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San Francisco wants to build more housing. But how and where will it happen?
The San Francisco Planning Department's critical "San Francisco Housing Affordability Strategies Report" for 2020, marked for publication this week, lays out three likely plans to hit SF's housing goals—at least some of which are liable to touch a nerve.
The city compiled the report with the goal in mind of creating 150,000 homes (including 50,000 affordable homes) by the year 2050. That's almost twice the rate of development compared to the past ten years, for the record, so it's no mean stretch.
Here's what SF Planning has to say about the state of housing right now, and what it identifies as the three most likely ways to change it.
- SF is building more housing lately, but not much relative to the recent past. From 2000 to 2009, the city averaged 2,302 new homes per year, and from 2010 to 2019 that number bumped up to 2,509. However, that spike of a few hundred homes per year was not sufficient to keep up with job and population growth.
- Affordable housing production ramped up during that time, but also not by much, from 623 units per year in one decade to 692 in the next. Most critically, the report points out "affordable and market rate production tend to rise and fall together, in part because market rate housing funds affordable" and in part because the state of the general economy governs both the same way.
- Between 1990 and 2015, the number of SF households making 120 percent or more of the area median income (AMI) increased by 80,000, while at the same time the number of low- and moderate-income households declined by over 29,000. SF Planning reiterates that residents of color are "far more likely to be low- or moderate-income than white residents" and this magnifies the effects of housing shortfalls in some communities.
- SF Planning singles out three potential solutions, starting with the so-called "east side focus," in which the majority of new homes would be built in neighborhoods on the east side of the city close to downtown and along the waterfront, stretching down to Hunters Point, whereas "growth on the western two-thirds of the city would be limited to a few large projects." To create sufficient density in roughly one-third of the city, SF would have to build taller, between 10 and 24 stories in areas close to jobs and transit. The biggest drawback of this plan is it's pretty close to what the city is doing already, meaning it's more likely to exacerbate existing problems.
- With the "transit corridors" plan, new development would focus on major transit lines, and in turn "these lines would receive significant investments to accommodate additional ridership." This would spread new development across a wider geographical area—most notably well into the west side thanks to the L and N Muni lines—but narrow its focus to the point that the effect on most of the neighborhood would be minimal. Planning argues that since "displacement pressures are already widespread in the city," the hazards for existing residents are real but largely already accounted for.
- Finally, the "residential district growth" plan forgoes the sacred cow by suggesting that the city should focus on building more homes in neighborhoods where the number of homes allowed is currently "very limited," including the 70 percent of space that limits zoning to single-family homes or duplexes—e.g., western neighborhoods like the Outer Sunset. The report argues that while this would mean the most widespread change, the sheer amount of space to work with means "reducing concentrated neighborhood change."
A combination of all three approaches may also hit the targets. Note that while all three of these plans are projected to produce the desired amount of units, they all rely on the 40,000 additional units already in the pipeline that the city expects delivered during that time.
Right now the city's budget for housing is shy what it would take to spur more affordable housing growth, with the report estimating an average $517 million price to generate 1,000 new homes and preserver 1,100 existing ones.
"The city is projected to nearly meet that funding need in FY19/20 but has fallen short in the past," the report notes, suggesting that more money from things like housing bonds and the gross receipts tax that's still tied up in court will be needed for more in the future.


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A version of the General Lee — a 1969 Dodge Charger made famous in the television show "The Dukes of Hazzard" — fetched a winning bid of nearly $10 million Friday in an online auction.
If the bidder comes through with cash or financing for the $9,900,500 price, the car will be the most expensive item ever sold by eBay Inc., company spokeswoman Catherine England said.
Actor John Schneider, who played the blond heartthrob Bo Duke in the show, sold the car, which was not featured in the original show but carries the signatures of the cast.
Schneider, 47, said Friday that he expected bidding for the orange coupe, which has "01" on the doors and is emblazoned with the Confederate flag, to go for $3 million at most.
"In my wildest dreams, two people would get into a bidding war at about $2.5 million ... and I would have been delighted with that. However, I'm three times as delighted as that now," he laughed.
All the living original cast members and crew from the show, which started in 1979, signed their autographs under the hood of the car. It was also featured in the movie "Dukes Go To Hollywood," and Schneider raced it in The Silver State Classic Challenge in Nevada.
The actor said he would use the money to help produce a sequel to his 2006 movie "Collier & Co."
"I think I'll go on vacation first and then make the movie," said Schneider, who after "Dukes" acted on Broadway and had roles on shows including "Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman." "This is really, really quite amazing."
Slideshow 26 photos
Celebrity Sightings
When bidding escalated this week, customer service representatives at San Jose, Calif.-based eBay called Schneider and recommended he take bids only from pre-qualified eBay customers who could confirm financing and provide other details. Although all eBay bids are considered a legally binding contract, the transaction isn't official.
E-mails to the winning bidder, who uses the screen name "Fishbashr1" and beat out 60 other bids, went unanswered on Friday afternoon.
"The way it works is the money and vehicle swap hands between buyer and seller, but until we hear from buyer and seller we have no way of verifying whether the transaction happened," England said.
The current eBay record sale is $4.9 million for a private jet several years ago.

subset: commoncrawl


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May 30, 2012
Why you don't want to wait "too long" to make your senior housing choice.
By Dan Dolan
Dan Dolan Homes
This elderly couple has been coming to my weekend open houses for a couple years now. I have really enjoyed their visits, because they are both retired teachers and are well traveled, so our conversations can cover a lot of ground. They have lived in their current two-story home for many years and raised their family there. And yes, their laundry is in the basement. They know that "one day" they will have to make the move. They visit with me periodically to see what's new.
Their recent visit was different. I noticed that the wife was now driving their car, and when they came in the
husband sat in the front foyer while his spouse walked through the home. I walked over to him, while his wife admired and studied some of the features in the model home. It was a scenario that I have seen repeated many times. Sometimes it's the husband who is impaired, and sometimes it's the wife. Often it's the result of an "incident"—a fall, a hip or knee problem or sometimes a heart-related incident. With this couple it was the latter. They now REALLY want to make the move to a home with all-on-one-floor living. And fast. But regrettably, the husband will be limited in the degree in which he can participate in the move. So, his wife will have to do most of the work, or at least supervise the relatives and friends who will do the necessary moving work. The couple indicated to me that they had "waited too long" to initiate the move.
They have known for a while that the yard work had become too onerous, in spite of the fact that they both enjoyed the plantings. And, of course, the stairs have been taking a toll on those aging limbs. "It was great while it
lasted," she said, "but the time has come," she added.
At Dan Dolan Homes, we've been helping senior families to address this need for over ten years. We know what they want and need and have incorporated it into our townhomes. Take no-step entry. Residents and visitors to a Dan Dolan town home can enter walking or in a wheel chair with no fear of having to climb a step. There are none. Once they enter the home, there are no steps or leg lifts required—not even to enter the master shower. Designed by the Association of Disabled Americans, our master shower has grab bars on three sides and a five foot wide entry so that even a walker or wheel chair can be used.
For some, the need for these amenities may not always be immediate. That's why we refer to our homes as having the ability to let homeowners "age in place." Living in a Dan Dolan Town Home, you need not relocate should you ever need a walker or wheel chair to navigate your home, because we make it easier to get around. In addition to no-step entry, our town homes have wider doorways, lever door handles, main floor laundry plus an array of options to meet specific lifestyle needs.
Of course, we take care of lawn maintenance, and we remove the snow, both of which are covered by the reasonable monthly Home Owners' Association fee. That lets homeowners travel summer and winter, if desired, with the knowledge that the yard is being taken care of. For homeowners who still enjoy planting a few tomato plants or a rose bush or two (or more), they are perfectly free to do so. Pets? A fence? Absolutely.
Some 10,000 Americans are achieving "senior status" each day. If you are among them and want to address your senior housing needs soon, we'd like to talk to you at any of our locations. You'll find our townhomes in Clinton, Bettendorf, Davenport, Blue Grass, Muscatine and Iowa City. In Davenport, our models are open 1 to 4 p.m. Saturdays and Sundays at Stone Gate East, Eastern Avenue just below 53rd Street. At all locations our Realtor hosts will be happy to show you our current homes and help you design the home of your dreams if you like. And be sure to ask for more information on a Reverse Mortgage for Purchase. Come out and see us this weekend.
Filed Under: Community, Finance
Tags: Address, Conversations, Dolan, Elderly Couple, Heart, Knee Problem, Laundry, Model Home, Open Houses, Plantings, Relatives, Retired Teachers, Senior Housing, Spite, Stairs, Yard Work
Trackback URL: https://www.50pluslife.com/2012/05/30/why-you-don%e2%80%99t-want-to-wait-%e2%80%9ctoo-long%e2%80%9d-to-make-your-senior-housing-choice/trackback/


text: Get this office memo template you can download at an affordable price. Create a document informing all staff and management of matters regarding construction materials. This is well-formatted and easy to edit. It is also fully customizable in all versions of MS Word and Apple Pages. It is also print and digital ready.


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Home automation market to grow at 25 percent CAGR
By SSN Staff
Updated Thu September 22, 2016
SARASOTA, Fla.—Global market research firm Zion Research published a new report that estimates that the global home automation market, which was valued at around $5 billion in 2014, is expected to reach $21 billion in 2020, growing at a CAGR of around 25 percent between 2015 and 2020.
Key aspects involved in home automation include centralized control of lighting, HVAC, appliances, security locks of gates and doors and other systems, to "provide improved convenience, comfort, energy efficiency and security," according to the report. "Home automation for the elderly and disabled can provide increased quality of life for persons who might otherwise depend upon someone else for their day to day activity."
The report found that home automation is growing in popularity among house owners owing to decreasing cost and simplicity in functioning of home automation systems. "Tablet and smartphone connectivity with home automation systems has made it very convenient for end-users to manage their household activities," according to the report.


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Glen Dimplex
Founded in 1973, Glen Dimplex is a leading international group, with annual revenues in excess of two billion euro and over ten thousand employees across four continents.
Glen Dimplex is the world's largest manufacturer of electrical heating, and also holds significant global market positions in domestic appliances, cooling, ventilation, and renewable energy solutions.
Over half a century, we have built a solid global business reputation, and our customers have come to trust in our brands, our products, and our people.
Today we are at the vanguard of a low carbon revolution, with an unrivalled range of solutions in space and water heating, cooling, ventilation and heat recovery.
Across the world these innovative low carbon systems enable our customers to reduce CO2 emissions and eliminate cost.
With our dynamic portfolio of leading brands and low carbon technologies the Glen Dimplex Group is strategically positioned to meet the market challenges of tomorrow.
Glen Dimplex is a leading international industrial group, with over 30 businesses and 8,500 employees around the world, including, Europe, North America, Asia, and Australasia.


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Institute Executive Director Jerr Boschee has been an advisor to social entrepreneurs in the United States and elsewhere for more than 40 years. He has delivered keynote speeches or conducted master classes in 43 states and 21 countries.
Read more
A 39-minute interview of Institute Executive Director Jerr Boschee, one of 30 people selected as featured speakers during the world's first free online global sustainability summit, "Doing Business & Doing Good!" One interview was released internationally each day during September 2017.
Plenary session speech by Jerr Boschee at the 1st Skoll World Forum on Social Entrepreneurship: March 2004 (33 minutes)
A ten-minute conversation between Jerr Boschee and John Bennett, a veteran social enterpriser who is now the head of WISEA (Wales Ireland Social Entrepreneurship Alliance): May 2011
(AUDIO PODCAST) Interview of Institute Executive Director Jerr Boschee by Tim Zak of Globeshakers (26 minutes)
Please allow about 30 seconds for the interview to load on your browser


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Contributing writer for The Artifice.
Junior Contributor I
Published | The continued revival of Les MisérablesWhy has "the brick" seen continued revival and adaptations? Examine the ways that history made the novel so anticipated and "famous", but also the themes that might connect with the renditions. For example, was there a political reason to have the most recent 2012 movie adaptation? Or is there a political reason that there was/is a lasting "fandom" around the original text? I feel like there are few classics that have a cult following. Perhaps there could also be a comparison between Les Misérables adaptations and Sherlock Holmes adaptations.
I think you start to touch on this a bit but don't delve into it a great deal… What I personally think would/maybe will help is an increase in diversity of the characters in race, gender, sexuality, nationality… etc. Hypothetically, if these characters can be viewed in their own right, and writers put aside the focus of U.S. anti-terrorism (or maybe putting a spin on that, like Marvel could hypothetically do with Kamila Khan and address the islamophobia rampant in the nation), then I think the movies would feel much less formulaic. It wouldn't completely solve the problem, but I think we would all be just… Less Damn Tired. | The Superhero Film in The Modern Era |
One thing that I feel like is really key, but missing from your article, is that access is not a universal concept that applies equally to all individuals. What about the ways in which disability plays into this conversation, for example? There are many ways that people cannot equally participate in these things. There are folks with visual impairments, hearing impairments, speech impairments… all at varying levels. I think that your article begins to skim the surface of a very, very deep topic, and I hope to see you dig into it a bit more! | The Modern Translation of Writing |
I think this piece felt reminiscent of the effect that reading the books had on me as a child… But I also think that the series, regardless of its nostalgic effect, should still be critiqued. What might you say to some of the critiques – such as Rowling's plot holes and her large gap in diversity? | Why Harry Potter Appeals to Adults as Well as Younger Audiences |
I want to start by saying that I haven't read The Crossing arc, but I think that the Demon in a Bottle arc is one of the best of Tony out there. It's tough to not see it on the top of this list *because* it's one of the more interesting arcs… and if The Crossing is as bad as you make it sound, I wonder if it should be at number one. Overall, I feel like this is a great summary! | Top 10 Times Iron Man was Brainwashed |


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Logo design invoices just like other invoices are documents that give the details of the service offered, as well as the cost and payment methods for a logo design service provided to a client. The invoices could be handwritten or electronic documents. Bonsai offers you a creative logo design invoice sample that will help you write effective and complete logo design invoices.
If you recently landed your first freelance logo design contract, you must be one of the luckiest designers in the freelance market. It's never easy to get one, and so, kudos for making it there. However, that's not the end of the journey for you. As a freelancer, there's quite a lot to be done as you work on the project.
It isn't just about designing a logo for your client. At some point, you'll need your pay for the work done, and that's also a process. Your client won't just wake up one morning and send you the cash. They need a logo design invoice template to know how much they need to pay you.
Having invoices come with obvious advantages that a freelancer should not overlook. Here are some of the advantages of using a logo design invoice:
- The invoices are a great document that helps freelancers get paid on time. With the invoice, you give the client details on how to make the payment.
- The invoice provides evidence that the freelancer offered certain services to a client. The invoices can be used by both parties as evidence that services were offered and payment made. That makes a good point for convincing your client to work on invoices as they can use the records of the invoice as evidence for payment.
- Reduce billing cycles - the freelancer, in this case, eliminates the need for constantly reminding the client.
So, before you sit down and wait for your money to roll in, make sure you have a logo design invoice example in place. And not just a regular logo invoice template, but something clear and presentable. Just as we have seen above using an invoice has many advantages to a freelancer that is looking to lighten up a load of asking for payment. Bonsai makes this even simpler by offering you simple and ready to use logo design invoice templates that will help you with the process of creating invoices.
Using logo design invoice example helps the freelancer free up work of his/ her plate and has the following benefits:
- Easy to create invoices – by using logo design invoice templates, the freelancer only needs to enter relevant details instead of writing an invoice from scratch. Therefore, the freelancer frees up his table off some work, allowing him or her to focus on the job they are being paid to do.
- The logo design invoice example helps the freelancer to create complete logo design invoices that are error-free. It is important to avoid errors while communicating with your client as such things would impact negatively on your image and possibly even the client's confidence.
Here are tips for designing a logo design invoice example that will get you paid on time.
1. Highlight your brand in the logo design invoice template
Apart from showing how much the client needs to pay, your logo design invoice template reflects your business personality. So, don't just make it look plain. Even though it will still give you your pay, the client may find it a bit blunt, and that's the last thing you'd want.
Therefore, make sure your logo design invoice sample reflects your brand – your color theme, company logo, etc. You can do this from scratch, but it's much easier to work with a template.
The logo design invoice sample gives you the freelancer flexibility of using it as a marketing tool. Having the logo not only sells your brand but also gives the client confidence that you are up to the task as an established firm.
Remember this is an opportunity to make business communication with your clients. Take for example; asking your client for feedback or offering them incentives for referrals. The logo invoice template can make a good marketing strategy for your firm.
2. Keep your logo design invoice simple
Your client doesn't have a whole day to go through your logo design invoice template. So, make sure they can pick out what they need without straining. Remember, it's just an invoice. Therefore, it doesn't have to be a million-word document. Just be straight to the point.
On top of making your logo design invoice example look attractive, make sure it's easy to read and understand. No one enjoys squinting over minute fonts, and neither is your client. Therefore, use a readable font size. The logo design invoice sample is user friendly and makes it easy to create attractive fonts and graphics.
3. Be polite in the logo design invoice sample
Money matters are so sensitive. Remember, as much as you've worked for it, it's not proper to demand it. Your client may not take this kindly. Therefore, be mindful of your language. Your logo design invoice example should be carefully worded with the right language to avoid any instances of disrespect.
Be as polite and respectful as you can in expressing your demands. In case you need more clarification on this, check out logo design invoice samples available online. At least you'll have an idea of how to go about it.
Remember to also watch the tone in your writing because you don't want to have anything that the client may interpret as being rude. Be sure to use words like thank you and sorry whenever necessary. They may seem trivial but they may go a long way to creating a lasting relationship.
4. Set a due date in the logo design invoice template
Surprisingly, most freelancers don't set due dates on their logo invoice templates. The truth is, you need to indicate a payment deadline in your logo design invoice. Otherwise, you may have to wait longer for your payout. Avoid using words like promptly to mean that you need the payment fast.
Your client's interpretation of promptly may just shock you. Promptly could mean a month to them while you need your money in a couple of days. Therefore, set an actual due date and display it on your logo design invoice. With this, the client will do exactly what's required of them.
5. Itemize your logo design invoice sample
Your client needs to know what they're paying for. So, don't just include a lump sum amount in your logo design invoice sample. Break it down in such a way that it's easier to interpret. List down each piece of work alongside simple descriptions of what the client is paying for. Again, keep the descriptions simple. Your client shouldn't struggle to understand the content of the invoice.
Are you now ready to write your logo design invoice template? Go ahead and design an invoice that will get you paid faster.
6. Personalize the logo design invoice template
In as much as you will be using a logo design invoice sample that is auto-generated, try to customize the details to your client. The more personalized the invoice is towards your client, the more they will be at home to work with you more in the future. The invoices are simple but are a great tool for creating lasting working relationships.
The invoice should contain all the necessary details that are necessary to help the client process your payment. The invoice not only acts as a payment request tool but also as a tool for record purposes for both you and your client. The logo design invoice example helps you with getting these details in your logo design invoice without breaking much sweat. Here are some of the details that should not be left out when filling in the template:
- Your company name, logo, and contact info
- The date of the invoice - chose between the date of delivery or date invoice is written for all your invoices for consistency.
- A clear title with the word 'Invoice'
- Invoice issue date and payment due date
- Name and address of the client - address your client in a polite manner and recognize them.
- Invoice number - the invoice number helps in tracking transactions. The number can help solve payment conflicts by making it easy to trace transactions.
- Description of services rendered
- Subtotal for each service
- Total amount due, including taxes and discounts
- Payment terms
- Personal note
The logo design invoice sample gives the freelancer the options for offering the client incentives such as discounts. You can also use the logo design invoice to market your brand by offering incentives to customers. There is so much that you can do with invoices for your business so make use of these logo invoice template and create awesome templates.


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California law requires drivers to stop after being involved in an auto accident. Unfortunately, not all drivers obey the law. It's routine to see drivers speed or engage in distracted behaviors, such as texting, eating, and more. Because there's a plethora of distractions competing for our attention at all times, we take our focus off the road. Even when paying attention to the cars around us, it's still possible to be surprised. For these and a variety of other reasons, hit and run accidents occur. So, it's very important to know what to do after a hit and run (as well as what not to do.)
What to Do After a Hit and Run Accident
If you are a victim of a hit and run accident, you'll probably experience anger, frustration, surprise, anxiety, confusion, and the list goes on and on. You might tempt you to follow the at-fault hit and run driver, but this will do more harm than good. The reasons are simple — you'll also be leaving the scene and doing so causes two things to happen.
Some traffic incidents cause heart pounding reactions, like stolen cars, car crashes, and near-misses. Unsurprisingly, hit-and-runs can be one of the most upsetting. When a driver hits a pedestrian, property or another car, or causes a collision, and then either flees the scene or doesn't provide truthful information, it's a hit-and-run. In these scenarios, information is your best asset. Knowing what to do ahead of time might even help you track down the culprit. —MSN.com
If you pursue the other driver, you won't be able to immediately question any witnesses. You also won't get the opportunity to establish credibility with responding law enforcement. After all, they will wonder why you too left the scene. This dovetails with another thing you shouldn't do after a hit and run accident, which is to wait to call the police or sheriff's department. You'll need an official report for your claim then and there. Like being in any other accident, here's what you should do after a hit and run accident:
- Get the other driver's license plate. If it is possible, note the other driver's license plate. Even a partial, along with a description or make and model and/or color, will be helpful. If you do not see the license plate, ask witnesses on the scene. Also, take a look around to see if any security or intersection cameras are present as these might have captured the incident or other vehicle.
- Phone local law enforcement immediately. Call local law enforcement and wait at the scene to get an accident report. Do not admit any fault and make no statements about your own condition. For instance, do not tell the police or anyone else you feel fine, have no injuries, or are somewhat at-fault.
- Speak with any eye witnesses on the scene. You should also speak with anyone who witnessed the hit and run accident. Take detailed notes and get their full names, along with their contact information. These individuals should also speak with any law enforcement on the scene.
- Document everything as soon as possible. The best time to document your experience is right after the accident, while everything is still fresh in your mind. Take plenty of pictures and record detailed notes of all you remember so you'll have ample documentation.
- Seek medical treatment right after the accident. Even if you don't feel injured or hurt, you should seek medical attention as soon as possible following the accident. Do not wait even one day — you need to be examined right away. After all, you could be injured and not know about it for days later.
If you or a loved one have been the victim of a hit and run accident, you need to consult an experienced personal injury attorney right away to learn about your legal rights. Time is not on your side and you might be entitled to compensation.


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Alibaba announced new agreements at CES Asia with Audi, Honda, and Renault to enable integration between the Tmall Genie Auto..
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The National Football League is working on its own subscription streaming service for mobile devices, according to a report in The Athletic. The league is said to have briefed teams on the project at its annual meeting of owners, which has been held over the past few days in Palm Beach, Florida. The Athletic says that presentations included slides with "NFL+" branding and a hypothetical $5-a-month price point.
The NFL Plus service would theoretically replace NFL Mobile, the NFL's previous solution for distributing in-market games to phones and tablets. The NFL had a deal with Verizon and Yahoo to show some live games, but that partnership ended last year as the carrier spun off its content businesses. Verizon lost its mobile exclusivity in 2017.
NFL fans in many regions outside the US already have various streaming options across mobile and other devices. DAZN, for example, has the rights to every NFL game in countries including Canada and Japan. The NFL also operates a streaming service for international subscribers called Game Pass.
The Athletic report doesn't say when the NFL Plus service might launch. It does note, however, that the NFL is going to need to find a solution for mobile streaming before the 2022 season kicks off in September.


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A Review of Streamyard
Streamyard is a web-based media studio that allows you to broadcast live video online. This web-based media studio allows you to broadcast live videos to multiple social media platforms, record them for later access, and use a green screen for your broadcasts. If you want to know more, read on! We have a comprehensive review of Streamyard. You can try it today to see the ease of livestreaming and recording video.
Streamyard is a web-based media studio
Streamyard, a web-based platform for video broadcasting, is available. This application works on any browser and allows users to personalize their broadcasts. The free version allows you to stream to all platforms and to add branding banners and logos. Streamyard premium users can also change the appearance of their live videos with call-to-actions and questions displayed on-screen. Streamyard offers a great option for anyone looking to personalize their online video streaming experience.
Streamyard allows you to record and send videos directly to multiple platforms including Facebook and Twitter. It supports multi-streaming to increase your reach and increase your audience's engagement. You can also create custom broadcast video layouts in this studio and broadcast them to as many channels you wish. You can even hold meetings and invite up to 10 viewers to interact with your live broadcast. Although the free version allows for 20 hours of streaming, it is limited to full-HD (1080P).
Streamyard provides a free lifetime subscription. The basic package doesn't require any expensive video processing hardware such as high-performance PCs or graphics cards. All you need is a microphone and camera connected to your PC. The service can be used to livestream events, educational classes, and more. Streamyard's user interface is clean and well-labeled, which makes it easy for users to get started quickly.
It allows you to live stream to multiple social media platforms
Streamyard is an excellent tool for broadcasting your live stream to a variety of social media platforms. You can share the entire screen of Streamyard, an app window or website. It also lets guests share their screen with you. The tool also offers multiple layout options including split screen and full screen. This tool makes it easy to share your screen on multiple social media platforms.
Streamyard's dashboard allows you to change between Facebook pages. The platform allows you to broadcast to multiple profiles simultaneously, but you have to reconnect with the new profile each time. If you fail to broadcast, the platform will not allow you to go live. In such cases, you can post an alternative post as the profile that failed to go live. If all else fails, you can try again by using the same login code on all your social media profiles.
Streamyard lets you broadcast your live stream to up to 8 different destinations at once. It also offers powerful call-to-action buttons, which viewers can click on while watching your stream. Call-to-action buttons are an excellent way to increase conversions and sales. Streamyard has customizable features that help you add visuals and audio. Upload your videos and images. The platform allows you to add call-to-action buttons and customize your stream as needed.
It records your broadcasts for later access
Streamyard is a web service that records your broadcasts for later access. Record yourself or others and select different broadcast settings. You can add people, modify the layout and much more to the recording function. You can also choose to record any activity that doesn't require live streaming. Click on the button "Create Broadcast" to begin broadcasting.
Streamyard lets you record live broadcasts automatically if you have a paid plan. You can also create "Record Only", broadcasts if you prefer not to go live. Just select "Skip, record only" and then choose to download the recording. The recording will be available for viewing and downloading in either MP4 or MP3 formats. After the broadcast is finished, you can edit or delete it.
You can record videos to six social media sites using Streamyard You can record videos to Facebook and YouTube. When you live stream to Facebook, you can select the right profile or group. A combination of page and profile can be used. Streamyard is also compatible with Real-stream. Streamyard also allows you to download audio files from your broadcasts.
Streamyard has a number of features that make it worth considering. Premium users have the option to live stream to more than one destination channel. Premium users have the option to relay video in Full HD (1080p) resolution. The final output will depend on the speed of your viewers' connections. Streamyard allows you to live stream, but it doesn't offer analytics or video captions.
The screen is a green one
A green screen can be used in StreamYard to create more excitement and variety in your videos. This allows you to add pictures or video loops to your stream. The green screen function is available without the need for you to install anything, unlike other live streaming apps. You can also download Ecamm to get additional features.
It has a free account
StreamYard offers a free account, however there are additional features that you might want to look into if you plan on streaming live video. This service lets you broadcast on multiple platforms including Facebook, LinkedIn and YouTube channels, Periscope, Twitch, as well as YouTube. You can also add your profile, group or page for streaming. StreamYard allows you to customize live video with a call-to-action or question.
You can create a broadcast by using Streamyard's free account, though it only lets you record five hours of video per month. In addition, you're limited to twenty hours of streaming time per month. Premium users can increase their recording time to 50 hours per video, but the free account has a limit of five hours. Streamyard offers a Business Plan, with more features. It also includes an extra five hours of cloud storage.
Streamyard offers an alternate login option. You can switch between your Facebook accounts. Switching profiles is as easy as disconnecting from the Facebook group. Then, reconnect to your new profile. Afterwards, your previously scheduled broadcasts will not go live. However, you can fix the problem by manually going live on the failed destination. You can also schedule a posting to go live. The free account also has other features, including sharing content.
There is a monthly charge
Streamyard charges a monthly subscription fee for both its premium and basic versions. The basic version removes the Streamyard branding and gives you up to 4 hours of HD recording. The pro version has a paid upgrade path with features like multi-streaming and full HD video quality. If you do not want your stream to be posted on the internet, or don't wish to record live, it is possible to also record. The basic plan is free, while the premium version costs $49 per month.
StreamYard offers a small set of default options, which cover the most popular streaming sites. Digital broadcasters typically use YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter to distribute their content. Twitch, LinkedIn and other social media platforms are very popular with gamers as well as businesses. StreamYard also offers a Custom RTMP feature that allows you to connect your destination platforms, and then broadcast your content from your site. The business plan is also great if you want to broadcast on more than one social network.
Streamyard has several disadvantages. First, it limits its users to 10 per stream, which limits the ability to host large events. Also, the transitions could use smoother transitions. These transitions are also quite abrupt. It would be helpful to have a physical switcher implemented. Streamyard needs more branding options. But, if you're not looking for a monthly fee, then this is probably the right option for you.


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Standard Interpretations
Standard Interpretations are letters or memos written in response to public inquiries or field office inquiries regarding how some aspect of or terminology in an OSHA standard or regulation is to be interpreted and enforced by the Agency. These letters provide guidance to clarify the application of an established OSHA standard, policy, or procedure, but they may not, in themselves, establish or revise OSHA policy or procedure or interpret the OSH Act. They must specifically cite the source policy or procedure document they interpret.
- 1926.1401 - OSHA's position on using a crawler crane that has been derated by the crane manufacturer. - 07/22/2011
- 1926.1401 - Regarding the determination of whether an employee may be considered a "qualified rigger" - 03/18/2014
- 1926.1401 - Requirements of a third-party evaluator of rigger and signal person qualifications. - 01/09/2012
- 1926.1401 - Whether qualified rigger required when lifting a load below 2000 lbs or less - 03/05/2014


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January 1, 2021
Best of 2020: Memorable Moments from Bella Grace's Social Media
Happy New Year, Bellas! 2020 may have dealt many challenging moments, but we found solace and inspiration within our Bella Grace Community more than ever before ❤ We delighted in fun activities such as our Instagram "What Makes Your Heart Sing" photo contest, re-released our very first issue, and published the third installment of the beloved Cozy Issue! Let's take a look at some favorite moments of the year…
Memorable Facebook Moments of 2020
Memorable Instagram Moments of 2020
Memorable Twitter Moments of 2020
We look forward to discovering even more magic in the ordinary with you in 2021 ✨ Be sure to follow along on Instagram, Facebook, and Twitter for the inspiration to come!
With Love, The Bella Grace Team
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Debbie Ealer
April 19, 2023 at 4:26 pm
This magazine has hit a chord with me. It was something I did not know I was missing. It holds magic in its words, power in its female writers, and love in its contents. It is a magazine that embraces us no matter who we are. It engulfs us in magic an holds us spell bound from cover to cover. The magic of this magazine always surprises me. What touches my heart changes each time I open it. Thank you for creating this amazing magazine!
Lisa A. Davis
April 19, 2023 at 4:26 pm
I agree with Debbie E. This magazine has been such a blessing to my world. It brings me calm and peace in a time of such uncertainty. It has brought back my creative side that for some reason was buried in the everyday chores of life. Now I look forward to the next edition and read it cover to cover and just let the feelings the articles envoke take over me. I have enjoyed every issue and will continue to.


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- Research
- Open access
- Published:
Generalist host species drive Trypanosoma cruzi vector infection in oil palm plantations in the Orinoco region, Colombia
Parasites & Vectors volume 12, Article number: 274 (2019)
Oil palm plantation establishment in Colombia has the potential to impact Chagas disease transmission by increasing the distribution range of Rhodnius prolixus. In fact, previous studies have reported Trypanosoma cruzi natural infection in R. prolixus captured in oil palms (Elaeis guineensis) in the Orinoco region, Colombia. The aim of this study is to understand T. cruzi infection in vectors in oil palm plantations relative to community composition and host dietary specialization by analyzing vector blood meals and comparing these results to vectors captured in a native palm tree species, Attalea butyracea.
Rhodnius prolixus nymphs (n = 316) were collected from A. butyracea and E. guineensis palms in Tauramena, Casanare, Colombia. Vector blood meals from these nymphs were determined by amplifying and sequencing a vertebrate-specific 12S rRNA gene fragment.
Eighteen vertebrate species were identified and pigs (Sus scrofa) made up the highest proportion of blood meals in both habitats, followed by house mouse (Mus musculus) and opossum (Didelphis marsupialis). Individual bugs feeding only from generalist mammal species had the highest predicted vector infection rate, suggesting that generalist mammalian species are more competent hosts for T. cruzi infection .
Oil palm plantations and A. butyracea palms found in altered areas provide a similar quality habitat for R. prolixus populations in terms of blood meal availability. Both habitats showed similarities in vector infection rate and potential host species, representing a single T. cruzi transmission scenario at the introduced oil palm plantation and native Attalea palm interface.
Land-use change (LUC), caused by urbanization, agricultural expansion and intensification, leads to habitat fragmentation and loss of animal and plant biodiversity. Species responses to LUC are complex, potentially depending on their functional traits [1]. Typically in a community, large, slower breeding, less-mobile species as well as dietary and habitat specialists are the most vulnerable to LUC [2,3,4,5,6,7,8]. The specialist-generalist concept is based on how natural selection promotes specialized strategies among species by showing an evolutionary trade-off between specializing to perform few activities well, and generalizing to perform many activities fairly [9]. Specialists usually benefit from undisturbed landscapes, where there are many environmental niches in which to specialize, whereas generalists can often thrive in anthropogenically disturbed landscapes [10,11,12,13]. In fact, niche evolution theory predicts that habitat fragmentation should negatively affect specialist species in a community [14].
Recent studies in the tropics observe vertebrate specialist species declines as a consequence of LUC. Birds have been suggested as the most sensitive class negatively affected by forest conversion into agriculture around the world [15]. For instance, forest cover loss was the principle threat to specialist birds in the tropical rainforest of Lacandona in Mexico [16]. In general, mammals are less sensitive to habitat disturbance compared to birds, perhaps due to a higher abundance of generalist species, such as small mammals [15]. Nonetheless, anthropogenic intervention in tropical forests has caused a decrease in small mammal species that are forest specialists, favoring those that tolerate human activities in Costa Rica [17], Paraguay [18] and Venezuela [19]. Additionally, medium-sized opportunistic carnivores-omnivores, such as opossums and raccoons, tend to increase in abundance in disturbed landscapes [20, 21]. As a result, land use alteration is expected to decrease specialist vertebrate species, whereas generalist mammal species such as common opossum increases.
Generalist rodents, opossums, raccoons, and other opportunistic mammals are often considered to be important reservoirs for vector-borne diseases [22,23,24,25]. In many cases, these species are associated with rapid reproduction [26, 27], introducing high numbers of susceptible individuals into a population at a relatively high rate. In addition, based on the 'pace of life' hypothesis, fast-lived species are expected to invest less in acquired immunity compared to long-lived species [28,29,30]. Therefore, LUC favoring 'fast-living' generalist/opportunistic species could promote vector-borne disease transmission. Few studies have assessed the role of generalist species on vector-borne transmission. For instance, generalist rodents often harbor more diverse flea communities and higher flea loads (number of fleas per host) [31]. Another example from a modeling approach showed that dietary generalist species could amplify West Nile virus transmission compared to specialist species [32]. Clearly, the degree of habitat specialization of different host species should be considered when evaluating mechanisms of changes in vector-borne pathogen transmission in association with LUC.
Chagas disease is caused by a multi-host vector-borne pathogen and its transmission may be strongly affected by changes in host community as a consequence of LUC [33]. The disease is caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi and transmitted by insects within the subfamily Triatominae. Chagas disease is endemic in Latin America affecting 7 million people, with a burden of 12,000 deaths per year [34]. The parasite transmission involves nearly a hundred mammal species, yielding domestic and sylvatic cycles of transmission [35]. Therefore, LUC, which alters mammal community composition, could potentially alter the disease transmission dynamics, requiring a particular understanding of the ecological transmission context for each LUC scenario [36].
A recent study in the Orinoco basin in Colombia showed that the mammal community in savannas and oil palm plantations (Elaeis guineensis) was similar, dominated by generalist species, and less rich compared to gallery forests [37]. In addition, Rhodnius prolixus, the main vector in the region, and a true palm specialist [38, 39], is capable of invading oil palm crowns, potentially introducing T. cruzi [40]. Thus, T. cruzi transmission is an interesting system for studying the role of dietary generalist versus specialist mammal host species in vector-borne disease transmission in agricultural landscapes, such as oil palm plantations, which are leading producers of biodiesel worldwide [41]. The rapid expansion of the oil palm industry in Colombia [42] could therefore have a significant impact on vector-host-T.cruzi transmission relationships.
The aim of this study was to understand the role of host community composition and the relative contribution of domestic and sylvatic mammal species on T. cruzi maintenance and transmission in oil palm plantations and adjacent native palm vegetation. This study has three specific objectives: (i) to analyze R. prolixus blood meals in oil palm plantations (African oil palms) in the Orinoco basin and investigate the importance of generalist host species in T. cruzi transmission in this agricultural landscape; (ii) to compare vector blood meals in oil palms with adjacent native A. butyracea palms, the natural habitat of R. prolixus in the region; and (iii) to determine if vector infection in both palm species is responding to similar drivers in terms of host dietary specialization.
Study area and triatomine sampling
Fieldwork was conducted in Los Potrillos, Tauramena municipality (4°59′1″N, 72°36′36″W) located in the department of Casanare, from August 2016 to July 2017. The region has bimodal seasonality [43] and we visited the study site twice per season, in August 2016 and July 2017 for the rainy season, and in December 2016 and March 2017 for the dry season. Each visit lasted 10 nights. We sampled a 2 ha Attalea butyracea forest and an adjacent Elaeis guineensis plantation (11 ha), for 5 consecutive nights per habitat.
Traps live baited with chickens were used for Triatomine collection [44]. Traps were set at 17:00 h within or next to the palm tree crowns, and revised the next day at 7:00 h. All available A. butyracea were sampled (n = 79) while for E. guineensis a subsample was selected based on the height of the crown suitable for sampling (n = 103) (see Additional file 1: Figure S1 for traps arrangement in the study site). Collected triatomines were placed in ethanol 70%. Palm trees were geo-referenced and marked for identification.
Triatomine infection and blood meal analysis
We captured 316 R. prolixus nymphs (N1 to N5 nymphal stages) from the E. guineensis plantation (n = 148) and the A. butyracea forest (n = 168), to analyze for T. cruzi infection and blood meals. DNA was extracted using phenol:clorophorm:isoamyl alcohol protocol as described elsewhere [45].
Trypanosoma cruzi infection for selected insects was determined by the amplification of mini-circle specific primers 121 (5′-AAA TAA TGT ACG G(T/G)G AGA TGC ATG A-3′) and 122 (5′-GGG TTC GAT TGG GGT TGG TGT-3′) to obtain an amplicon of 330 bp [46]. DTU characterization was conducted by amplifying the intergenic region of the non-transcribed mini-exon gene from the parasite using primers TCC (5′-CCC CCC TCC CAG GCC ACA CTG-3′), TCI (5′-GTG TCC GCC ACC TCC TTC GGG CC-3′), and TC2 (5′-CCT GCA GGC ACA CGT GTG TGT G-3′) [47].
For blood meal analysis, we amplified DNA performing two PCR rounds following Kieran et al. [45]. The first-round PCR amplified a 12S rRNA region (145 bp) typically used for vertebrate detection (F: 5′-CAA ACT GGG ATT AGA TAC C-3′; R: 5′-AGA ACA GGC TCC TCT AG-3′) [48] with TruSeq compatiable adaptor fusions [43]. PCR cycling conditions considered an initial denaturation at 98 °C for 3 min, followed by 40 cycles at 95 °C for 30 s, 63 °C for 1 min, 72 °C for 1 min, and a final extension at 72 °C for 5 min. Positive amplicons were pooled in equal concentration and cleaned with SPRI-beads (1:1 ratio).
For the second-round PCR we used Ilumina TruSeqHT compatible 8 nt indexed primers [49]. Reactions and thermocycler conditions were described by Kieran et al. [45]. We cleaned the library product and removed the primers using 1:1 ratio of SPRI-beads. Finally, the libraries were sent for sequencing on an Illumina MiSeq with Paired-End 300 reads (University of Georgia Genomics Facility).
Bioinformatics analyses were conducted using Mr Demuxy v1.2.0 (https://pypi.python.org/pypi/Mr_Demuxy/1.2.0), Geneious v10 (Biomatters Limited, NJ), and the software package QIIME v1.9.1 [50]. First, we demultiplexed the 12S amplicon pool using Mr Demuxy v1.2.0 to remove internal barcodes and primers. Then demultiplexed files were transferred to Geneious v10 to set paired-reads (size 145 bp) and trimmed for removing low quality bases (0.001 score). Finally, we imported data into QIIME v1.9.1 for assigning data Operational Taxonomic Unit (OTU), using UCLUST (similarity: 95%), based on a previously compiled 12S reference database. For each sample, the OTU identification showed the total number of reads per species and those with less than 10% of total reads hits were removed.
The 12S reference database consisted on the 12S DNA sequences of vertebrate species reported in the Orinoco and its bordering regions (Amazonian and Andean) [51,52,53,54], downloaded from GenBank. When the complete 12S sequence of a designated species was missing, we included an alternative sequence corresponding to a closely related species at a higher taxonomic level (genus or family). All reference sequences corresponded to the 12S rRNA gene, 145 bp region. For reference database see Additional file 2 and for taxonomy see Additional file 3.
We did not include chicken (Gallus gallus) reads to account for contamination coming from the baited live traps used for triatomine capture. Additionally, we performed an additional PCR to samples reporting human reads to determine contamination by amplifying the human beta globin gene (268 bp) using primers GH20/PC04 [55]. The human beta globin gene amplification is commonly used as a control for human clinical samples subject to molecular analysis [56]. In addition, this set of primers (GH20/PC04) has been used by other vector blood meal studies to confirm presence/absence of contamination with human DNA [57].
For data visualization, we developed an interaction network for each habitat where nodes represented R. prolixus and identified vertebrate species (OTUs). Links are unidirectional and move from every identified vertebrate species to vector, because they provide food for R. prolixus. Link weights were determined separately for each habitat, by normalizing the number of blood meals of each identified species. Therefore, the link weight between the vertebrate species presenting the highest number of blood meals in a particular habitat and R. prolixus is 1.
Data analysis
A Chi-square test of independence was used to measure the dependence between taxonomic class, taxonomic order, species identified in vector blood meals, and habitat type. A generalized linear model with binomial error distribution was used to test the effects of most abundant mammal species on T. cruzi infection in R. prolixus. A Pearson correlation was used to test the relationship between host body size and infection in R. prolixus, for the study site and discriminated by habitat. Skin surface area has been suggested as a proper way to reflect host body size. However, such data are not available, thus we used the allometric scaling relationship between body mass M and skin surface A given by the expression A α M2/3 [58]. Body mass and size for each host species are provided in Additional file 1: Table S1. When more than one host species was found in the a single vector blood meal, we used the average body size.
We used regression tree models to evaluate the relationship between vector infection prevalence and habitat associations of identified potential host species (domestic and sylvatic species). We divided sylvatic species into two groups, ecological specialist and generalist species based on feeding preferences [59]. Only omnivores were considered as true generalist species (see Additional file 1: Table S1). Presence/absence of identified potential host species was the explanatory variable, thus the detection of any ecological species (domestic, specialist, and generalist) in an individual would be binomial (1 for presence and 0 for absence) for a specific category. Finally, we computed Moran's I index for determining spatial aggregation in the abundance of blood meal species identified in R. prolixus. Moran's I gives values ranging from − 1 to + 1. I equals zero when there is no spatial autocorrelation (H0), negative when there is negative autocorrelation and positive when data presents a clustering pattern.
We visualized R. prolixus and identified vertebrate species (OTUs) networks using the interactive platform Gephi [60]. One network is depicted per habitat, in which links are unidirectional from identified vertebrate species, that provide blood meal, to the vector. Link weights are specific and normalized for each habitat. We used R version 3.3.2 [61] and the RStudio Integrated Development Environment (IDE) for the analyses. Statistical analysis was conducted using the base package. We used the rpart package to perform the regression tree models [62]. For computing the Moran's I index we used the ape package [63].
Triatomine infection and blood meals
Triatomine infection rate was similar between the two habitats: 75% in the oil palm plantation (111/148) and 76% in the A. butyracea forest (125/165). The obtained DTU in 22 examined R. prolixus individuals corresponded to TcI.
We did not detect human beta globin gene in any of the processed samples, suggesting contamination in steps performed before 12S amplification (insect collection and/or DNA extraction), so no human blood source was considered in the study.
We detected vertebrate DNA in 94.6% of R. prolixus samples (n = 299). Blood meal analysis detected a total of 18 vertebrate species, consisting of 14 mammals, 3 birds, and 1 reptile (Fig. 1). Mammals comprised 95.9% of vector blood meals, while birds and reptiles constituted 3.4% and 0.7%, respectively. There was no significant association between taxonomic class and habitat type (χ2 = 1.75, df = 2, P = 0.41). The pig (Sus scrofa) made up the highest proportion of blood meals with 59.2%, followed by the house mouse (Mus musculus) (19.6%), and opossum (Didelphis sp) (8.7%). This ranking pattern was maintained in the A. butyracea forest and the oil palm plantation (Tables 1, 2).
Rhodnius prolixus from both habitats shared blood meals of four mammalian orders: Artiodactyla, Carnivora, Marsupialia and Rodentia. Three additional mammal orders were identified in the A. butyracea forest, Chiroptera (5%), Primates (1%) and Xenarthra (1%) (Tables 1, 2). There was a significant association between taxonomic order and habitat type (χ2 = 22.2, df = 6, P = 0.001). Species composition varied between habitats. The A. butyracea forest had more diverse blood meal sources (16 species) compared to the E. guineensis plantation (9 species), and the association between species and habitat type was significant (χ2 = 29.9, df = 13, P = 0.005). However, when considering solely shared identified species (Bos taurus, Didelphis sp., M. musculus, Procyon sp. and Sus scrofa), which were the great majority in both habitats (A. butyracea: 85% and E. guineensis: 97%), the association was not significant (χ2 = 8.37, df = 4, P = 0.08).
We found R. prolixus individuals with multiple blood meals (Table 3). Double species were detected in 26.6% (n = 84) and triple species were detected in 4.7% (n = 15), although 63.3% of the samples had a single blood meal (n = 200).
Blood meals and T. cruzi infection
The regression tree analysis shown in Fig. 2 has T. cruzi infection in vectors as response variable and domestic, generalist, and specialist sylvatic mammal species presence as explanatory variables. In the tree non-terminal and terminal nodes are illustrated as circles and rectangles, respectively. The main node at the top of the tree shows the number of individuals evaluated for this tree and subsequent nodes are labeled with the predicted infection rate and the number of individuals that corresponded to the node. Links between nodes are labeled with an explanatory variable, showing its value (1 for presence and 0 for absence).
The regression tree explained 77% of the total variance in the response variable. Predicted infection rate was the lowest for individuals feeding exclusively from specialist mammal species, such as Cebus sp., bats (Artibeus sp. and Myotis sp.), specialist rodents (Proechimys sp. and Coendou sp.) and anteater (Tamandua sp.). The highest infection was predicted for individuals feeding only from generalist or opportunistic mammal species: opossum, raccoon (Procyon sp.), house mouse, and the generalist rodents, Oligoryzomys fulvescens and Zygodontomys brevicauda. For individuals feeding from domestic and generalist mammals, the regression tree predicted an infection rate of 76%. We did not find vectors feeding from both domestic and sylvatic species.
The general linear model showed no significant effect of S. scrofa, Didelphis sp., nor M. musculus blood meals on vector T. cruzi infection. In this analysis we considered single, dual, and triple blood meals that detected these species. The Pearson's correlation test showed no relation between host body size and vector infection for the study site (r = 0.0018, P = 0.97), forest (r = -0.1302, P = 0.13), or plantation (r = 0.1080 P = 0.18).
Blood meals spatial patterns
Few species identified in the blood meals had significant Moran's I indices different from zero (P < 0.1), implying that a great majority of blood meals were randomly distributed in the study site. We found positive significant I indices for Ortalis sp. (I = 0.09, P < 0.05), Proechimys (I = 0.03, P = 0.004), Artibeus sp. (I = 0.09, P < 0.05), and Canis lupus familiaris (I = 0.02, P = 0.07), thus these species blood meals displayed a clustering pattern (Fig. 3).
Palm trees are the natural ecotope of most Rhodnius species [39] because they provide refuge and plenty of food sources, as many vertebrate species forage there [64,65,66]. Attalea butyracea is a complex-crown palm tree that is ubiquitous in the Orinoco region, where large R. prolixus densities with high T. cruzi natural infection rates [67,68,69] and blood meals from all terrestrial vertebrate taxa, except amphibians, have been reported [70]. In this study, we present a detailed description and analysis of R. prolixus blood meals in A. butyracea palms and oil palms (E. guineensis) in the department of Casanare, Colombia.
Oil palm plantations have been suggested as a new ecotope for R. prolixus and T. cruzi maintenance [40]. Here, our findings suggest that E. guineensis palm trees could be providing R. prolixus and T. cruzi a habitat of similar quality to A. butyracea palm trees located in disturbed landscapes. In both habitats, vertebrate species identified from R. prolixus blood meals are similar, with minor differences in composition, providing a comparable enzoonotic scenario.
The Orinoco region is known as a high transmission area for Chagas disease. Reports showed a T. cruzi natural infection between 60–85% [68, 69] and a palm infestation index reaching 100% [71]. Here we showed high infection rates, comparable to previous studies, 76% in the A. butyracea palm trees and 75% in the E. guineensis plantation. Therefore, our finding that 95.6% of vector blood meals corresponded to mammalian hosts could be a possible explanation for such a high vector infection, because mammals are the only competent reservoirs for T. cruzi infection. The remaining blood meals were identified as coming from birds and geckos which are known to be refractory to T. cruzi infection [72, 73].
In this study, the domestic pig was the top ranked blood meal in both habitats, which was initially surprising, but is supported by the presence of a pigpen in the A. butyracea area. In addition, Sus scrofa domestica has been suggested as an attractive host species [74, 75]. Nonetheless, the spatial analysis on vectors displaying pig blood meal did not show a clustering pattern; instead these vectors were randomly distributed, probably because the pigpen is less than 200 meters far from the remotest palm tree in the forest. The spatial pattern of pig blood meals in the plantation could be attributable to the occasional release of pigs within the habitat area. Thus, our findings suggests that in this area, the pig could be a relevant food source for R. prolixus.
Regression tree analysis showed that generalist or opportunistic host species could be playing an important role in T. cruzi maintenance in the area. Habitat-generalist species are known for their synanthropic behavior, because they benefit from living in close proximity to humans. Thus, these species provide food source for triatomines in disturbed landscapes and are parasite reservoirs [23, 75]. Generalist rodents were detected in vector blood meals from both habitats and M. musculus was the predominant species. Mus musculus is an introduced Muridae species that has adapted to domestic and peridomestic habitats in many regions of Colombia [76], and its role as a T. cruzi competent reservoir needs to be tested. In a previous study, we found that 1 out of 12 individuals infected (8.3%) (unpublished data, Casanare, Colombia) and in Mexico 6.2% were T. cruzi-positive [77]. The common opossum, D. marsupialis, a well-known T. cruzi reservoir [22], showed an infection of 29% in this site (unpublished data), and comprised a significant proportion of vector blood meals in the A. butyracea forest and to a lesser extent, the E. guineensis plantation. Other identified generalist species were the crab-eating raccoon (Procyon sp.) and the rodents O. fulvescens and Z. brevicauda.
Blood meals from specialist species were absent in the oil palm plantation and present in a few bugs captured in the A. butyracea forest (7.5%), which is expected considering that the entire study site is particularly altered. Since specialist species tend to be more K-selected (lower reproductive rates and longer life spans) compared to opportunistic species [78], high vector infection rates in the area could also be explained by the little presence of these species in R. prolixus blood meals [33, 79].
We exclusively analyzed nymphs and therefore were expecting to identify mostly arboreal or scansorial vertebrate species. However, we found terrestrial species in nymph blood meals. This observation was also reported by Gottdenker et al. [33], where dog, pig, and cow were identified in vector blood meals. To our knowledge, these results could suggest two possibilities that are not mutually exclusive. Nymphs might be descending to the ground to feed and return to the palm trees, as suggested by previous reports highlighting the considerable power of triatomine dispersal [80]. Both R. prolixus nymphs and adults seem to migrate from their colonies to other sites by crawling [81] and/or passive-dispersal mechanisms, such as bugs clinging to birds [82]. The other possibility is that nymphs could be feeding from engorged adults who have fed from a terrestrial mammal before. This phenomenon known as hematoklepty [83,84,85,86] is also supported by multiple blood meals detection in first and second nymphal stage individuals in the present and a previous study [45]. However, recent reports suggest that thermal stimulation is the only cue triggering bites to conspecifics in R. prolixus and kissing bugs thermoregulate even when feeding on vertebrates [87]. Thus, the mechanism(s) explaining how early stage triatomines that are palm-associated feed from terrestrial species requires further study.
Previous reports in Colombia have detected vertebrate species in triatomine blood meals using ELISA and the cytochrome b gene PCR-HRM (polymerase chain reaction - high resolution melting); however, these studies identified fewer species than our study and higher taxonomic levels of sylvatic animals were not specified (bats and mice) [70, 88, 89]. For the ELISA approach, the fact that some species-specific anti-sera might not be available, could lead to unidentified species [88]. On the other hand, PCR-HRM protocol is available only for some species, which implies further standardization and required sequencing for not available species. Based on our results, we highly recommend using next-generation sequencing (NGS) method, which is an affordable and accurate method for identifying multiple triatomine blood meals in a single individual [45]. Detecting additional vertebrate species in vector blood meals besides easily identifiable species could help target novel host species and allow for a better understanding of triatomine ecology. This is particularly important, considering how land-use change may result in a host preference or availability switch [90, 91].
In this study, all processed nymphs were engorged at the time of collection, though chicken reads were present in a considerable number of samples, We do not discard the possibility of vectors feeding from chickens, which were highly present in the study site; however, given the study purposes, baited live traps with chickens could be a confounding element.
On the other hand, we obtained 18.7% of unassigned reads, suggesting gaps in the reference material. Currently, the Orinoco region still lacks biodiversity data for their species description and genetic database, partially due to previous inaccessibility to natural ecosystems as result of safety and security measures in this conflict-prone zone [92]. Finally, research on reservoir competence regarding the identified mammal species is necessary to fully understand T. cruzi enzoonotic transmission cycle in these habitats.
We conclude that generalist host species, rather than specialist, could be driving high vector infection rates with T. cruzi in oil palm plantations in the study area. Additionally, we suggest that oil palm plantations in the Orinoco region could serve as an extension of highly altered habitats with A. butyracea palms in terms of reservoir host movement and T. cruzi transmission. This could be the case for E. guineensis plantations near highly intervened areas, such as peridomicile and cattle pasture. Nonetheless, further research is required to understand parasite transmission scenarios in plantations with different spatial configurations in relation to peridomicile and other habitats.
Availability of data and materials
Data supporting the conclusions of this article are included within the article and its additional files.
Agencia Nacional de Licencias Ambientales-National Authority of Environmental Licenses
discrete taxonomic unit
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
land use change
first nymphal stage
second nymphal stage
third nymphal stage
fourth nymphal stage
fifth nymphal stage
next-generation sequencing
operational taxonomic unit
polymerase chain reaction
polymerase chain reaction-high resolution melting
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We thank Norma Forero, Germán Aguilera, Carlos Bravo, Luisa Rodríguez, and Nazario Rivera, for the help during fieldwork, and Cielo M. León who contributed with laboratory procedures.
This work was supported by the Vice-president for research at Universidad de los Andes and Colciencias call 617 (2013).
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Authors and Affiliations
DE and JDU carried out the field work and molecular laboratory work. MC carried out molecular work. DE and TJK carried out sequence alignments. DE carried out the statistical analyses. NLG and TCG participated in the study design. CG, FG, and JC designed and coordinated the study. All authors contributed to drafting the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
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Sampling procedures were done under Universidad de Los Andes collection approval (Resolution 1177 October 9th 2014–IDB 0359) from the National Authority of Environmental Licenses (ANLA) and the ethical review board of the Universidad de los Andes (CICUAL–C.FUA 14-026).
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The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
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Additional files
Additional file 1: Figure S1.
Map of the study site. Triatomines were collected an Attalea butyracea forest (2 ha) and an oil palm plantation (11 ha). Black dots represent baited live traps locations in both habitats. Table S1. Data from mammal species found in vector blood meals, which were used for the statistical analyses.
Additional file 2.
12S DNA reference database of vertebrate species from GenBank.
Additional file 3.
12S DNA taxonomy file of vertebrate species from GenBank.
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Erazo, D., Gottdenker, N.L., González, C. et al. Generalist host species drive Trypanosoma cruzi vector infection in oil palm plantations in the Orinoco region, Colombia. Parasites Vectors 12, 274 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-019-3519-3
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-019-3519-3


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Prelude and Fugue in E Major
by Max Derrickson
Vincent Lübeck
(Born in Padingbüttel, Germany in 1654; died in Hamburg, Germany in 1740)
Prelude and Fugue in E Major
By the 18th Century, long after the organ's first appearance as the hydraulis, the pipe organ was well established with its wind bellows and distinctive-sounding pipes that have continued as the modern organ, and organ music was especially cherished in Germany. It was a blossoming of organ virtuosity.
Although recently rediscovered, the German Baroque organist and composer Lübeck was, in his long life, famous as both performer and composer. Unfortunately, little of his music survived his lifetime, in part because a fire in his church of long employ destroyed many of his manuscripts. But judging from the extraordinary keyboard pieces that did survive, music historians believe that Lübeck was one of the great virtuosos and composers of his day. He also played on one of the great organs of his time housed at his church in Hamburg.
Lübeck's brilliant Prelude and fugue in E Major is a great example. Not only is it technically demanding, it's also bright and joyful. The Prelude opens with very fancy footwork almost right off, but rings through in beauty and stateliness. It's a fantastic way to begin an evening of organ masterworks.


text: Grownups, as well as kids, love LEGOs, so there's no reason why they can't be adult-sized. LEGO built two of their HQ buildings with materials made to look like giant LEGOs. It's a wonder they get anything work done, really. The buildings are located in Billund, Denmark and created by design firm C.F. Møller Architects. The two structures are part of what will be a 54,000 sq. ft. LEGO Campus where their "… mission is to inspire children." The roof has a yellow outcropping that looks like it was crafted from giant yellow plastic bricks, and portions of the facade show huge vertically-oriented LEGO bricks. Inside, you'll find more brilliant playfulness with bright colors, LEGO brick walls, and plenty of designs and sculptures using hundreds of thousands of actual LEGOs. The LEGO brand is headed toward sustainability with their future plastics, and the buildings follow suit with solar panels, green roofs, and rainwater collection/irrigation. This is only the start of the campus, so look for more youthful imagination to follow.