student that needs help or does not get it.
Good qualities in a student show that they come to class ready to learn, and not just talk with their freinds. The do there homework on time and do a good job on it.
My expectations on this class is, I think we are going to have a lot of fun but learn a lot too.