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Toronto did attract many new attendees to the games here that he played in but I gather the vast majority were of Chinese background which of course is understandable...and hence my original assumption of your post.
running an offense 8/10
shot 7/10
transition offense 7/10
dribble penetration 4/10
ability to create his own show 2/10
draws double team 1/10
defends his own position 2/10
help defense 4/10 (he understands where to go but cant get there very quickly and when he does... well whatever).
If this team is going to hang its hat on playing defense he can't stay.
"I may be wrong ... but I doubt it"
Gary Forbes per 48 mins (last season): 21.5 PTS. 6.9 REB, 3.6 AST. 0.4 BLK, 1.6 STL, 3.8 PF, 3.6 TO. With at 12.4 PER.
Fields 2012 playoffs: 4.8 PPG, 2.2 RPG, 1.3 APG, and 11.0 PER
Fields played for a playoff team, played more minutes, and played in the dumb Carmelo offense. His rookie numbers are more reflective of his game
An Asian American kid that's young, makes highlight plays and isn't much taller than the average person. He's like a marketers wet dream.
I think it was Forbes that said he's a $500 million empire. And when you realize how Yao and McGrady (just through affiliation) were two of the top selling jersey's in the league, and voted into every AS game, for close to 10 years it's not hard to understand why team's want him.
This message board is out of it's mind. Every critical response is met by an avalanche of excuses from fanboys/homers . Landry Fields sucks. No other team would offer him $20 million, simple as that. Having Nash/Fields at $55 million for 3 seasons is a horrible deal. That's max money for a 40 year old and a bench guy.
Landry Fields is a mild over pay...I suspect we are paying about 3 - 4 million more than he is worth over the life of his contract. In his third year it gives us either a 9 million dollar expiring trade chip...a very solid wing guy we go forward with and at the worst....9 million comes off our books at the end of that season
Steve Nash is a mild over pay....At 38 I don't suspect he would deteriorate that quickly. But he is likely worth 27 - 30 million over three years. 12 is an over pay but again. After he generously donates three years of leadership/development and wins to the Raptors. He comes off the books.
Amir Johnson & Bargnani also come off the books then. If you haven't noticed yet. The play is for accelerated development over the next 3 years - re-evaluate what we have then (40 million comes off the books if all four players are signed and kept until that point) and move forward accordingly.
I would not be surprised if we over pay at least one more veteran (Grant Hill) on a 3 year deal.
now to your adjusted 48 minutes thing. It doesn't take into account when those minutes were played who they were played against....i.e. garbage time(Forbes) vs defending starters(Fields)
As someone said Alabi's per 48 minutes is a perfect example of this...which I will now post.
19.2 ppg 27.2 rebounds 5 blocks <---------perennial all star and HOF numbers for sure.
Stats can say whatever you want them to. So it's CRITICAL you look at more than the ones that support your pre-existing opinion. Rather read a bunch...read reviews, read scouting reports, read opinions counter to your own and for a SPLIT second consider what if I'm wrong? Even if you land back on your original opinion...the more experienced posters here would likely stop savaging your every post.
If you looked just at stats....Landry Fields was a garbage signing. HOWEVER if you have the context of a superstar egomaniac black hole no defense playing coach killing Carmelo Anthony, a change in system. You would be better off examining how he played with a pass first PG. I.E. his Rookie stats and time without Melo are more indicative of who he will be.
Teams always overpay guys to get what they want, it's not only the Raptors. And Landry Fields is a solid player..
According to our good friend Liston, he played 2nd most number of minutes of any knick last year.
That does not meet the generally accepted criteria of 10th man in the NBA.
We should start considering a trade for Lowry or signing Dragic...the longer this drags on, the more likely we are to get nothing
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Want to Become a Screener?
Do Screeners are a subset of contributors who are responsible for moving tickets through a review process, and then funneling tickets to the BDFL.
It would be great to have more screeners. If you are interested, just do all the steps described in this document, without actually changing any ticket attributes. Instead, add a comment to the ticket explaining what you would have done to screen it. (Screeners: keep an eye out for such comments, and where sensible provide feedback so that we are grooming more screeners.)

subset: commoncrawl


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The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has approved Stendra, or avanafil, tablets for the treatment of erectile dysfunction in men, officials said.
Peter Tam, president of the biopharmaceutical company Vivus, said the approval is the first for nearly a decade to help treat the 30 million U.S. men with erectile dysfunction.
"Patients and treating physicians continue to report significant dissatisfaction with current treatments of erectile dysfunction," Tam said in a statement. "We believe that the PDE5 selectivity and absorption profile of Stendra make it an important new treatment option for many men with erectile dysfunction."
More than 1,200 men with erectile dysfunction participated in clinical studies evaluating the efficacy and safety of Stendra, and significant improvement in erectile function was observed for all doses -- in 50milligrams, 100mg and 200mg -- compared to placebo.
It is recommended that Stendra should be taken approximately 30 minutes before sexual activity and should not be taken more than once per day.
Erectile dysfunction affects an estimated 52 percent of men between the ages of 40 and 70, Tam said. (c) UPI
|Most Recent Published Articles


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Hoyer Statement on President's Manufacturing Committee Final Report
Katie Grant, 202-225-3130
WASHINGTON, DC - House Democratic Whip Steny H. Hoyer (MD) released the following statement today in response to the final report from the President's Advanced Manufacturing Partnership Steering Committee:
"The final recommendations of the Advanced Manufacturing Partnership Steering Committee, released this afternoon by the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, represent another step forward in the Obama Administration's drive to boost our manufacturing competitiveness. Many of the Steering Committee's recommendations are contained in Democrats' Make It In America jobs plan, which recognizes the central role of manufacturing in preserving and expanding America's leadership in innovation and product development. I commend Steering Committee Co-Chairs Andrew Liveris and Susan Hockfield for their leadership in this effort.
"While Republicans in Congress continue to delay and obstruct Democratic proposals to invest in manufacturing growth and job creation, the President has continued to pursue other avenues aimed at making it easier for manufacturers to relocate here, innovate, expand, and create well paying, middle-class jobs. I hope House Republicans will set aside their objections to working with Democrats on a comprehensive jobs plan that will invest in the competitiveness of our manufacturing sector and help more manufacturers and the workers they employ Make It In America."


text: I loved the crazy scrappy quilt my sister made me, that I had her teach me how to make one myself. This was my first attempt at one. It took a long time. I had fun using the fancy stitches on my little sewing machine. One of these days, I would like an embroidery machine.


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Boy, do I feel ripped off. I mean, here we are at an MTV gig, and I haven't run into any of the big rock stars that the press release promised. I want my MTV! No Sarah Michele Gellar,
no Jennifer Love Hewitt, no Reese Friggin' Witherspoon. Pardon my language, but she needed a middle name just like the preceding two absent hotties. Where's all the star womens at? I did meet Mark McGrathno not the homerun king, the guy from Sugar Ray. He was really cool and funny but too busy taping with fellow rockstar Sal Masekela to stop for a few words. MTV Veejays Ananda Lewis and Carson Daly are both real pretty < and famous, I suppose, but they're really just journalists like mefor the lack of a better example.
A small field, just twelve guys made up the Men's Boarder-X. Of course all eyes on Palm, everybody's hero. The man to be reckoned with. And then next to him was a man who seemed to slip in and out of the crowd with complete obscurityeven though he's been the world's overall champion for damn near a decade, not to mention Swatch Boardercross champ of 1997. Yep, it was the Swiss sensation, Bertrand Denervauda rider I've personally regarded as the best rider in the world. Now before you start barking Terje-Daniel at me, go ahead and look up his contest stats. Not too many can hang with Ol' Dirty Bertie.
And then came Russell Winfield, who Sal Masekela heralded today as "the Jackie Robinson of Snowboarding." Russ was running the boardercross in a sweatshirt with a beanie (no helmet), and get thisjeans. He looked like he just stepped out of the mall. If that's not a rock star for ya, I'll drown in my own vomit.
Men's Bordercross
1. Shaun Palmer $4,000
2. Dave Dowd $2,000
3. Bertrand Denervaud $1,000
Cliff's Note: Dave Dowd and 'Ol Dirty Bertie hung on two second and third respectively as the holeshot and win went yet again to his Majesty The Palm. Maybe it just is "Too damn easy" for him. My pappy used to say "It ain't talkin' shit if you can back it up." If that's true, Palm almost sounds modest.
"Four grand ain't bad for two runsthat'll buy some new wheels for the truck."Shaun "I'm gonna try those little skis next" Palmer
"I was right behind The Palm all the way into the step upPalm sucked it up, and I overshot the landing into the flat."Russell Winfield, in his first-ever boardercross
Women's Bordercross
1. Marguerite Cossetini $4,000
2. Pillars Nillard $2,000
3. Tina Dixon $1,000
Aussie Marguerite Cossetini, the favorite, just edged out Palm Team's Nillard, with Dixon (who despite crashing, kept advancing) finding third.
Men's Triple Big Air
1. J.P. Walker $4,000
2. Shaun White $1,000
3. Jason Borgstede $1,000
3. Gian Simmen $1,000
Cliff's Note: J.P. Walker is unstoppable, even when conditions predict the unstompable. The women of the big air judge the event, awarding eleven-year old Shaun White second placewhich some suspect is because he"s so little and cute. Truth be known, he clearly hung with the big boys todaylarge airs for his sizeokay, so he is little and cute. Jason and Gian both put in solid performances, tying for third. A very stoked Shaun splits his winnings with them evenly, placing the rest directly into a college fund to keep his amateur status.
***Special noteKevin Jones pulled out a new move he's coined as a "double-up to the R-do mellow," but sadly did not find himself in today's money.
Women's Triple Big Air
1. Tina Basich $4,000
2. Tara Dakides $2,000
3. Jessica Dalpiaz $1,000
Cliff's Note:
Tina B is still on top after all these years, scoring a solid two points above the rest. Tara Dakides has been ripping everything as of lateperfecting those flips each outing. Utah's Jessie Dalpiaz rode very well and doesn't seem to be injured at all. She's tough, and the judges think she's cute.
***Where is Barrett Christy?
Onward, my search for rock stars continued. The hot girl from Party Of Five who sings that annoying song is still not here. Dissed. Hey! I showered for this! I got up early and everythingdoes everybody lie in these press releases? Hmmn, I guess so. Manipulation of the massesit's the American way. I'm aged by my own stupidity for thinking they'd be here. No famous hot chicks. I feel like a sucker.
And there they wereMTV's big-air winner Tina Basich and Foo Fighter Dave Grohl. Two rock stars, and one of them is a famous hottie!
I handed off my tape recorder(because any real journalist always pans off work to the unsuspectingjust ask Tom Sawyer). And off they went with the chauffeur in the super-stretch limo. (Actually, it was with some beatnik loser named Chad in a white Isuzu Trooper.) This is what was on the recorder when I got it back.
It was the perfect end to a beautiful SoCal day. So what if boardercross heats were 30 minutes in between. No one really cared. I even gave up on looking for all those famous no shows. Come to think of it, I saw a lot of rock stars today.
Thanks, MTV.


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Nearly 45,000 people took to Twitter to follow police on a virtual ride-along in the Bay of Plenty on New Year's Eve.
Running from 7pm to 2am, police say the patrol provided a real time snapshot of policing across Western Bay as well as advice to encourage safe celebrations.
The most retweeted event of the night was a car which struck a house, knocked down a tree and landed on its roof in Papamoa. Miraculously the driver and his passenger walked away with relatively minor injuries. Alcohol is believed to have been a factor.
The majority of the other incidents attended by the 'Tweet Beat' were alcohol-related such as drink-driving and disorder.
"It was a first for us so we had no idea how much interest we would get and were quite amazed by the response," says Clifford Paxton, Area Commander inspector.
"Throughout the entire shift we received a constant flow of messages commenting on the patrol and showing their support for the policing operation.
"Policing can be a thankless task so it was good for the staff who were working last night to hear the positive feedback from the Twitter community."
Tweets came from as far afield as the Netherlands but some were clearly local with comments such as 'we have the coolest police in the country', while others simply acknowledged the tough job that the police have such as 'you guys are brilliant, brave AS'.
"Tonight has proved how useful a tool social media can be for communication and we would certainly consider more virtual patrols in the future," Paxton says.
Although the Twitter team were kept busy throughout the shift, Police are praising the behaviour of the majority of the public across the Bay of Plenty District.
"Yet again the Bay of Plenty has proved to be a fantastic place for families to see in the New Year," says Scott Fraser. Prevention Manager inspector.
"Most of the revellers were in great spirits and looking out for another.
"As always we were disappointed that there were small groups of people who let themselves down. Not only does it concern us that nearly all of the incidents we had to deal were alcohol-related, a significant number involved unsupervised youngsters.
"There were way too many teenagers who had access to alcohol and were intoxicated to the point where they placed themselves at risk."


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So a few weeks back I suggested that Hollywood – just like the rest of the country – is tightening its belt. And it's being demonstrated via a new kind of intolerance. Stars who could once command just about anything now get a whole lot less and like it. Actors demanding raises don't necessarily receive them and are suddenly taking their marbles and going home (with tails between their legs). Brand new TV shows who don't perform spectacularly right out of the gate get axed but quick (Sorry, The Bridge). Edward Norton – not considered a Team Player (and thus replaceable) gets the pink slip from Hulk and Mark Ruffalo steps into those green shoes. (Although things really aren't that bad if Mark Ruffalo is subbing in, now are they?) And of course, in just a few weeks we may witness more carnage as the new fall shows bow. For example, even though there are tremendously high hopes resting on Lone Star, Blue Bloods, Hawaii Five-0, The Defenders, No Ordinary Family and Raising Hope – the law of averages (or one of those statistical predictor things) says that within three months of airing at least two of these shows (and maybe more) will be history. So there definitely appears to be a trend – and it mirrors our current economic climate. And maybe cost-cutting movie studios are justifying their hard-line stances by saying "times are tough and there are cutbacks,, but entertainment is something Americans are still spending what money they do have on, so let's make it as good as it can be". Trim the fat. Right? (Isn't that what you'd say if you fired popular actors who wanted too much money, or canceled TV shows that wanted to air say, a third episode? That's what I'd say. And that's how brutal it's been in Hollywood. However, fear not. Because just when we thought Hollywood was getting too spartan, right when we were starting to believe maybe there was no us and them anymore, we get a werewolf/RV lawsuit that will happily restore Tinseltown to the summit of Mt. Whatever. If you missed the headlines, it goes thus: TwiStar Taylor Lautner has sued an RV dealership for damages because they failed to provide him with a $300,000 tricked-out RV trailer which he ordered as his dressing room on the set of a new movie he's filming. On the RV's arrival date, there was No Trailer for Taylor. According to the LA Times the lawsuit "cites "displeasure, annoyance and emotional distress" experienced by Lautner, and seeks "unspecified damages". Evidently the whole thing was handled by Lautner's father Dan (because nothing says good idea like letting parents handle their teenaged millionaire's business contracts and endorsements). Lautner's people are suing this RV company for breach of contract and fraud. In fact, there may be a breach of contract and fraud – but what's got people all a(T)witter is the whole "emotional distress" thing. What do you think? Do you think it's outrageous? Or, do you think – as I do – that this is someone's very smart PR move. Here's why: let's say you have a huge franchise with at least three acknowledged stars. There are Teams and everyone's divided. Still, the fact remains that the other two leads are getting just a wee bit more attention than fair Taylor – adorable though he is. And he seems too young for a lot of tabloid-y romantic link-ups, faux, or otherwise, because, well, he just does. So how else do you generate press for your hot young thing that's not icky – but that suggests he's not to be trifled with — that he's got needs, he's got resources, and that he can play with the big boys? Sure it's ridiculous, but you can't tell me the next person who hires Taylor Lautner (and there will be many) won't think twice about putting baby in the corner. They just won't. In the end, no matter how rich or famous a person is, nobody really wants to get sued – do they? So actually I think this is kind of a genius move on somebody's part. The only thing that I can't understand is this: the vehicle in question is a "2006 Affinity Country Coach RV". 2006? For $300K can't you find a later model? I have a 2007 VW and would have been more than happy to drive him around for a lot less cash. But that's just me.
Today's poll: Voice your choice in today's featured poll and let us know which of these stars rumored to join the cast of Dancing With The Stars is your favorite:
1) Audrina Patridge
2) Brandy
3) Kurt Warner
4) The Situation
For the latest pop culture news and voting, make sure to sign up for the People's Choice newsletter!


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Billboards and radio advertising will promote the reward and encourage anyone with credible information to call a confidential tip line.
Damien Echols, Jason Baldwin and Jessie Misskelley were released from prison last year after prosecutors agreed to a rare plea agreement in which the men entered guilty pleas but maintained their innocence in the boys' deaths.
Echols' attorney, Patrick Benca, says backers of the West Memphis Three are looking for credible information, not theories, in the deaths of Stevie Branch, Christopher Byers and Michael Moore.


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MTA Employees Are Just as Bad as Subway Passengers
[There was a video here]
It's not just passengers that are acting up on the subway. Employees of the MTA are misbehaving as well! Here's footage that a YouTube user (and Bloombergian anti-smoking activist, we're guessing) recorded of a couple of MTA workers smoking inside the Christopher Street 1 Train station on Sunday morning. Are you totally outraged yet? Is the smell of smoke better or worse than the usual subway odor of urine and feces? We're just grateful that these guys didn't follow in the footsteps of these people and strip off all their clothes.


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The Snakes arose from lizards and are usually considered part of the reptilian order Squamata. The "worm lizards," or amphisbaenians, which are included in this article for convenience of comparison with lizards, are placed in their own suborder, Amphisbaenia, by many modern taxonomiststhus considered to be a highly specialized group of limbless lizards. In addition to those traits they have in common with non-snake lizards, snakes are often separated from other lizards in popular literature because they share a set of unique traits that are relatively easy to observe. For a full description of snakes, see snake.
Lizards are by far the most diverse group of modern reptiles in body shape and size. They range in total length from geckos of three centimetres (1.2 inches) to monitor lizards of three from 2 cm (0.8 inch) snout to vent in geckos (family Gekkonidae) to 3 metres (10 feet) , and in adult weight in total length in monitor lizards (family Varanidae). The weight of adult lizards ranges from less than a 0.5 gram (0.04 02 ounce) to more than 150 kilograms kg (330 pounds). The popular conception of a lizard as a scampering reptile with head and body about 15 centimetres (six inches) long and about 30 cm (12 inches) in total length with a slender tail of about equal length may be applied accurately only to only a small number of species. Representatives of several families are limbless , resembling snakes; and resemble snakes, whereas others have elongate long hind legs and can run bipedally. A variety of ornaments is found, including that permit bipedal locomotion. Male lizards may be outfitted with a wide array of ornamentation—such as extensible throat fans and frills, tail creststhroat spines, horns or casques on the head, and spines and frills around the throattail crests.
Lizards occupy diverse habitats : underground, on that range from underground warrens and burrows to the surface , and in elevated vegetation. Some are slow-moving, relying move slowly and rely on cryptic coloration for protection; , whereas others can run swiftly across desert sands. The mosasaursLizards of the family Mosasauridae, an extinct familygroup, were strictly marine. Some mosasaurs were giants , attaining and grew to lengths of 10 metres (33 feet), with an elongate head, short neck, and long thin body and tail. One living lizard, the marine iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) of the Galápagos Galapagos Islands, feeds on algae in the sea; however, it spends much of its time basking on lava rocks on the islands. No other extant lizard species is marine, but several are partially aquatic , feeding and feed on freshwater organisms.
Modern The role lizards do not play a major role in human ecology . Some large species (iguanasis poorly known. Some lizards are sources of food and clothing or agents of pest control, whereas others are pests. Some larger lizards (such as the iguanas [Iguana and Ctenosaura] of Mexico, Central America, and South America) are eaten , and others are an important food source. Others are used for leather goods. Predators, such as the tegu, can be pests around chicken farms, but the vast majority are primarily insectivorous or consume undesirable rodents. Small species such as geckos, which tend to live around houses, are often welcomed because of their efficiency in destroying insects; they may transmit Salmonella bacteria, however. In general though, lizards are not disease vectors.Monitor lizards and tegus (family Teiidae) are harvested for their skins, and these skins have a major effect on local economies of rural areas in Third World countries. Although lizards are often portrayed as insectivores, many also consume small vertebrates and at least some plant material; strict herbivory has evolved independently in several groups of lizards. Nevertheless, lizards eat large numbers of insects and other invertebrates, particularly in the tropics and in deserts. These insect-control services affect humans in many subtle ways; however, such effects have not been well studied. Large predatory lizards (such as monitors and tegus) can be pests—often preying on farm animals or stealing chicken eggs—that affect the livelihoods of ranchers and farmers.
Some relatively small lizard species, such as geckos, have not only colonized many islands by rafting with humans on boats but have also invaded cities and towns throughout the world. For example, throughout Brazil, one of the best-known lizards, the Mediterranean gecko (Hemidactylus mabouia), is so common in houses and buildings that most Brazilians know more about it, based on their own observations, than they know about any of the endemic species. As is the case with many introduced lizards, the Mediterranean gecko appears to do very well living with people in disturbed areas but does not seem to invade undisturbed habitats.
For the most part, lizards are not disease vectors and pose little danger to humans who take proper precautions when handling them. Lizards are often infected with various parasites, including a type of malaria, but these parasites tend to be species specific. Salmonella bacteria may be transmitted from a lizard to a human, particularly if the lizard is placed in a person's mouth. Tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and some viral and fungal infections may also pass from lizard to human. Persons handling lizards are advised to practice good personal hygiene.
Only two species, the Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum) of the southwestern United States (Heloderma) and a close relative in and northwestern Mexico and the Mexican beaded lizard (H. horridum) of western Mexico, are venomous. They Both species bite man humans only when provoked, and fatalities are very rare. Unfortunately, diabolical powers attributed to lizards have made them objects of fear in many countries. Lizards are Among the most harmless of lizards are geckos, which are falsely believed to be highly venomous by many indigenous cultures throughout the world. Reasons for this suspicion are unclear; however, the geckos' nocturnal activity, elliptical pupils, and ability to walk up smooth vertical surfaces could make them seem supernatural to some cultures.
Lizards are also valued as subjects for biological research: the . Their varied modes of reproduction and their ability to regulate body temperatures are only two of many areas studied by comparative physiologists ; the (see thermoregulation). The great abundance and easy observability of numerous species make them ideal subjects for ecologists and ethologists; the . The ability of some species to regenerate broken tails has led to their use as research subjects by behavioral ecologists and developmental biologists. In addition, because Since they are relatively clean and easy to keep, lizards are also quite popular as house pets.
Most lizards reproduce by laying eggs. In some small species, the number of eggs is rather uniform for each laying or clutch. For example, all anoles (Anolis) lay but a single egg at a time; , many geckos lay one or two eggs (depending upon the species), and some skinks have fixed clutches of two eggs. A more general rule is that clutch size varies with the size, age, and condition of the mother. A clutch of four to eight eggs may be considered typical, but large species lizards such as the iguanas may lay 50 or more eggs at one time. Lizard eggs are usually leathery-shelled and porous and ; they can expand by the absorption of moisture as the embryos grow. An exception occurs in the majority of egg-laying geckos, whose eggs have shells that harden soon after deposition they are deposited and then show no further change in size or shape.Some lizards bear live young. In the family Scincidae
Viviparity, or the birthing of live young, occurs in some lizard species. For skinks, this is true for about one-third of the species, many of which
live in tropical climates. In most other families that have live-bearing representatives, the species that are frequently exposed to
cold conditions—either at high altitude or at extreme
latitude—tend to be live-bearers. For example, all New Zealand geckos
give birth to live young, yet all other geckos lay eggs.
A great diversity of mechanisms exists that results in the production of live young. In some lizards the only difference between egg laying (oviparity) and live bearing (viviparity) is that shells never form around the "eggs." The female retains them inside the oviduct until development is complete, and each egg already contains all of the energy necessary for development in its large yolk. In these cases, no additional nutrients pass from the mother to the offspring.
In other lizards, eggs released from the ovary contain most, but not all, of the energy necessary for development in the yolk. Several kinds of placentae can develop, depending on the species of lizard. The result is that some nutrients pass from the mother to the offspring during development. In just a few species, such as Mabuya heathi, tiny eggs with almost no yolk are released from the ovary and deposited in the oviduct. An advanced and complex placenta develops, and more than 99 percent of the nutrients required for embryonic development pass from the mother to the offspring. In these species the gestation period is usually very long (8–12 months).
Sex in most lizards is genetically and rigidly determined; a hatchling normally has either
male or female reproductive structures. In representatives of
most iguanian lizard families (Iguania) and in some species of whiptails, tegus, geckos, and skinks, the males have dissimilar sex chromosomes
, comparable to the sex-chromosome system of most mammals
. Some female geckos and wall lizards and all monitor lizards have sex-chromosome differences
that are similar to those found in snakes. In a few lizard species (some iguanids, geckos, and wall lizards), no sex chromosomes exist. They rely on temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD)—that is, temperatures occurring within the nest during egg development control the sex of the hatchlings.
Most lizard populations are evenly divided between females and males. Deviations from this pattern are found in parthenogenetic
species, in which the young are produced from unfertilized eggs.
Parthenogenesis in lizards was first discovered in all-female races of Lacerta
in the Caucasus, but it is now known to occur in all-female species of whiptail lizards (Aspidoscelis) in the southwestern United States and parts of Mexico
, several other Teiidae and Gymnophthalmidae (spectacled lizards or microteiids) in South America, and a few Gekkonidae. Parthenogenetic lizards appear to live in areas that are ecologically marginal for representatives of their genera. In
Aspidoscelis and several other parthenogenetic species, convincing evidence exists that parthenogenetic forms arose through the hybridization
of two bisexual species. The number of chromosomes in such species is usually double that in sexually reproducing species, but in a few cases, the number of chromosomes is triple. This results from the mating of a sexually reproducing species with one that is parthenogenetic. These offspring are called allotriploid because they represent a backcross that produces three sets of chromosomes.
Parental care among lizards tends to be minimal following egg deposition, but there are striking exceptions. Many species dig holes in which the eggs are placed
, whereas others bury them under leaf litter or
deposit them in crannies of trees or caves. In contrast, females of some species, notably the five-lined skink (Eumeces fasciatus) of the United States and many of its relatives, remain with their eggs throughout the incubation time (about six weeks)
; they leave the clutch infrequently to feed. These skinks turn
their eggs regularly and, if the eggs are experimentally scattered, will return them to the nest cavity. As soon as the young disperse, family ties are severed. Glass lizards (Ophisaurus, family Anguidae) appear to do the same thing. In addition, a number of viviparous lizards remove and eat the placental membranes from young when they are born.
In Australia, juvenile sleepy lizards (Tiliqua rugosa) remain in their mother's home range for an extended period, and this behaviour suggests that they gain a survival advantage by doing so. Female sleepy lizards and those of the Baudin Island spiny-tailed skink (Egernia stokesii aethiops) recognize their own offspring on the basis of chemical signals. Consequently, parental care in lizards may be more widespread than previously thought. Nevertheless, since recognition systems are subtle, they are difficult to study.
Certain lizards, particularly some
species of Gekkonidae, are known to be communal egg
layers, with many females depositing their eggs at the same site.
In addition, it appears that the same individual female may return to a particular site throughout her lifetime to deposit clutches of eggs. In Tropidurus semitaeniatus and T. hispidus, two species of South American ground lizards, females nest communally under slabs of rock situated on top of large boulders. In this specialized habitat, only a few appropriate nest sites are available, and thus they are limited resources. Males appear to take advantage of this situation, especially if nesting sites are located within their territories. It is likely that if a male defends a good nesting site, he should have access to more females than males who govern areas without high-quality nesting sites.
Juvenile lizards are essentially miniature adults; they do not go through any larval phase
or any
other stage where they are dependent upon adults. They often differ from the adult in body colour or pattern and in certain body proportions. For example, the heads of hatchling lizards of some species tend to be proportionally larger than
the heads of adults. Certain ornamental structures, such as the throat fan of the male
green anole (Anolis) or the horns of some true chameleons (family Chamaeleonidae), develop as the lizards become sexually mature. The tails of juveniles in many lizard species are coloured differently from those of adults. Juvenile tails are brilliant blue, orange, or red and easily discarded (autotomized) when escaping a predator. Tail colour usually changes when the lizards reach sexual maturity.
Some of the smaller lizards mature very quickly, and population turnover (that is, the replacement of one generation by another) is essentially an annual event.
For example, in the small, side-blotched
lizard (Uta stansburiana) of western North America
, the young hatch in July and reach sexual maturity
the following autumn. At this time, males undergo spermatogenesis and mating takes place.
Female side-blotched lizards accumulate large quantities of fat, which
appear to be utilized in the production of eggs the following spring.
Adult mortality in this species is 90 percent or more
per year
and may be a result of predation, inclement weather, or other
factors. Conversely, the population dynamics of a single species living under a variety of environmental conditions may
be very different
from one region to another. For example, in areas with long winters
where lizards experience long periods of hibernation,
they may have greater longevity and slower population turnover.
On the other hand, large lizards may take several years to reach sexual maturity
and little information exists on the dynamics of natural populations of most lizard species. In captivity, many species are long-lived.
Gila monsters (Heloderma) have been kept in captivity for more than 25 years, and even some small geckos have been kept for as long as 20 years. There is a report of a 46-year-old captive male slowworm (Anguis fragilis) mating with a 20-year-old female.
The most important environmental variable to a lizard is almost certainly temperature. Like fish and amphibians, lizards are ectothermic
; they receive heat from their surroundings. Although the term cold-blooded is typically applied to such organisms, it is a misnomer. The blood of lizards is not cold unless the lizard is cold. Under conditions where normal activities occur, lizard blood is as warm as or warmer than that of mammals. Nevertheless, all temperatures are not equally acceptable to lizards. Most species seek out relatively specific body temperatures, called "preferred temperatures," that mostly
range from
28 to
38 °C (82 to 100 °F).
Although metabolic energy is not utilized to control body temperature, considerable thermoregulation
is accomplished
through behavioral means, if the lizard has a choice. Typically, a diurnal lizard
emerges early in the morning and
suns itself, orienting the body to maximize exposure to the sun, until the preferred temperature is
achieved. The ability to absorb heat from solar radiation may permit the lizard to warm itself well above air temperatures. For example, Liolaemus multiformis, a small
lizard that lives high in the Andes, has the ability to raise its body temperature to
35 °C (95 °F) while air temperatures are at
10 °C (50 °F) or lower.
The preferred body temperature plays a critical physiological role in the life of a lizard.
A lizard living in the tropics often will find the immediate environmental temperatures within its preferred range. To be successful in other habitats, a species must be able either to function at less than optimal temperature or, at least, to have less time at the optimal temperature and spend more time attaining this temperature. Thus it is not surprising that diversity of lizard species decreases with increasing latitude or with high altitude within the tropics.Water
All physiological processes are temperature-dependent, and physiological function influences behaviour. In most instances, the lizard's "performance," (that is, the lizard's ability to execute various behaviours or function well metabolically) is optimal within a small range of temperatures. To maximize performance, the lizard should seek to maintain its body temperature within this temperature range when at all possible.
Traditionally, the immediate environment in which a lizard lives has been considered the primary determinant of the lizard's body temperature; however, since thermoregulation is complex, there are constraints. Lizards living in hot deserts might be expected to be active at higher body temperatures than those living in well-shaded tropical habitats. Nonetheless, a combination of factors including evolutionary history, the immediate thermal conditions, and the "costs" associated with behavioral thermoregulation determines temperatures at which a lizard will operate.
The effect of evolutionary history is obvious when comparing certain groups of lizards. All whiptail lizards and racerunners in the genera Aspidoscelis and Cnemidophorus are active at body temperatures between 37 and 40 °C (99 and 104 °F) whether they live in the hottest part of the Mojave Desert of southern California or along trails in the Amazon rainforest. In addition, all lizards in the family Xantusiidae, a group distributed from the Mojave Desert southward through the rainforests of Central America, are active at body temperatures between 25–28 °C (77–82 °F). Whiptails adjust their activity periods to take advantage of heat sources in environments where temperatures are relatively low, whereas the tiny desert night lizard (Xantusia vigilis) occupies a microhabitat that remains cool in an otherwise hot place. Although some desert lizards have slightly higher body temperatures than their close relatives in more moderate habitats, the immediate thermal conditions often determine when and where a lizard will be active rather than what its body temperature will be.
Several costs to thermoregulation exist, but only a few have been studied. Time spent basking to gain heat or escaping extremely high or extremely low temperatures cannot be used for feeding or reproduction. Basking in direct sunlight to gain heat places a lizard in an exposed location where predators can capture it. Lizards whose body temperatures are outside of the optimal range for their species may not perform as well in social interactions as those lizards at optimal body temperatures. Some of the lesser-known costs include reduced growth rates and longer time to sexual maturity, increased incubation times for eggs or embryos when optimal temperatures cannot be reached, and a reduced ability to escape falling temperatures, which may result in the freezing of body tissues.
Water is less of a problem to lizards than is temperature regulation. All reptiles excrete uric acid and
thus do not need great amounts of liquid to
rid themselves of nitrogenous wastes.
All insectivorous lizards take in a large amount of water in the prey that they consume, and herbivorous lizards have salt glands for the active excretion of mineral salts.
Because of their low metabolic rates relative to those of birds and mammals, lizards use less water. This may account for their success at colonizing oceanic islands and surviving in extreme deserts. Some lizards in extreme environments harvest water from the dew that collects on their skin in early morning, and thus deserts do not pose severe problems to
them. In addition, lizards form a conspicuous portion of the fauna of oceanic islands, where
the species diversity of amphibians and mammals is generally low.
Even while riding on mats of floating vegetation
in rivers and oceans, many lizards can survive for long periods without fresh water. This quality makes them ideal colonizers, and hard-shelled gecko eggs seem to be particularly equipped for such journeys.
Other variables that affect lizards are day length (photoperiod) and rainfall. Lizards living far from the
Equator experience marked variation in photoperiod, with short winter days and long summer days. Certain species are adapted to respond to such cues. Anolis carolinensis of the southeastern United States ceases reproduction in the late summer and
accumulates fat for winter hibernation. This change occurs while the days are still warm and appears to be triggered by decreasing day length.
This environmental trigger is adaptive for the species, because eggs laid in September would essentially be wasted, as the young
hatched in November would likely starve or freeze to death. Some tropical species respond to alternations between rainy and dry seasons, and egg-laying activities may cease during the driest months of the year
when food resources are low. Under these conditions it is advantageous for the parent not to channel valuable energy into the production of eggs
, and the eggs themselves might be less viable because of the threat of desiccation.
Lizards provide valuable models for the study of competition between species. On some Caribbean islands as many as
10 species of anoles (Anolis) may live in a single restricted area. For so many species to be accommodated, each must be specialized for a rather precise niche. The species come in a variety of sizes, feed on different sizes of prey, and have different preferences for structural and climatic niches. Some anoles live in tree crowns, whereas others live on trunks, and still others live in grass
. Some species prefer the open sun, whereas others live in "filtered" sun environments, and still others live in deep shade. Thus, with
10 anole species in a single area, each
has its own characteristic microhabitat.
Likewise, the deserts of Australia contain the greatest numbers of lizard species known, with 40 or more species occurring together in some areas. These lizard species separate themselves along three fundamental niche axes: time, food, and place. Some lizards are active only at night, others are active in the morning, and still others are active at midday. Some are generalists that eat almost anything that walks by them, whereas others specialize on termites or ants. Some species occur only within small shrubs, whereas others occur only in areas of open sand or on tree trunks. These differences between species, combined with a habitat containing high structural diversity (that is, many places to live), allow large numbers of species to coexist within a small area. Lizard assemblages in the Amazon rainforest are arranged along niche axes similar to Australian desert lizards; however, species that are the most ecologically similar are also the most closely related. This pattern suggests that evolutionary history has played some part in determining where and how lizards live.
Most lizards are active during daylight hours, when their acute binocular vision can be used to its greatest advantage, and vision is necessary for most nonburrowing species. The family Gekkonidae, however, is composed predominantly of species that are most active from dusk to dawn. In conjunction with night activity, geckos are highly vocal and communicate by sound, whereas most other lizards are essentially mute.
Lizards spend considerable time obtaining food, usually insects.
Iguanian lizards—iguanas, anoles, agamas, chameleons, and others—tend to perch motionless at familiar sites and wait for prey. They
detect their prey using visual cues, dash from their perches to where the prey item is, and capture it with their tongue in a process known as lingual prehension. Iguanian lizards are typically referred to as "sit-and-wait" predators. The true chameleons are the most extreme examples of this mode of foraging; they move slowly, scan the habitat with eyes that move independently of one another, and capture their prey by shooting out
a sticky
projectile tongue. (In some cases, their tongues can extend to twice their body length.) Chameleons effectively eliminate the need to pursue their prey, which is the most risky aspect of the sit-and-wait foraging mode.
In contrast, autarchoglossan lizards (the non-gecko scleroglossan lizards such as amphisbaenians, skinks, whiptails, and others) actively search for prey by probing and digging, using
their well-developed chemosensory system in a process called vomerolfaction, as well as visual cues.
These lizards do not use the tongue to capture prey; rather, they grab their prey in their jaws (jaw prehension). As a result, the tongue is free for use as an organ of chemoreception (see also Jacobson's organ). Geckos also use jaw prehension, but they use olfaction for discriminating between chemical cues rather than vomerolfaction.
Some lizards are herbivorous. The largest of the iguanian lizards, such as the iguanas (Iguana, Ctenosaura, and Cyclura) and the spiny-tailed agamid (
, eat plants. However, large body size is not necessary for herbivory (many small herbivorous species in the genus Liolaemus exist), and the very largest lizards, such as the Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis) and other monitor lizards, are carnivorous.
Many birds, mammals, invertebrates, and other reptiles
prey on lizards. In response, lizards have a variety of defensive strategies to draw upon. For example, chuckwallas (Sauromalus) typically remain close to rock piles. When danger threatens, they move into small crevices and puff
up their bodies to make their extrication difficult. A number of spiny-tailed
lizards also move into crevices and
leave only
a sharp, formidable tail
exposed. The African armadillo lizard (Cordylus cataphractus)
holds its tail in its mouth with
its forefeet and presents a totally spiny
form to an attacker.
Predators, such as snakes, that attempt to swallow an armadillo lizard will often fail because the lizard offers no start point from which swallowing can begin. The frilled lizard (Chlamydosaurus kingii) of Australia extends a throat frill that frames its neck and head to intimidate intruders on its territory. This frill is almost as wide as the lizard is long.
In addition, the tails of many lizards break off (autotomize) easily.
This broken-off section wriggles rapidly
and often distracts the predator as the tailless lizard scurries for cover. Autotomized tails are often regenerated quickly.
Social interactions among lizards are best understood for the species that respond to visual stimuli. Many lizards defend certain areas against intruders of the same or closely related species. Territorial defense does not always involve actual combat.
Presumably to avoid physical harm, elaborate, ritualized displays have evolved
in many species. These presentations often involve the erection of crests along the back and neck
and the sudden increase in the apparent size of an individual through puffing and posturing. Many species display bright colours by extending a throat fan or exposing a coloured patch of skin
and engage in stereotyped movements such as
push-ups, head bobbing, and tail waving.
Large, colourful horns and other forms of conspicuous head and body ornamentation are often restricted to males, but females of many species defend their territories by employing stereotyped movements similar to those of males.
A displaying male
that stands out against his surroundings is vulnerable to predation;
however, territoriality is evidently advantageous and has evolved through natural selection.
Territories are usually associated with limited resources (such as nest sites, food, and refuges from predators), and a male that possesses a territory will likely attract females. Thus, he will have a higher probability of reproductive success than one living in a marginal area. The displays used by males in establishing territories may also
function to "advertise" their presence to females; in species that breed seasonally, territoriality typically diminishes during the nonbreeding season. In iguanids, actual courtship displays differ from territorial displays in that males approach females with pulsating, jerky movements.
In addition to the visual cues used for bringing the sexes together,
chemical stimuli
play a role in some species of iguanian lizards. For example, desert iguanas (Dipsosaurus dorsalis) can discriminate between their own odours and those of other desert iguanas. In addition, numerous lizard species have femoral pores, which are small blind tubes along the inner surface of the thighs, whose function may be the secretion of chemical attractants and territorial markers.
The social systems of autarchoglossan lizards are fundamentally different. Rather than visual displays, chemical communication between individuals is used. Autarchoglossan males that rely heavily on vomerolfaction can distinguish species, sex, and sexual receptivity using chemical cues alone. Some lizards (such as those of families Teiidae, Varanidae, and Helodermatidae) have deeply forked tongues and may be able to use them to determine the direction of chemical signals in a manner similar to snakes. Geckos use auditory cues in social interactions, but they also have the ability to discriminate between chemical signals using olfaction.
Copulation follows a common pattern. The male grasps the female by the skin, often
on the neck or side of the head, and places
his forelegs and
hind legs
over her body. He then pushes his tail beneath hers
and twists his body to bring the cloacae together. One hemipenis is then everted and inserted into the cloaca of the female. Depending upon the species, copulation may last from a few seconds to 15 minutes or more.
Rather than present a detailed anatomical report of a lizard, this section discusses certain structures that are either characteristic of lizards in general or specializations of certain groups.
The skull is derived from the primitive diapsid condition (see below Paleontology); , but the lower bar leading back to the quadrate bone is absent, however, giving greater flexibility to the jaw. In some burrowers , for example (such as Anniella and the amphisbaenians, worm lizards) as well as some surface-living forms including (such as the geckos), the upper as well as and lower temporal bar has bars have been lost. The small burrowers Small burrowing lizards have thick, tightly bound skulls , with braincases that are well protected by bony walls. In most lizards, the front of the braincase is made up of thin cartilage and membrane. The , and the eyes are separated by a thin, vertical interorbital septum. In burrowing forms with degenerate eyes, the septum is reduced , adding and adds to the compactness of the skull. Most lizard skulls, particularly in the Scleroglossa, are kinetic ; i.e.(that is, the upper jaw can move in relation to the rest of the cranium). Since the anterior part of the braincase is cartilaginous and elastic, the entire front end of the skull can move as a single segment on the back part, which is solidly ossified. This increases the gape of the jaws and probably assists in pulling struggling prey into the mouth.
Most lizards are insectivores (insect eaters)eat a variety of arthropods, with sharp, tricuspid teeth adapted for grabbing and holding. Some herbivorous (plant-eating) species, for example, iguanas, have tooth crowns expanded to a leaf shape with serrated cutting edges. The teeth of some large predators are conical and slightly recurved. Mollusk and crustacean feeders, such as the caiman lizard (Dracaena), may have blunt, rounded teeth in the back of the jaw designed for crushing. The venomous lizards (Heloderma) have a longitudinal groove or fold on the inner side of each mandibular tooth. These grooves conduct the venom. In most lizards, teeth are present along the jaw margin (on the maxilla, premaxilla, and dentary bones) and; however, in some forms, teeth may also be found on the palate. In the embryo, an egg - tooth develops on the premaxilla bone and projects forward from the snout. It Although it aids in piercing the shell and , it is lost soon after hatching. This is a true tooth, unlike the horny epidermal point in turtles and crocodilians.
The teeth of some large predators are conical and slightly recurved. The Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis), for example, has serrated teeth that are curved like a scalpel blade; these teeth can cut through the leg muscle of a full-grown water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and cause it to bleed to death. In contrast, mollusk and crustacean feeders, such as the caiman lizard (Dracaena), have blunt, rounded teeth in the back of the jaw designed for crushing. Some herbivorous species (such as iguanas) have leaf-shaped tooth crowns with serrated cutting edges. The venomous lizards (Heloderma) have a longitudinal groove or fold on the inner side of each mandibular tooth; these grooves conduct the venom from the lizard to its victim.
The common mode of tooth implantation is pleurodonty, in which the teeth are fused to the inner side of the labial wall. In the other mode, acrodonty, teeth are fused to the tooth-bearing bone, often to the crest of the bone. Acrodont teeth are rarely replaced , once a certain growth stage is reached. The dentition of the Agamidae is usually described as acrodont, but most species have several pleurodont teeth at the front of the upper and lower jaws.
The majority of Most lizards are quadrupedal , with and have a powerful limb musculature. They are capable of rapid acceleration and possess great ability to can rapidly change direction of motion rapidly. The racerunners or whiptails (CnemidophorusAspidoscelis) can attain speeds of 24 kilometres 29 km (15 18 miles) per hour, which, in terms of their own body length (less than 50 cm [20 inches] long), puts them in a class with fast terrestrial mammals. A tendency toward elongation of the body is found in some families, often accompanied by and a reduction of limb length and, not infrequently, or a complete loss of limbs often accompanies such elongation. Such lizards propel themselves entirely by lateral undulations emanating from highly complicated ventral abdominal musculaturemuscles. Limbless lizards that move quickly on the surface or through sand (such as glass snakes [Ophisaurus]) tend to have elongate tails (Ophisaurus, the glass "snake"), whereas the burrowers have extremely reduced tails (amphisbaenians). The Some burrowers (such as the amphisbaenians in particular) dig by ramming the head into the substrate, then rotating the . This is followed by the rotation of the head around the head joint , compacting to compress the substrate. Others, like the California legless lizards (Anniella), literally "swim" through the sand.
Many modifications of the toes are to be seen occur in lizards. Some desert geckos, the iguanid Uma, and the lacertid Acanthodactylus have fringes on the toes that provide increased surface area and prevent , preventing the lizard from sinking into loose desert sand. Arboreal geckos and anoles (Anolis) have lamellae (fine plates) on the undersides of the toes. Each lamella is made up of brushlike setae, each double; and the tips divide several times, . The tips of each seta divide hundreds of times into tiny spatulae (spoon-shaped strands); the final strand is less than 0.25 micrometre (1/100,000 in.0.00001 inch) in diameter. (A tokay gecko [Gekko gecko], for example, has about half a million setae on each foot.) These fine hairlike processes greatly enhance the clinging ability of the lizards, as they are able to find purchase in the smallest irregularities of the substrate. Geckos and anoles can allowing some to easily climb vertical panes of glass. Intermolecular forces between spatulae on the gecko's setae and the surface provide the adhesion.
The true chameleons (Chamaeleontidaefamily Chamaeleonidae), a predominantly arboreal familygroup, have a different type of highly specialized limb. The digits on each foot are divided into two groups by webs of skin. On the each hind limb, three of the toes are on the outside, two on the inside (a form of zygodactyl); on the forelimb face away from the body, whereas two face toward the body; on each forelimb, the pattern is reversed. Each foot is can thus be divided into an outer and an inner portion, which can be opposed as the branch is gripped. In addition, these Chameleons and some other lizards have prehensile tails, which also aid in grasping branches.
Several terrestrial iguanids and agamids lizards are able to run bipedally. Basilisks Basilisk lizards (Basiliscus) are actually able to run across water for short distances. During bipedal locomotion the tail is held out backward and upward and acts as a counterweight. The frilled lizard (Chlamydosaurus kingii) can also run bipedally.
Some lizards are able to parachute or glide through the air and make soft landings. The most highly adapted of these are the agamid lizards called flying lizards (Draco), which have a group of agamids from Southeast Asia. The "wings" that enable this lizard to glide are extensible lateral expansions folds of the skin , that are supported by elongate ribs.
Except for openings of nostrils, mouth, eyes, and cloaca, most lizards are completely covered in scales, which vary among species and on different parts of the body of the individual. Scales may be smooth and overlapping, form a mosaic of flat plates, or have keels or tubercles. Osteoderms, bony plates that develop in the dermis, underlie head and body scales of some lizardsThe arrangement varies among species and by body part. The outer parts of the scales are composed of dead horny tissue made up largely of the protein keratin. The dead layer is shed at intervals and is replaced by proliferating cells in the deep part of the epidermis. Certain lizards In some lizards, osteoderms, which are bony plates that develop in the dermis, underlie head and body scales. In addition, certain lizards have scale organs, with a stiff projecting seta emerging from the serrated edge of the scale and presumably . Presumably, these setae are responsive to tactile stimulitouch.
Many lizards can show some change colour change. Two groups, The most notable groups in this regard are the chameleons and the anoles, are particularly noteworthy in this ability. They . Some species can change from bright green to deep, chocolate brown, and patterns such as lines and bars may appear and disappear . The along their bodies. Melanophores are the pigment cells that permit colour change are melanophores. Within these cells, pigment granules are able to migrate, and the concentration of pigment granules within these cells determine the type of colour that is produced. In general, the animal is light appears lighter coloured when pigment is concentrated and dark when it pigment is dispersed throughout the cells. The actual animal's colour state , complexly controlled, is not simply matching of background but seems to be controlled by an at any given time is controlled by a complex interaction of hormones, temperature, and the nervous system.
Lizards belong to the diapsid reptiles, a group characterized by the presence of an opening in the temporal bone of the skull, both above and below a bar formed by the postorbital and squamosal bones. The diapsids comprise two subclasses of reptiles: the Archosauria (crocodiles, pterosaurs, dinosaurs) and the more primitive Lepidosauria (lizards, snakes, eosuchians, and rhynchocephalians). The earliest known Lepidosaurian order (Eosuchia) appeared in the Late Permian (about 230,000,000 years ago) and almost undoubtedly was ancestral to lizards. Modern lizards differ from their ancestors in several skeletal features, the most diagnostic differences being in the construction of the upper temporal and quadrate regions of the skull. A.S. Romer divides true lizards from their ancestors on the basis of the quadrate region. Among true lizards the quadrate articulates flexibly with the squamosal above it. This occurred through loss of the lower temporal arch and reduction of squamosal development. The oldest fossil true lizards appeared in the Late Triassic (200,000,000 years ago). These were not primitive but highly specialized, having ribs that could be projected outward to provide a gliding ability. Thus it is possible that even older lizards will be found. Representatives of many modern lizard families have been found in Cretaceous deposits (from 136,000,000 to 65,000,000 years ago); and representatives of modern genera, virtually indistinguishable from living forms, were common from the Oligocene (38,000,000 to 26,000,000 years ago) on.
Lizards differ from other reptilian groups in several anatomical characters, including the possession of not more than a single bony arch across the temple and paired reversible copulatory organs, the hemipenes.
G. Underwood (1967) summarized the differences between snakes and lizards. Lizards have the eyes separated by a thin vertical interorbital septum, whereas in snakes this septum is absent and the entire width of the bony braincase separates the orbits. Other features that distinguish lizards from snakes include: (1) the pectoral (shoulder) girdle, absent even as a trace in all snakes, present in all lizards; (2) the histological structure of the adrenal glands; (3) the placement of the thymus bodies. M.R. Miller (1968) found that the internal ear of snakes is considerably different from and more primitive than that of any lizard. The families of lizards are defined primarily by osteology and dentition, as well as presence or absence of the rectus superficialis muscle. When this muscle is absent in a group, there is not the slightest tendency for limb reduction and serpentine locomotion. The limits of the families seem to be agreed upon by most systematists, although relationships among the families are not always so clear.
The classification presented here is adapted from Underwood (1957), which is an updating of C.L. Camp (1923). Definitions of taxa follow Camp where feasible. Theclassification of the Gekkonidae follows A.G. Kluge (1967). The dates of earliest fossils are from R. Hoffstetter (1962).Evolution and classification
The common ancestor to all lizards was similar to the tuatara (Sphenodon), the only living representative of order Sphenodontida and sister group to the squamates. The tuatara is lizardlike in overall appearance; however, it differs from squamates in important ways. Male tuataras have no paired copulatory organ; they have saclike structures from which the paired hemipenes of squamates were likely derived. In addition, the tuatara does not have a movable quadrate bone in the jaw; this characteristic is present in all squamates.
Relationships between the major groups of squamates remain in flux. One hypothesis posits that early in the evolutionary history of lizards an important split occurred that not only influenced the disposition of taxonomic units but had cascading effects on the ecology of lizards and led to the diversification of snakes. This first split produced the iguanians (infraorder Iguania) and the scleroglossans (infraorder Scleroglossa), two large groups within order Squamata that were fundamentally different from each other. The ancestors of all lizards possessed an ability to capture and manipulate prey with the tongue (lingual prehension). Iguania retained the ability; however, this likely precluded the development of the tongue into an organ that transmitted chemical signals to a rudimentary vomeronasal system in this group (see Jacobson's organ).
Another hypothesis, based largely on unclear gene sequence data, posits that the group containing geckos (and possibly the dibamids) diverged from all other squamates and that the iguanians are nested deeply within the stock of remaining lizards (that is, the autarchoglossans). If additional data support this hypothesis, then the presence of many of the ecological, morphological, and behavioral traits in iguanians suggests that the iguanians evolved independently within a group of squamates that had already diverged considerably from its squamate ancestors. At present, herpetologists operate under the assumption that the first hypothesis is better supported.
For the most part, Iguania is composed of foraging lizards that use cryptic coloration, morphology, and behaviour to escape detection by predators. Typically, they can be described as territorial, sit-and-wait predators that rely on visual cues to detect prey (usually by movement) and in social interactions. Within Iguania, one family, Iguanidae, retained the ancestral pleurodont dentition similar to the tuatara, in which teeth are essentially cemented to the inside of the jawbones. In contrast, the ancestor of two other families within Iguania, Agamidae and Chamaeleonidae, developed acrodont teeth, which are characterized by their attachment to the surfaces of jawbones. The most striking deviation from the typical Iguanian consumptive pattern is the evolution of herbivory in lizards, which occurred independently in several lineages. Herbivory evolved in the ancestor to the Leiolepinae (family Agamidae), the ancestor to the Iguaninae (family Iguanidae), and in some members of the Liolaeminae (family Iguanidae).
In some of these groups, the tongue is used less for prey capture and more for chemoreception. Scleroglossan ancestors retained pleurodont dentition, but use of the tongue in prey capture was replaced by grasping jaws (jaw prehension). Freed from its direct involvement in feeding, the scleroglossan tongue was allowed to develop into a carrier of chemical information. Although the actual sequence of events will never be known with certainty, the vomeronasal system grew in importance, and lizard evolution proceeded in an entirely new direction.
An early split within Scleroglossa produced the Gekkota (geckos) and the Autarchoglossa (snakes, skinks, and their relatives). Use of the vomerolfaction system did not develop within Gekkota to the extent that it did within Autarchoglossa; however, the tongue was increasingly used as a tool for cleaning the spectacle, a transparent scale covering the eye. A nasal chemosensory system became enhanced in the Gekkota, but many retained (or redeveloped) the sit-and-wait foraging mode of their ancestors.
Autarchoglossans took maximum advantage of the vomeronasal chemosensory system. It dominates social behaviour in extant groups. The vomeronasal system allows members of this group to discriminate species, sex, and sexual receptivity on the basis of chemical cues; it also allows lizards to discriminate among prey types. Autarchoglossans can select particularly energy-rich prey and avoid those containing noxious chemicals. They also can seek out prey that may not be visible on the surface, such as colonies of social insects and insect larvae in the soil and vegetation. Moreover, cryptic-coloured invertebrates that might never be detected visually by iguanian lizards are detectable chemically by autarchoglossans; by searching the habitat, autarchoglossans can locate prey not otherwise available. In contrast to the sit-and-wait foraging mode of the iguanians, autarchoglossans developed an active foraging mode where much time is spent searching for energy-rich prey items. An important trade-off must have existed in which the benefits of searching large areas for prey outweighed the benefits of maintaining defended territories.
The development of the vomeronasal system caused a major shift in social systems. Autarchoglossans developed a sort of sequential polygyny mating system in which a single male guards a number of females as they move about. This is quite different from the territorial systems in the Iguania in which males defend particular places where females reside. Maintaining all of this activity required autarchoglossans to make some major physiological adjustments. They have higher activity levels, appear more alert, use more energy while foraging, take in more energy, and often have higher body temperatures than iguanians.
An active, energy-intensive lifestyle, combined with keen chemosensory abilities, sets the stage for the evolution of limblessness and the use of subterranean habitats. Limblessness evolved independently in several groups of autarchoglossans, but it did not evolve within the Iguania. The extreme development of the tongue and vomeronasal system in superfamily Varanoidea (a group made up of monitor lizards, snakes, and their relatives) set the stage for the evolution of snakes.
The taxonomy of squamates has been in flux, and new revolutionary approaches to the study of evolution, particularly the science of cladistics and the use of DNA in reconstructing evolutionary relationships, has resulted in major taxonomic rearrangements. These rearrangements are designed to reflect the evolutionary history of squamates much more accurately. For example, DNA analysis has clarified the evolutionary relationships among the "worm lizards," or amphisbaenians, and facilitated their placement into four separate lizard families (Amphisbaenidae, Bipedidae, Rhineuridae, and Trogonophidae).
The boundaries of most lizard families remained stable until the cladistic approach to systematics—a process created by German zoologist Willi Hennig in 1966—changed the fundamental way in which evolutionary relationships among organisms are examined. The use of derived shared traits to group taxa provides a powerful way to place the evolution of taxa at all levels into a single, unified framework. Phylogenetic systematics (cladistics) is a rapidly moving area, and new phylogenies are routinely published in scientific journals. Although many such studies simply confirm the relationships based on antiquated methods (such as numerical taxonomy), some have drastically changed the taxonomies depicted in classical textbooks. Most important, traditional taxonomic categories (such as order, suborder, superfamily, and the like) are fast becoming obsolete, largely because they have no evolutionary meaning. For example, the word family is simply a descriptor. To some extent, it is then rather arbitrary whether one refers to a particular group as family, subfamily, or other division. What is most important is the content of the group. Each group, or clade, must include an ancestor and all of its descendents, each of which shares one or more derived (new) traits.
For convenience, the following lizard classification is adapted from Vitt and Caldwell (2008) and Pianka and Vitt (2003), recognizing that some taxa have already been revised on the basis of cladistic analyses. The dates of earliest fossils are taken from R. Hoffstetter (1962), Evans et al. (2002), and Datta and Ra (2006). Extinct groups are not listed. For a classification of snakes, see snake.Suborder SauriaReptiles with a single temporal opening lying above the bar formed by postorbital and squamosal bones. Pectoral girdle and interorbital septum always present. About 3,000 species.Infraorder AscalabotaRectus superficialis rarely present; usually more than four transverse rows of ventral scales found over each body segment; body is covered by scales that overlap by a wide margin ("deciduous").Superfamily GekkonideaFamily Gekkonidae (geckos)No supratemporal arch; well defined limbs. Jurassic to present. Eighty-two genera, 650 species. Virtually worldwide in subtropical and tropical regions. Adult total length from slightly under 4 cm to 35 cm (1.5–14 in.). Most with soft, granular skin, easily autotomized tails, no movable eyelids, and toes with fine setae.Family Pygopodidae (flap-footed lizards)Australia and New Guinea. Some burrowers, others surface dwelling; hind limbs represented by scaly flaps. Eight genera, 15 species.Family DibamidaePhilippines and Vietnam, to New Guinea. Burrowers; females limbless, males with flaplike hind limbs. One genus, 3 species.Family AnelytropsidaeEastern Mexico. Limbless; one species.Superfamily IguanioideaFamily IguanidaeDentition pleurodont. Teeth replaced when lost. Well-developed limbs. Movable Well-developed male copulatory organs (hemipenes) and saclike ovaries in females are examples of common structures. About 4,450 species (not including snakes) of lizards are known.Infraorder Iguania (iguanians)Group sharing a fleshy tongue and lingual prehension of prey with their ancestor the tuatara. (Sphenodon) AcrodontaMost teeth merged to the top of the jaw margin. Fossils date to the late Triassic.Family Agamidae (agamas)Late Cretaceous to present. Old World tropics and subtropics, except Madagascar. 2 subfamilies, 52 genera, and more than 400 species (31 in genus Agama).Family Chamaeleonidae (chameleons)Group characterized by zygodactylous, grasping feet and a long, slender, extensile tongue. 4 genera (Bradypodion, Brookesia, Chamaeleo, and Rhampholeon) with about 130 species. About half are restricted to Madagascar, and the remainder is primarily African. 2 species occur in western Asia, 1 in India, and 1 reaching Mediterranean region. Most are insectivores and 17–25 cm (7–10 in.) long; the largest reaches 60 cm (24 in.) and will eat birds. PleurodontaDentition pleurodont; teeth are fused, but not rooted, to the inner sides of the jawbone. Teeth are replaced when lost. Family Iguanidae (iguanid lizards)Lizards with well-developed limbs and movable eyelids. Oligocene, possibly late Eocene to present. Dominant family of North, Central, and South America, the West Indies, and Galápagos the Galapagos Islands. One 1 genus on Fiji and Tonga, two 2 genera on Madagascar. Adult lengths from 10 cm (4 in.; Uta) to 2 m metres (6.6 ftfeet; Iguana). A family of diverse forms including spiny desert dwellers (Phrynosoma), arboreal species (Anolis), and sea-going seagoing iguanas (Amblyrhynchus). Fifty 8 subfamilies, 50 genera, 600 300 or more species (200 in one 1 genus, Anolis).Family AgamidaeMost teeth acrodont. Many examples of convergent evolution with iguanids, but tooth difference absolute. Late Cretaceous to present. Old World tropics and subtropics, except Madagascar. Thirty-three genera, 300 species (60 in genus Agama).Superfamily RhiptoglossideaFamily Chamaeleontidae (Old World chameleons)Feet zygodactylous, grasping. Dentition acrodont. Tongue long, slender, extensile. Two genera, Brookesia 16 species, Chamaeleo 68 species. About half restricted to Madagascar, remainder primarily African, two species in western Asia, one in India, one reaching Mediterranean region. Most are insectivores 17–25 cm (7–10 in.); the largest, reaching 60 cm (24 in.), will eat birds.Infraorder AutarchoglossaSuperfamily ScincomorphoideaFamily Scincidae (skinks)Skull arches present, osteoderms (dermal bone) present. Late Cretaceous to present. Worldwide (except in polar and subpolar regions), greatest diversity in Old World tropics. Typically with conical heads, cylindrical bodies, tapering tails. Less variable than the other large families. Primarily ground dwelling or burrowing, some arboreal. Limb reduction common. Majority below 12 cm (5 in.), largest reaches 60 cm (24 in.). About 50 genera, 800 species.Family Cordylidae (girdle-tailed lizards)Femoral pores and osteoderms present. Supratemporal fossa roofed over. Late Jurassic to present. Southern Africa and Madagascar. 20–60 cm (8–24 in). About 10 genera, 50 species.Family LacertidaeOsteoderms Clade ScleroglossaLizards with jaw prehension for prey capture and well-developed chemosensory system.Infraorder GekkotaFamily Dibamidae (blind lizards)Small to moderate-sized lizards that are snakelike in body form with reduced limbs. Apparently, they live underground. 2 genera with 11 species are known. The distribution includes Mexico and eastern Indochina and the East Indies. Family Gekkonidae (geckos and pygopodids)Small to medium-sized lizards covered dorsally and ventrally by small granular scales often containing tubercles. Limbs present but greatly reduced in pygopodids. Approximately 100 genera, about 1,200 species.Subfamily Eublepharinae (banded and leopard geckos)Geckos with movable eyelids and no adhesive toe pads. In general, they use an active foraging mode. They live in southwestern North America, Central America, southern Asia, and Africa south of the Sahara. 6 genera and about 25 species are known.Subfamily Gekkoninae (geckos)Geckos that may or may not have adhesive toe pads. They usually have spectacles over their eyes and granular skin (often with small tubercles). They occur throughout the world in the tropics, subtropics, and deserts. 77 genera and over 800 species are known.Subfamily Pygopodinae (flap-footed lizards)About 8 genera, 35 species. Australia and New Guinea. Some burrowers, others surface dwelling; hind limbs represented by scaly flaps.Clade AutarchoglossaActive foraging lizards with extensible hydrostatic tongues used to obtain and transmit chemical information to a well-developed vomeronasal organ in the roof of the mouth.Infraorder Scincomorpha9 characters are unique to all lizard families in this group, including loss of the nasal-prefrontal contact and flat imbricate scales on the tongue. Superfamily Lacertoidea7 characters unique to all members, including presence of a prearticular crest and a pit (or sulcus) present on the dorsal surface of the retroarticular process. Family Gymnophthalmidae (spectacled lizards or microteiids)Small lizards with relatively small limbs, reduced limbs, or no limbs. Restricted to the Neotropics. 38 genera with more than 160 species.Family Lacertidae (lacertids and wall lizards)Osteoderms absent, supratemporal fossa roofed over. Eocene (possibly Cretaceous) to present, Europe, Asia, and Africa. Morphologically uniform, conical heads, scaly bodies, movable eyelids, well-developed limbs and tail. Length 15–60 cm (6–24 in.). Approximately 20 30 genera, 150 220 species.Family TeiidaeOsteoderms Teiidae (racerunners, whiptails, and tegus)Osteoderms absent, supratemporal fossa open. Late Cretaceous to present. New World only, primarily in tropics and subtropics. Great variation in the family, including large terrestrial predators (Tupinambis), large semiaquatic snail eaters (Dracaena), and lacertid-like "racerunners" (Cnemidophorus), and small burrowers. Size range 7–120 cm (3–48 in.). Forty 2 subfamilies, 10 genera, 200 species.Superfamily AnguinomorphoideaFamily AnguidaeSkull arches, osteoderms present. Six 122 species.Family Xantusiidae (night lizards)Small secretive lizards with spectacles over the eyes, the ability to clean the spectacle with the tongue, and all members producing live young. They occur in southwestern North America, Mexico, Central America, and Cuba. 3 genera are known, the best-known being Xantusia, 24 species.Superfamily ScincoideaAt least 16 unique characters are shared by members of this group.Family Cordylidae (spiny-tailed or girdle-tailed lizards)Heavily armored small to moderately large lizards. They occur in Africa south of the Sahara. The head has 4 parietal scales. Most species live in arid or semiarid habitats and are usually associated with rocks. They use rock crevices for refuge from predators and many species are highly flattened dorsoventrally so that they can enter narrow crevices. 1 genus, Chamaesaura, is nearly limbless and snakelike. 3 genera and about 55 species.Family Gerrhosauridae (African plated lizards)Lizards with 2 parietal scales on the head and each nostril enclosed in 3–4 scales. Diurnal lizards that live in a variety of habitats. Some are semiaquatic, some swim through sand, and many live on the ground. They occur in Africa south of the Sahara and Madagascar. 5 genera and about 34 species.Family Scincidae (skinks)Skull arches present, osteoderms (dermal bone) present. Late Cretaceous to present. Worldwide (except in polar and subpolar regions), greatest diversity in Old World tropics and Australian deserts. Typically with conical heads, cylindrical bodies, tapering tails. Primarily ground dwelling or burrowing, some arboreal, some semiaquatic. Limb reduction common. Majority below 12 cm (5 in.), largest reaches 60 cm (24 in.). 2 subfamilies, about 137 genera, and nearly 1,250 species.Infraorder AnguimorphaOne of the best supported clades of lizards with many shared derived traits.Superfamily AnguoideaFamily Anguidae (Alligator lizards, glass lizards, galliwasps, and California legless lizards)Skull arches, osteoderms present. 6 mandibular bones. Late Cretaceous to present. Most in Americas, a few Eurasian. Glass lizards (Ophisaurus) are limbless "grass swimmers" reaching 120 cm (48 in.). Alligator lizards (GherrhonotusGerrhonotus) and galliwasps (Diploglossus) have four 4 limbs, somewhat elongate bodies, and reach 37 cm (15 in.). Seven genera, 67 species.Family Anniellidae ( California legless lizards )Limbless burrowers. No are limbless burrowers with no skull arches. Length 11–25 cm (4–10 in.). California and Baja California. One genus, two 4 subfamilies, 13 genera, and just over 100 species.Family XenosauridaeShape Xenosauridae (knob-scaled lizards)Shape of interclavicle bone and presence of tubercles in the osteoderms distinguishes the family. Late Cretaceous from North America. Presently, two 2 genera, one 1 in Mexico , one in China; four species.(Xenosaurus) with about 6 species and 1 in China (Shinisaurus) with 1 species. Superfamily Varanoidea Family Helodermatidae (Gila monster monsters and beaded lizardlizards)Venomous; grooved hollow fangs in lower jaw; heavy-bodied. Skin texture "beaded." Oligocene to present; southwest United States and Mexico. Adult length to 50 cm (20 in.) in Gila monster, 80 cm (32 in.) in beaded lizard. One 1 genus (Heloderma), two 2 species. These lizards feed on vertebrates, which they swallow whole, and vertebrate eggs.Family Lanthanotidae (earless monitor lizards)This group is similar to Varanidae in most respects. The earless monitor is the only member of Lanthanotus, the only genus of this group.Family Varanidae (monitor lizards)Osteoderms reduced, seven 7 cervical vertebrae, postorbital arch incomplete. Restricted to Old World tropics and subtropics. Fossils from Cretaceous of North America. Smallest species is adult at 20 cm (8 in.), largest exceeds 3 m metres (10 ftfeet). General uniformity of appearance with elongate head and neck, relatively heavy body, long tail, well-developed limbs. One genus, 30 species.Family Lanthanotidae (earless monitor lizard)Fossils from Recent only. No external ear. Restricted to Borneo; rare and little known. Length to 40 cm (16 in.). One genus and species.Family Xantusiidae (night lizards)Vertebrae procoelous, supratemporal arch present. No movable eyelid. Relationships to other lizards unclear, even as to assignment within suborder. Share some features with gekkonids, others with skinks. Four genera, 12 species, California through Central America, and Cuba. All moderately small; bodies covered with small scales; ventral surfaces and head with larger platelike scales.Suborder AmphisbaeniaFamily Amphisbaenidae (amphisbaenians or worm lizards). Long cylindrical bodies with shallow grooves. No external ears, no readily visible eyes. Burrowers. Eocene to present. Primarily tropical, one species reaches Florida, and one reaches Spain. All genera lack hind limbs, and all but three lack forelimbs. Fifteen genera, about 100 species.
The boundaries of most lizard families have been stable for the past half-century, with several exceptions. The most important involves Gekkonidae, which Underwood (1954) divided into three families but which Kluge (1967) reunited into a single family with four subfamilies. C. Gans (1960) considers the Amphisbaenia so distinct that he raised them to ordinal status, equivalent in rank to lizards and snakes, and raised the two amphisbaenid subfamilies to family status. Studies by M.R. Miller (1966, 1968) on the internal ear, and A.E. Greer (1970) on cranial osteology clarify the relationships of some of the obscure burrowers and demonstrate that members of the so-called family Feylinidae are merely specialized skinks and are not closely related to the superficially similar Anelytropsidae. Perhaps of greatest significance is the finding that the cochlear duct of all snakes is more primitive than that of any lizard. This throws doubt on the theory that snakes are derived from highly advanced lizards (varanid relatives).
Advances in gene sequencing (especially the use of nuclear genes) and analytical techniques have resulted in rapid changes in the taxonomy of lizards and other reptiles and in a better understanding of their evolutionary history. Throughout the field of zoology, taxonomic structures are shifting from the Linnean approach, which groups organisms according to their visible anatomical structures, to the phylogenetic (or cladistic) approach, which groups organisms on the basis of their evolutionary relationships. As a result, long-standing taxonomies have changed dramatically and will likely continue to change as more information becomes available. At present, different taxonomic arrangements of lizard families can be found in a variety of books and research articles and on the Internet.
As the genetic relationships between different groups of lizards continue to be examined using modern techniques of DNA analysis, many groups of lizards have been reclassified; however, zoologists are finding out that the taxonomic hierarchy of the Linnean structure cannot accommodate all of the new information. Since this work is only partially complete and most zoologists continue to be heavily influenced by the Linnean approach, modern taxonomies of lizards are not straightforward, and several different classifications exist.
This confusion also extends to the hierarchical ranking of different groups of lizards. Under Linnean rules, subfamilies are nested within families, families within orders, and so on. In modern taxonomic arrangements based on evolutionary history, the most important point to consider is whether all members of a given taxonomic group can be traced to a single common ancestor. All descendants of this ancestor are related on the basis of homology and shared derived traits. Whether one refers to a clade of lizards as a family or subfamily is arbitrary, and some classifications do not assign ranks (such as order, family, and genus) at all. For convenience, the classification above is a fusion of the traditional Linnean classification and one based on phylogenetic relationships.
A succinct overview of the various evolutionary adaptations possessed by lizards is presented in Eric R. Pianka, Lizards: Windows to the Evolution of Diversity (2006).
General surveys of lizards and their life histories, with many photographs, are found in K.P. Schmidt and R.F. Inger, Living Reptiles of the World (1957, reissued 1967); A.F. Carr, The Reptiles, rev. ed. (1980); R. Mertens, The World of Amphibians and Reptiles (1960; originally published in French, 1959); and H.M. Smith, Handbook of Lizards: Lizards of the United States and of Canada (1946, reissued 1979). V.A. Harris, The Anatomy of the Rainbow Lizard (1963), provides a dissection manual for students, moderately technical but very readable. Of a more technical nature is a work by A.S. Romer: Osteology of the Reptiles (1956). W.W. Milstead (ed.), Lizard Ecology; A Symposium (1967), contains summaries of research in population Harold G. Cogger and Richard G. Zweifel (eds.), Encyclopedia of Reptiles & Amphibians, 2nd ed. (1998). General herpetology textbooks include George R. Zug, Laurie J. Vitt, and Janalee P. Caldwell, Herpetology: An Introductory Biology of Amphibians and Reptiles, 2nd ed. (2001); and F. Harvey Pough et al., Herpetology, 3rd ed. (2004). Summaries of modern trends in research as they relate to lizard ecology, physiological ecology, and social behaviour, with panel discussions of the reports; an excellent source for understanding trends in research.Important taxonomic books and papers, not easily read by the layperson but fundamental to an understanding of the classification, are: C.L. Camp, "Classification of the Lizards," Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 48:289–480 (1923); R. Hoffstetter, "Revue des récentes acquisitions concernant l'histoire et la systématique des squamates," in Problèms actuels de paléontologie (évolutions des vertébrés), pp. 243–279 (1962); A.G. Kluge, "Higher Taxonomic Categories of Gekkonid Lizards, and Their Evolution," Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 135:1–59 (1967); S.B. McDowell and C.M. Bogert, "The Systematic Position of Lanthanotus and the Affinities of the Anguinomorphan Lizards," ibid., 105:1–142 (1954); M.R. Miller, "The Cochlear Duct of Lizards," Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., 4th series, 33:255–359 (1966), and "The Cochlear Duct of Snakes," ibid., 35:425–476 (1968); G. Underwood, "On the Classification and Evolution of Geckoes," Proc. Zool. Soc., Lond., 124:469–492 (1954), "On Lizards of the Family Pygopodidae, a Contribution to the Morphology and Phylogeny of the Squamata," J. Morph., 100:207–268 (1957), and "A Contribution to the Classification of Snakes," Publs. Br. Mus. Nat. Hist., no. 635 (1967); A.E. Greer, "A Subfamilial Classification of Scincid Lizards," Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harv., 139:151–183 (1970behaviour include Raymond B. Huey, Eric R. Pianka, and Thomas W. Schoener (eds.), Lizard Ecology: Studies of a Model Organism (1983); Laurie J. Vitt and Eric R. Pianka (eds.), Lizard Ecology: Historical and Experimental Perspectives (1994); John W. Wright and Laurie J. Vitt (eds.), Biology of Whiptail Lizards: Genus Cnemidophorus (1993); and Stanley F. Fox, J. Kelly McCoy, and Troy A. Baird (eds.), Lizard Social Behavior (2003).
Worthy regional accounts of lizards and other herpetofauna include Christopher J. Glasby, Graham J.B. Ross, and Pamela L. Beesley (eds.), Amphibia & Reptilia (1993), a packed but highly readable technical manual with summary accounts of the biology and anatomy of all families of Australian amphibians and reptiles; Roger Conant and Joseph T. Collins, A Field Guide to Reptiles & Amphibians: Eastern and Central North America, 3rd ed., expanded (1998), an excellent guide to the herpetofauna of eastern North America; and Brian I. Crother (ed.), Scientific and Standard English Names of Amphibians and Reptiles of North America North of Mexico, with Comments Regarding Confidence in Our Understanding, 6th ed. (2008), an annotated list of all amphibians and reptiles in North America with comments on the validity of each species.
Important taxonomic works, not easily read by the layperson but fundamental to the understanding of lizard classification, include Steven C. Anderson, The Lizards of Iran (1999); T.C.S. Avila-Pires, Lizards of Brazilian Amazonia (Reptilia: Squamata) (1995); Brian I. Crother (ed.), Caribbean Amphibians and Reptiles (1999); and Albert Schwartz and Robert W. Henderson, Amphibians and Reptiles of the West Indies: Descriptions, Distributions, and Natural History (1991).


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Sony today announced that there are more than 1 million public domain books available through the Google Books project, as Sony continues to battle with Amazon.com and Barnes and Noble.
"We are committed to ensuring our customers have the freedom to discover and read content from the widest possible range of sources," Sony eBook Store Director Chris Smythe said in a statement. "We're proud to offer access to the broadest range of eBooks today – from hot new releases, to New York Times Best Sellers, to classics and hard to find manuscripts such as those available for free from Google."
Sony's decision seems to be a wise one, as Amazon.com, Barnes & Noble, and other providers attempt to increase book catalogs in the increasingly competitive e-book market. Last week, Barnes & Noble, which offers more than 700,000 titles, said it offered the largest online bookstore -- about 350,000 of the total number are Google public domain works.
Amazon, with its Kindle eBook reader, offers 300,000 titles to shoppers. Amazon hasn't publicly disclosed if it will one day include public domain titles.
Another company, Plastic Logic, plan to release an e-reader sometime in early 2010, which will compete against the Kindle, Sony e-book readers, and several other products believed to be in development.
The e-book market is a fickle one, as it's relatively closed off and purchasing books is usually tied to at least one device. For example, Amazon's content can be read only on the Kindle and an iPhone or iPod Touch, but nothing else. The Barnes & Noble titles, however, can be read on RIM's BlackBerry smartphones or the iPhone and iPod Touch, but cannot be read using a Sony e-book reader or the Kindle.
It's possible this closed system may drive away some interested consumers who want the freedom of reading their purchased content on any device.


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Ryan could return against Rangers
Closer schduled to throw on two days' rest while on 15-day DL
By Jordan Bastian / MLB.com
On Thursday, Ryan threw in a bullpen session without any leftover issues from the tight left forearm that slowed his recovery earlier this spring. The plan going forward is for Ryan, who is expected to open the season on the 15-day disabled list, to have two days of rest between each of his next three mound sessions.
If everything goes according to plan, Ryan will then transition into an every-other-day schedule that could have him on pace to be activated in time for Toronto's series in Texas. Arnsberg emphasized that the plan outlined for Ryan, who underwent Tommy John ligament replacement surgery on his left elbow on May 10 of last year, was subject to change.
Ryan entered Spring Training with the goal of breaking camp with the club in time for Opening Day. After his last Grapefruit League outing on March 17, though, the reliever complained of minor discomfort in his left forearm, leading the Blue Jays to hold him out of game action for the remainder of the spring.
While Ryan is sidelined, right-hander Jeremy Accardo will serve as Toronto's temporary closer. Following Ryan's injury last April, Accardo assumed the ninth-inning role and saved 30 games for the Blue Jays. Ryan, who signed a five-year deal worth $47 million with the Jays prior to the 2006 season, posted a 1.37 ERA with 38 saves in his first tour with Toronto.
Jordan Bastian is a reporter for MLB.com. This story was not subject to the approval of Major League Baseball or its clubs.