text:
This person is not dark. I've actually met this person at a much later age. Lets see what we can get from this first picture. And she has since moved on to better things.
updated by @paul: 07/21/18 12:47:08PM
Wow, Paul, are you immortal, lol? This pic looks way to old to be someone you could have met!
I got that she is a writer and very quick-witted, intellectual.
Lots of Gemini in her chart.
Sharp-tongued but very humorous, so she deflects the bite of what she says with humor and can get away with saying anything, but people will still like her.
Involved in many things at once, a real multi-tasker, always going and doing to work off nervous energy.
I get a husband who is a doctor of some kind, but also get that she is not willing to assume traditional roles, so that is confusing me.
I get 3 kids but someone else caring for them while she pursues her causes and writing.
None of this is coming in strong, except writing, so I shall return!
I know she hit 100. No I'm not immortal in this body, otherwise... (smiles like the cat)...
Wrote, yes. Humorous, yes and could she get away with it...YES! I loved her soul and she knew it. Many would just do anything for her and she was no dummy. I hope you enjoy this one Cat.
I was going to say this can't be the same woman, but then I remembered to look in the mirror and see what has happened to me in the past 30 years, lol.
She is kind, thoughtful and still amused by life.
Some of life's tragedies have tempered her bubbling humor though.
I am hearing fortune teller.
I still can't pick up just what she wrote about.
Was she a practicing psychic medium and wrote about that?
I get a matronly, grandmother type of feeling from her.
Italian background.
Someone behind her left shoulder who has passed. Feels male.
I hear the name Sophie.
That's all for now, thanks for extra picture. Please don't give up....
I think people are still recovering from the last picture and are very busy. Hopefully, they will get here soon. While participating in one of these, your email box is bombarded with posts from it, and if you already get 150 other emails per week like I do, but you have a life and are not stuck at home all the time like I am, it can take awhile to get around to reading the email telling you that there is another new picture up.
I am really new at this, so please forgive me if I am really out in left in field but would like to try:
I am sensing that this writer (around the time of her second picture) has been deeply affected by the loss of her father? I also see a someone behind her left shoulder (maybe it's her husband, not her father?) For some reason, the name Kathryn comes to mind for me, but she reminds me of a Kathryn I knew.
I also feel like she was part of the Women's Suffrage movement of the 1920's.
Thanks for letting me give it a try:)
OMG, Equus Aquarius!
You certainly can pick up things! This has nothing to do with this picture, so please forgive me for being off topic, but I just have to tell you that very recently, I did a face to face reading for a stranger, and his younger brother who had died at age 11 came through to give me information. He told me his name was David, which was correct. This man had asked me to read him as to whether he should continue his present relationship with a woman, or move back to where he came from. His deceased brother told me the girlfriend's name was Kathryn, spelled in that same unusual way and that was correct. (I'm sure you know most are spelled either Catherine or Katherine). Since my post was right before yours, and that spelling is so unusual, I just think it's freaky. I don't believe in coincidence.
Please do stick around. We don't worry if we make mistakes here. It's not a competition, but all in fun and for practice.
C. Cat
These experiments are designed to develop our intuition. Its amazing what comes through sometimes. For instance #48, he talked and gave us star coordinates for the others. I looked it up and yes its reported there are others there. You may wish to read through that one.
I'm going to have to look for those names and she may have been involved in the 20s since she came over to the states then.
It is best to empty your mind and gaze at the picture. At least that is how I do it.
There is really no wrong way to do this. just remember to have fun.
After reading your post here, I thought I knew who this was, but I checked out her pictures and I was wrong. The name you got made a whole lot of sense, combined with what I got in my posts on this picture. Oh well, back to the drawing board......we often don't know how something may turn out to be related to what we are going after.
Thank you, Paul. I'll review #48 and try what you suggest
I just got a stabbing pain under the right side of my rib cage...I'm not sure yet what it means...
As silly as it may sound, I keep thinking of Mary Poppins! - LOL! I googled the author of Mary Poppins, P.L. Travers, who looks a little like her after I had that thought, but this is not her....
This is alot of fun:)
She's done very well for herself and mingles at high levels.
She is confident and satisfied with her accomplishments.
I feel a lot of yang energy; strong willed and no nonsense. Can keep going like those half her age.
I still get writing, but am getting non-fiction now. Still not sure what the subject is though.
Politics. Charity work. Leadership role.
I feel a lot of underlying male energy.
I almost see a man beneath or inside the exterior of a woman. Beneath her makeup and skin, I see a mustache a strong masculine jawbone.
Perhaps she was the real decision-maker of her family in a time when women did not usually make the decisions. Perhaps she was the real backbone/support system emotionally and financially for her family as well.
I also see a proud survivor who never let herself become a victim of circumstance, who actually looks in this picture more like she does in the first picture you posted, Paul, than all of the other ones! Even though she is oldest in this picture, I see a sort of rebirth in which the youthful quality that was present in her first picture and absent in the others is back in this one:)
Alll right we are caught up with the time frame. I actually met our Lady at this time frame and she looked like this. She was sharp and tireless. She was direct and kind and knew what she wanted.
Note she had arthritis in the hands and some sort of foot disorder that made her hard to walk but she could with a little effort.
This is really pushing me to use a part of my intuition I have never used before but is so much fun:)
I don't know why names keep randomly popping into my head, but I was feeding my horses tonight and "Dolores Cannon" popped into my head out of seemingly nowhere.
I know that this woman is not Dolores Cannon, but I think they may share some similarities.
In her day, this woman, who strikes me as possibly an empathic/psychic/healer/medium was exceptionally gifted and probably wrote something that shook up the entire Sensitive/Psychic/Intuitive global community but I'm just not sure what!
The arthritis in her hands and the condition in her foot really make me think about chakras in the palms of the hands and the arches of the feet-where a healer would feel heat and energy.
Thanks for bearing with me as I keep testing out these unfamiliar waters:)
Thank you for the encouragement! I feel very different in a very positive way and am going to check out Dolores's books.
I got some definite visuals from the last picture out of the 3 you posted but I am still really trying to listen, too and haven't heard anything yet.
I will try again a little later:)
Good to hear and BTW the issue has been resolved in a most positive way. Just thought I'd let you know. Dolores is sadly gone now but if you do an online search, you may be able to download her books. I hope this helps you grow and get closer to your horses Wow, I'm so happy for you.
Thank you so much I really appreciate your help and your input! It's not always easy to hear the truth, it's not always easy to tell the truth, but in the end the people who tell you what you don't always want to hear help you the most:)
It's too bad to hear about Dolores-I saw a you tube video that Bing referred me to in a welcome message, as well as some links to her books.
I think that she will live on in her videos, her books, her accomplishments - everything she says is amazing and it is so foreign to how I was raised but it makes so much more sense and it is so liberating!!!!!
I am definitely going to do an online search and try to get some copies of her books (nice to have the books to read outside and refer back to). In the meantime, I'll find the online books and start reading.
Also, I wanted to mention the visuals that I picked up earlier from the last picture posted of the 3:
When I opened the picture our lady and who I think might be her daughter in a seperate window, I saw 2 geometric shapes(space ships?) at the top of the lamp.
The picture also appears to me to be black and white, but I kept seeing her aura, or at least a lot of purplish-magenta around her, as well as a smaller field around her visitor. I also saw some yellow/gold mixed into her aura and an entity or 2 hiding in between both women.
I also saw what I think was her crown chakra open-very large and cone-shaped!
Sometimes I tend to hear more, and other times I tend to see more....
Thanks I'm learning as I go, I think. But I guess we don't until we try and that is why this so much fun!!!!!
I am getting a lot of whispering but cannot understand what she is saying because my ears keep ringing, but I think if I get more sleep tonight I may understand her better tomorrow.
What I cannot take my eyes off of though, is how translucent her hands are in this picture!
Hopefully some others with have some information to share, too Where did everybody go?
I have not gotten much more from the last two pics than the first.
This is one very happy, good-natured lady, and I am jealous of her brain chemistry. I want some of that!
She is one of those rare individuals who are actually well-adjusted rather than dysfunctional, lol.
I still have no idea what non-fiction subject she wrote about, except that I would bet her books had a positive slant on the subject, whatever it was.
Hmm...I get weakly that her writing may have been about solving a problem regarding early childhood education. Head Start type of thing maybe.
I agree with Equus about her hands. She has the long fingers of a spiritual person.
I guess I did pick up a huge wave of intense positive emotion from this last picture but I just wasn't 100% sure because it was so intense that it made me step back a little look at other things more closely instead -
I like what you said about it being her brain chemistry-she glows from the inside out - that's so cool:)
Thanks, Equus....
I just had blood tests showing I'm not making any neurohormones, so I was focused on that when I looked at her, and it seems like she had a lot of the happy ones, like serotonin, GABA and dopamine. Mine are so low they are not measurable. Your personality is the chemicals your brain floats in, and I like the particular chemical soup hers was floating in, if that makes sense.
I agree she glows from inside out. Good way to put it. Very advanced spiritually and a very jolly lady who laughed often and with abandon.
I am jealous and wish I could be like that.
OK I've torture you long enough time for the reveal. It is Dr Elizabeth Caspari. She was a Master Teacher for the Montesori System of educating children. I met our lady when she was in her 80s. I was in California at a seminar and I was asked if I could bring a lady along. I agreed. It was her. So I gave her a ride but it was more than that. She had trouble walking and had to be helped. So we met and talked and she told us about Montesori and such. I met her one other time a couple of years later and she asked me to take her course and become a Montesori teacher. I respectfully declined. I said "Thanks mama Caspari. but I must be an engineer this time".
I hope you all have some fun with this one.
Thanks for the lovely person to read.
I am so glad I did get that she wrote about early childhood education. At least I got some of it right. I had never heard of her.
My husband has a friend who probably wouldn't have graduated high school if it weren't for Montessori, due to his ADD.
You are lucky to have met such a sweet lady.
After I read what Cheshire wrote about early childhood education, I started to wonder if maybe she had something to do with pioneering the field of teaching, and the idea crossed my mind that she had something to do with teaching children with learning disabilities, such as dyslexia...
What an amazing woman Paul, the links you have provided are very interesting and say so much about her life, but there is still so much that I wonder about her, because of all of the unconditional love and joy that she radiates!
I'm sorry that you are dealing with such a deficiency of those neurotransmitters
I have just sent you positive green healing light and positive pink love light and thank you for all of your encouragement and kind words.
Equus Aquarius
Thank you Equus, I really appreciate the healing and loving light.
It's pretty dark in here without any happy neurohormones, but I am working hard with a complicated supplement protocol to correct the genetic mutations in the methylation cycle that cause the problem. They tell me if it works it will take about two years and then I have to keep taking them for life.
Ah Equus! That's why it's always good to post whatever comes into your mind, no matter how far out it may seem. You were right!
Many times when I first started this, I would not post something because it was so wild and I was afraid it would be embarrassing. Later I'd find out it was correct. Now I am trying not to worry about that.
I did it again in our last picture, when the first thing I thought of was the Manson girls but did not post it because logically, the woman in the picture looked way too conservative to be one of them. It just goes to show you should never trust that left side of your brain when doing these! Stick with the right side, which our society neglects so much.
Maybe she radiates all that joy because she is not really from here as Aryi said. I just wish I could be more like her.
She was also a Music teacher. Don't know which instruments she taught. I know she was involved in new music at the Summit Lighthouse. While I was there I met so many people who we knew from other lives. I've met who were JFK, Ghandi and others. One time a bunch of ladies who I've never saw before were jumping up and down saying, there you are and I knew who you were. I asked OK Who? but they would not tell me. Really, I was not too interested either in knowing as I know today, I am the sum of all I've ever been. But then I wonder... there is another phase to her and it leads off planet, but that is also a bit private.
Did they give you an option to start getting B12 shots as part of your supplement routine? Whether they did or not, I would recommend getting B12 shots and taking them on a daily basis!!! They help hugely and act pretty quickly:)
Hi Equus,
This is way off topic, so quickly, no, I am doing sublinguals and it involves many more things than just methyl B12. Most shots are plain cobalamin, which is toxic to people with my disease and genetic methyl blocks. It's also hard to keep the dose regulated if there is any exposure to light at all w/shots. I also can't afford the alternative docs who would do such things anymore, so must do it on my own with guidance from others with my disease who are also doing it. Please PM if want to discuss more.
Thanks much for the concern. Sounds like you've been there and come out the other side. If so, congrats!
Apologies for diverting this thread, sorry everyone!
It's interesting how much we all have picked up on the love and otherworldly qualities of this beautiful soul that you picked:)
It's been amazing participating in this group and learning in so many different ways!
Cat, I partly featured her because I know how much you enjoy these experiments. But you are right. I also don't say what comes to mind first. See some people are always telling me how I don't have a filter, etc. This is really counterproductive. I like to say what I need to say and if some don't like it, its really their problem. I really never considered Mama Caspari for these but then intuition kicked me in the side of my head! Maybe she wanted to be featured. In fact, I was considering leaving the EC and see if I'm prompted to come back. I recently came up against... again, with a member where it was insinuated I was after a minor here ... me. Its apparent that member is being bothered by creatures in the night in her own room now. Darkness has a way of attracting more darkness. But I hope that featuring Mama Caspari has lightened up the place a bit with her light and infectious smile.
Paul -
Hard to understand why they would want to be here, but not all here are really empaths and opposites do attract. You are not the first one to go through this. I've heard this from the other side about someone else from two women here. I don't know why people can't just ask direct questions to clear this crap up. Really hope you stick around. Please do post your first thoughts. IME, those are the best.
Would you like me to pick/host the next psychic exercise?
If so, I'll be glad to do it. I know that the person is not supposed to be alive still. Are there any more restrictions I should know about or rules?
My vote is yes. It's great to see new folks in this group with enthusiasm.
No other rules I know of, just a warning, but being young, you probably already know to change the name of your photos when you save them to your computer. Otherwise people can cheat easily. I did not know this when I started, but I did not grow up on a computer like so many of you younger people.
It's pretty informal here. Unless someone already spoke up and said they want to do the next one, you can just go ahead and do your thing.....
If everyone is o.k. with that, I will post a new person tomorrow morning...I have a few people in mind and I need to research them more and decide who is going to be the best choice before I make up my mind:)
The problem here is one of arrogance and anger. The beauty is that I don't have to do a thing she is doing it to herself. See, she's been demanding I explain and I will not because my higherself says DON'T... she does not deserve it, and I do ask. BTW I do see those messages that get erased almost immediately...The rules of the Universe must be obeyed or pay the consequences. So Cat, not to worry. I will not be going anywhere soon. Let the Law handle it. The Dark always thinks it can win but in the end its already lost. I am looking forward to the next experiment from EA. I am so happy for her and how fast she has progressed in such a short time. =)
Thank You, Paul I appreciate the kind words and that means a lot:)
I am having some technical trouble getting my picture posted, but it will be up soon and then we can start!
I'm sorry that you are having trouble with someone on here. I don't really know what's going on and it's not really my business but I hope that she sorts herself out and backs off!!!


text:
Blogs > Saratoga County Neighbors
News and upcoming events from your neighbors and non-profits across Saratoga County. Unless otherwise noted, all posts are press releases provided by the organization. Have something to share? Email firstname.lastname@example.com Curated by Community Content Coordinator Aubree Cutkomp.
Friday, November 30, 2012
Students and staff at the Maple Avenue Middle School raised $1,949.33 for the American Red Cross and Hurricane Sandy victims with the help of some brave faculty members who sacrificed their hair for the cause.
Left to right are Stuart Byrne, principal; eighth-grade math teacher Kurt Andress, who shaved his head to raise money for the relief effort; eighth-grade science teacher Josh Nixon, who had his hair cut in a Mohawk; eighth-grade social studies teacher Rick Fleming, who shaved his mustache; and Gary Ferris, executive director of the Adirondack/Saratoga chapter of the Red Cross. The teachers agreed to the "makeovers" if the school reached fundraising benchmarks. The check was presented on Nov. 21.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
The AD Sync service for Services Manager synchronizes customer OUs in the hosted domain controller with user changes in the external domain controllers. The service enables users to connect to hosted services with the same credentials they use for their local domain. Additionally, Services Manager includes a server monitor that reports the connectivity status of domain controllers on which the AD Sync client is installed.
The AD Sync service requires no installation on the hosted environment and uses the CloudPortal Services Manager API to perform the synchronization. An AD Sync client installed on each external domain controller communicates with the API. This interface is a one-way connection that can be customized to synchronize specific Active Directory information.
API requests are encrypted using a combination of a public/private key and a symmetric key (RSA and AES) to securely transfer data and credentials. The data in the request is also hashed (SHA1) to prevent unauthorized changes.
The following diagram shows a typical installation scenario.
The AD Sync service is a customer-only service; by default, the service is unavailable for provisioning to users. Once provisioned to a customer, the customer's administrator has access to download and configure the AD Sync tool to their existing domain controller. To download the tool, the customer must be configured with the Allow passwords to Never Expire option set to Yes. If this option is set to No, errors are recorded in the customer's event log and no users appear in the control panel.
The AD Sync service monitors the connectivity status of external domain controllers on which the AD Sync client is installed and displays a list of all monitored servers on the AD Sync Server Monitor page in the control panel.
The AD Sync client sends requests to the Services Manager API at specified intervals that are recorded in a monitoring table. This table includes the server name, time of the last request made, and expected time interval between requests. When the difference between the current time and the time of the last request exceeds the expected interval, the Server Monitor page displays a red dot next to the affected server, indicating connectivity has been disrupted. When a request is received within the expected time interval, the Server Monitor page displays a green dot next to the server, indicating connectivity is uninterrupted.
For deployment instructions, see Deploy the AD Sync service.


text:
Growing up in an era considered to be "second-wave feminism," the "f-word" brought about empowerment and divisiveness, as social change will. Gloria Steinem as a feminist activist, was getting her foothold in the consciousness of American culture, abortion and the ability of a woman to control her body, was newly legal, and a lot of strides were made in the movement for a healthier culture for women . . .
As a young girl I listened to the popular music and watched the television shows of the 70's, and I enjoyed the upbeat tempo of What a Fool Believes by the Doobie Brothers, which has a line that resonates today, "But what a fool believes he sees, no wise man has the power to reason away . . ."
While I was watching Charlie's Angels, featuring women as brave, clever, sexy detectives, with Bosley as their charge, Kate Millett, published her controversial text, Sexual Politics, which examined the role that art and literature played in portraying women as compliant.
While Wonder Woman was my television hero, she was portrayed as a beautiful woman in a skimpy superhero costume, the first Women's Studies Program was established at San Diego State, followed by one at Cornell University.
As Fonzie in Happy Days played the macho male, entitled to women's affections because he was supposedly so handsome, Susan Brownmiller wrote Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape.
As the tv show the Jeffersons rose in popularity, the Combahee River Collective was established in Boston, where voices of black women carved out a place to discuss race and feminism, and their experiences as different from that of white middle class women.
Cher sang her song Gypsies, Tramps and Thieves, describing how every night the men would come around and lay their money down, as the first Susan B. Anthony coins were minted.
The Imperials sang Praise the Lord, and Amy Grant penned Fairytale, while Mary Daly published: Beyond God the Father: Toward a Philosophy of Women's Liberation.
Meanwhile, I, as a young girl, memorized the lyrics to the song I heard regularly on the radio, You Sexy Thing. Jane Goodall was making her impact studying chimpanzees in Africa, naming the subjects that she studied instead of numbering them. Going against a practice that was in place to help researchers avoid emotional attachment to their subjects, which lead her to be the only human being to ever be accepted into chimpanzee society . . .
The 1970's were a time of bravery, expanded social consciousness and empowerment for women, where women challenged the status quo, and the view and roles that women had in society. It was time for change, for women to have power over their bodies, to be respected for their intellectual work and bravery, as forces to be reckoned with . . . They were challenging social pressures to be beautiful and sexy and as people non-equal to and subservient to men.
I reference all of this in light of the reports of Donald Trump grabbing women by their genitals and suggesting that celebrities can do anything. Honestly, when I heard this report, I was disgusted, though not surprised. Given the mindset I had seen through his debates, his political rallies, I was not surprised. People who feel entitled, take, and make excuses for why it is okay. And so he did.
Donald Trump represents a cultural entitlement that we still see in the United States and abroad, all of these years later. However, with this recent discovery, women have not been silenced. Outraged, courageous voices of women have been speaking out to challenge Trump's actions. This is a welcomed outcome of this morass, in my opinion. That women are sharing their stories of being touched inappropriately, objectified, denigrated and bodily criticized, challenges a point of view that perpetuates a myth that women are objects for male gratification.
Even now, we need to be aware of the messages our children are receiving from popular culture through music and media, and have open discussions with them about it. There are lots of pop songs, catchy and fun to dance to, that send a message to young people, girls and boys, that are counter to the notion of consent. The lyrics make assumptions about what a girl/woman wants, instead of actually having a conversation with her about it . . .
A current very popular catchy song that I cringe in response to to when I hear it, disregards the notion of consent in relationships and interactions. Robin Thicke's Blurred Lines, includes assumptions that are made about what a girl/woman wants and how a male can make that happen . . .
Ok, now he was close, tried to domesticate you,
but you're an animal, baby it's in your nature . . .
just let me liberate you, you don't need no papers
That man is not your mate, and that's why I'm gonna take you . . .
But you're a good girl, I know you want it, I know you want it, I know you want it,
can't let it get past me . . you're far from plastic . . .
I hate these blurred lines
you're a good girl, the way you grab me,
must want to get nasty, go ahead, get at me
You the hottest bitch in this place . . .
Baby can you breathe, I got this from Jamaica, it always works for me . . .
Really? Does a woman need a male to liberate her? This leads me to the opening references to women's powerhouse moments in history, and women who were brave enough to challenge the status quo. I have known so many smart, brave, talented women in my life. I just can't stomach the limiting view that women are objects for male commentary and pleasure. Our growing freedom and our expanded social consciousness lie in our courage . . .
Note: I wanted to include a couple of humorous references to the Donald Trump fiasco. Samantha Bee does a cutting confrontation of Trump's and Billy Bush's recorded conversation on the Hollywood Access tapes, released this month. Samantha's anger is palpable throughout her roast. Be prepared for some strong language.
Also, I have included links to a throwback to the same era we have been discussing, the Muppet Makeover Mahna Mahna, a spoof of the Presidential Debate, as well as Saturday Night Live's commentary on the debates.
This photo was taken at Halloween five years ago. We named it Cinderella Meets Jack, which seems poignant today.


text:
Students - Want to learn Genetics ? OR Want to Improve your Genetics Grades? OR Want to stay-ahead, in your Genetics class? OR Want to Prepare for upcoming Genetics Exam? OR Want to brush-up your Genetics Skills?
Why travel to Genetics Tutors, risking your safety and wasting your time & energy? Also, why allow unknown Genetics Tutors inside your house and risk you safety & privacy? Learn Genetics LIVE, ONLINE via Video Conferencing, from Genetics Tutors.
These Online Genetics Tutors are willing to help you with Online Genetics Tutoring, Genetics Coaching, Online Genetics Tuitions, Genetics Homework Help, Genetics Projects, Genetics Assignment Help and more.
Copyright 2017 © TutStu Education India | All Rights Reserved
{{user.firstname}} {{user.lastname}}


text:
Hops are the flowers (also called seed cones or strobiles) of the female dioecious (meaning that they have separate male and female plants) plant Humulus lupulus [1], and are used in brewing for flavor as well as for antimicrobial properties. Although bitterness from boiling hops is generally not desired in sour beers, sour and funky brewers can use hops to help regulate lactic acid bacteria and control acid production to desired levels, especially in aged mixed-fermentation or spontaneous fermentation beers. Additionally, it may be argued that the earthy bitterness from aged hops is desired for lambic based styles (see Hops in lambic below). Potentially other mixed fermentation styles can benefit from some degree of bitterness either from aged or fresh hops such as saisons, farmhouse ales, and experimental styles. So while the mantra for sour beer is that "bitterness and sour don't work together", there are certainly exceptions to this rule. Brewers who are interested in rapid acid production using quick/kettle souring techniques such as wort souring may wish to limit or avoid hop use before acidifying so that sufficient acid is produced quickly.
- 1 Hop Composition
- 2 Characterizing Hop Flavor and Aroma
- 3 Antimicrobial Properties
- 4 Hop Derived Compounds In Beer and Biotransformations
- 5 Aged Hops
- 6 Techniques
- 7 See Also
- 8 References
Hop Composition
The main compounds of interest to brewers in hops are their bitter acids and oils contained in the yellow-colored lupulin glands. There are at least 250 significant aroma and flavor compounds found in hop acids and oils. Alpha acids account for roughly 2-17% of dried hops by mass, beta acids account for roughly 2-10%, and oils account for roughly 0.5-3%, though the exact percentages will vary depending on factors such as the hop varietal, growing region, harvest time, and growth conditions for the year. The rest of the weight of hops is made up of 40-50% cellulose and lignin, 15% protein, 8-12% water (after drying), 8% minerals, 3-6% polyphenols and tannins, 1-5% lipids and fatty acids, 2% monosaccharides, and 2% pectin [2].
The primary alpha acids (also called "humulones" and abbreviated as "α-acids") in hops are humulone, cohumulone, and adhumulone. The ratio of these individual acids to each other can vary based on hop variety much like total iso-α-acid percent, though generally the primary acids are humulone and cohumulone. Cohumulone has been identified by some researchers as a source of a more harsh bitterness, although similar research contradicts this statement [3]. While alpha acids are mostly insoluble in wort, the isomerized alpha acids (also called isohumulones) which are formed during boiling are soluble. Isomerization leads to roughly a 70%/30% split between cis and trans iso-α-acids respectively, with cis iso-α-acids being more stable over time and more bitter[4]. Alpha acids themselves do not taste bitter, but isomerized alpha acids (iso-α-acids/isohumulones) contribute to the bitterness of beer and have antimicrobial properties. Isocohumulone is often cited as being more harshly bitter than the other iso-α-acids, but studies of taste perception of individual iso-α-acids have not agreed with this. However isocohumolone is slightly more soluble than the other acids and therefore a hop with a higher cohumulone composition may result in a beer with higher iso-α-acid for hops of equal iso-α-acid percent and use in brewing but different iso-α-acid breakdown[4]. Alpha acids are susceptible to oxidation and the alpha acid content of a hop will decrease with storage.
The isomerization of alpha acids into isoalpha acids is mostly dependent on temperature, and not other variables such as sugar concentration, pH, and calcium concentration [5]. Malowicki and Shellhammer determined a calculation that predicts the isomerization rates of alpha acids into isoalpha acids at different temperatures. Beginning at the boiling temperature of 100°C/212°F, which could be considered a rate of 100%, at 96°C/205°F the rate is 72%, and at 90°C/194°F the rate is 43%. This rate continues to drop significantly as the temperature of the wort decreases. At 82°C/180°F isomerization occurs at a rate of 17%. At a temperature of 50°C/122°F, the isomerization rate is at 1%, and finally 0% at 45°C/113°F. This fact has several impacts on brewing processes. For example, when brewing at higher altitudes where the boiling point of wort is less than 100°C/212°F, the isomerization of alpha acids into isoalpha acids will be reduced to whatever the rate is at that lower temperature. "Hop stands" or "whirlpool additions" where hops are left in contact with hot wort that is less than boiling temperature will continue to isomerize alpha acids [6].
Beta Acids (lupulones) are similar in structure to alpha acids and have the analogous individual beta acids (lupulone, colupulone, adlupulone, prelupulone, and postlupulone [7]) to individual alpha acids. In their original form, beta acids do not contribute to the flavor of beer because they are not soluble in beer. They are also not able to isomerize during wort boiling. Beta acids do not become soluble in wort or beer unless they are chemically modified by a process such as oxidation [2], nor are they soluble in beer when dry hopping [8]. Oxidized beta acids are soluble and can contribute to bitterness in beer. Oxidized beta acids are discussed more under aged hops.
There are three primary classes of oils in hops: hydrocarbons (~64% of the total oils), oxygenated compounds (~35% of the total oils), and sulfur compounds (≤1% of the total oils)[9]. Individual flavor and aroma active oils each have different thresholds, solubilities, and volatilities, and individual oils can have synergistic interactions with each other. The chemistry of hop oil taste perception is therefore very complicated and overall is not well understood. For example, only recently it has been shown that the amount of hop oils does not correlate to hop aroma intensity when dry hopping, but the composition of hop oils does [10]. While sulfur compounds make up only a very small fraction of the total oils, they have a significant impact on hop flavor [9].
Hydrocarbons, specifically terpenoids, make up the majority of hop oil. The majority of these terpenoids are myrcene, which characterizes the aroma of hops (although this compound does not carry over well into beer because it is hydrophobic), caryophyllene, and humulene. Most of these compounds are evaporated off by the brewing process, and others are metabolized into different compounds during fermentation [11]. Linalool (citrus, floral, fruity, tropical [10]) and geraniol (rose-like, musty, floral [10][12]) have been identified as the major compounds that contribute to beer flavor in hop varieties such as Cascade [13].
Hop oil contains a small percentage (~1%) of sulfur related compounds (thiols, sulfides, polysulfides, thioesters, thiopenes, and terpene derivatives). Although these levels are low, the flavor thresholds for these compounds also tends to be very low. Hydrogen sulfide can be released from these compounds during fermentation. Hops that have been treated with sulfur to prevent mildew growth (an older process that is generally no longer used) can result in increased sulfur compound such as sulfuric terpenes, and lend a garlic-like aroma in beer. Few sulfur compounds survive boiling, however late hopping and dry hopping preserves more sulfur compounds which can survive into the beer. Fermentation generally volatilizes sulfur compounds, and some volatilize almost completely during fermentation [14].
Thioesters are derived from an acid and a thiol. These include S-methyl hexanethioate and S-methyl heptanethioate and derivatives of these, which impart cooked cabbage, sulfuric, and soapy flavors, and their low flavor threshold can have an impact on finished beer. Sulfides and polysulfides found in hops includes dimethyl sulfide (DMS), dimethyl disulfide (DMSD), dimethyl trisulfide (DMST; cooked vegetable, onion). DMTS has been found in wide ranges in hops, from a few ppm to 1450 ppm, and has a very low flavor threshold (1 ppb). These compounds are volatilized during brewing and fermentation, and are generally only found in beers that are dry hopped [14].
Other thiol (organic sulfur) based compounds contribute to a pleasant aroma and flavor in beer, such as 4-mercapto-4-methyl-pentan-2-one (4MMP), which is found in high quantities in North American varieties such as Simcoe (highest amount), Summit, Apollo, Topaz, and Cascade hops, as well as varieties from Australia and New Zealand. The character of black currant, muscat-like aroma in beer brewed with these hops has been attributed to 4MMP. It is thought that 4MMP is only found in North American, Australian, and New Zealand hops and not European hops because European hops are often treated with copper ions, which has been shown to decrease the amount of 4MMP in hops. Interestingly, beers brewed with these hops showed a 33% increase in 4MMP after fermentation; it is thought that the precursor cysteine conjugate is responsible for the increase in 4MMP during fermentation [11]. The volatile thiols 3-sulfanyl-4-methylpentan-1-ol (3S4MP; grapefruit [15]), and 3-sulfanyl-4-methylpentyl acetate (3S4MPA; passionfruit, grapefruit [15]) have been identified in Nelson Sauvin hops as the compounds that give these hops their "wine-like, Sauvignon Blanc" character. Similar thiols have been described as the major contributors to the aroma of Sauvignon Blanc wines themselves: 3-sulfanylhexan-1-ol (3SH) and 4-methyl-4-sulfanyl-pentan-2-one (4MSP/4MMP) [13].
See also:
Characterizing Hop Flavor and Aroma
Hops provide a wide array of aromas and flavors to beer. These flavors and aromas are variety and crop dependent. Hop farmers often provide their own hop flavor and aroma descriptors independently of each other, but attempts to standardize these descriptors have been made as far back as 1756, and as recently as 1978. More recently, Drexler et al. (2017) worked with a perfumer to establish 12 major categories of hop flavor descriptors. Each major category contains more specific descriptors. These descriptors can be measured on a 0-10 scale, and a spider graph can be drawn to represent them. Drexler et al. (2017) proposed that even though expensive gas chromatography is available for hops which measures specific compounds, sensory analysis is still the best way to quantify how different varieties of hops actually smell and taste in beer [16].
The proposed categories, example hop variety, and the specific descriptors by Drexler et al. (2017) are as follows [16]:
- Floral (ex: Ella): Elderflower, Chamomile Blossom, Lily of the Valley, Jasmine, Apple Blossom, Rose, Geranium, Carnation, Lilac, Lavender
- Citrus (ex: Mandarina Bavaria): Grapefruit, Orange, Lime, Lemon, Bergamot, Lemon Grass, Ginger, Tangerine
- Sweet Fruits (ex: Mosaic®): Banana, Watermelon, Honeydew Melon, Peach, Apricot, Passion Fruit, Lychee, Dried Fruit Plum, Pineapple, Cherry, Kiwi, Mango, Guava
- Green Fruits (ex: Hallertau Blanc): Pear, Quince, Apple, Gooseberry, White Wine Grapes
- Red Berries (ex: Monroe): Cassis (Black Currant), Red Currant, Blueberries, Raspberries, Blackberries, Strawberries, Wild Strawberries, Cranberries
- Cream Caramel (ex: Triskel): Butter, Chocolate, Yoghurt, Honey, Cream, Caramel, Toffee, Coffee, Vanilla, Tonka
- Woody Aromatic (ex: Relax): Tobacco, Cognac, Barrique, Leather, Woodruff, Incense, Myrrh, Resin, Earthy, Cedar, Pine
- Menthol (ex: Polaris): Mint, Lemon Balm, Camphor, Menthol, Wine Yeast
- Herbal (ex: Columbus): Lovage, Thuja, Basil, Parsley, Tarragon, Dill, Fennel, Thyme, Rosemary, Marjoram, Green Tea, Black Tea, Mate Tea, Sage
- Spicy (ex: Saazer): Pepper, Chili, Curry, Juniper, Aniseed, Nutmeg, Liqorice, Clove, Ginger Bread, Fennel Seeds
- Grassy-Hay (ex: Herkules): Green-Grassy, Fresh Cut Grass, Hay, Tomato Leaves, Green Peppers, Nettle
- Vegetal (ex: Summit®): Celery Stock, Celery Root, Leek, Onion, Artichoke, Garlic, Wild Garlic
See also:
- "Influence of Hops and Yeast", Alicia Muñoz Insa presentation at the 2015 Belgian Brewing Conference.
- MBAA Podcast interviews Georg Drexler about his study.
- Experimental Brewing Podcast talks about the Drexler et al. study (starts at ~36 minutes in).
- YCH hop variety database.
- Brulosophy's "The Hop Chronicles", an attempt to characterize hop flavor and aroma.
- Hopsteiner presentation on specific blends of hops that match the flavor profile of another hop.
Antimicrobial Properties
Hops are known to have antimicrobial properties against Gram-positive bacteria. This includes bacteria which can be present in beer both as spoilage organisms and as intentionally added in sour and mixed fermentation beer such as Lactobacillus and Pediococcus. Certain other bacteria found in beer such as Acetobacteraciae are Gram-negative and are not susceptible to the antimicrobial properties of hops. Certain Gram-positive bacteria are known to be more resistant to the antimicrobial effects of hops. Multiple mechanisms have been proposed to explain why hops are antimicrobially active.
One mechanism of the antimicrobial activity of hops is due to the role of alpha acids and similar hop acids (such beta acids and iso-α-acids) as ionophores, or compounds which can transport ions across cell membranes[17] [18]. The protonated iso-α-acid (the form of the acid with an associated H+ ion, an H+ ion is a proton) is the antimicrobially active form. This means that for a beer with a given iso-α-acid concentration, the antimicrobial effects will be stronger at lower pH values because a greater percentage of the acid will be protonated. Protonated iso-α-acids act against bacteria by crossing into the cell and dissociating (releasing H+ ions from the iso-α-acid), therefore disrupting the cellular proton gradient which is necessary for cells to function, before binding an equal charge in metal ions and crossing back out of the cell. Cells with a resistance to hop bitter acids are better able to eject disassociated iso-α-acids from the cell and therefore preserve their proton gradients. The mechanism to expel iso-α-acids appears to be specific toward this type of compound rather than by a more general antimicrobial resistance mechanism such as multi-drug resistant bacteria possess[18]. Hop resistant bacteria cultured in the absence of hop acids can lose their resistance if grown in an environment without antibacterial hop compounds[17] and some hop resistant microbes need to be acclimated to hop acids by growth in sub-limiting levels of antibacterial acids before they are able to resist higher levels[18].
(in progress) Another antimicrobial mechanism resulting from oxidative stress has been attributed to both iso-α-acids and humulinic acids[19]. Humulinic acids are either not bitter tasting or much less bitter than iso-α-acids but are similar in structure to and are formed from the degradation of iso-α-acids. This oxidative stress-driven antimicrobial activity is due to potential for oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions within bacterial cells between Mn2+ ions and these specific hop acids. The redox potential is due to different conditions inside (higher pH, higher Mn2+) and outside (lower pH, lower Mn2+) of the bacterial cell[20][19]. Iso-α-acids or humulinic acids passing into the cell, form complexes with Mn2+ and transfer electrons out of the cell[20]. By targeted molecular modifications Schurr et al. (2015) determined that the Mn oxidative stress-driven antimicrobial effect of iso-α-acids was more important than antimicrobial effect of the ionophore proton transfer discussed above in the overall antimicrobial activity of hops[19].
- See also Lactobacillus hop tolerance.
Bacterial Resistance to Hop Compounds
Due to the multiple mechanisms for hop antimicrobial activity, multiple resistance mechanisms are necessary for a Gram-positive bacterial cell to successfully be hop-tolerant[20]. Hop resistance of bacteria will vary by species as well as within a species with individual strains. The environment in which strains are cultured and maintained may also influence their hop tolerance. The hop tolerance of lactic acid bacteria strains decreases when they are cultured in hop-free environments and strains cultured in media with increasing concentrations of hop compounds show an increase in hop tolerance[18]. The stability of hop resistance, or the rate at which it is lost when bacteria are cultured in unhopped wort, varies by strain. It can take up to 1 year for maximum loss of hop resistance, suggesting that in some strains have a relatively stable hop resistance[18]. Because of this intra-species variability and dependence on how the strains were cultured, it is difficult to give specific advice about the hop-tolerance of a wide range of strains offered from different sources. As a general rule, some common lactic acid bacteria species used in sour beer and found as beer spoilage organisms like Lactobacillus brevis, Lactobacillus lindneri and Pediococcus delbrueckii have some resistance to hops[18]. Brewers seeking to make acidic beers with higher doses of hops may wish to seek out one of these species. Some hop-tolerant species benefit from pre-culturing in media with below-limiting concentrations of compounds before being used in more highly hopped wort or beer[21].
See also Pediococcus hop resistance and Lactobacillus hop tolerance.
Hop Derived Compounds In Beer and Biotransformations
The flavor and aroma compounds found in leaf/pellet hops is different than the hop derived flavor and aroma compounds found in finished beer (other than in the case of dry hopping). The brewing process (particularly boiling), and fermentation greatly affect the composition of flavor and aroma compounds that are found in beer. For example, boiling wort and hops isomerizes non-bitter alpha acids into bitter iso-alpha acids. During boiling of the wort, many compounds found in hops are evaporated, such as many of the various sulfur compounds found in hops. The terpene hydrocarbons which make up most of the hop oil content in hops (myrecene, humulene, and caryophyllene) are completely removed by fermentation. It is believed that these terpene hydrocarbons stick to the yeast cells and fall out of solution during fermentation [22].
Some carbonyl compounds found in hops (citral, geranial, nerol, citronellal, and methyl ketones) can be used as a food source by yeast during fermentation. Cyclic ethers such as linalool oxides, karahana ether, hop ether, and rose oxide (aroma of roses [23]), increase after fermentation and have been identified as secondary metabolites produced by yeast during metabolism from hop derived precursors. Esters found in hops can be converted into ethyl esters by yeast during fermentation; for example geranyl esters found in Cascade hops can be hydrolized into geraniol (flowery). The terpenoid citronellol (citrus and floral [24]) can be esterified by yeast fermentation into citronellyl acetate (fresh, rosy, fruity odor reminiscent of geranium oil [25]). Yeast strains differ in their ability to convert these compounds. For example, one study found that lager yeast was able to form acetate esters of geraniol and citronellol, but ale yeast was not [22].
Terpenes and terpenoids (monoterpene alcohols) can also be transformed by fermentation. Studies have found that geraniol and nerol can transform into linalool by a strain of S. cerevisiae, as well as nerol and linalool to alpha-terpineol, which can then by further transformed to terpin. Geraniol can also be converted into citronellol. Linalool, nerol, and alpha-terpineol gradually decrease during fermentation and aging (perhaps being transformed into ethers), while nerol and citronellol gradually increase. Geraniol also decreases during fermentation, but not as drastically as linalool. Citronellol might be created from geraniol by glycosidic activity (although another study found that glycosidic activity in S. cerevisiae is not very strong). Likewise, dry hopping preserves linalool and alpha-terpineol, and limits citronellol [22]. Other yeast species can also convert monoterpenes. For example, a strain of Kluyveromyces lactis was found to reduce geraniol to citronellol. This strain and a strain of Torulaspora delbrueckii produced linalool from both geraniol and nerol, and could also form geraniol from nerol [26]. Many species of Debaryomyces, Kluyveromyces, and Pichia were found to transform geraniol into linalool, and nerol into linalool and alpha-terpineol [27].
Sulfur based compounds known as thiols have also been shown to be produced by yeast fermentation from hop derived precursors (suspected to be S-glutathione). So far, science has found that these include the volatile thiols 3-sulfanyl-4-methylpentan-1-ol (3S4MP; grapefruit) and 3-sulfanyl-4-methylpentyl acetate (3S4MPA; passionfruit, grapefruit). These thiols were found in beers dry hopped separately with Amarillo, Hallertau Blanc, and Mosaic hop varieties. The amounts of these two thiols were higher than expected based on the content of these thiols in the hops alone [15].
In general, different yeast strains have a large impact on how hops are perceived in the final beer, including both perceived bitterness and flavors. For example, POF+ (phenolic positive) strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae tends to mask the hop derived aromas in dry hopped beers [10]. A beer hopped with the Tradition hop variety produced fruit flavors when fermented with Abbaye ale yeast, and woody/spicy flavors when fermented with US-05. When the beer was brewed with Citra hops, with US-05 the beer had sweet fruits/citrus flavors and more bitterness, but when fermented with the Abbaye ale strain the beer had a more one dimensional sweet fruit/floral flavor and less bitterness [28].
See also:
Hops contain glycosides, which are flavor compounds that are bound to a sugar molecule. In their bound form, glycosides are flavorless. Studies on hop compounds elude to the possibility of compounds being produced by glycosidic activity of S. cerevisiae, however direct evidence of glucosidic activity in S. cerevisiae is lacking. Daenen (2008) reviewed the glycosidic activity of many strains of S. cerevisiae, and found that only a few strains expressed any real glucosidic activity and none that exhibited exo-beta-glucosidase which would be required to break glycosidic bonds in the beer/wort. Daenen did find that enzymatic activity from some strains of Brettanomyces can efficiently release these bound compounds and release their flavor and aromatic potential [22]. Beta-glucosidase enzyme can also be added to beer to enhance the breakdown of glycosides and intensify hop derived flavors and aromas. For example, one study showed an increase in citrus, orange, grapefruit, and tropical pineapple in a Cascade dry hopped beer that had beta-glucosidase enzymes added to it [29]. There is also some evidence to support that there is higher glucosidase activity in seeded hops, which are generally not used in the brewing industry [30].
Much of the work on hop derived glycosides has been done using hop oils, and might not apply to whole cones or pellet hops. Sharp et al. (2017) found that when using pure beta-glucosidase extract on beer hopped with whole leaf hops that the amount of increased monoterpenes such as linalool, terpineol, citronellol, nerol, and geraniol is small and insignificant. The fatty alcohol 1-octanol (waxy, green, citrus, orange, aldehydic, fruity [31]) was the only measured flavor compound that was increased significantly [32]. The alcohol 1-octanol can be esterified into octyl acetate, which is a classically "citrusy" aroma, so perhaps certain yeasts can create this ester during mid-fermentation hopping [33].
See Glycosides for more information on glycosides.
See Aging and Storage.
Aged Hops
Aging hops leads to oxidation of acids and oils. Generally, brewers seek to avoid this to preserve the aromatic and bittering properties of their hops by freezing them and storing them in vacuum sealed packaging (oxygen exposure is by far the larger factor for hop degradation, followed by ambient room temperatures, which is significant because hops are often not stored in vacuum sealed packaging). However, some beer styles, including lambic and historical styles, make extensive use of aged hops. Aged hops still retain some antimicrobial properties and can be used for microbial inhibition. In addition to their antimicrobial activity, aged hops contribute important flavor and aroma compounds and precursors to beer. These flavor descriptors often include herbal, tea-like, Earth-like, and a more dull bitterness. Low amounts of Isovaleric Acid might also contribute to the complexity of a beer that has been brewed with aged hops (although the presence of isovaleric acid in aged hops is considered temporary, and will eventually age out of hops that are aged). Historically, some brewers had issues keeping mildew from growing on aged hops that are aged in higher humidity areas (sulfur was used to combat mildew, which often gave the beer a sulfur, rotten egg aroma) [34].
In lambic brewing, the term aged hops refers to hops (usually Noble varieties such as Tettnang, Saaz, Target, and Hallertau) which have been aged for 3-5 years in non-refrigerated conditions, and in burlap sacks or some other oxygen permeable bag [35][36]. It should be noted that the term "aged hops" can also refer to any sort of hop aging (especially in scientific literature), including short-term hop aging (1-6 months, for example) at refrigerated or non-refrigerated temperatures, and in oxygen-rich or vacuum sealed packaging. Much of the information below references hops that have been aged in warm conditions for shorter time periods than what hops are aged for in lambic brewing. The additional aging of hops that are used in lambic brewing or similar beers might have different effects than what has been studied in hops that are aged for shorter periods of time.
For techniques and usage amounts of aged hops, see Aged Hops in Lambic.
Chemistry and Characteristics
During aging, both alpha and beta acids oxidize and degrade with warmer temperatures and more oxygen exposure having a greater impact. The generally accepted theory is that oxygen interacts directly with hop acids. This event is called "autooxidation". An alternative theory to this is that oxygen indirectly oxidizes acids by first oxidizing the hop oils and turning them into pro-oxidants, which then oxidize the hop acids which are mixed in with the oils within the lupulin glands [2]. The oxidation of hop acids corresponds with an increase in the Hop Storage Index (HSI), which is a practical way of measuring the overall freshness of hops. As the oxidation of hop oils rises, the measured HSI number on a lot of hops increases [37][38]. These oxidized compounds lead to a higher amount of non-alpha-acid bitterness compounds in aged hops and have a remarkable effect on the bitterness of the beer. The bitterness from oxidized hop compounds has been described as more earthy, harsh, and astringent than the sharper, cleaner bitterness from iso-alpha acids [39].
Storage conditions and variety play a large role in how acid content in hops changes over time. Beta acids are generally more resistant to oxidation than alpha acids. A study by Mikyška and Krofta (2012) found that after 12 months of storage at 20°C in open air, pellet hops lost 64-88% of their alpha acid content and 51-83% of the beta acid content, with the beta acids dropping off more significantly after 6 months (alpha acid content declined steadily throughout the aging period). These amounts varied with different Czech hop varieties (Saaz, Sládek, Premiant, and Agnus), and beta acids degraded slower than alpha acids as seen below [39] (percentages listed below are how much percent was lost):
|Saaz (pellet) [39]
|Sládek (pellet) [39]
|Premiant (pellet) [39]
|Agnus (pellet) [39]
|Saaz (leaf) [40]
|Vital (leaf) [40]
|Pure Beta Acid [40]
|Open air at 20°C for 12 months
|Alpha acids
|Beta acids
|Vacuum sealed at 20°C for 12 months
|Alpha acids
|Beta acids
|Vacuum sealed at 2°C for 12 months
|Alpha acids
|Beta acids
Oxidized alpha acids (humulinones) are similar in taste perception to iso-α-acids, but have been described as less bitter (an average of about 66% as bitter on a 1 to 1 basis). The quality of the bitterness from oxidized alpha acids has been described in one study as "smoother and less lingering" than iso-alpha acids; this was attributed to humulinones being more polar than iso-alpha acids and therefore do not stick or linger on the tongue as long as iso-alpha acids [9][38]. While the taste threshold of iso-alpha acids is 5-6 mg/L in light lager, the threshold for humulinones has been measured to be 8 mg/L in light lager (note that this is an average; tasters vary widely in how much bitterness they perceived from different bitter compounds) [2]. Humulinone content increases in hops after being pelletized (whole leaf hops have less humulinones). In fresh pellet hops that have a relatively low humulinone content, the humulinones contribute little to the bitterness of the beer when boiled, however when dry hopped they readily dissolve into the beer and have a significant impact on the beer's bitterness. With heavy dry hopping, the humulinones also decrease iso-alpha acid content of beer with more than about 25 IBU's, but not in beer with less than about 20 IBU. The decrease in iso-alpha acids and perceived bitterness/IBU is partially made up for the bitterness of the humulinones themselves (humulinones are picked up in IBU measurements with a spectrophotometer). In beers with less than 20 IBU, high dry hopping rates greatly increase the bitterness/IBU due to the bitter humulinones. The rate of humulinone formation is limiting, meaning that humulinone formation occurs rapidly during hop pelletization, and the concentration peaks during this time (researchers found that further exposure to air did not increase humulinone content). Scientists believe that this is because when whole leaf hops are baled, only 20% of lupulin glands are broken, whereas when they are pelletized 100% of the lupulin glands are broken. The exact mechanism by which alpha acids are converted to humulinones is not known [38]. Humulinone content in long-aged hops (1+ years) has not been studied.
Oxidized beta acids produce some compounds that also contribute to the perception of bitterness, specifically hulupones. Unlike humulinones which form relatively quickly from the oxidation of alpha acids, hulupones form at a much slower rate [7]. Also unlike humulinones, they survive boiling and fermentation. While some sensory analysis of beers containing oxidized beta acids describes the resulting bitterness as "harsh and clinging", another analysis by Krafta et al (2013) described the bitterness of oxidized beta acids in beer when added in their pure form at the beginning of the boil as "pleasant and not lingering". The more degradation of beta acids into oxidized beta acids that occurs in hops, the more bitter beers brewed with these hops will be [40]. Two other compounds other than hulupones have been identified as being produced by the oxidation of beta acids, epoxycohulupone and epoxyhulupone. Their effect on beer flavor is not yet known, however, it is thought that hulupones have the greatest impact on beer flavor [7].
The bitterness of hulupones has received some debate among researchers. In 1973, a researcher found that hulupones are about 50% as bitter as iso-alpha acids. Briggs et al stated the complete opposite, and that hulupones are twice as bitter as iso-alpha acids. More recent studies using modern analysis techniques found that on a weight for weight basis, hulupones are 35-40% as bitter as iso-alpha acids in one study, and another found that they were 84% (+/- 10%) as bitter as iso-alpha acids (note that this is an average; tasters vary widely in how much bitterness they perceived from different bitter compounds) [41][2][42]. While the taste threshold of iso-alpha acids is 5-6 mg/L in light lager, the threshold for hulupones has been measured to be 7-8 mg/L in light lager [2].
Both humulinones and hulupones have been identified as forming due to the oxidation of hop acids. However, other researchers have reported that both of these bitter compounds formed during the boiling of hops, and another during the storage and aging of beer. In all cases, the amounts of the compounds directly correlated with the amount of hops used [2].
Other compounds have been associated with the oxidation of beta acids and are extracted during wort boiling. These are described as giving a long-lasting, lingering bitterness on the palate. They include hydroxytricyclo-lupulone, dehydrotricyklolupulone, and hydroperoxytricyklolupulone [43].
The overall effect of oxidized compounds in aged hops has been shown by Val Peacock, a former scientist at Anheuser-Busch. Peacock stored hops at four different temperatures for 18 months. His data showed that although the alpha acid content in the hops and the iso-alpha acid content in the beers brewed with them decreased the older the hops were stored, the measured IBU of the different beers was about the same. This is because the oxidized acids in hops show up in the same spectrum as iso-alpha acids when using the ASBC method of measuring IBUs with a spectrophotometer [44]. This data is shown below:
|Storage Temperature [44]
|Alpha Acid in Hops
|Iso-Alpha Acids in Beer
|Beer IBUs
|19.8 ppm
|18.1 ppm
|14.4 ppm
|2.9 ppm
Hop oils also generally degrade over time, however, their degradation rates are more complex. Lam et al. (1986) found that aging both cascade and North American grown Hallertauer Mittelfrueh resulted in an increase in grapefruit-like character, although the compound that caused this was not identified. In the case of Cascade the intensity of this flavor correlated with the age of the hops [37]. In the Hallertauer hops, aging resulted in an increase in a spicy/herbal character [37], which is in agreement with reports of oxidized sesquiterpenes (specifically humulenol II, humulene diepoxides, caryophyllene, and to a lesser extent humulene monoepoxides and alpha-humulene) contributing a spicy/herbal flavor to beer [45][39]. Many of the oils followed in the Lam et al. (1986) study which increased during a short accelerated aging period (2 weeks at 90°F) then decreased during extended aging (60 additional days at 90°F). The cascade hops lost more of the fruity/citrusy hop oils (myrecene, linalool, and geranial) than Hallertauer, suggesting that different strains of hops can withstand aging better than others. The concentration of hop oils are affected by the brewing process and fermentation (see the table) [37]. Another study found that beta-ionone (classified as a ketone, and characterized as "floral" and "woody" [46]) increased in beers brewed with hops that were aged for 30 days at 40°C versus beers brewed with aged hops [47].
A recent study at the Shellhammer lab looked at how trained panelists and consumers perceived a lager beer dry hopped with slightly oxidized Hallertau Mittelfrüh hops (exposed to oxygen once, then stored at 38°C for two weeks) versus highly oxidized (daily exposure to oxygen and stored at 38°C for two weeks). They found that the trained panelists detected more characteristics that are associated with noble hops; e.g. more woody, earthy, and herbal characteristics in the lager beers dry hopped with oxidized hops. They also found the oxidized hopped beers to be more bitter (probably due to oxidized alpha and beta acids). Consumers were not statistically able to tell the difference. The study determined that oxidized hops might serve to provide nuanced increases in noble hop character [48].
Aging hops while exposed to oxygen develops a cheesy aroma due to isovaleric acid, isobutyric acid, and 2-methylbutyric acid. These acids are produced by the oxidative cleavage of acyl side chains of the hop resins [42]. These cheesy oxidation compounds can be esterified to form fruity tasting compounds[9].
- "Increasing Bitterness By Dry Hopping", article by Scott Janish on oxidized alpha acids.
- Hulupones - oxidized beta acids.
Polyphenols, including polyphenol flavanoids, also degrade in hops as they age. However, storage conditions have less of an impact on the degradation of polyphenols compared to alpha and beta acids. Mikyška and Krofta (2012) found that regardless of how the hops were stored polyphenols started to decay after about 6 months and after 12 months aged hops lost about 30-40% of polyphenols and 20-30% of flavanoids [39].
During fermentation, it is believed that esters are produced by yeast metabolism from hop compounds such as alpha acids, beta acids, polyphenols, and hydrocarbons because they are not found in unhopped beer or in hops themselves. These esters include ethyl 2-methylpropanoate (citrus, pineapple, sweetness), ethyl 2-methylbutanoate (citrus, apple-like), ethyl 3-methylbutanoate (citrus, sweetness, apple-like), 2-phenylethyl 3-methylbutanoate (floral, minty), and 4-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-2-butanone (citrus, raspberry) [49]. Kishimoto et al. found that some beer esters were increased when using unidentified pellet hops (described in the study only as "a bitter variety of 11.5% alpha acid") that were aged for 30 days at 40°C versus using fresh pellet hops that were stored cold (4°C). Specifically, in the beers that used the aged hops, they found a significant increase in citrus esters (ethyl 2-methylbutanoate, ethyl 3-methylbutanoate, and 4-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-2-butanone), and a decrease in "green, hop-pellet-like, and resinous" compounds such as myrcene and (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol in the beers made from aged hops. The beers brewed with aged hops were described as more citrusy, while the beers brewed with fresh hops were described as more "hop pellet-like", resinous, floral, and "green". The authors speculated that since these esters were not present in beers brewed without hops that they were derived from the humulone and lupulone oils in the hops during yeast fermentation [47].
Kishimoto et al. found an increase in the thiol 3-methyl-2-butene-1-thiol (MBT) in beers that were brewed with unidentified pellet hops (described in the study only as "a bitter variety of 11.5% alpha acid") that were aged for 30 days at 40°C versus using fresh pellet hops that were stored cold (4°C). Interestingly, this thiol was higher in beers where the aged hops were added to the boil rather than when they were added after the wort was cooled. The authors were not able to determine whether or not the MBT was derived from yeast fermentation, or from boiling the hops, but aging the hops increased the precursors for MBT [47]. MBT has been described as the thiol that produces the "skunky" aroma in lightstruck beer [50].
See Also
Aged Hop Suppliers
Hops Direct "Choice Debittered/Aged Hops" (Leaf - Cascade).
- Hops Direct "Choice Debittered/Aged Hops" (Pellet - Columbus).
- Freshhops "Lambic Hops" (Leaf - Willamette)".
- Yakima Valley Hops "Lambic / Aged Hops" (Pellet).
- Farmhouse Brewing Supply "Lambic Hop Blend" (Pellet - Blend of varieties that are aged for ~5 years and then pelletized [51]).
- The Malt Miller (UK).
- Brew Store UK (Leaf - Fuggles).
- Brew Store UK (Leaf - Hallertau).
- Northwest Hop Farms (BC, Canada).
Cryo Hops®
YCH Hops has patented a process of extracting hop oils from hops using a proprietary cryogenic separation process that is claimed to preserve all of components of each hop fraction. They also distribute the left over hop material as "Debittered Leaf". These Debittered Leaf products have been reported to taste like low flavor/aroma/alpha versions of their original variety (for example, debittered Mosaic tastes like lower alpha Mosaic). They reportedly do not have the same character has aged "lambic" hops [52].
Kettle and Mash Hopping
Kettle hopping sour beers can be a difficult thing for the new sour beer brewer. The usage of hops generally inhibits most lactic acid bacteria species, however there are many exceptions to this. Lactic acid bacteria can have a range of hop tolerance, with species such as Lactobacillus acetotolerans that tolerated Goose Island's Bourbon County Stout at 60 IBU [53]. Some breweries report that their house lactic acid bacteria can tolerate IBU ranges up to 10-20 IBU. White Labs claims that their L. delbuekii (WLP677) is tolerant of up to 20 IBU, however, most Lactobacillus cultures from yeast labs are not hop tolerant [54]. See the Lactobacillus culture charts and hop tolerance for more information.
For both mixed fermentation sour beers and kettle sour beers, hops are often not used at all. In the case of kettle sours, sometimes brewers opt to add hops after the wort has been soured (see Wort Souring). Commercial brewers in the USA must by law use 7.5 pounds of hops for 100 barrels of beer [55] (malt beverages without hops can still be approved by the FDA instead of the TTB; contact the TTB for guidance [56]). Since there is no US regulation for when the hops must be added, mash hopping might be a considered technique for commercial breweries in the US and in other parts of the world where hops are a requirement for beer (mash hopping retains only about 30% of the IBU that a 60 minute boiling addition does [57]). In historical German Berliner Weisse brewing, mash hopping or boiling hops during the decoction were also typical techniques (see Berliner Weisse historical brewing). Another historical technique for adding hops to beer is to add a hop tea (hops boiled in water), for example in historical raw ale brewing [58]. For lactic acid cultures that are hop tolerant, hops can be used as a way to inhibit the amount of acid produced by them if the brewer desires this. Another advantage of using at least some hops in the kettle is that various compounds from hops contribute to head retention, and using a small amount of hops in the kettle (and perhaps dry hopping) can greatly assist with head retention in sour beers.
A popular technique for 100% Brettanomyces Fermentation is to use a typical IPA recipe. Hops do not inhibit Brettanomyces yeast. Some of the fruity characteristics of Brettanomyces can complement the fruity character of hops such as Citra, Amarillo, and Galaxy. For beers that are fermented with just S. cerevisiae and Brettanomyces but not lactic acid bacteria (such as some American farmhouse ales), Old World and noble hops are often used as well as North American and New Zealand/Australian citrusy hops, depending on what flavor and aroma profile the brewer is intending.
See also:
Dry Hopping
Brewers have had positive and interesting results dry hopping sour and funky beer. Often fresh American or New Zealand varieties that compliment fruit flavors are chosen, however, other varieties have been used as well, including English and German hops. Just as in dry hopping normal beers, dry hopping sour/funky should be done after the beer has matured. Dry hopping for around 1-3 days before packaging the beer is adequate for extraction, depending on whether or not the beer is recirculated or agitated (agitation of the beer while on contact with the dry hops attains full extraction in 24 hours) [59]. Hopping rates generally range from 0.5-1 ounces per 5 gallons of beer (1-2 pounds per bbl) to achieve hop-forward flavors, although lesser rates can be used to achieve a more subtle character (see the threads below) [60].
Dry hopping can contribute to bitterness in beer through oxidized alpha acids and oxidized beta acids. Some alpha acids will also dissolve into the beer, which are estimated as being 10% as bitter as iso-alpha acids. Dry hopping also has a linear impact on the pH of beer regardless of the starting IBU or pH: the pH rises by 0.14 per pound of hop pellets per barrel of beer in a beer that started with a pH of 4.2 (~0.5 ounces per gallon) [38][9]. This rise in pH might be less in more acidic beers that are dry hopped since pH is a logarithmic scale. Dry hopping can also reduce head retention in beers, although this is variety dependent (one study found that dry hopping with Eureka and Apollo hops increased head retention, while dry hopping with Bravo, Centennial, and Cascade decreased head retention). Extended dry hopping times (after 3 days) can also reduce head retention [8].
Although the mechanisms are not fully understood, dry hopping inhibits Lactobacillus. This is probably due to non-isomerized alpha acids, other acids, or the small amount of isomerization of alpha acids that happens in beer at room temperature [61]. See the links below.
- MTF thread on using very small amounts of subtle effects.
- Caroline Whalen Taggart's data point on the effects of dry hopping on L. plantarum (GoodBelly). No hops finalized at a pH of 3.53, and the dry hopped version finalized at a pH of 4.35. She used around 4 grams per gallon of 10-15 AA hops [62].
- The Rare Barrel reports on an anecdote that dry hopping in a less sour beer extracts better hop aroma, and Brettanomyces preserves the character.
- Per Buer's experiment on the effects of dry hopping on Lactobacillus:
Aged Hops in Lambic
Modern lambic traditionally uses aged hops at a moderate rate to help limit and select for microbes and regulate acid production. Modern Lambic brewers cite rates in the range of roughly 450 grams of hops per Hl of finished beer [63] (~43 min in) (see also the notes pertaining hopping rates on the Cantillon page), with some brewers possibly going above this range. The age of hops used depends on the producer and their preferences/stock. Cantillon uses hops that are roughly 3 years old[64], while 3 Fonteinen reports using hops that are over 10 years old[65] (~48 minutes in). Lambic brewers either add their hops while still collecting wort, sometime before the wort comes to a boil[66] (also known as "first wort hopping"), or shortly after boil is reached[65] (~48 min in). The hops are then boiled with the wort for essentially the full length of the boil [67][68]. The resulting lambic beers are often surprisingly bitter, especially when young. Historically, there is some evidence that lambic brewers used a combination of aged hops and fresh hops.
See also:
- "Lambic characteristics - FG and IBUs in Geuze" on Hors Categorie blog.
- "Hops in spontaneous fermentation" on Hors Categorie blog.
- MTF discussion on the general benefits of using aged hops in sour beers.
- Lambic
- Spontaneous Fermentation
- Gueuze and Lambic Character
Historic hopping in lambic and other mixed-fermentation beer
While modern lambic uses aged hops almost exclusively, it was common for historic lambic to blend both aged and fresh hops[69]. The exact ratio of fresh to aged hops changed over time and could vary depending on the harvest (poor hop years may have relied more heavily on aged hops while years of good harvests would make more use hops of the recent harvest). In addition to the difference in hop age between modern and historic lambic, hopping rates also differ significantly between modern and aged hops. It is important to note that the quality of these hops are certainly different from modern hops, and that hop origin could have a significant influence on suggested hopping rates [70] (see the hopping rate table and notes regarding hop origin conversion factors from historical texts). While hop quality would have improved moving to the modern day while hopping rates were dropping, there is mention in historic lambic literature of lambic in the late 1800s being more bitter than lambic from the mid-1900s (and, subsequently, similar to historic saison in the increased hop presence in a mixed-fermentation beer)[69]
Historical documents dealing with Belgian brewing show a steady progression from high doses of fresh hops in lambic to the sort of hop composition and origin that are in use today. In 1851 Lacambre mentions rates for Belgian hops of 760-860 g/Hl and specifically highlights the use of young hops. Belgian brewing scientist Henri Van Laer recommended a hopping rate of 700-800 g/Hl in 1890, roughly in agreement with Lacambre though slightly lower. In the early 1900s, citing information from 1896, Le Petit Journal du Brasseur mentions a hopping rate of 540 g/Hl using a mix of Belgian and Bavarian hops and a split of 2/3 young, 1/3 old in good years (and 50/50 in bad years). In 1928 Le Petit Journal du Brasseur recommends a larger proportion of aged hops (2/3 aged, 1/3 fresh) and rates of 600g/Hl of Belgian hops[69]. Considering the difference in strength in German and Belgian hops[70], this fits with a stable or decreasing hopping rate from that given in the early 1900s. In 1937 exclusive use of aged hops is recommended, though as noted in 1946, year old hops may be preferable to hops that were aged longer in poor conditions[69]. Also in the 1940s Le Petit Journal du Brasseur recommends hopping rates of 400-500 g/Hl, roughly in agreement with modern times, and notes that the lambic of this time was softer than historic lambic[69].
(In Progress) Lambics aren't the only historic mixed-fermentation beer to make use of aged hops. Though the specific mention of aged hops for saison and bieres de garde does not seem to be the norm, aged hops were used at times, such as when more acidity was desired. These hops were also more likely to be used toward the beginning of the brewing season in months like October where the current harvest may have been considered too fresh for proper use. Notes: Give some discussion of hopping saison and bieres de garde. See hopping grisette table for some hopping rates, PJB, etc.
James Howat of Black Project Spontaneous Ales uses 0.5 ounces of aged hops per gallon of beer for spontaneously fermented beers brewed using traditional lambic techniques [71].
See also:
- MTF discussion on using aged hops in other styles of beers, including historical references and tips on producing lambic-like character from aged hops and commercial cultures.
See Also
Additional Articles on MTF Wiki
External Resources
- "Hoppy Sour Beers", Dec 2016 BYO article by Michael Tonsmeire.
- "Dry Hopping Effect on Bitterness and IBU Testing" by Scott Janish.
- YCH hop variety database.
- Per Buer's Video Demonstration of how dry hopping inhibits Lactobacillus.
- Blog Article on Brett and Glycosides by Cy Wood.
- "How hops prevent infection", by Lars Garshol.
- "Unlocking Hop and Fruit Flavors from Glycosides", HBT article by Dennis L Waldron.
- Beer Legends Hop Varieties - gives vital statistics on hops including acid content, physical cone characteristics, storage and growth details, and oil content.
- TTB Hop Requirements for USA commercial breweries.
- Blog article on hops in spontaneous fermentation by Dave Janssen
- Cohumulone ranges by hop variety.
- "CRISPR Yeast and Hop Compounds" by Dr. Matt Humbard; a critical response of yeast being modified to make two hop compounds.
- ↑ "Hops". Wikipedia. Retrieved 06/10/2017.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 The Bitterness Intensity of Oxidized Hop Acids: Humulinones and Hulupones. Victor Alexander Algazzali for the degree of Master of Science in Food Science and Technology presented on August 8, 2014.
- ↑ Fundamentals of beer and hop chemistry. Denis De Keukeleire. 1999.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Schönberger and Kostelecky, 2012
- ↑ Isomerization and Degradation Kinetics of Hop (Humulus lupulus) Acids in a Model Wort-Boiling System. Mark G. Malowicki and Thomas H. Shellhammer. 2005.
- ↑ A Look at Isomerization Reduction Due to Altitude. John Palmer. MBAA TQ 2017 http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/TQ-54-3-0806-01.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Qualitative Determination of β‑Acids and Their Transformation Products in Beer and Hop Using HR/AM-LC-MS/MS. Martin Dušek, Jana Olšovská, Karel Krofta, Marie Jurková, and Alexandr Mikyška. 2014.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 John Paul Maye. EBC 2017 Presentation. 2017.]
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 Shellhammer, Vollmer, and Sharp. Oral presentation at the Craft Brewers Conference, 2015.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 "Recent Advances in Controlling Hoppy Aroma in Beer." Daniel C. Sharp. OSU Brewing Science Presentation.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Comparison of 4-Mercapto-4-methylpentan-2-one Contents in Hop Cultivars from Different Growing Regions. Toru Kishimoto, Minoru Kobayashi, Nana Yako, Ayako Iida and Akira Wanikawa. 2008.
- ↑ "Geraniol". Wikipedia. Retrieved 01/09/2017.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Identification and Characteristics of New Volatile Thiols Derived from the Hop (Humulus luplus L.) Cultivar Nelson Sauvin. Kiyoshi Takoi, Marie Degueil, Svitlana Shinkaruk, Cécile Thibon, Katsuaki Maeda, Kazutoshi Ito, Bernard Bennetau, Denis Dubourdieu and Takatoshi Tominaga. 2009.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 VOLATILE ORGANOSULPHUR COMPOUNDS IN HOPS AND HOP OILS: A REVIEW. T.L. Peppard. 1981.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 3‑Sulfanyl-4-methylpentan-1-ol in Dry-Hopped Beers: First Evidence of Glutathione S‑Conjugates in Hop (Humulus lupulus L.). Marie-Lucie Kankolongo Cibaka, Laura Decourriere, Celso-JoséLorenzo-Alonso, Etienne Bodart, Raphael Robiette, and Sonia Collin. 2016.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 The Language of Hops: How to Assess Hop Flavor in Hops and Beer. Georg Drexler, Elisabeth Wiesen, Mark Zunkel, Sebastian Hinz, Alicia Muñoz Insa, Victor Algazzali, Tim Kostelecky, and Christina Schönberger. 1. Joh. Barth & Sohn GmbH & Co. KG, Nuremberg, Germany. 2. John I. Haas Inc., Yakima, WA, U.S.A. MBAA Technical Quarterly. Vol. 54, no. 1. 2017. Pgs. 34–37. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/TQ-54-1-0143-01.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 Fernandez and Simpson (1993)
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 Sakamoto and Konings (2003)
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Schurr et al., (2015)
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Behr and Vogel, (2010)
- ↑ Simpson and Fernandez, 1992
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 Biotransformations of hop-derived aroma compounds by Saccharomyces cerevisiae upon fermentation. Tatiana Praet, Filip Van Opstaele, Barbara Jaskula-Goiris, Guido Aerts, Luc De Cooman. 2012.
- ↑ "(Z)-rose oxide ". Good Scents Company. Retrieved 12/29/2016.
- ↑ "There are no flies on Emma Stoye". Emma Stoye. Education in Chemistry website. 06/01/2016. Retrieved 01/10/2017.
- ↑ "Citronellyl acetate". Perfumers Apprentice website. Retrieved 01/10/2017.
- ↑ Biotransformation of monoterpene alcohols by Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Torulaspora delbrueckii and Kluyveromyces lactis. King A1, Richard Dickinson J. 2000.
- ↑ Biotransformation of acyclic monoterpenoids by Debaryomyces sp., Kluyveromyces sp., and Pichia sp. strains of environmental origin. Ponzoni C, Gasparetti C, Goretti M, Turchetti B, Pagnoni UM, Cramarossa MR, Forti L, Buzzini P. 2008.
- ↑ "Influence of yeast strain on hop aroma development in dry hopped beers." Christina Schönberger, Elisabeth Wiesen, Benedikt Matsche, Barth Innovations Yves Gosselin, Stephan Meulemans, Fermentis. Presentation slides at 35th Congress EBC.
- ↑ "Optimizing hop aroma in beer dry hopped with Cascade utilizing glycosidic enzymes (presentation slides)." Kaylyn Kirkpatrick from New Belgium Brewing Co. Young Scientist Symposium, Chico, CA 2016.
- ↑ "Seeded and "Unseeded Hops - a Quality Comparison (presentation slides)." Martin Zarnkow. EBC 2015.
- ↑ Octanol. The Good Scents Company. Retrieved 03/31/2017.
- ↑ The effect of hopping regime, cultivar and β-glucosidase activity on monoterpene alcohol concentrations in wort and beer. Daniel C. Sharp, Jan Steensels, Thomas H. Shellhammer. 2017.
- ↑ Preiss, Richard. Milk The Funk Facebook group. 03/31/2017.
- ↑ Conversation with Ron Smith and Aaron Barker on historical storage of hops. 02/07/2016.
- ↑ Dave Janssen. "Hops in spontaneous fermentation". Hors Catégorie Brewing blog. 04/28/2016. Retrieved 04/09/2018.
- ↑ "Home for Our Aged Hops". Jester King's blog. Retrieved 11/18/2016.
- ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 Aging of Hops and Their Contribution to Beer Flavor. Lam et al. 1986.
- ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 Humulinone Formation in Hops and Hop Pellets and Its Implications for Dry Hopped Beers. John Paul Maye, Robert Smith, and Jeremy Leker. 2016.
- ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 39.4 39.5 39.6 39.7 Assessment of changes in hop resins and polyphenols during long-term storage. Alexandr Mikyška and Karel Krofta. 2012.
- ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 40.3 Stability of Hop Beta Acids and Their Decomposition Products during Natural Ageing. K. Krofta, S. Vrabcová, A. Mikyska, M. Jurková, T. Cajka , J. Hajslová. 2013.
- ↑ The effect of hop beta acids oxidation products on beer bitterness. Karel Krofta, Světlana VRABCOVÁ, Alexandr Mikyška, and Marie JURKOVÁ. 2013.
- ↑ 42.0 42.1 Brewing Science and Practice. Dennis E. Briggs, Chris A. Boulton, Peter A. Brookes, Roger Stevens. 2004.
- ↑ Structure determination and sensory evaluation of novel bitter compounds formed from β-acids of hop (Humulus lupulus L.) upon wort boiling. Gesa Haseleu, Daniel Intelmann, Thomas Hofmann. 2009.
- ↑ 44.0 44.1 Dr. Patricia Aron. "Bitterness and the IBU: What's It All About?" HomebrewCon 2017 Presentation. ~34 mins in. Retrieved 09/05/2017.
- ↑ Goiris et al., 2002
- ↑ Beta-ionone. Good Scents Company. Retrieved 11/22/2016.
- ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 Odorants comprising hop aroma of beer: hop-derived odorants increased in the beer hopped with aged hops. Toru Kishimoto, Katsunori Kono and Kenkichi Aoki. 2007.
- ↑ Aroma Properties of Lager Beer Dry-Hopped with Oxidized Hops. Daniel M. Vollmer, Victor Algazzali, and Thomas H. Shellhammer. 2017.
- ↑ Comparison of the Odor-Active Compounds in Unhopped Beer and Beers Hopped with Different Hop Varieties. Toru Kishimoto, Akira Wanikawa, Katsunori Kono, and Kazunori Shibata. 2006.
- ↑ 3-methyl-2-butene-1-thiol. Aroxa website. Retrieved 11/22/2016.
- ↑ Private correspondence with Dustin Carver by Farmhouse Brewing Supply. 03/22/2016.
- ↑ James Howat. Milk The Funk Facebook group thread about debittered leaf cryohops. 07/04/2018.
- ↑ MTF thread that reported an MBAA presentation by Brett Porter from Goose Island. 07/30/2016.
- ↑ "Commercial Brettanomyces, Lactobacillus, and Pediococcus Descriptions; Commercial Yeast Laboratories." The Mad Fermentationist blog. Michael Tonsmeire. Retrieved 12/12/2016.
- ↑ "Classification of Brewed Products as "Beer" Under the Internal Revenue Code of 1986 and as "Malt Beverages" Under the Federal Alcohol Administration Act". TTB Ruling 2008, Number 2008-3. 07/07/2008. Retrieved 12/12/2016.
- ↑ MTF thread with John Joyce and Joseph Kearns on TTB vs FDA approval for beer/malt beverages without hops. 12/13/2016.
- ↑ "Putting Some Numbers on First Wort and Mash Hop additions." David Curtis. 2014 National Homebrewers Conference presentation slides. Retrieved 12/12/2016.
- ↑ "Raw ale". Larsblog. Lars Marius Garshol. 05/06/2015. Retrieved 12/12/2016.
- ↑ A Study of Factors Affecting the Extraction of Flavor When Dry Hopping Beer (master thesis). Peter Harold Wolfe. 2012.
- ↑ Nate Walter and Dan Pixley. Milk The Funk Facebook group. 05/21/2017.
- ↑ Janish, Scott. "Zero Hot-Side Hopped NEIPA | HPLC Testing for Sensory Bitterness". ScottJanish.com. Retrieved 03/09/2017.
- ↑ Carloine Whalen Taggart. Milk The Funk Facebook group. 07/06/2017.
- ↑ Jean van Roy on Basic Brewing Radio
- ↑ D. Janssen personal communication with Jean Van Roy, 9-Nov-2013
- ↑ 65.0 65.1 Drie Fonteinen on Belgian Smaak
- ↑ Video of Cantillon wort reaching a boil from Bill on Lambic.info
- ↑ Conversation with Dave Janssen on MTF. 02/24/2017.
- ↑ "Brewing Lambic", section "Hopping". Lambic.info website. Retrieved 02/24/2017.
- ↑ 69.0 69.1 69.2 69.3 69.4 Dave Janssen's discussion of hopping in spontaneous fermentation
- ↑ 70.0 70.1 Dave Janssen's discussion of hopping grisettes
- ↑ Howat, James. Facebook live video stream. 12/23/2016. ~5:30 minutes in.


text:
The PE Department wish to thank all staff, Friends of South Wilts, sixth form and competitors for contributing towards another highly successful Sports Day at South Wilts. Well done for such an excellent standard of competition - including four school records broken! Sophie Kalik ran 2.27.0 in the year 7 800m & 5.04.1 in the year 7 1500m, Imogen Wolsey ran 4.54.2 in the year 10 1500m & 10W ran 3.29.7 in the year 10 Medley Relay. All fantastic achievements, especially considering some school records have been held since 1979!
Overall results were as follows:
|Year 7
|Year 8
|Year 9
|Year 10
|1st N (128)
|1st A (143)
|1st E (150)
|1st W (236)
|2nd A (126)
|2nd B (138)
|2nd A (136)
|2nd E (154)
|3rd B (117)
|3rd N (112)
|3rd N (131)
|3rd A (153)
|4th E (85)
|4th E (88)
|4th B (125)
|4th N (133)
|5th B (123)
The best athlete awards were also presented to the girls who had scored the most points within the limits of sports day entry (2 track & 1 field plus a relay, or 2 field & 1 track plus a relay).
|Year 7
|Year 8
|Year 9
|Year 10
|1st Sophie Kalik 7N
|1st Lizzie Clifford 8A
|1st Hannah Brown 9N
|1st Imogen Wolsey 10W
|2nd Catherine Lethbridge 7A
|2nd Jerry Edwards 8B
|2nd Emily Kalik 9E
|2nd Vicky James 10E


text:
Last weekend we attended the Bi-annual show from the Starlight Theatre School at The Peepul Centre, Leicester. They put on a show every two years in addition to their Annual Summer Show. This year it was "The Orphan" and I must admit to being a bit wrong footed at the rehearsal as I had turned up anticipating a performance of "Oliver" (another well known Orphan) but instead was confronted by a red headed girl with attitude and treated to a superb performance of "Annie." As to be expected from Starlight, the dancing, singing and acting was faultless and we wish them all success with their next production.
January (1) February (1) (3) March (3) (2) April (2) (3) May (3) (2) June (2) (4) July (4) August September (1) October (1) (3) November (3) (1) December (1)
January February March April May June July August September October November December


text:
Idox launched iApply at the beginning of December 2015. The launch follows months of intense development and design work, along with extensive field testing. The new service, aimed at helping to ease the process for submitting planning and building control applications, is already receiving acclaim from its early adopters. We spoke with Chris Kendall, Digital Strategy Lead at Idox, about iApply, its introduction and the benefits it can bring to the planning sector.
How did the idea for iApply come about?
Over the last year Idox has been developing a Local Government Digital Platform to provide a suite of interchangeable tools and services that when combined together extend and advance Idox's range outside of its existing products and services.
The idea of the Digital Platform is to make easily accessible the components needed to offer a single source for all local government online applications with the aim of helping people interact with local government.
The first product developed for the new platform is iApply. Although offering the planning sector a decisive step-change, it is also the first stop on a journey to achieve a much larger vision, across all government interactions.
Why was iApply the first product to be developed?
It was a matter of timing as much as anything. The government decided to commercialise the planning process. It put the previously government-run platform for planning applications, the Planning Portal, out to tender and opened the market to competition. With our knowledge of the sector, combined with our technical expertise, this seemed an ideal product for us to focus on. In addition to planning applications, iApply also enables building control submissions from the same platform, being the first online facility to offer this combined service.
What are the benefits of iApply?
One of the biggest early advantages of iApply is the ability to submit all planning applications and building control submissions from a single source. This is particularly helpful for larger submissions, which require numerous planning applications to different local authorities. The system mitigates the need for planning applicants to create multiple applications for a single project, or send numerous emails with attachments. It can now all be done online from a single place and at the same time. This offers potentially huge resource savings for the large submitters, but with everyone, from one-off to regular submitters, also benefitting from an improved, streamlined process.
Other benefits of the service include the ability to work collaboratively with clients and suppliers, sharing application details and progress. iApply enables authorisation, progress tracking and even payments to be made. It also keeps you informed of the status of an application, sending notifications of any changes. This ensures that time isn't wasted on telephone calls to the planning department when seeking updates. Not only is the service designed to take you through the whole process – from pre-application enquiries to building control approval – but it also provides a complete national register of planning applications. This information is available to the public already, but iApply is the only place where this information is gathered in one place and is easily searchable by area, postcode or free text.
What input have you had in the development of iApply?
We have been working closely with many of the local authorities and private businesses, testing iApply to make sure that everything works. By running a pilot to test the system, we've been able to gather feedback and input from both sides, to ensure that we introduced a product that has tangible benefits for the user. Extensive stakeholder engagement has been very important, to find out exactly what the end-users want from the system. I have also been heavily involved in pulling the website together and ensuring the design and implementation was fit for purpose. iApply works across all platforms including desktop, tablet and mobile, so the website needed to reflect this too.
How easy is it to adopt iApply?
Idox already has a technical relationship with almost every local authority, which makes the implementation of iApply straightforward and quick. For the submitters it is incredibly easy. It's simply a case of visiting the website and using the tools, which will guide you through the process.
Why has iApply been positioned as providing the industry with a step-change?
Local authorities should welcome the launch of iApply, as it comes at a time when planning departments are increasingly under pressure to reduce spending. iApply benefits the applicant, but the planning department also benefits from the improved efficiencies generated by the service. In the long run, it's to everyone's advantage to take up this new technology, as we all have the devices and tools required to use iApply at our disposal in our everyday lives.
For further information on iApply, visit the website http://www.iapply.co.uk/ or watch the new video, which highlights some of the major advantages of the service https://iapply.co.uk/lgdp/#why.