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Vol.2, No.11, 1287-1293 (2010)
pyright © 2010 SciRes.
Openly accessible at
A comperative clinical study of mucotomy and KTP laser
treatment of the inferior turbinate in allergic and
non-allergic subjects
Ágnes Patzkó*, Eszter Tóth, Krisztina Somogyvári, Imre Gerlinger
Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Medical School of Pécs, Hungary;*Corresponding Author:
Received 20 July 2010; revised 20 August 2010; accepted 25 August 2010.
Mucotomy is one of the most frequently applied
surgical techniques for the management of in-
ferior turbinate hyperplasia. Mucotomy guaran-
tees patent airway, however, it might lead to the
emergence of sicca syndrome. In contrast, KTP
(potassium titanyl phosphate) laser treatment
spares the medial part of the inferior turbinate
mucosa, contributing to maintenance of physio-
logical nasal function. A retrospective compara-
tive clinical study was performed to reveal the
advantages and side-effects of both surgical me-
thods in medium- and long-term in allergic rhini-
tis and non-allergic patients. Furthermore, we
wished to determine the exact indications of the
up-to-date laser treatment. Ninety-one of the 117
patients who underwent bilateral turbinate sur-
gery during an 8-year period (2000-2007) respond-
ed to our questionnaire focusing on subjective
postoperative changes. Patients were separated
into 6 groups, based on the type of operation
they underwent, the length of the follow-up and
whether they suffered from allergies. The major
complaint, nasal obstruction, improved in all 6
groups, which reached significance (p
0.05) in
4 groups. The most pronounced improvement
was observed in the group of non-allergic pa-
tients with medium-term follow-up who under-
went mucotomy. Nevertheless, a serious side-
effect: crusting also increased significantly (p
0.05) in the latter group, while it was absent in
allergic patients with medium-term follow-up,
who underwent mucotomy
These results lead
us to propose the following protocol for the
treatment of inferior turbinate hyperplasia: 1)
after unsuccessful conservative treatment, laser
treatment is suggested for non-allergic patients;
2) following unsuccessful conservative and even
repeated laser treatment in the allergic group,
mucotomy or turbinoplasty should be attempted.
Crusting; Inferior Turbinate; KTP Laser;
Mucotomy; Turbinoplasty
Complete or incomplete inferior turbinate resection
procedures are commonly used surgical techniques
worldwide in both children and adults, in out- or
in-patient settings. Most surgeons agree with the logical,
but potentially misleading idea that the patients' com-
plaints, especially nasal obstruction will be improved if
nasal airflow is increased [1]. The most important factor
determining airway resistance is the nasal valve. The
nasal resistance is additionally influenced by the nasal
cycle, which involves the alternating congestion and
decongestion of the septal an
d inferior turbinate veins
every 4-6 hours. As the infe
rior turbinate shrinks, this
contributes to an increased nasal valve area, a decreased
nasal resistance and an improved airflow [2].
There is considerable controversy in the literature
concerning the management of inferior turbinate enlarge-
ment. The origins of this debate date back more than a
hundred years, when the ro
utine procedure was total
turbinectomy [3,4], which was accompanied by the ad-
verse effects of serious bleeding, atrophic rhinitis and
crusting [5]. Subsequently, various types of partial tur-
binectomy gained popularity [6-9]. Some of the recent
surgical approaches, such as diathermy or cryosurgery
cause tissue necrosis, and the subsequent fibrosis has
been claimed to result in inferior turbinate reduction
[10,11]. Nevertheless, disappointing outcome was re-
ported in long-term follow-up patients, who underwent
electrocauterization [7], as well as in the case of total
inferior turbinate resection, indicating that the side-effects
Á. Patzkó
et al.
/ Health 2 (2010) 1287-1293
Copyright © 2010 SciRes.
Openly accessible at
have been underestimated [12]. Treatment options util-
izing the most up-to date technology (lasers and radiof-
requency devices) are currently offered, though their out-
comes have still not been adequately analysed [13-16].
Subjective patient complaints do not necessarily cor-
relate with the objectively measured decrease in postop-
erative nasal resistance (determined by rhinomanometry,
acoustic rhinometry) as an indication of excellent result
of surgery [17-19]. Our paper assesses the outcome of
mucotomy and KTP laser treatment of the inferior tur-
binate in both medium- and long term in allergic and
non-allergic patients, with
the aims of identifying the
advantages and side-effects of these techniques from the
aspect of quality of life of the patients, and of determin-
ing exact indications in orde
r to elaborate a therapeutic
2.1. Patients
A retrospective analysis of 117 patients who under-
went bilateral turbinate surgery during an 8 year period
(2000-2007) was planned. In 97 subjects (83%) mu-
cotomy and in 20 cases (17%) laser treatment of the in-
ferior turbinates had been carried out. Ninety- one (39
female, 52 male; mean age at
surgery 37 ± 13,7 years,
range: 14-73 years; 74 mu
cotomy, 17 KTP laser-treated)
of them (78%) responded to a questionnaire focusing on
subjective postoperative changes (Appendix). Patients
could respond with a yes, no or not sure to all questions.
For the analysis, the patients were divided into 6 groups,
based on the type of operation they had undergone, the
length of the follow-up (medium-term or long-term) and
whether they suffered from allergies (
Table 1
The indication of bilateral mucotomy or laser treat-
ment was based on the detailed medical history and
physical examination (anterior rhinoscopy and nasal
endoscopy). Objective meas
urements (rhinomanometry
and acoustic rhinometry) were not performed. Allergic
rhinitis was verified by means of the Prick-test and
blood test for specific IgE detection besides the typical
symptoms (itchy eyes, sneezing, nasal discharge and
blockage and headache). The most common causes of
non-allergic turbinate hyperplasia were medicamentous
rhinitis and vasomotor rhinitis. Sixty-five of the 91 pa-
tients underwent septoplasty at the same time as (63 pa-
tients, 97%) or before the turbinate surgery (2 patients,
3%), while 3 patients had a septal reoperation simulta-
neously with or before the
turbinate surgery (5%). In
cases of suspected chronic rhinosinusitis, a CT scan and
nasal endoscopy facilitated the establishment of the in-
dication for surgery.
2.2. Surgical Procedures
Following medialization of the turbinate,
the hyperplastic mucosa was surgically removed using
straight scissors. In cases of significant hypertrophy ex-
cessive bone was not preserved. Occasional severe bleed-
ing from the sphenopalatine
artery was treated with a
nasal tamponade. If necessary, the enlarged posterior po-
le of the inferior turbinate was also resected (
Figure 1
Figure 1.
Schematic illustration of mucotomy.
Table 1.
Groups of patients.
Description Group abbrevia
tion No. of patients
Medium-term follow-up of allergic patients who underwent mucotomy M2A 29
Medium-term follow-up of non-allergic
patients who underwent mucotomy M2NA 29
Long-term follow-up of allergic patie
nts who underwent mucotomy M7.5A 5
Long-term follow-up of non-allergic pa
tients who underwent mucotomy M7.5NA 11
Medium-term follow-up of allergic
patients who underwent KTP laser
Medium-term follow-up of non-allerg
ic patients who underwent KTP laser
N.B: medium-term follow up: 2.11 years (range: 1.8-2.4 years) long-term follow up: 7.48 years (range: 7.1-7.9 years)
Á. Patzkó
et al.
/ Health 2 (2010) 1287-1293
Copyright © 2010 SciRes.
y accessible at
KTP laser treatment of the inferior turbinate
laser (wavelength: 532 nm) has been applied for the treat-
ment of our patients regularly since 2004. This type of
laser combines ideal rhinological features of ablation,
vaporization and coagulation. Furthermore, hemoglobin
absorbs the laser light, providing a blood-free environ-
ment. The hand-piece allows the laser light beam to be
directed towards the hidden parts of the nasal cavity (
gures 2(a)
). In the course of the operation, the
laser probe containing a 0.6 mm laser fiber was targeted
to the posterior pole of the inferior turbinate under en-
doscopic control. The laser beam, applied at 10 W was
conducted from the posterior to the anterior pole of the
inferior turbinate in about 20-40 seconds, burning a
trench into the surface of the inferior turbinate (
). In some cases, two parallel
trenches were formed. In
Figure 2.
Fibre-optical hand piece
with a built-in sucker
. filter fixed to endoscope
Figure 3.
A trench was burnt into the surface of the inferior
turbinate applying the laser in continuous contact mode at
10 W. (S: septum, IT: inferior turbinate, L: laser fibre-optic).
case of extreme anterior pole
hyperplasia a brief addi-
tional laser treatment was applied to the submucosa. Spe-
cial care was taken to spare the medial surface of the in-
ferior turbinate. After laser treatment, there was no need
for a tamponade.
2.3. Statistical Analysis
The changes reported by the patients between the pre-
operative and postoperative conditions were analyzed by
means of the McNemar test. The answers relating to a
given symptom were analyzed with the Wilcoxon signed
rank test. We considered a probability level of p < 0.05
as significant.
Our study focused on nasal breathing, crusting, smell
detection and headache. Overall, the questions dealing
with nasal breathing revealed a significant number of pa-
tients who no longer suffered from nasal obstruction in
all the non-allergic groups and in group M2A (
Figure 4
The most pronounced improvement occurred in group
M2NA. Postoperatively, 23 of
the 29 subjects (79%) of
this group regained the nasal respiratory function. Posi-
tive, though non-significant changes were observed in
groups M7.5A and KTP2A. Whereas the latter two groups
of allergic subjects reported difficulty with nasal breath-
ing preoperatively, 3 of the 7 in group KTP2A and 3 of
the 5 in group M7.5A experienced patent airways post-
The outcomes of the two surgical procedures were
compared from the aspect of
crusting. In group M2NA,
the incidence of crusting was significantly higher post-
operatively (p < 0.05): preoperatively 6 (21%), post-
operatively 16 (55%) of the 29 subjects complained of
crusting (
Figure 5
). We did not see such negative effects
of the surgery on crusting in group M2A. All of these
patients had undergone bilateral inferior turbinate sur-
gery and consequently significantly more of them pre-
sented with bilateral crusting. Ten (62%) of the 16 pa-
tients in group M2NA, who reported crusting experi-
enced a thick, smelly discha
rge from the nasopharynx, 3
(19%) complained of a watery nasal discharge, and only
3 (19%) patients reported no nasal discharge. We did not
find significant changes in crusting in the remaining 4
groups, regardless of the type of surgery.
When considering smell detection, there was a post-
operative improvement in all 6 groups, though it did not
reach the level of significance (
Figure 6
). The questions
concerning headache, ear pain and reduced hearing acu-
ity revealed significant differences post-operatively.
Headache of the M2NA patients was alleviated. No pa-
tients developed headaches after the operation and 6 of
Á. Patzkó
et al.
/ Health 2 (2010) 1287-1293
Copyright © 2010 SciRes.
Openly accessible at
Figure 4.
Improvement in nasal breathing in patients w
ho underwent mucotomy or KTP laser treatment.
(For nomenclature, see
Table 1
Figure 5.
Changes in the incidence of crusting in group M2NA. These patients displayed the most marked
improvement in nasal breathing besides the highest incidence of postoperative crusting.
Figure 6.
Moderate, non-significant improvement of sense of smell in all study groups.
Á. Patzkó
et al.
/ Health 2 (2010) 1287-1293
Copyright © 2010 SciRes.
Openly accessible at
the 15 patients who suffered from headaches preopera-
tively became symptom-free. Moreover, among the M2A
patients, the ear pain diminished and the hearing acuity
improved postoperatively, with 6 of the 11 patients no
longer having complaints.
Adequate treatment of inferior turbinate enlargement
poses a challenge for functional nasal surgery. Unfortu-
nately, detection of the underlying cause of the hyper-
plasia (allergy, medicamentous rhinitis, vasomotor rhini-
tis or compensatory hyperplasia caused by a septal de-
viation) and its conservative management do not always
result in symptomatic relief. The large variety of surgical
interventions reflects the lack of consensus (
Table 2
We believed that a study comparing the subjective out-
come following mucotomy or KTP laser treatment of the
inferior turbinate would be helpful in developing a thera-
peutic protocol resulting in the best possible quality of
life for the patient. Although rhinomanometry and acous-
tic rhinometry are mainly used for scientific purposes, in
the future these procedures should be applied both pre-
and postoperatively. Their use would allow a detailed
analysis of the correlation
between objective and subjec-
tive symptoms [17].
We emphasize that both mucotomy and KTP laser
treatment significantly relieved the nasal obstruction,
which was the major complaint of our patients. After the
interventions, 71% of the subjects questioned, 56% of the
total patient cohort reported a full restoration of their na-
sal respiratory function. In group M2NA, where the im-
provement of nasal obstruction was most pronounced,
the incidence of postoperativ
e crusting increased signi-
ficantly. Most of these patients complained of a thick,
smelly nasal discharge and required regular nasal lavage,
complaints indicative of the emergence of atrophic rhini-
tis. Atrophic rhinitis and the consequent sicca syndrome
are unpleasant consequences of mucotomy and cause a
deterioration of the quality of life. Oezena was not ob-
served among our patients. Fifty-five per cent of the
questioned M2NA patients (43% of the total patient co-
hort) developed crusting. Surprisingly, crusting was not
reported to be considerably more frequent in the long-
term follow-up groups who underwent mucotomy (M7.5A
and M7.5NA). There may be se
veral reasons that explain
this finding: the patients might have become used to
their symptoms and applied nasal ointment or paraffin
oil to their nose, the allergic patients could have received
medication, or mucosal regeneration could have oc-
curred. Despite the lack of symptoms referring to atro-
phic rhinitis, we realize the importance of an even longer
follow-up [12]. The M2A patients did not present with
the negative features of atrophic rhinitis and the inter-
vention did mitigate the nasal obstruction in these pa-
tients. In our opinion, the abundant secretion of the re-
maining nasal mucosa protected them against atrophic
changes. In the future histological examination could
confirm this hypothesis.
Table 2.
Types of interventions on the inferior turbinate.
Mechanical Intervention
Medialization of the Inferior Turbinate easy to
perform, low risk, can be combined with
other techniques
little symptomatic relief, mucosa remains
Destructive Interventions
Cryosurgery easy to perform, local
an aesthesia is sufficient, no
need for tamponade
symptomatic relief may occur several months
later, bleeding, adhesions, no long-term relief,
Electrocautery local anesthesia,
good haemostasis, relatively ef-
only short-term symptomatic relief (up to 1-2
years)? crusting, adhesion, bleeding, infection
Lasers local anesthesia, good haemostasis, relatively ef-
fective in medium-term (2 years)
adhesion, expensive equipment, training need-
Radiosurgery no adhesion, good he
mostasis, relatively effective
in medium-term (2 years)
high cost, limited experience
Mucotomy easy to perform, long-lasting resu
lts bleeding, tamponade, crusting, infection
Partial Turbinectomy easy to perform, long-lasting results crusting
Total Turbinectomy easy to perform crusting, bleeding, tamponade
Submocosal Resection preserves muco
sal function, effective, prevents
atrophic rhinitis
tamponade, frequent recurrence of symptoms,
persistent rhinorrhoea
Vidian Neurectomy rhinorrhoea ceases, symptomatic
relief for years
dry eyes; intermittent eye or facial pain; pala-
tal, dental and facial numbness
Á. Patzkó
et al.
/ Health 2 (2010) 1287-1293
Copyright © 2010 SciRes.
Openly accessible at
The number of M2NA patients suffering from head-
ache was significantly lower postoperatively. All of the
patients whose headache ceased had presented with a
septal deviation and underwent simultaneous septal sur-
gery. We suggest that the remission of the headache was
due to the removal of the septal spine, which penetrated
the inferior turbinate and resulted in ganglion sphenopa-
latine neuralgia. We do not regard the symptomatic relief
as a consequence of the inferior turbinate surgery, but as
a coincidence, for the percentage of patients who under-
went simultaneous septal surgery was extremely high in
this group (86%). We observed that the preoperative ear
pain, fullness sensation and decreased hearing acuity
improved significantly in the M2A patients. These pa-
tients could have exhibited swelling of the mucosa in the
upper respiratory tract, due to allergy, resulting in chro-
nic inflammation of the Eustachian tube. The symptoma-
tic relief was probably due to the appropriate treatment
of allergies. Mucotomy markedly reduces the mucosal
surface and may result in a mucociliary dysfunction in-
creasing the susceptibility to infections. In spite of this,
an increased infection rate was not seen in any of the
groups. A rare, but severe complication of the treatment
of inferior turbinate enlargement is a deterioration of vi-
sual acuity, linked to retrograde embolism or retinal va-
sospasm [20]. One of the mucotomy patients reported a
permanent severe visual loss.
Our observations lead to suggest KTP laser therapy
for non-allergic patients. We assume that submucosal
scarring prevents the fast swelling and shrinkage of the
mucosa. Furthermore, laser treatment alters the autono-
mous nervous system control, impacts on the nasal cycle
and reduces the number and the function of the muci-
nous glands [21]. Two previous studies noted the limited
success of the laser treatment of allergic patients as
compared with non-allergic patients [14,15]. The reason
for this outcome might be that after the operation the
patients return to their usual allergen-contaminated en-
vironment, which results in chronic inflammation of the
mucosa. It is suggested that these patients should be of-
fered more radical treatment options. The small sample
size allows us to draw only limited conclusions from our
study. We consider that, as the first step, allergic patients
should be offered laser treatment, since it is minimally
invasive and can easily be adjusted to the patients' needs.
It gives comparable or even better results than conven-
tional inferior turbinate surgery. It can be performed at
out-patient clinics and does not require the unpleasant
tamponade of the nose. Janda et al. concluded that the
different types of lasers used in nasal surgery can pro-
vide equally beneficial results if correctly set and applied
[11]. The long-term effectiveness of laser treatment de-
pends greatly on the level of postoperative care. We re-
commend that patients should regularly perform nasal
lavage in order to prevent synechiae formation, inflam-
mation and atrophic rhinitis. However, it is indispensable
to explore the possible long-term side-effects of laser
The primary advantage of more invasive procedures
(turbinectomy, turbinoplasty and resection techniques) is
the achievement of the long-term airway patency. Un-
fortunately, radical operatio
ns may trigger the appea-
rance of the sicca syndrome. The best approach appears
to be the stepwise treatment
of inferior turbinate hyper-
plasia. Following unsuccessful conservative therapy, la-
ser treatment should be offered to both allergic and non-
allergic patients, though long-term benefits are apprecia-
bly less likely for allergic patients. In the event of un-
successful repeated laser treatment, we suggest that pa-
tients should be selected for turbinoplasty. In the future,
several other new treatment options (e.g. radiofrequency
treatment) could be considered [16].
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Openly accessible at
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After the questions in this questionnaire, you will find several possible answers. Please, circle the correct response!
1 Did material run into your mouth from the back of your nose befo
re the operation? Yes No I am not sure
2 If it did what was this material like? Thick Thin Watery
3 If it did, did it have an unpleasant taste? Yes No I am not sure
4 If it did run into your mouth, what colour was it? Yellow Green White Brown
5 Does material run into your mouth from the back of your nose
since the operation? Yes No I am not sure
6 If it does, what is this material like? Thick Thin Watery
7 If it does, does it have an unpleasant taste? Yes No I am not sure
8 If it does run into your mouth, what colour is it? Yellow Green White Brown
9 Could you breathe at all through your nose before the operation? Yes No I am not sure
10 Can you breathe at all through your nose since the operation? Yes No I am not sure
11 Did you notice crusty material in your nose before the operation? Yes No I am not sure
12 Have you noticed crusty material in your nose since the operation? Yes No I am not sure
Did your acquaintances ever mention an unpleasant smell coming from your nose
before the operation?
Yes No I am not sure
Have your acquaintances ever mentioned an unpleasant smell coming from your nose
since the operation?
Yes No I am not sure
15 Did you notice a change in your sense of smell before th
e operation? Yes No I am not sure
16 Have you noticed a change in your se
nse of smell since the operation? Yes No I am not sure
17 Did you often have headache before the operation? Yes No I am not sure
18 Do you often have headache since the operation? Yes No I am not sure
19 Did you have blurred vi
sion before the operation? Yes No I am not sure
20 Have you had blurred vision since the operation?
Yes No I am not sure
21 Did you notice any hearing loss or ear pain before the operation? Yes No I am not sure
22 Have you noticed any hearing loss or ear pain since the operation? Yes No I am not sure


text:
FOX 7 Discussion: Funding to improve Austin-Bergstrom
AUSTIN, Texas - The Austin-Bergstrom International Airport is receiving millions of dollars to fix its runways.
The funding is part of a large Federal Aviation Administration grant to support airport infrastructure across the county.
The US Department of Transportation is awarded $157 million in funding to 34 airports in 19 states, and more than $11 million of that is going to Austin-Bergstrom for runway rehabilitation.
USDoT says the construction will increase the airport's safety, capacity and future economic growth.

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Danielle M Myslakowski
Danielle Marlene Myslakowski, 29, of Kimball, died Monday, July 15, 2019.
She was born January 21, 1990 in Mount Clemens to Mitchell and Doreen Myslakowski.
Danielle enjoyed playing softball, boating, and spending time with her family, especially her daughter.
She is survived by her daughter, Cohanna; parents, Mitchell and Doreen; siblings, Matt (Chrystal), Mike (Mindy), David (Lindsay), and Michelle Myslakowski; grandparents, Irvin (Marlene) Booms; and many nieces, nephews, aunts, uncles, and cousins.
A memorial service will be held at 4:00 p.m. on Monday, July 22, 2019 in Community Baptist Church, 1620 N. Wadhams Rd., Smiths Creek, MI 48074 with visitation beginning at 3:00 p.m.
Arrangements are by Pollock-Randall Funeral Home. To send condolences, visit pollockrandall.com. Those wishing to send cards or flowers may send them to Community Baptist Church.
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Comprehensive text on the fundamentals of modeling flow and sediment transport in rivers treating both physical principles and numerical methods for various degrees of complexity. Includes 1-D, 2-D (both depth- and width-averaged) and 3-D models, as well as the integration and coupling of these models. Contains a broad selection of numerical methods for open-channel flows, such as the SIMPLE(C) algorithms on staggered and non-staggered grids, the projection method, and the stream function and vorticity method. The state-of-the-art in sediment transport modeling approaches is described, such as non-equilibrium transport models, non-uniform total-load transport models, and semi-coupled and coupled procedures for flow and sediment calculations. Sediment transport theory is discussed and many newly-developed, non-uniform sediment transport formulae are presented. The many worked examples illustrate various conditions, such as reservoir sedimentation; channel erosion due to dam construction; channel widening and meandering; local scour around in-stream hydraulic structures; vegetation effects on channel morphodynamic processes; cohesive sediment transport; dam-break fluvial processes and contaminant transport. Recommended as a reference guide for river and hydraulic engineers and as a course text for teaching sediment transport modeling, computational free-surface flow, and computational river dynamics to senior students.
CHAPTER 1. Introduction
§1.1 Overview of River Engineering
§1.2 Role of Computational Simulation in River Engineering Analysis
§1.3 Scope, Problems and Strategies of Computational River Dynamics
§1.4 Classification of Flow and Sediment Transport Models
§1.5 Coverage and Features of This Book
CHAPTER 2. Mathematical Description of Flow and Sediment Transport
§2.1 Properties of Water and Sediment
2.1.1 Properties of Water
2.1.2 Properties of Sediment
188.8.131.52 Physical Properties of Single Particles
188.8.131.52 Bulk Properties of Sediment Mixtures
184.108.40.206 Definition of Sediment Loads
2.1.3 Properties of the Water and Sediment Mixture
§2.2 Governing Equations of Water and Sediment Two-Phase Flow
2.2.1 Hydrodynamic Equations
2.2.2 Sediment Transport Equation
2.2.3 Simplification in the case of Low Sediment Concentration
§2.3 Time-Averaged Models of Turbulent Flow and Sediment Transport
2.3.1 Mean Movement Equations
2.3.2 Zero-Equation Turbulence Models
2.3.3 One-Equation Turbulence Models
2.3.4 Two-Equation Turbulence Models
2.3.5 Other Turbulence Models and Simulations
§2.4 Derivation of 1-D and 2-D Flow and Sediment Transport Equations
2.4.1 Depth-Averaged 2-D Model Equations
2.4.2 Width-Averaged 2-D Model Equations
2.4.3 Section-Averaged 1-D Model Equations
2.4.4 Effects of Sediment Transport and Bed Change on Flow
§2.5 Net Exchange Flux of Suspended Load near Bed
2.5.1 Exchange Model Using Near-Bed Capacity Formula
2.5.2 Exchange Model Using Average Capacity Formula
2.5.3 Complexity of Adaptation Coefficient of Sediment
§2.6 Equilibrium and Non-equilibrium Sediment Transport Models
2.6.1 Formulation of Equilibrium Transport Model
2.6.2 Formulation of Non-equilibrium Transport Model
2.6.3 Adaptation Length of Sediment
§2.7 Transport and Sorting of Non-uniform Sediment Mixtures
2.7.1 Non-uniform Sediment Transport
2.7.2 Bed Material Sorting
2.7.3 Mixing Layer Thickness
CHAPTER 3. Fundamentals of Sediment Transport
§3.1 Settling of Sediment Particles
3.1.1 General Considerations
3.1.2 Settling Velocity of Spherical Particles
3.1.3 Settling Velocity of Sediment Particles
3.1.4 Influence of Sediment Concentration on Settling Velocity
§3.2 Incipient Motion of Sediment
3.2.1 Equilibrium of a Single Sediment Particle at Incipient Motion
3.2.2 Incipient Motion Criteria for a Group of Sediment Particles
3.2.3 Incipient Motion of Uniform Sediment Particles
3.2.4 Incipient Motion of Non-uniform Sediment Particles
3.2.5 Incipient Motion of Sediment Particles on Slopes
§3.3 Movable Bed Roughness in Alluvial Rivers
3.3.1 Bed Forms in Alluvial Rivers
3.3.2 Division of Grain and Form Resistances
3.3.3 Movable Bed Roughness Formulas
3.3.4 Comparison of Movable Bed Roughness Formulas
§3.4 Bed-Load Transport
3.4.1 Total Transport Rate of Bed Load
3.4.2 Fractional Transport Rate of Bed Load
3.4.3 Comparison of Bed-Load Formulas
§3.5 Suspended-Load Transport
3.5.1 Vertical Distribution of Suspended-Load Concentration
3.5.2 Near-Bed Concentration of Suspended Load
3.5.3 Suspended-Load Transport Rate
§3.6 Bed-Material Load Transport
3.6.1 Total Transport Rate of Bed-Material Load
3.6.2 Fractional Transport Rate of Bed-Material Load
3.6.3 Comparison of Bed-Material Load Formulas
§3.7 Sediment Transport over Steep Slopes
§3.8 Temporal Lags between Flow and Sediment Transport
CHAPTER 4. Numerical Methods
§4.1 Concepts of Numerical Solution
4.1.1 General Procedure of Numerical Solution
4.1.2 Properties of Numerical Solution
4.1.3 Discretization Methods
§4.2 Finite Difference Method
4.2.1 Finite Difference Method for 1-D Problems
220.127.116.11 Taylor-Series Formulation of Finite Difference Schemes
220.127.116.11 Discretization of 1-D Steady Problems
220.127.116.11 Discretization of 1-D Unsteady Problems
126.96.36.199 High-Order Difference Schemes
4.2.2 Finite Difference Method for Multidimensional Problems on Regular Grids
126.96.36.199 Discretization of Multidimensional Steady Problems
184.108.40.206 Discretization of Multidimensional Unsteady Problems
4.2.3 Finite Difference Method for Multidimensional Problems on Curvilinear Grids
18.104.22.168 Governing Equations in Generalized Coordinate System
18.104.22.168 Typical Coordinate Transformations
18.104.22.168 Discretization of the Transformed Equations
4.2.4 Interpolation Method
188.8.131.52 Isoparametric Interpolation Method on Fixed Grids
18.104.22.168 Upwind Interpolation Method on Fixed Grids
22.214.171.124 Interpolation Method on Moving Grids
§4.3 Finite Volume Method
4.3.1 Finite Volume Method for 1-D Problems
220.127.116.11 Discretization of 1-D Steady Problems
220.127.116.11 Discretization of 1-D Unsteady Problems
4.3.2 Finite Volume Method for Multidimensional Problems on Fixed Grids
4.3.3 Finite Volume Method for Multidimensional Problems on Moving Grids
§4.4 Numerical Solution of Navier-Stokes Equations
4.4.1 Primitive Variables: MAC Formulation on Staggered Grid
4.4.2 Primitive Variables: Projection Formulation on Staggered Grid
4.4.3 Primitive Variables: SIMPLE(C) Formulation on Staggered Grid
4.4.4 Primitive Variables: SIMPLE(C) Formulation on Non-Staggered Grid
4.4.5 Stream Function and Vorticity Formulation
§4.5 Solution of Algebraic Equations
4.5.1 Thomas Algorithm
4.5.2 Jacobi and Gauss-Seidel Iteration Methods
4.5.3 ADI Iteration Method
4.5.4 SIP Iteration Method
4.5.5 Over-Relaxation and Under-Relaxation
CHAPTER 5. 1-D Numerical Models
§5.1 Formulation of 1-D Decoupled Flow and Sediment Transport Model
5.1.1 Formulation of 1-D Clear Water Flow Model
22.214.171.124 1-D Hydrodynamic Equations
220.127.116.11 Imposition of Boundary and Initial Conditions of Flow
184.108.40.206 Manning Roughness Coefficient
18.104.22.168 Composite Hydraulic Properties
220.127.116.11 Momentum Correction Factor
5.1.2 Formulation of 1-D Sediment Transport Model
18.104.22.168 1-D Non-equilibrium Sediment Transport Equations
22.214.171.124 1-D Equilibrium Sediment Transport Equations
22.214.171.124 Characteristics of Equilibrium and Non-equilibrium Transport Models
22.214.171.124 Boundary and Initial Conditions of Sediment
§5.2 1-D Calculation of Open-Channel Flow
5.2.1 1-D Steady Flow Calculation
22.214.171.124 Discretization of Steady Flow Equations
188.8.131.52 Solution of Discretized Steady Flow Equations
184.108.40.206 Treatments for Flow at Channel Confluences and Splits
5.2.2 1-D Unsteady Flow Calculation
220.127.116.11 Discretization of Unsteady Flow Equations
22.214.171.124 Local Linearization of Discretized Unsteady Flow Equations
220.127.116.11 Solution of Discretized Unsteady Flow Equations
126.96.36.199 Treatment of Hydraulic Structures as Internal Boundaries
126.96.36.199 Stability of Preissmann Scheme for Unsteady Flow Equations
184.108.40.206 Auxiliary Treatments for Unsteady Flow Calculation
§5.3 1-D Calculation of Sediment Transport
5.3.1 1-D Equilibrium Sediment Transport Model
5.3.2 1-D Quasi-Steady Non-equilibrium Sediment Transport Model
220.127.116.11 Representation of Hydrographs
126.96.36.199 Discretization of Quasi-Steady Sediment Transport Equations
5.3.3 1-D Unsteady Non-equilibrium Sediment Transport Model
126.96.36.199 Discretization of Unsteady Sediment Transport Equations
18.104.22.168 Solution of Discretized Unsteady Sediment Transport Equations
126.96.36.199 Stability of Preissmann Scheme for Sediment Transport Equation
18.104.22.168 Advantages of the Coupled Sediment Calculation Procedure
5.3.4 Treatments for Sediment Transport in Channel Networks
5.3.5 Lateral Allocation of Bed Change in 1-D Model
5.3.6 1-D Simulation of Bank Erosion and Channel Meandering
5.3.7 Overall Procedure for 1-D Decoupled Flow and Sediment Calculations
§5.4 1-D Coupled Calculation of Flow and Sediment Transport
5.4.1 1-D Coupled Flow and Sediment Transport Equations
5.4.2 Discretization of Coupled Flow and Sediment Transport Equations
5.4.3 Solution of Discretized Coupled Flow and Sediment Transport Equations
5.4.4 Justification of Decoupled and Coupled Models
§5.5 Data Requirements of 1-D Model
§5.6 Model Sensitivity to Input Parameters
CHAPTER 6. 2-D Numerical Models
§6.1 Depth-Averaged 2-D Simulation of Flow in Nearly Straight Channels
6.1.1 Governing Equations
6.1.2 Boundary Conditions
6.1.3 Numerical Solutions
126.96.36.199 SIMPLE(C) Algorithm
220.127.116.11 Projection Method
22.214.171.124 Stream Function and Vorticity Method
6.1.4 Wetting and Drying Techniques
§6.2 Depth-Averaged 2-D Simulation of Sediment Transport in Nearly Straight Channels
6.2.1 Governing Equations
6.2.2 Boundary and Initial Conditions
6.2.3 Numerical Solutions
126.96.36.199 Discretization of Sediment Transport Equations
188.8.131.52 Solution of Discretized Sediment Transport Equations
126.96.36.199 Implementation of Sediment Boundary Conditions
6.2.4 Examples
§6.3 Depth-Averaged 2-D Simulation of Flow and Sediment Transport in Curved and Meandering Channels
6.3.1 Flow Properties in Curved Channels
6.3.2 Dispersion of Flow Momentum
6.3.3 Dispersion of Suspended Load
6.3.4 Bed-Load Transport in Curved Channels
6.3.5 Channel Meandering Process
§6.4 Width-Averaged 2-D Model of Flow and Sediment Transport
6.4.1 Width-Averaged 2-D Hydrodynamic Model
188.8.131.52 Governing Equations
18.104.22.168 Boundary Conditions
220.127.116.11 Numerical Solutions
6.4.2 Width-Averaged 2-D Sediment Transport Model
CHAPTER 7. 3-D Numerical Models
§7.1 Full 3-D Hydrodynamic Model
7.1.1 Governing Equations
7.1.2 Boundary Conditions
7.1.3 Numerical Solutions
184.108.40.206 MAC and VOF Methods
184.108.40.206 SIMPLE Algorithm
22.214.171.124 Projection Method
§7.2 3-D Flow Model with Hydrostatic Pressure Assumption
7.2.1 Layer-Integrated Model
7.2.2 Splitting of Internal and External Modes
7.2.3 Projection Method
7.2.4 SIMPLE Algorithm
§7.3 3-D Sediment Transport Model
7.3.1 Governing Equations and Boundary Conditions
7.3.2 Discretization of Sediment Transport Equations
7.3.3 Solution of Discretized Sediment Transport Equations
7.3.4 Examples
§7.4 3-D Simulation of Local Scour around In-stream Structures
7.4.1 Complexity of Local Scour Processes around In-stream Structures
7.4.2 Simulation of Sediment Transport and Local Scour near In-stream Structures
7.4.3 Headcut Migration Model
CHAPTER 8. Domain Decomposition and Model Integration
§8.1 Multiblock Method
8.1.1 General Considerations
8.1.2 Multiblock Method for 1-D Problems
8.1.3 Multiblock Method for Multidimensional Problems
8.1.4 Efficiency of Multiblock Method
§8.2 Coupling of 1-D, 2-D and 3-D Models
8.2.1 General Considerations
8.2.2 Connection Conditions
8.2.3 Calculation Procedures
8.2.4 Examples
§8.3 Integration of Channel and Watershed Models
8.3.1 Modeling Components
8.3.2 Integration Approaches
8.3.3 Scale Issues
8.3.4 Application to Goodwin Creek Watershed
CHAPTER 9. Simulation of Dam-Break Fluvial Processes
§9.1 Simulation of Dam-Break Flow over Fixed Beds
9.1.1 Central Difference Scheme with Artificial Diffusion Flux
9.1.2 Approximate Riemann Solvers
9.1.3 TVD Schemes
9.1.4 WAF Schemes
9.1.5 Upwind Flux Schemes
9.1.6 Stability and Accuracy of Explicit and Implicit Schemes
§9.2 Simulation of Dam-Break Flow over Movable Beds
§9.3 Simulation of Dam Surface Erosion due to Overtopping Flow
CHAPTER 10. Simulation of Flow and Sediment Transport in Vegetated Channels
§10.1 Effects of Vegetation on Flow and Sediment Transport
10.1.1 Geometric Characteristics of Vegetation
10.1.2 Flow Resistance due to Vegetation
10.1.3 Sediment Transport Capacity in Vegetated Channels
§10.2 Simulation of Flow in Vegetated Channels
§10.3 Simulation of Sediment Transport in Vegetated Channels
CHAPTER 11. Cohesive Sediment Transport Modeling
§11.1 Cohesive Sediment Transport Processes
11.1.1 General Transport Patterns
11.1.2 Factors Affecting Flocculation
11.1.3 Formulas of Floc Settling Velocity
11.1.4 Deposition of Cohesive Sediments
11.1.5 Erosion of Cohesive Sediments
11.1.6 Consolidation of Cohesive Bed Materials
§11.2 Multiple-Floc-Size Model of Cohesive Sediment Transport
§11.3 Single-Floc-Size Model of Cohesive Sediment Transport
§11.4 Simulation of Transport of Cohesive and Non-cohesive Sediment Mixtures
CHAPTER 12. Contaminant Transport Modeling
§12.1 Heat and Salinity Transport Model
12.1.1 Governing Equations
12.1.2 Effects of Buoyancy on Vertical Turbulent Transport
12.1.3 Effective Diffusivities
12.1.4 Heat Transfer across Water and Bed Surfaces
12.1.5 Numerical Solutions
§12.2 Water Quality Model
12.2.1 Kinetics and Rate Coefficients
12.2.2 Constituent Reactions and Interrelationships
12.2.3 Other Biochemical Processes
§12.3 Simulation of Sediment-Borne Contaminant Transport
12.3.1 Sorption and Desorption of Contaminants on Sediment Particles
12.3.2 Contaminant Transport in Water Column
126.96.36.199 Non-equilibrium Partition Model
184.108.40.206 Equilibrium Partition Model
12.3.3 Contaminant Transport in Sediment Bed
Weiming Wu has more than twenty years of experience with 1D-, 2D-, and 3D-numerical modeling of turbulent flow, sediment transport, and pollutant transport in surface water systems. He participated in the study of the navigation and sediment problems of the Three Gorges Project in the Yangtze River. He is one of the developers of the FAST3D model, used to simulate sedimentation processes, and the main developer of the CCHE1D model, a channel-network model that is integrated with landscape and watershed models. He has also developed the FVM-based CCHE2D model, a depth-averaged 2D model for unsteady flow and non-uniform sediment transport in open channels.
'This book is a brand new addition to the sparse literature on computational river dynamics. It covers a very important subject: the numerical modeling of fluvial processes including turbulent flows in rivers, sediment transport, and the deformation of alluvial channels. This book is very welcome as it provides a worthy synthesis of knowledge in one of the fast growing fields of hydraulic engineering.'
'With his background from China, studies in Europe, and practice in the United States, the author presents this subject from a unique international perspective.'
Pierre Y. Julien in JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING © ASCE. October 2008
'… the present book is to my knowledge a unique resource for engineers and scientists interested in numerical modeling of flow and sediment transport in alluvial channels.' George S. Constantinescu in JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH vol. 46, no. 6 (2008)
'This book is one of the first to present a complete picture of the physical principles and numerical methods used in computational river dynamics.' W. Czernuszenko in ARCHIVES OF HYDRO-ENGINEERING AND ENVIRONMENTAL MECHANICS. vol. 54 no. 4 (2007)


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The finalists for this year's fcbusiness European CEO of the Year Award sponsored by NuCalm at the Football Business Awards have been announced.
Following on from the success of the first award in 2016, which was won by Altletico Madrid's Miguel Angel Gil Marin, the European CEO of the Year award recognises the efforts of CEO's from Europe's top leagues.
Nominees for the 2017 award are:
Umberto Gandini – AS Roma (Italy)
Karl-Heinz Rummenigge – FC Bayern Munich (Germany)
Edwin Van Der Sar – AFC Ajax (The Netherlands)
Vadim Vasilyev – AS Monaco (France)
Florentino Pérez Rodríguez – Real Madrid (Spain)
The overall winner will be announced at the glitzy ceremony at the Tobacco Dock in London on the 2nd November.
Aaron Gourley, editor of fcbusiness magazine and Football Business Awards judge, said: "This is an incredibly tough and highly contested award. The five nominees are leaders of some of Europe's finest teams that push the boundaries both on and off the pitch."
Adding his thoughts, Jim Poole, President and CEO of Solace Lifesciences, Inc., maker of sponsor NuCalm, said: "The finalists for the 2017 NuCalm European CEO of the Year represent the best the industry has to offer.
"It's an impressive list of successful, well respected executives, each of whom deserve to win this prestigious award.
"We're proud to be a part of this award and look forward to shaking the hand of the winner in November."
The Football Business Awards event has grown into a significant networking event, and the awards are becoming an increasingly valuable marketing badge.
Football Business Awards organiser, Simon Burton added: "There is a no business more international than football, the CEOs shortlisted in the European CEO of the Year, lead truly international brands and are shining examples of business leaders on the international football stage."
Yal Bekar, adds: "The Football Business Awards have become one of the most respected events in the football industry, and the fcbusiness Football CEO of the Year Awards are among the most prestigious.
"It makes perfect sense for NuCalm, which leads in the field of neuroscience and sports performance, to partner with the fcbusiness European CEO of the Year Award.
"We are very excited to be working with NuCalm to unearth the best football CEO in Europe and helping them to bring their cutting-edge technology to the football market."
To see the full shortlist, please visit http://footballbusinessawards.com/finalists/
Table sales are open for those interested in attending the event. For more information on individual places or group bookings, please visit http://footballbusinessawards.com/booking-information/


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What: Shares of teen apparel retailer American Eagle Outfitters (AEO 0.94%) were flying higher Thursday after posting strong results in its first-quarter earnings report. As of 1:32 p.m. EST, the stock was up 18%.
So what: American Eagle's results were all the more impressive considering the poor results in other corners of the apparel retail sector as traditional powerhouses like Gap, Inc. and major department store chains have been seeing sales fall sharply. The mall staple posted comparable sales growth of 6%, led by its Aerie brand of intimate apparel for women, which grew 32%, surging thanks to a new ad campaign that champions body-positivity.
Earnings came in at $0.22, above the company's guidance at $0.17-$0.19 and analyst estimates at $0.18. CEO Jay Schottenstein said, "In a tough retail environment, AEO delivered a strong first quarter, driven by compelling merchandise, strategic investments and solid execution."
Now what: The American Eagle comeback is for real as the stock is having its best day in four years. While rival Aeropostale flopped into bankruptcy, American Eagle was able to revamp its brand over the last two years, and shares are up 50% since their bottom in 2014. Looking ahead, management's guidance for the current quarter also helped reassure investors as the company lifted its EPS forecast to $0.20-$0.21 from $0.17 earlier and expects comparable sales growth in the low single digits. Considering the struggles many of its competitors are facing, American Eagle's report and guidance raise looks especially impressive.


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One of the big reasons why I feel the Devils have done so well this season, especially on offense, has been the fact that Brent Sutter has stay consistent with his lineup.
Last season, Sutter constantly jumbled his lines so much that all you really could count on was that Martin Brodeur would be starting and there would be 18 skaters active on the roster. For much of this season, the Devils have caught a groove with it's forwards:
Elias-Zubrus-Gionta; Parise-Zajac-Langenbrunner; Rolston-Madden-Clarkson; Pandolfo/Rupp-Holik-Shanahan.
The last two lines had the most flux with injuries and the signing of Shanahan; but Sutter would set a line up and keep the players together for the most part. He'd usually shift things up in-game if the team has been lifeless out on the ice (or just plain bad); or if someone got injured. But that hasn't happened all that much except for the three games last week.
However, last night featured something odd. The Devils were doing well against the Colorado Avalanche and Sutter mixed up the forwards anyway. Elias shifted to center, Rolston took Elias' old spot, Pandolfo and Holik moved to Madden's wings, and the fourth line became Clarkson-Zubrus-Shanahan.
I noticed this mainly in the third period, the Devils' best period in terms of scoring. And it definitely caught Gulitti's attention, as it was the big story from his reports of today's practice. Gulitti highlights why Sutter is likely making these changes:
Sutter is clearly searching for offense from a line other than that one.
Elias has no even-strength goals in the last 12 games, but has two power-play goals over that stretch. Gionta has three goals in his last 24 games. Zubrus has one goal in his last 18.
After scoring three goals in his first five games with the team, Brendan Shanhan has no goals in his last nine games. He has only one even-strength goal in his 14 games, but playing on the fourth line with Holik and Mike Rupp/Pandolfo obviously factors into that.
Yes, the Devils are scoring an average of 2.97 goals per game this season. Yes, the Elias-Zubrus-Gionta line has been effective. They work hard, they cycle the puck well enough, they generate shots on net and scoring chances. Their CORSI rating according to Behind the Net stands at 10.9, 9.7, and 10.6 for the line, respectively. Statistically, their effort is leading to shots. And as seen last night, while the Parise line got the goals; the Elias line created some shots against a floundering Colorado defense. Not to mention that the Devils got twice as many shots on net with the standard lines in the second period last night, than they did in the third period.
However, hockey remains as a results oriented business. And Gulitti's figures say it all. Effective as they may be against team defenses, perhaps "setting up" the Parise line for the killer goal on some occasions; it hasn't been a productive line. I think a lot of that is attributed to the fact that, I think, Gionta is in a slump of sorts. Zubrus doesn't have a ton of goals either, but his role is more physical and involves a lot more dirty work. Gionta is often the player Elias looks to pass it to down low and across the slot for a scoring chance. Just last night, Gionta had a great one; but he couldn't capitalize. And he hasn't for a while, as Gulitti pointed out.
OK, he's been getting assists; but he's not putting it in. Not good for an ex-48 goal scorer (though he was almost literally on fire that year, especially on the power pay). Elias' recent goals have come on the power play and he's been mostly setting up goals, anyway. I certainly understand Sutter's eagerness to see if he can get some players to do more and give the Devils more than one true scoring line again. After all, maybe the other three lines "ran their course" and some change could lead to a more productive attack. And who wouldn't want to see that? Other than the opposition? I completely understand why he's doing this.
My big concern is that it could just as easily cause some damage in the short term. Yes, the Parise line is carrying the load production-wise; but the team has been winning with the same lines for quite while. Should Sutter revert to his ways of last season, it could disrupt the on-ice chemistry the Devils have already formed that I think has been crucial to their success.
Plus, it's about to be March and the Devils haven't clinched a thing. Is now really the time to start experimenting with the lines? I mean, maybe Sutter thinks a deal is about to be made real soon and he wants to see who fits in where, then fine. But why cross a bridge that isn't there or fix something that isn't really broken? I would think now is the time to gear up for the playoff run and let the chemistry remain as is.
Still, Sutter understandably wants more balanced scoring. A one line team can be stopped pretty easily if that one line isn't doing so well on a given night. But is it worth trying Rolston at center, a position he really hasn't played all season, as Gulitti noted from today's practice? Why have Elias shift over to center at all when he's having a great year at wing? He's not at center on special teams, either; and I'm not sure why that would out Gionta's lack of scoring? In fact, why not shift Gionta to another line? Should Zubrus, who has really fit in centering with Elias and Gionta, really be sent down to a fourth line? Will he be able to help create scoring chances with Clarkson and Shanahan as linemates instead of Elias and Gionta? Could Zubrus help Shanahan be more productive, and vice versa? Because of these questions, some of these changes make me scratch my head a bit.
It's not that I'm totally against changes; I'm just not fully sold on it considering how well things have gone with the same lineup. Not to mention how frustrating it was at times last season with a constantly mixed up forward lines.
Lastly, as Elias stated in the end of Gulitti's report, the finish has really been the only problem for the other lines. I'm not sure moving players around will get them to "finish" any better.
Of course, that's always the risk you take when trying to improve anything. Issues arise, questions are raised, and doubts are formed. I understand that. I hope I'm wrong, and maybe the Devils can still keep rolling in the East with some new forward combinations and that balanced scoring. If it gets players not named Parise, Zajac, and Langenbrunner scoring more consistently, then great. I will welcome these changes. Yet, I also hope that if they don't work all that well, I really hope Sutter returns to what had worked.


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When it comes to the choice of picking a new smoker, if you are choosing between an electric vs charcoal smoker, you have come to the right place. In this article we are going to uncover all the differences.
If you're a fan of electric smokers it may be because it's convenient and simple to use. When it comes down to managing temperature settings you can be sure the electric smoker is the way to go. But, charcoal smokers give you more smokehouse flavor and a broader smoking experience.
But a whole lot of other factors can make either smoker the better one for you. Which is why I've put this comparison review together – so you can select the best smoker type for your personal style and needs.
While convenience, versatility and temperature control are important factors, you should also look at the end results of your food smoked in both types. What cooking capacity do both smokers have and have you the space to keep one in your home?
How about the hopper capacity? And, do you like the idea of going digital when using a smoker? Let's also talk about the kind of maintenance each smoker requires, how reliable they are and what happens if the weather turns bad.
Of course, price plays a huge role in any decision-making process when you're wondering which smoker is your best bet. Factor in the running costs of each type and you'll know quickly enough which one is right for your own budget.
I'm covering everything you need to know about these two types of smokers so you no longer need to be in a Catch-22 situation!
At a Glance: Electric vs Charcoal Smoker
Electric Smoker | Charcoal Smoker | |
Food Quality | A less intense smoky flavor but more likely to get perfectly cooked food | Great smoky flavors but run the risk of not cooking the food well |
Convenience / Versatility | Very convenient, easy to use, great for beginners/can only be used for smoking/smart features available | Takes some learning, skill and commitment/can be used for roasting and grill (if option available) |
Temperate Range / Control | Low to high range: 100⁰F to 275⁰F/thermostat keeps consistent temperature | Low to high range: You'll battle to keep at 100⁰F for a long time/highest temperature 350⁰F/temperature control and consistency comes with practice and requires management of airflow and burn |
Size | Average 18 x 18 x 34 " | Can range from 34 x 57 x 54 "to 21 x 19 x 41 "to 50 x 22 x 21 " |
Cooking capacity | Sufficient depending on size | More options to go larger |
Hopper capacity | Minimal to zero | Maximum |
Reliability | Risk having electrical faults/parts breaking | More solid option/less can go wrong |
Weather | Can't be used in rainy conditions | Fairly weatherproof but cold and wet conditions pose a challenge with temperature control |
Maintenance | Easy to clean/easy to maintain as long as parts don't break | Requires more cleaning/easy to maintain |
Price | Often more expensive | Cheaper models available |
Running costs | Cheap | Costly |
Accessories | May includes thermostat, meat probe, temperature gauge | May include thermometer and temperature gauge |
Table of Contents
- 1 Electric vs Charcoal Smoker Comparison
- 1.1 Food: Quality Produced
- 1.2 Convenience and Versatility
- 1.3 Temperature: Control and Range
- 1.4 Size: What Space is Needed
- 1.5 Moveable or Not?
- 1.6 Cooking Area and Capacity
- 1.7 Hopper Capacity
- 1.8 Which One is More Reliable?
- 1.9 Weather Considerations
- 1.10 Maintenance Requirements
- 1.11 Price
- 1.12 How Much Does it Cost to Run Each Smoker?
- 1.13 Accessories
- 1.14 Which One is Most Popular?
- 2 Which One is Best for Who
- 3 Final Thoughts
Electric vs Charcoal Smoker Comparison
Let's get down to the nitty gritty of the differences between the electric smoker and the charcoal smoker.
Food: Quality Produced
If you're into intense, smoky flavors with a crisp coating on your meats, the charcoal smoker wins. You can get more smoke out of the charcoal smoker compared to an electric smoker. And, smoke equals flavor!
The electric smoker offers more consistency so you're likely to get all-round subtle flavors and meat that's properly cooked. This could be a challenge you face with a charcoal smoker – food that's not cooked in the center if you're not able to manage the temperature settings consistently.
Convenience and Versatility
While a charcoal smoker can be fired up anywhere, an electric smoker can be plugged in, set to the right temperature and left to do the job. How's that for convenience?
But, if you're looking for more versatility, you can do more with a charcoal smoker if you get one with an option to grill. And, if you like to roast you can give it go with this smoker type.
A versatile feature of the electric smoker not to be ignored are the ones with smart features. This includes using a Wi-Fi connection and Bluetooth to operate it.
Temperature: Control and Range
If there's one area of smoking that frustrates many smokers it would be the temperature setting. Temperature must be low and slow.
Charcoal smokers take practice and patience to get a low temperature and then to keep it steady. You'll battle to bring the temperature down to below 125⁰F but if you fire it up nicely you may get a high temperature of 350⁰F.
The electric smoker, however, has been designed to give you temperatures ranging from 100⁰F to 275⁰F. And, it's easier to keep it at a consistent low temperature which is perfect for low and slow smoking.
Size: What Space is Needed
Smokers come in a wide range of sizes so it's important to measure up the space where you intend putting your smoker.
The average size electric smoker is about 18 x 18 x 34 inches but this varies depending on the model you choose. You can get even smaller units and of course, bigger models.
A barrel and offset charcoal smoker can easily be 34 x 57 x 54 inches but if you pick a Weber smoker you can find one measuring 21 x 19 x 41 inches. A vertical charcoal smoker could be on average around 50 x 22 x 21 inches.
Moveable or Not?
If you don't like the idea of leaving your smoker on your patio or you like to clean regularly around the smoker area, then mobility features are important.
Most charcoal and electric smokers come with wheels while charcoal smoker handles are heat-resistant. An electric smoker is often easier to shift while charcoal smokers can be more cumbersome and heavier.
But it's not ideal to take the electric smoker on holiday with you as it has more delicate parts which can be broken during transport.
Cooking Area and Capacity
Now, it you're one for having huge crowds of friends and family for meals then you need to make sure the cooking capacity of your smoker can handle the load!
A vertical charcoal smoker will give you more cooking space especially if a number of removable cooking racks are included. You can find an electric smoker that'll easily smoke a couple of turkeys, some pork belly and a chicken in one go.
So, the factor deciding your cooking area is going to be determined by the space you have to keep your smoker, the price you're willing to pay and going with a vertical option for more capacity.
Hopper Capacity
Hands down to the charcoal smoker for hopper capacity. But it does mean you're loading fuel, sometimes large quantities to smoke your food.
An electric smoker has less hopper capacity, if any, relying on electricity to fuel it. Wood chips are added for the smoky flavors and these often fit into a wood chip tray. Some electric smokers have a feeder outside of the smoker itself.
Which One is More Reliable?
When it comes to having a smoker that's solid and durable, you can't go wrong with a charcoal smoker. Very little can go wrong except rusting in a charcoal smoker. You may need to check for airtight sealing of lids and hinges but otherwise, you can rely on a charcoal smoker to be with you for a very long time.
Electric smokers can also be reliable. But they've the potential to give you hiccups when you least need them with its different electrical components.
Weather Considerations
Leaving your electric smoker in the rain is a recipe for disaster! And if water enters your charcoal smoker via the chimney, well, let's say you're going to battle even more.
A charcoal smoker will have you cursing the wind as you battle the gusts with opening and closing the vents all the time. Your electric smoker won't have such challenges.
As long as both smoker types are well insulated then cold days shouldn't pose a problem.
Maintenance Requirements
Charcoal smokers need a lot of cleaning out during and after a smoking session. The ash build-up alone means you'll be emptying the tray often. The amount of smoke produced also means giving the cooking chamber and chimney a thorough cleaning every now and then.
An electric smoker is easier to clean out and simply needs to be wiped down after each session.
Both smokers will have grates that need to be washed with hot soapy water but often the electric smoker will be easier due to less smoke and grease build-up.
Charcoal smokers come in cheaper most times compared to electric smokers especially for entry-level smokers. If you opt for a high-end charcoal smoker you could end up paying a lot of bucks.
The more complex the electric smoker design, the more expensive it's going to be such as one with Bluetooth and WIFI technology.
How Much Does it Cost to Run Each Smoker?
It's way cheaper using an electric smoker compared to a charcoal smoker. Electricity, in most countries, is relatively cheap and an indirect household cost.
On the other hand, buying charcoal supplies is expensive especially if you planning to smoke for up to eight hours in one stretch.
More accessories such as cooking utensils, a meat probe and a thermometer are needed for charcoal smoking. Many electric smokers come with a thermostat installed. Some will also include a meat probe. But, comparatively, both need similar accessories for efficient operation.
Which One is Most Popular?
The ever-so-popular charcoal smoker wins this battle. For many cooks, smoking with charcoal is all about the experience. This smoker types allows you to spend a day outdoors, relaxing while you watch over it with a drink in the hand. It gives the cook the chance to master the art of temperature control while producing the ultimate meal.
Electric smokers appeal to a smaller group of people who're looking more for convenient, hassle-free smoking.
Which One is Best for Who
If you're looking for a smoker that's not heavy on your budget and you enjoy entertaining your guests outdoors, the charcoal smoker is your best bet. But if convenience is more your style of smoking, you can't go wrong with an electric smoker.
A charcoal smoker requires patience, skill and dedication while the electric smoker is quicker and easier to use. For bbq smokers beginners, I would recommend the electric smoker. But, ultimately flavor plays a huge role so if you're a gourmet of smoked meats, your pick will be the charcoal smoker.
Check the review below of an electric smoker compared to a charcoal smoker.
Masterbuilt MB20073519 Bluetooth Digital Electric Smoker
This 30-inch electrical smoker uses Bluetooth technology to turn the smoker on and control the temperate settings. You can also use the digital control panel if you wish to operate without a smart device.
A thermostat controls the temperature allowing for consistent temperature throughout the smoking time. A built-in meat probe helps you to gauge the internal meat temperature. The wood chips are loaded from the side meaning you don't have to keep opening the door.
Four smoking racks allows you to smoke a variety of food items or simply load up with 6 chickens all at one go.
You can find out more on Amazon clicking on this link.
Dyna-Glo GG01176BDC-D Vertical Offset Charcoal Smoker
Slow cooking is allowed with the offset design of this smoker. The vertical design improves heat control and smoke flavor. With six adjustable cooking grates and up to 784 square inches of smoking space, you'll be able to cook a large quantity of food. The total cooking space is 1176 square inches.
The cooking chamber lined with porcelain-enamel keeps the charcoal well stacked for better burn. A large removable ash tray makes for easy clean up and the adjustable flue on the stack makes for better management of air flow. A built-in thermometer tells you when the smoker has reached ideal temperature for smoke infusion with a temperature gauge set in on the smoker.
Find out more on Amazon clicking on this link.
Final Thoughts
The electric vs charcoal smoker debate is often a personal one and depends on so many different factors. By reading this article you'll have a more informed idea of how each smoker works and their pros and cons.
While charcoal smokers may seem intimidating for first time users, once you've mastered it you'll be pleased with the outcome. But the electric smoker has its merits too and you won't be disappointed if your first smoker is digital.


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Security researchers hack a car
Researchers from the University of Washington and UC San Diego bought two identical 2009 passenger cars and managed to hack them, seizing control of the engines, brakes, heating and cooling systems, lights, instrument panels, radios, locks and other auto systems.
Although they would not reveal the make and model of the cars -- the cars were chosen because they represent the direction of the entire auto industry, according to researcher Karl Koscher -- a picture of one of the cars, included in a paper the group is presenting today at the IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy in Oakland, is above.The cars sold for around $25,000 each, Kosher said.
Cars are becoming more and more like computers -- they have software, wireless telematics and internal networks that connect a growing number of electronic devices and sensors, some of which were introduced 30 years ago to improve fuel efficiency after California passed its Clean Air Act.
Just this week, for instance, General Motors announced that the owners of Chevy Volts will soon be able to track the locations of their cars and send directions to their cars on Google Maps from Google Android phones. (Google is also hiring 300 people in Kirkland, Washington to clean up errors in the maps -- a good move!)
The point of these experiments is to get people thinking about the security holes that are being introduced into cars before cars get networked together like PCs and are capable of being remotely controlled from unfriendly countries by international gangs of hackers.
Although these experiments are not easy to do (yet) -- they require physical or wireless access to the car and some sophisticated tools -- the researchers believe they are the first to look at cars as networked systems and to systematically exploit actual security holes instead of talking about holes in theory.
They say they've told the cars' and components' manufacturers about the problems they found and would like to see everybody who has a stake in safe, reliable cars to start talking -- the government, public interest groups, insurance companies, the research community and so on. Another interesting finding -- some of the car's components behave differently in motion than they do at rest.
One reason I wanted to write about these experiments is that they're not my first encounter with buggy cars. I wrote a story about the problem over seven years ago -- I'd run across a couple of rogue BMW 325i's (one owner was so frustrated he posted videos of his car on the Web) and a rogue dishwasher, all victims of software problems that were hard to diagnose.
Read the researchers' paper if you want much more detail on what they did to the cars and how they did it. Their work was partially funded by the National Science Foundation and the Air Force.
Also, if you recognize the car in the picture, please leave us a comment!
This post was originally published on Smartplanet.com


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We all know Steve Jobs died back in 2011 because of his pancreatic cancer. He was the reason Apple lives a successful era. After 8 years, a picture of a man in Cairo has been circulating virally on the Internet. From the picture, the man almost resembles the late Apple founder Steve Jobs.
Without Steve Jobs, there wouldn't have been a touch screen phone or huge screen tablet which almost works like a PC. Thanks to the legend, we are living the future of technology. Steve Jobs we all know always wears a turtleneck outfit and blue jeans. However, this Steve Jobs doppelganger is totally different. He doesn't even wear a slipper and he was barefoot in the photo.
Some say even Steve Jobs also is barefoot very often when he brainstorms. This is one of the theories which can prove that's indeed is Steve Jobs. Therefore, Steve Jobs biological father is also a Syrian immigrant from Homs. Probably, Steve Jobs wants to live in a quiet life rather than living as a public figure.
Steve Jobs is the man of simplicity. He likes to live a simple life. We are thinking Steve Jobs could be fake his death and live a very simple life in Egypt where his parents are from. He also believes a lot in spirituality. He could have found spirituality while living in Egypt for 8 years.
Do you think Steve Jobs is still alive in Egypt? Personally, we feel this may be could be true since most of the theories match Steve Jobs characteristics. The reason is being the CEO of the world's most valuable company, you can fake your own death. Share us your thoughts on this conspiracy theory.


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Create a Website Account - Manage notification subscriptions, save form progress and more.
The Winston-Salem Police Department's Citizen's Police Academy is a 13 week program held each Thursday night from 6:30 - 9:30 pm. It is designed to educate the citizens of Winston-Salem about the operation of their police department while obtaining valuable feedback from those citizens. It is a great tool for developing relationships between community members and the police department. The academy is not designed to train participants to become police officers and has no physical requirements. For more details about the program and the curriculum, click on the link below.
Click here for more information.


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The 1St XV rugby won their first league away game against Grove who beat them in the same fixture. A bruising and often bad tempered affair ended up with Tows victorious and narrowly missing out on a try bonus point. Win ugly…
For a full match report from Hugo Austin please visit the Senior Rugby website by clicking on the link on the home page.
The Development XV didn't have a fixture and picked up a "friendly" against Hinckley who are a club another step up the rugby ladder, so a tough game was expected and so it proved with Tows training at half time but managing to turn the game round in the last quarter as our better fitness paid off. Very encouraging all-round performance!
The 3rds (The Ultimates) lost their first run out of the season to BBOB 2nds while the Colts came back from 17-0 down to draw against old rivals Buckingham, a great result that showed a lot of character!
While the 1st team didn't have a fixture the 2nd XI boosted their confidence with an exciting win away against Harbourne going out 3-2 winners.
As the month of September heralds the end of the cricket season one last challenge faced the Tows! A T20 challenge match against our hosts for this season, Blakesley!
Blakesley batted first and amassed a great 152 due to some lusty blows from Andre Bodily, Pete Shepperd and Gary Turner, the ball leaving the confines of the ground on several occasions and left a family of squirrels looking for new accommodation! However after both Pete and Gary had been stumped by some crisp wicket keeping by Shagger English the innings lost momentum
Tows reply got off to a great start with the openers Ollie Drage and Rob Jones putting on over 70 for the first wicket. Rob went on to complete his 50 and was joined by James Baldwin who preceded to despatch the leather sphere to all parts and threatened to keep the local roofer in business for weeks ahead. James retired at 50 and the win was sealed by some good blows from young George Speakman! Skipper Tom Shepperd remains the T20 undefeated Captain. Both teams and supporters then retired to the "Barts" for a terrific tea and some strong but welcome refreshments! A great fun way to round off the season and the promise of some new recruits for next season………..


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124: Measuring Success on Social Media w/ Tammy Burdick
THE SEMINARY OF HARD KNOCKS PODCAST with Seth Muse and Meagan Ranson
Church Communications | Marketing | Social Media
How do you know when you're doing well on social media? What metrics do you look at to determine success? Do you have goals? These are all things that churches must begin to master in order to have an impact on social media. Tammy Burdick from Firm Foundations Marketing stops by to talk us through setting good goals for social media and how to tell if you're doing well!
Firm Foundations Marketing
Follow FFM on Instagram & Facebook
Seth on Instagram
Meagan on Instagram
88 Ideas for Church Social Media Posts
*Affiliate links mean I may receive a small commission on your purchase at no extra cost to you.
When you're stuck, I've got you covered.
I hear this question all the time from church communicators: How do I keep posting fresh, new ideas to my church social media channels?
This PDF has 88 ideas that will help you get conversations started on social and bring value to your followers.
Join my very fun email list and I'll send it to you within seconds!


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I've been meeting with some really smart people this year, most of whom are in the strategy business. Some are brand strategists, others account planers, a good deal digital strategists. Strategy is such a rich word. "I'm working on the strategy for a Belgian beer" said the head of a hot web boutique. On probe, he admitted it was the web strategy. "We handle digital strategy for the world's largest technology company" said the head of strategy at a very forward- thinking global direct and digital agency. Ads for the tech company are handled by another multinational. At P&G a ranking digital officer suggests: "Brand strategy is in the hands of the consumer." An insight, also, shared by the chief strategy and innovation officer at a multinational promotional agency.
It's not war, it's marketing.
Sun Tzu might have said there are war strategies and battle strategies — and they can be different — but marketing isn't war. In uncle Steve's world (that's me) there is a brand strategy and the tactics used to support it. Campaigns, tactics, analytics and sales fluctuations will always be around. As will smart people. But brand strategy should be the business driver. Of everything. This includes production, product innovation, hiring, etc. Until all the silos and all employees and their agents really understand the company brand strategy and its simple dimensions, we will have branding anomie. Peace it up!


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Uncovering Sensible dream marriage Programs
You can win or lose an individual's attention with your profile pictures, and it is not due to your seems. However even believers in algorithmic approaches to love acknowledge these shadows exist. Dan Ariely, an economist who research on-line dream marriage scam dating, compares folks to wine — you may like them for reasons you'll be able to't quantify. The scientists I spoke to at eHarmony and OkCupid agreed. As rich as their data sets are, the uncertainty of that first assembly remains.
Selecting Fast Plans For dream marriage
Insights Into No-Hassle Secrets In dream singles
Nice put up, Michael! You may have a voice that resonates genuine altruism and it is very appreciated. You are like the big brother I want each girl had. I've seen so many girls and girls stuck in again-burner land and it's so painful as a result of whyyyy!!! I feel like I am politely blunt with these women www dream marriage com but you may only be so blunt before you come off as a b!tch and you'll only hear so many delusions earlier than wanting to cut them off for life. I hope your advice by the HIM series will assist many women achieve perception and empower those who want to go away the trash behind.
A lady should be won over a number of occasions. The first time — pushed by attraction, chemistry and illusion — is simple, relatively talking. Certain, the stakes feel excessive. However you have to fail a few times before it works. And if you fail, you progress on. Failure is one thing you can stroll away from. That's what Bill saw so clearly. The last reviews of dream singles time you win a lady over — the time you must win her back, after having lost her — is the powerful one. By then illusion has dried up and tips have turn out to be clear. This is the most trustworthy moment of them all, or it must be. Now the stakes are clear: You're on the outside, realizing what you've gotten misplaced.
When you determine you're going to give it a shot, the very first thing that you must do is create your profile. See the subsequent dream marriage free chat page to get began, and study what on-line dating is like, learn the way (and if) it works and get some useful recommendations on making your online dating experience protected and successful.
Ensure you write it to her identify – so it doesn't really feel like a letter you've got written to masses of Russian wives and Ukrainian wives. Should you read her profile and write one thing dream marriage review in response to that, then it is going to after all be way more personal and you're going to get many more responses from Russian wives and Ukrainian wives in like this.
2. Stay in the marriage, and accept the unacceptable. In other phrases, this is unacceptable to you, the dearth of intimacy, but it's dream marriage review your selection to just accept the unacceptable and remain in this relationship. False: Girls like guys who are only good listeners.
You at all times feel like you are the only one going although the pain of a crumbling marriage however then I found you online and after studying these feedback, I am not alone. I have identified my husband for 32 years and we have been married for 27 years. Final summer season he would go out along with dreammarriage his buddies" and stay out into all hours of the night cozying up to this other married lady who had two small children at house. He finally confessed at the finish of July swearing he didn't do anything but that they had gotten very shut and something was going to happen.
Do not take her love without any consideration. Do not be egocentric by accepting her love and affection and giving none again. The little things that she does for you imply quite a bit, don't they? Effectively, you don't need her to really feel like she's taken without any consideration, so make her really feel like a very powerful dream marriage member log in and the most lovely woman on this planet and provides her a bit back too, by taking up your share of the chores and giving her a time without work or treating her to some flowers, shock items and nights out.
By tradition, any Russian lady and Ukrainian girl makes it a priority to create a robust household with a decent and faithful man for who she'll be the most stunning and charming bride. Residing in a country the place there is 10 million extra women than men, she is going dream singles russiansbrides to register with a wedding agency that works with international dating web sites and web personals to find the person who will make her goals come true; grow to be a ravishing Russian bride.


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Our Junior Ravens had a hugely successful afternoon at the Ku-ring-gai Development Meet on Saturday.
By Sonia Johnson 17 November 2019
Braving the cooler conditions as the sun went down, it was great to watch all of our swimmers attack each of their races, with some fantastic results. There are too many medal winners to name, with Ravenswood taking home 1, if not 2 or 3 medals, in nearly every event. Personal Best times were smashed and Junior NSW Metropolitan and State Age times were achieved! Congratulations to everyone on such a great afternoon of racing.


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As I said in the preview, a home game against Memphis is a game that you pretty much have to win. And indeed the Clippers did, 100-86. After getting off to a horrible start and allowing the Grizzlies to take a 31-21 lead in the first quarter, the game pretty much fell into place. Maggette, Thornton and Kaman all left the first quarter with 2 fouls each. But Corey and Al combined for 24 points between them in the second quarter to turn the 10 point deficit into a 4 point lead. When Maggette, Thomas and Mobley combined for 28 in the third quarter, the game was in hand.
I'm not sure if the Clippers defense got significantly better after the first quarter (it certainly could not have gotten worse) or if Memphis just came to earth some. But after giving up 31 points in the first period, the Clippers allowed no more than 20 points in any subsequent frame. But let's be clear - playing without Mike Miller, and with Darko Milicic going 0 for 7, this team just didn't have enough weapons. Brian Cardinal played 20 minutes for them. What more do you need to know?
For the Clippers, Corey Maggette picked up after the break where he left off before. He finished the game with 30 points on 17 shots. He made 9 of those, including 3 out of 4 three pointers. The 30 point night was his fourth in his last eight games. He is averaging over 24 per game in 2008. And he is shooting the lights out, both in front of and behind the arc. A career 45% shooter, he's shooting 54% in 2008. A career 32% three point shooter, he's at 46.5% since the new year. He's a pretty tough guy to guard when you can play him completely for the drive. When you have to honor the jump shot, there aren't a lot of guys who can stop him.
Tim Thomas played an outstanding game. He scored 17 points, grabbed 6 rebounds and passed out 5 assists in 27 efficient minutes. He also had 2 steals and a couple of deflections. It was Thomas' defense, believe it or not, that sparked the third quarter run that put the game out of reach. I certainly do like 27 minutes of efficient Tim Thomas more than 34 minutes of placeholder Tim Thomas.
Thomas' back appeared to be fine after the time off, but interestingly MDsr left Al Thornton in the starting lineup. Al spent the second half in foul trouble and ended up playing only 25 minutes, but he looked good while he was on the floor with 13 points. As I mentioned, his 11 second quarter points were key in getting the Clipper ship righted.
As for Kaman, he played a season low 28 minutes because of his own foul trouble (a constant problem last season, but a non-issue for most of this season). The first three quarters were a nightmare - 1 basket, 4 fouls, 3 of them offensive fouls. I've done a lot of hand-wringing about the slump he's been in since returning from his flu, and in the first three quarters of this game he looked worse than ever (when he was on the court, that is). Thank goodness for the fourth quarter. With 9 fourth quarter points and 3 fourth quarter blocked shots, Chris now has a very positive quarter to build on going into the Utah game (where the Clippers will need him if they are to have any chance). For the game, he finished with a line of 11 points, 7 rebounds and 5 blocks - more than respectable when you consider that he was limited to those 28 minutes.
And speaking of limited minutes, what do you suppose Sam Cassell is thinking right now? Sam also registered a (healthy) season-low in playing time, with just 14 minutes on the court. After seeing the team lose the first quarter by 10 with Cassell, and then win the second quarter by 14 with Brevin Knight, MDsr stuck with Knight to start the second half. For the game, Knight ended up playing twice as many minutes as Cassell. I'm sure Sam is wondering why the Clippers haven't traded him yet if he's going to watch Brevin Knight and Dan Dickau for 34 minutes.
That one was a gimme. The next 6 opponents are all tough. Starting Friday against Utah.


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Randolph West explains why you might start at MIN(INT) for an identity integer column:
A quick(er) post this week, in response to Greg Low's blog post from a few weeks ago titled "Don't start identity columns or sequences with large negative values."
Greg writes that you shouldn't use large negative values in a table, because… it's hard to read them, I guess? And also they don't compress well.
I disagree … to a degree. Dang, words are hard. Anyway, when I design a table I create what's called a surrogate key as my primary key, which is a value that is intended for the table to uniquely identify a row so that it participates in relational activities like joins and foreign keys in an efficient way. In other words the identity column is not for me, it's for the database engine. I don't need to worry about what row a value has. I choose the data type for that identity column based on the estimated number of rows, not whether I can memorize that a
of 5 means something. Magic numbers are bad, mmmkay?
I don't mind using negative values, especially for things like queue tables where the rows are ephemeral. The identity values may be harder to read, but as Randolph points out, in those types of cases, you aren't really reading the values anyhow.


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I know you're wondering why are chihuahua so aggressive; there are many reasons why, and these things you will know as you delve into this article deeper.
Perhaps, the best reason explaining this behavior is his territoriality. Whenever he knows it's his place, he will not stop on confronting you to walk away from it. In case you're not a child, it will be hard for you to make friends with him, especially if it's your first time to see each other.
This being said, you should expect that gaining his trust takes some time. So, don't you ever rush? Wait until both of you are okay before you realize how sweet your pet chihuahua is. Well, my friends, I will tell you more about this topic. So, without further ado, let's start!
Reasons Why Chihuahua Are Aggressive
So, why are chihuahua so aggressive? I'm sure you'll be surprised by this fact: if you compare pitbulls and chihuahua, the latter is more aggressive than the former. Yes, you read it right. That's why you came to realize how these dogs have a high rate of bites and attempts at the same time. Here are the reasons why:
#1. They're territorial
Yes, you may think that they are friendly. But, don't expect a lot; it's because they are not, and they're even defensive than ever. My friends, try coming near them whenever they rest or eat. What happens? Don't be surprised when they will suddenly snap at you. The thing is that they are very territorial! You're just fortunate because there are warning signs whenever they would try to become aggressive. Note the following signs:
"Grrrr!" says your cute little chihuahua. Growling is a warning sign; it's their first move to attack you. Yes, fret now, my friend! There are also instances when this sound means that they want to act like they're intimidating, or maybe when they're afraid of you. Whatever may be the reason, make sure to be careful.
Showing stiff posture
When this situation occurs, your pet is confident that he can bring you down, and he is furious. Whenever you make eye contact with him, try to avoid looking at him. And slowly and gently, move away from him.
Muzzle punching
Don't underestimate the power of a small dog because he can punch you, for sure. Although it's not what you expect, I'm sure he can, and he will do so using his nose. Once he is so close to you, you may expect him to bite. That's why never allow this situation to happen because you are so close to the scary end.
Showing some teeth
Whenever your dog is angry, you will see his teeth; he will show them to you, and it's a sign that it's time for you to stop and back off. Otherwise, you will be at risk of a dog bite. And you don't want that to happen, right? So, If I were you, I would move away, slowly as possible.
Whenever they would wag their tail, it shows that they are happy. If this would change, they would just stand firmly and gently sideways. It would help if you noted that when chihuahuas want to protect something, they will try to stay close to it most of the time. Yes, you would see them right next to their plates, so you won't ever take their food. It's not just the food they can protect; you're also protected if they are so close to you and think someone is a threat.
#2. They are abused dogs
Do you know that dogs can be aggressive whenever they are abused? I guess it's true even with human beings. Whenever dangerous and stressful experiences struck into their memories, they would be aggressive. That's why when you decide to adopt a dog; you should make sure that you have at least an overview of its past life. You have to check with their old owners. Also, you can obtain info from its vet. In this way, you're sure to be informed what may trigger your dog so that you can avoid such. Know if dogs can remember abuse.
#3. They see new faces
We're afraid of strangers, how much more for these dogs? I'm sure whenever they see a new face, they would be intimidated and scared. It's not something new to dogs. That's why you would notice how they would act being aggressive to get rid of this new face. But then, it's not yet time for you to give up. It takes time for them to be used to you. And don't be shocked when I tell you that it may take around a year for them to socialize, like become very comfortable to you.
The best thing that you can try to do is to make them visible to different places or new people. You can allow them to play with their friends, like dogs of your neighbors. Once they are used to people, they will less likely act aggressive.
It's A Wrap!
You see, we've only discussed the three best reasons why are chihuahua so aggressive. There may be more reasons behind this; we'll discuss more of these things in other articles. Thank you so much for your time. Enjoy reading! You may want to read related articles; know about German shepherd and chihuahua mix and 27 dogs that stay small forever.


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It's sort of amazing to me that it's been about a month since we got serious about this pandemic and there's still a major split in local cycling circles about whether it's a good idea to ride outside and how/where to ride if you do.
Mask or no mask? Are rural routes OK? Or should we stay close-to-home? How far can the virus fly in the air?
We've published six stories on biking and Covid-19 since March 12th and there's still new information coming out — and even more confusion as it does. With amazing weather on tap for the weekend, it's time to make sure you have the best info to help you make informed decisions about riding (or not).
Here's some of the latest news and my thoughts on the situation…
The Gorge and Most of the Historic Highway are Off-Limits
Imagine you're biking on the Historic Columbia River Highway along the Sandy River and you come upon an Oregon Parks ranger. She says you shouldn't be biking through Corbett unless you live there. Huh? A locals-only policy? Yep. That's the situation we heard about from reader Sarah R. last weekend. She and a friend were biking near Dabney State Recreation Area when the interaction occurred.
To be clear, there's no "locals-only" provision in place. People are allowed to use any open public road.
I called Oregon State Parks Gorge Parks Manager Clay Courtright to ask him about this. "If anyone on my staff said don't bicycle in Corbett," he said. "I want to correct that. We pride ourselves on being welcoming and we don't want to be policing folks' recreation."
That being said, Courtright made it very clear that they interpret Governor Kate Brown's executive order to mean you should only recreate close to where you live. "We're telling folks they should only be doing essential travel and we're saying recreation areas are closed to maintain social distancing" It's an issue of public health and parks staff capacity.
If you choose to ride far from home, consider something as mundane as using the bathroom. Courtright said they're seeing a big uptick in human waste near recreation sites because people are pulling off and relieving themselves in nearby woods and bushes. "It puts us at risk when that happens," Courtright explained, "Because our team has to clean it up."
OSP spokesman Chris Havel told BikePortland that, "It would be helpful to remind people this is the time to stay close to home, as nutty as that will make us in the short term, because the usual services that accommodate travel aren't available… No restrooms, no trash collection, maybe no drinking water. The whole point of closing parks isn't to make travel less fun or to force people to find different ways to travel — it's to get people to stay home."
Spreading Slipstream Science
News travels very fast in the age of Covid-19. When a group of Belgian and Dutch researchers said bicycle riders should leave 60 feet between other riders to avoid being infected by the virus, it caused a stir. Then Vice threw major cold water on the study, saying it wasn't even a "study" at all.
In the end, everyone can say they're right. The researchers are trying to share knowledge and protect public health. They are experts in how particles move in the air and — far from saying you shouldn't bike outdoors — they've clarified that it's important to stay out of another riders' slipstream. For more on this study and the debate about it, check out this good summary just published The Oregonian.
OBRA Extends Racing Ban
The Oregon Bicycle Racing Association says they've decided to suspend racing through May 31st. The organization had cancelled racing for four weeks beginning March 11th and now says there won't be any sanctioned racing until June.
Here's more from OBRA Executive Director Chuck Kenlan:
"Some of our most beloved events, Monday PIR, the Cascade Chainbreaker, Sisters Stampede, Hammer Velo Crit and all the great racing at Alpenrose will have to be postponed or cancelled. Most of the promoters are working with their agencies and landowners to reschedule for later dates. We are posting the new dates on the calendar so keep checking it for changes. Once we hear from the most of the promoters, we will publish a list of the events and their new dates. As everyone knows, this is very fluid."
Should We Even Ride Outside?
Every biking group in Portland seems to be debating this topic right now.
For some people it's an easy answer: No. Stay home to stop the spread. For others, it's an unresolved moral and ethical dilemma. There are the gung-ho types who think the virus is a joke and just want to defy authority and ride together no matter what. Then there are folks who've made peace with riding and have found a way forward.
Our friend on Twitter @heyitsweintraub shared a mantra that works for him: "No car. No gnar. Not far. Everything within that is fair game." Translation: Only ride from home, don't take chances, and stay close to home.
Since bicycling isn't prohibited, and everyone will interpret "close to home" differently, many people are likely to ride outside as temps rise this weekend and beyond. It was one thing to hit the indoor trainer when it was grey and wet outside, but I know lots of people (myself included!) are itching to get out.
What about ethics though? "Stay home, save lives," isn't just a government slogan, it's a fact. So why are so many smart and kind people deciding to go out and ride? It's important to keep in mind that "bicycling" encompasses a vast range of things to a vast range of people. For some it's a ride to the store or work. For others, a 80-mile ride is no big deal.
I've struggled with this question myself. I've done some riding indoors, but have also gotten out a few times. To mitigate risk factors, I've ridden locally at extremely off-peak times. This morning I was up at 4:09 am just so I could enjoy Sauvie Island and some climbing in the West Hills by myself. I was able to ride about 50 miles and be home before my kids even knew I was gone. I feel like I didn't put myself or anyone else at risk by doing that ride; but I also know — even with its massive benefits to my physical and mental health — it wasn't an "essential" trip.
I think everyone should think deeply about these questions. Talk about it with friends, read about it online, and make an informed decision. I also strongly suggest wearing a mask when you're near others. I wear one to cover my mouth and nose until I'm into the great wide open.
Have a nice weekend everyone!
— Jonathan Maus: (503) 706-8804, @jonathan_maus on Twitter and email@example.com
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