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A comprehensive introduction to European prehistory is offered in Timothy Champion et al., Prehistoric Europe (1984). Specific periods are covered in Clive Gamble, The Palaeolithic Settlement of Europe (1986); Clive Bonsall (ed.), The Mesolithic in Europe (1989); and Alasdair Whittle, Neolithic Europe: A Survey (1985). Among studies of economy and subsistence, Robin Dennell, European Economic Prehistory: A New Approach (1983), deals particularly with hunter-gatherers; Marek Zvelebil (ed.), Hunters in Transition: Mesolithic Societies of Temperate Eurasia and Their Transition to Farming (1986), includes regional studies of postglacial hunter-gatherers and the beginnings of agriculture; and Graeme Barker, Prehistoric Farming in Europe (1985), is a detailed study of early agriculture. John M. Coles and Andrew J. Lawson (eds.), European Wetlands in Prehistory (1987), contains information on the unusually well-preserved archaeological finds in various European countries. N.K. Sandars, Prehistoric Art in Europe, 2nd ed. (1985), is a well-illustrated introductory survey; other useful studies of prehistoric art are Peter J. Ucko and Andrée Rosenfeld, Palaeolithic Cave Art (1967); and André Leroi-Gourhan, The Dawn of European Art: An Introduction to Palaeolithic Cave Painting (1982; originally published in Italian, 1981). For the Indo-European question, the best account of the theory of invasions is J.P. Mallory, In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth (1989). Colin Renfrew, Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins (1987), considers the issues and argues for the spread of the language with early agriculture.
General surveys include Patricia Phillips, The Prehistory of Europe (1980); Herbert Schutz, The Prehistory of Germanic Europe (1983); and A.F. Harding (ed.), Climatic Change in Later Prehistory (1982). Jacques Briard, The Bronze Age in Barbarian Europe: From the Megaliths to the Celts (1979; originally published in French, 1976), describes the main discoveries; J.M. Coles and A.F. Harding, The Bronze Age in Europe: An Introduction to the Prehistory of Europe, c. 2000–700 BC (1979), offers a comprehensive account for different parts of Europe and an extensive bibliography; and Marie Louise Stig Sørensen and Roger Thomas (eds.), The Bronze Age–Iron Age Transition in Europe: Aspects of Continuity and Change in European Societies, c. 1200 to 500 B.C., 2 vol. (1989), is a collection of scholarly articles.
John Collis, The European Iron Age (1984), focuses on the links between the Mediterranean and the Iron Age culture of central Europe, and his Oppida: Earliest Towns North of the Alps (1984), discusses early urban settlements. Barry Cunliffe, Greeks, Romans, and Barbarians: Spheres of Interaction (1988), explores the influence of Classical civilization and commerce on the cultures of central and western Europe. Harold Haefner (ed.), Frühes Eisen in Europa (1981), is a collection of papers on the origin of iron technology in Europe. A.M. Snodgrass, The Dark Age of Greece: An Archaeological Survey of the Eleventh to the Eighth Centuries BC (1971), examines the changes characterizing early Iron Age Greece.
Social, economic, and cultural developments are studied in Richard Bradley, The Social Foundations of Prehistoric Britain: Themes and Variations in the Archaeology of Power (1984); Robert Chapman, Emerging Complexity: The Later Prehistory of South-East Spain, Iberia, and the West Mediterranean (1990), an analysis of the cultural sequence focusing on social complexity; Peter S. Wells, Farms, Villages, and Cities: Commerce and Urban Origins in Late Prehistoric Europe (1984), a survey of the settlement structure of the Iron Age; J.V.S. Megaw, Art of the European Iron Age: A Study of the Elusive Image (1970), an illustrated interpretive survey of motifs and imagery; and Peter S. Wells, Culture Contact and Culture Change: Early Iron Age Central Europe and the Mediterranean World (1980), analyzing the cultural relationship between central Europe and the Mediterranean.
Appropriate volumes of the multivolume series Cambridge Ancient History (1923– ) survey the development and interaction of the civilizations. Emily Vermeule, Greece in the Bronze Age (1964, reprinted 1972), is a standard work on Aegean civilization. Other detailed treatments include Chester G. Starr, The Origins of Greek Civilization, 1100–650 B.C. (1961); N.G.L. Hammond, A History of Greece to 322 B.C., 3rd ed. (1986); J.B. Bury and Russell Meiggs, A History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great, 4th ed. (1975); and Oswyn Murray, Early Greece (1980). John Boardman, The Greek Overseas: Their Early Colonies and Trade, new ed. (1980), provides an overview of commercial expansion; and Erich S. Gruen, The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome, 2 vol. (1984), is a history of the Roman conquest of the Hellenistic states.
H.H. Scullard, A History of the Roman World: 753–146 BC, 4th ed. (1980), is a standard comprehensive survey. Other relevant histories are Jacques Heurgon, The Rise of Rome to 264 B.C. (1973; originally published in French, 1969); Kurt A. Raaflaub (ed.), Social Struggles in Archaic Rome: New Perspectives on the Conflict of the Orders (1986), focusing on the social life, customs, and class structure of republican Rome; William V. Harris, War and Imperialism in Republican Rome, 327–70 B.C. (1979, reprinted 1985), on Roman expansion; Joseph Vogt, The Decline of Rome: The Metamorphosis of Ancient Civilization (1967; originally published in German, 1965); and A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social Economic and Administrative Survey, 2 vol. (1964, reprinted 1986). Michael Grant and Rachel Kitzinger (eds.), Civilization of the Ancient Mediterranean: Greece and Rome, 3 vol. (1988), is a comprehensive collection of essays on cultural, economic, and social life in the Classical world.
Brief illustrated surveys of 600 years of post-Classical history are presented in Gerald Simons, Barbarian Europe (1968); and Philip Dixon, Barbarian Europe (1976). Otto J. Maenchen-Helfen, The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture (1973), offers a scholarly examination of the development of early Europe.
Useful reference works are The New Cambridge Medieval History, 7 vol. (1995–2005); Dictionary of the Middle Ages, 13 vol. (1982–89); and Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages, 2 vol. (2000). A good outline of events in the Middle Ages is R.L. Storey, Chronology of the Medieval World, 800–1491 (1973). Biographies of some important historians can be found in Helen Damico and Joseph Zavadil (eds.), Medieval Scholarship: Biographical Studies in the Formation of a Discipline, 3 vol. (1995–99). Two important volumes that represent scholarly perspectives of the late 20th and early 21st century are Peter Linehan and Janet L. Nelson, The Medieval World (2001); and Lester K. Little and Barbara Rosenwein (eds.), Debating the Middle Ages: Issues and Readings (1998).
Terminology and periodization are discussed in Fred C. Robinson, "Medieval, the Middle Ages," Speculum, 59(4):745–56 745–756 (October 1984); William A. Green, "Periodization in European and World History," Journal of World History, 3(1):13–53 (Spring 1992); Donald R. Kelley, Foundations of Modern Historical Scholarship: Language, Law, and History in the French Renaissance (1970); Lionel Gossman, Medievalism and the Ideologies of the Enlightenment: The World and Work of La Curne de Sainte-Palaye (1968); Jacques Le Goff, "The Several Middle Ages of Jules Michelet," in his Time, Work, and Culture in the Middle Ages (1980), pp. 3–28; Jacques Heers, Le Moyen Âge, une imposture (1992); Timothy Reuter, "Medieval: Another Tyrannous Construct?," The Medieval History Journal, 1(1):25–45 (1998), and other articles in the same number. Stuart Airlie, "Strange Eventful Histories: The Middle Ages in the Cinema," chapter 10 in Peter Linehan and Janet L. Nelson, The Medieval World (2001), pp. 163–183, provides an introduction to depictions of the Middle Ages in film.
A discussion of late antiquity is G.W. Bowersock, Peter Brown, and Oleg Grabar (eds.), Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World (1999). Discussions of the "long Middle Ages" include Dietrich Gerhard, Old Europe: A Study of Continuity, 1000–1800 (1981); Jacques Le Goff, "For an Extended Middle Ages," in his The Medieval Imagination (1988; originally published in French), pp. 18–23; Howard Kaminsky, "From Lateness to Waning to Crisis: The Burden of the Later Middle Ages," Journal of Early Modern History, 4(1):85–125 (November 2000); Elizabeth R. Brown, "On 1500," chapter 29 in Linehan and Nelson's The Medieval World (above), pp. 691–710.
Surveys (cited here in reverse chronological sequence) include Eamon Duffy, Saints & Sinners: A History of the Popes, 3rd ed. (2006); Peter Brown, The Rise of Western Christendom: Triumph and Diversity AD 200–1000, 2nd ed. (2003); Rosamond McKitterick (ed.), The Early Middle Ages: Europe, 400–1000 (2001); R.I. Moore, The First European Revolution, c. 970–1215 (2000); David Nicholas, The Transformation of Europe 1300–1600 (1999); Marcia L. Colish, Medieval Foundations of the Western Intellectual Tradition, 400–1400 (1998, reprinted 2002); R.N. Swanson, Religion and Devotion in Europe, c. 1215–c. 1515 (1995); Thomas A. Brady, Heiko A. Oberman, and James D. Tracy (eds.), Handbook of European History, 1400–1600: Late Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Reformation, 2 vol. (1994–95); Robert Bartlett, The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization, and Cultural Change, 950–1350 (1993); Joseph H. Lynch, The Medieval Church (1992); Patrick J. Geary, Before France and Germany: The Creation and Transformation of the Merovingian World (1988); J.H. Burns (ed.), The Cambridge History of Medieval Political Thought, c. 350–c. 1450 (1988; reissued 1997); Brian Tierney, Religion, Law, and the Growth of Constitutional Thought, 1150–1650 (1982); Francis Oakley, The Western Church in the Later Middle Ages (1979, reissued 1987); and R.W. Southern, The Making of the Middle Ages (1953, reissued 1998).
The classic work describing the older idea of decay is that of Johan Huizinga, The Autumn of the Middle Ages (1996). A useful counterpoint is Kaminsky's "From Lateness to Waning to Crisis" (above).
Jacob Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1890; originally published in German, 1860), is a classic work, elegant and stimulating, available in many later editions, but its thesis, that 14th-century Italians broke sharply with their medieval past to create modern states and a highly individualistic secular society and culture, has been heavily modified by most modern specialists. Wallace K. Ferguson, The Renaissance in Historical Thought: Five Centuries of Interpretation (1948, reprinted 1981), offers an excellent introduction, but recent scholarship has expanded the range and depth of knowledge and dissolved such interpretive consensus as still existed when Ferguson wrote. E.F. Jacob (ed.), Italian Renaissance Studies (1960); Tinsley Helton (ed.), The Renaissance: A Reconsideration of the Theories and Interpretations of the Age (1961, reprinted 1980); and Denys Hay, The Italian Renaissance in Its Historical Background, 2nd ed. (1977), characterize the interpretations of the 1960s. At present most Renaissance historians do not make the sweeping characterizations of the "spirit of an age" that once came so easily. An excellent historiographical and bibliographical guide to works about Europe outside Italy is Steven Ozment (ed.), Reformation Europe: A Guide to Research (1982), not really limited to the Reformation.
Lauro Martines, Power and Imagination: City-States in Renaissance Italy (1979, reissued 1988), provides an informative survey. Florentine history is authoritatively surveyed in Gene Brucker, Renaissance Florence (1969, reissued 1983). Eric Cochrane, Florence in the Forgotten Centuries, 1527–1800: A History of Florence and the Florentines in the Age of the Grand Dukes (1973), ventures beyond the fall of the Florentine republic. Venetian history is ably treated in D.S. Chambers, The Imperial Age of Venice, 1380–1580 (1970); William H. McNeill, Venice: The Hinge of Europe, 1081-1797 (1974, reprinted 1986); and Robert Finlay, Politics in Renaissance Venice (1980). Social and cultural conditions and religious life are approached in Brian Pullan, Rich and Poor in Renaissance Venice: The Social Institutions of a Catholic State, to 1620 (1971); Richard C. Trexler, Public Life in Renaissance Florence (1980); David Herlihy and Christiane Klapisch-Zuber, Tuscans and Their Families: A Study of the Florentine Catasto of 1427 (1985; originally published in French, 1978); Ronald F.E. Weissman, Ritual Brotherhood in Renaissance Florence (1982); Edward Muir, Civic Ritual in Renaissance Venice (1981); and Donald E. Queller, The Venetian Patriciate: Reality Versus Myth (1986). Joan Kelly, "Did Women Have a Renaissance?" in her Women, History & Theory (1984), challenged Burckhardt's thesis that women achieved equality with men in Renaissance Italy. Other good studies on women in the Renaissance include Ian Maclean, The Renaissance Notion of Woman: A Study in the Fortunes of Scholasticism and Medical Science in European Intellectual Life (1980); Christiane Klapisch-Zuber, Women, Family, and Ritual in Renaissance Italy, trans. from French (1985); and Margaret W. Ferguson, Maureen Quilligan, and Nancy J. Vickers (eds.), Rewriting the Renaissance: The Discourses of Sexual Difference in Early Modern Europe (1986). Samuel Kline Cohn, Jr., The Laboring Classes in Renaissance Florence (1980), is a controversial groundbreaking study.
A good starting point for the study of Renaissance intellectual history is Paul Oskar Kristeller, Renaissance Thought: The Classic, Scholastic, and Humanistic Strains, rev. ed. (1961), and Renaissance Thought II: Papers on Humanism and the Arts (1965, reissued 1980). Eugenio Garin, Italian Humanism: Philosophy and Civic Life in the Renaissance, trans. from Italian (1965, reprinted 1975); and Hans Baron, The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance: Civic Humanism and Republican Liberty in an Age of Classicism and Tyranny, rev. ed. (1966), treat humanism as a civic ethos as well as a scholarly and educational movement; while Charles Trinkaus, In Our Image and Likeness: Humanity and Divinity in Italian Humanist Thought, 2 vol. (1970), disproves the notion of humanism as primarily secular. Ernest H. Wilkins, Life of Petrarch (1961), provides information on the acknowledged founder of Renaissance humanism. Ronald G. Witt, Hercules at the Crossroads: The Life, Works, and Thought of Coluccio Salutati (1983), is an excellent study of a figure second only to Petrarch in importance. George Holmes, Florence, Rome, and the Origins of the Renaissance (1986), revives an old thesis attributing the origins of the Renaissance to the age of Dante. Studies of humanist culture outside Florence include J.K. Hyde, Padua in the Age of Dante (1966); John F. D'Amico, Renaissance Humanism in Papal Rome: Humanists and Churchmen on the Eve of the Reformation (1983); Charles L. Stinger, The Renaissance in Rome (1985); Jerry H. Bentley, Politics and Culture in Renaissance Naples (1987); and Margaret L. King, Venetian Humanism in an Age of Patrician Dominance (1986). A lively revisionist view that challenges basic assumptions about the history of Renaissance humanism is presented in Anthony Grafton and Lisa Jardine, From Humanism to the Humanities: Education and the Liberal Arts in Fifteenth- and Sixteenth-Century Europe (1986). Albert Rabil, Jr. (ed.), Renaissance Humanism: Foundations, Forms, and Legacy, 3 vol. (1988); Lauro Martines, Power and Imagination: City States in Renaissance Italy (1988); and Donald Kelley, Renaissance Humanism (1991), discuss the current state of studies on humanism.
The classic account of the development of diplomacy is Garrett Mattingly, Renaissance Diplomacy (1955, reprinted 1988); the subject is also discussed in Joycelyne G. Russell, Peacemaking in the Renaissance (1986). Michael Mallett, Mercenaries and Their Masters: Warfare in Renaissance Italy (1974), is a study of war in the Renaissance. Felix Gilbert, Machiavelli and Guicciardini: Politics and History in Sixteenth-Century Florence (1965, reprinted 1984), provides the political and cultural context of the thought of two leading Renaissance political scholars. J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (1975), traces the Renaissance heritage to modern times. Sebastian de Grazia, Machiavelli in Hell (1989), is a fresh, lively intellectual biography of the great Florentine.
Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, The Printing Press as an Agent of Change: Communications and Cultural Transformations in Early Modern Europe, 2 vol. (1979), and The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe (1983), make a strong case for the revolutionary impact of Renaissance print technology upon culture. The concept of a "scientific revolution" is upheld in such standard works as Herbert Butterfield, The Origins of Modern Science: 1300–1800, rev. ed. (1957, reprinted 1982); I. Bernard Cohen, From Leonardo to Lavoisier, 1450–1800 (1980); and A. Rupert Hall, The Revolution in Science, 1500–1750, 3rd ed. (1983); while the continuities with medieval science are stressed in A.C. Crombie, Medieval and Early Modern Science, 2nd rev. ed. (1959, reissued 1967). Feminist theorists have made some influential contributions to revisionist perspectives deploring the "triumphalism" with which scientific advance has been treated: for example, Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (1985); Margaret Jacobs and James Jacobs, The Cultural Meaning of the Scientific Revolution (1988); and Londa Schiebinger, The Mind Has No Sex: Women in the Origins of Modern Science (1989).
New areas of investigation in social history, including the history of the lower classes, women, the family, and popular religion, are exemplified in Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, The Peasants of Languedoc (1974; originally published in French, 1966); Peter Laslett, The World We Have Lost: Further Explored, 3rd. ed. (1984); Natalie Zemon Davis, Society and Culture in Early Modern France (1975, reissued 1987); Peter Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (1978, reprinted 1988); Richard Kieckhefer, European Witch Trials: Their Foundations in Popular and Learned Culture, 1300–1500 (1976); Steven Ozment, When Fathers Ruled: Family Life in Reformation Europe (1983); Joseph Klaits, Servants of Satan: The Age of the Witch Hunts (1985); and Brian P. Levack, The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern Europe (1987).
In religious history there has been a tendency to reconstruct the bridges between the late medieval and Reformation piety and thought. Among the most influential examples of this effort are Heiko Augustinus Oberman, The Harvest of Medieval Theology: Gabriel Biel and Late Medieval Nominalism (1963, reissued 1983); and Heiko Augustinus Oberman (ed.), Forerunners of the Reformation: The Shape of Late Medieval Thought (1966, reissued 1981). Other important studies include Steven E. Ozment (ed.), The Reformation in Medieval Perspective (1971); and Thomas N. Tentler, Sin and Confession on the Eve of the Reformation (1977). Another, not necessarily contradictory, tendency has been that of seeing the history of late medieval and Renaissance religion on its own terms, rather than as the prelude to the Reformation; this approach is taken by Charles Trinkaus and Heiko Augustinus Oberman (eds.), The Pursuit of Holiness in Late Medieval and Renaissance Religion (1974); and Richard Kieckhefer, Unquiet Souls: Fourteenth-Century Saints and Their Religious Milieu (1984). An original and valuable, if sometimes debatable, overview is John Bossy, Christianity in the West, 1400–1700 (1985).
The economic backgound is discussed in a variety of studies. Carlo M. Cipolla, Before the Industrial Revolution: European Society and Economy, 1000–1700, 2nd ed. (1980; originally published in Italian, 1974), offers a treatment of the economy focusing not so much on history as on social structures. Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World-System, 3 vol. (1974–89), covers the period from the 16th to the mid-19th century, emphasizing spatial division of the early capitalistic world among core areas, semiperipheries, and peripheries. Another broad, rich, and learned reconstruction of the world of early capitalism is offered in Fernand Braudel, Civilization and Capitalism, 15th–18th Century, 3 vol. (1982–84; originally published in French, 1979).
Comprehensive works include Rondo Cameron, A Concise Economic History of the World: From Paleolithic Times to the Present (1989); Harry A. Miskimin, The Economy of Later Renaissance Europe, 1460–1600 (1977), stressing concepts of law as a critical factor in economic development; E.E. Rich and C.H. Wilson (eds.), The Economy of Expanding Europe in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (1967); Jan De Vries, Economy of Europe in an Age of Crisis, 1600–1750 (1976), exploring the 17th-century unraveling of the 16th-century world, and European Urbanization, 1500–1800 (1984), a broader survey; Witold Kula, An Economic Theory of the Feudal System: Towards a Model of the Polish Economy, 1500–1800, new ed. (1976, reissued 1987; originally published in Polish, 1962), an analysis of a particular 16th-century economy; and Piero Camporesi, Bread of Dreams: Food and Fantasy in Early Modern Europe (1989; originally published in Italian, 1980), an exploration of malnutrition with an impressive picture of some unpalatable food and the symbolism of its consumption.
Important demographic studies are Josiah Cox Russell, The Control of Late Ancient and Medieval Population (1985), a historical study of European communities; and E.A. Wrigley and R.S. Schofield, The Population History of England, 1541–1871: A Reconstruction (1981), utilizing new techniques of reconstruction and backward projection of census data.
Studies of protoindustrialization include Peter Kriedte et al., Industrialization Before Industrialization: Rural Industry in the Genesis of Capitalism (1981; originally published in German, 1977), in a German context; John U. Nef, Industry and Government in France and England, 1540–1640 (1940, reprinted 1968), still informative and focusing on the interaction of power; and Paul Sweezy et al., The Transition from Feudalism to Capitalism (1976), a collection of Marxist debates as to what capitalism really was and when it began.
Matters concerning finance are studied in Earl J. Hamilton, American Treasure and the Price Revolution in Spain, 1501–1650 (1934, reprinted 1977), a classic that launched a continuing debate. Political and cultural influences are the subject of Perry Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (1974), a Marxist view of the role of the state in the birth of modern capitalism; Simon Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age (1987), a lengthy and entertaining exploration; Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (1971), on the impact of the culture of Reformation; and R.H. Tawney, Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (1926, reissued 1984), a classic study of Calvinism and the capitalistic ethos.
A broader approach to early modern society is offered summarily in Peter Burke, The Historical Anthropology of Early Modern Italy: Essays on Perception and Communication (1987), focusing on detail rather than central movements of early modern culture; Roger Chartier (ed.), Passions of the Renaissance (1989; originally published in French, 1986), a volume of essays dealing with the period from the Renaissance to Enlightenment, from the series A History of Private Life; Brian Pullan, The Jews of Europe and the Inquisition of Venice, 1550–1670 (1983), an often poignant examination of ethnic relations; and Carlo Ginzburg, The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller (1980; originally published in Italian, 1976), an excellent social history based on the story of an eccentric miller and his cosmological views.
Politics and diplomacy are dealt with in many general histories of the period. Narrative and analytical accounts, with detailed bibliographies, are offered in J.R. Hale, Renaissance Europe, 1480–1520 (1971, reprinted 1985); G.R. Elton, Reformation Europe, 1517–1559 (1963); J.H. Elliott, Europe Divided, 1559–1598 (1968, reprinted 1985); and Geoffrey Parker, Europe in Crisis, 1598–1648 (1979), all four in the Fontana History of Europe series. G.R. Potter (ed.), The Renaissance, 1493–1520 (1957); G.R. Elton (ed.), The Reformation, 1520–1559, 2nd ed. (1990); R.B. Wernham (ed.), The Counter-Reformation and Price Revolution, 1559–1610 (1968); and J.P. Cooper (ed.), The Decline of Spain and the Thirty Years War, 1609–48/59 (1970), the first four volumes in The New Cambridge Modern History series, offer a sequence of chapters by various authors, thematically organized. H.G. Koenigsberger, George L. Mosse, and G.Q. Bowler, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, 2nd ed. (1989), treats the earlier part of the period. The last 50 years of the period, dominated by the genesis and course of continental war, are best approached through Geoffrey Parker (ed.), The Thirty Years' War, rev. ed. (1987).
Gordon East, An Historical Geography of Europe, 5th ed. (1966), provides an informative introduction to geographic features influencing the history of the period. H.D. Schmidt, "The Establishment of 'Europe' as a Political Expression," The Historical Journal, 9(2):172–178 (1966), discusses the question of definition. Main themes are covered in the essays of G.N. Clark, The Seventeenth Century, 2nd ed. (1947, reprinted 1981); and the appropriate volumes of The New Cambridge Modern History series (1957– ). General surveys include E.N. Williams, The Ancien Régime in Europe: Government and Society in the Major States, 1648–1789 (1970); D.H. Pennington, Seventeenth-Century Europe (1970); Geoffrey Treasure, The Making of Modern Europe, 1648–1780 (1985); M.S. Anderson, Europe in the Eighteenth Century, 1713–1783, 3rd ed. (1987); and William Doyle, The Old European Order, 1660–1800 (1978, reprinted 1984). Specific social and demographic questions are explored in Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Times of Feast, Times of Famine: A History of Climate Since the Year 1000 (1971, reissued 1988; originally published in French, 1967); Michael W. Flinn, The European Demographic System, 1500–1820 (1981); Lucien Paul Victor Febvre, A New Kind of History: From the Writings of Febvre, trans. from French, ed. by Peter Burke (1973); Robert Mandrou, Introduction to Modern France, 1500–1640: An Essay in Historical Psychology (1975; originally published in French, 1961); Philippe Ariès, Centuries of Childhood: A Social History of Family Life (1962, reissued 1979; originally published in French, 1960); John McManners, Death and the Enlightenment: Changing Attitudes to Death Among Christians and Unbelievers in Eighteenth-Century France (1981); James C. Riley, The Eighteenth-Century Campaign to Avoid Disease (1987); and Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World: A History of the Modern Sensibility (1983; also published as Man and the Natural World: Changing Attitudes in England, 1500–1800, 1983). Olwen H. Hufton, The Poor of Eighteenth-Century France, 1750–1789 (1974), a study of poverty with much about women; Michael R. Weisser, Crime and Punishment in Early Modern Europe (1979); and E.J. Hobsbawm, Bandits, rev. ed. (1981), provide important insights into early modern social history.
Marc Bloch, French Rural History: An Essay on Its Basic Characteristics (1966, reprinted 1978; originally published in French, 1931); Jack M. Potter, May N. Diaz, and George M. Foster (eds.), Peasant Society (1967); Pierre Goubert, The French Peasantry in the Seventeenth Century (1986; originally published in French, 1982); and Jerome Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia: From the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century (1961, reprinted 1971), are important studies of peasant life. The economic and social conditions in the urban areas are the subject of Gaston Roupnel, La Ville et la campagne au XVIIe siècle: étude sur les populations du pays dijonnais (1955); Orest Ranum, Paris in the Age of Absolutism (1968, reprinted 1979); and Gerald L. Burke, The Making of Dutch Towns: A Study in Urban Development from the Tenth to the Seventeenth Centuries (1956). The early modern aristocracy is studied in A. Goodwin (ed.), The European Nobility in the Eighteenth Century: Studies of the Nobilities of the Major European States in the Pre-Reform Era, 2nd ed. (1967); and Guy Chaussinand-Nogaret, The French Nobility in the Eighteenth Century: From Feudalism to Enlightenment (1985; originally published in French, 1976). Economic questions are examined in the appropriate volumes of The Cambridge Economic History of Europe series (1966– ); Peter Earle (ed.), Essays in European Economic History, 1500–1800 (1974); and B.H. Slicher Van Bath, The Agrarian History of Western Europe, A.D. 500–1850 (1963). G.N. Clark, Science and Social Welfare in the Age of Newton, 2nd ed. (1949, reissued 1970), looks at the connections between science and technology. Commerce and trade and their significance as characteristics of the home countries are discussed in D.C. Coleman (ed.), Revisions in Mercantilism (1969); Ralph Davis, The Rise of the Atlantic Economies (1973); J.H. Parry, Trade and Dominion: The European Oversea Empires in the Eighteenth Century (1971); and C.R. Boxer, The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600–1800 (1965, reprinted 1977).
Gerald R. Cragg, The Church and the Age of Reason, 1648–1789 (1960, reprinted 1985), provides a concise overview of the subject; a comprehensive treatment is offered in E. Préclin and E. Jarry, Les Luttes politiques et doctrinales aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles, 2 vol. (1955–56). Specific significant topics in church history are surveyed in A.G. Dickens, The Counter Reformation (1968, reissued 1979); Jean Delumeau, Catholicism Between Luther and Voltaire: A New View of the Counter-Reformation (1977, originally published in French, 1971); Émile G. Léonard, A History of Protestantism: The Reformation (1965; originally published in French, 1961); Robert O. Crummey, The Old Believers & the World of Antichrist: The Vyg Community & the Russian State, 1694–1855 (1970); Jean Orcibal, Louis XIV et les Protestants: la cabale des accommodeurs de religion, la caisse des conversions, la révocation de l'Édit de Nantes (1951); Mack Holt, The French Wars of Religion (1993); Barbara Diefendorf, Beneath the Cross: Catholics and Huguenots in Sixteenth-Century Paris (1991); James Brodrick, The Progress of the Jesuits, 1556–79 (1947, reprinted 1986); Henry Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition (1965, reissued 1976); Henry Kamen, Philip of Spain (1997); and John McManners, French Ecclesiastical Society Under the Ancien Régime: A Study of Angers in the Eighteenth Century (1960).
Political questions are discussed in Theodore K. Rabb, The Struggle for Stability in Early Modern Europe (1975); J.H. Shennan, The Origins of the Modern European State, 1450–1725 (1974); and A.R. Myers, Parliaments and Estates in Europe to 1789 (1975). Ragnhild Hatton (ed.), Louis XIV and Absolutism (1976), is a collection of articles, mostly translated from French. William F. Church, Richelieu and Reason of State (1973), is another study of absolutism. Quentin Skinner, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought, 2 vol. (1978), is a political history. Trevor Aston (ed.), Crisis in Europe, 1560–1660 (1965, reissued 1975); Geoffrey Parker and Lesley M. Smith (eds.), The General Crisis of the Seventeenth Century (1978); Perez Zagorin, Rebels and Rulers, 1500–1660, 2 vol. (1982); and Roland Mousnier, Peasant Uprisings in Seventeenth-Century France, Russia, and China (1971; originally published in French, 1967), are studies of resistance and revolts.
Diplomacy tends to be subsumed into general histories. Albert Sorel, Europe and the French Revolution: The Political Traditions of the Old Régime (1969; originally published in French, 1885); Jill Lisk, The Struggle for Supremacy in the Baltic, 1600–1725 (1967); Derek McKay and H.M. Scott, The Rise of the Great Powers, 1648–1815 (1983); Ragnhild Hatton (ed.), Louis XIV and Europe (1976); J.S. Bromley and E.H. Kossmann (eds.), Britain and the Netherlands in Europe and Asia (1968); and Mark A. Thomson et al., William III and Louis XIV: Essays 1680–1720 (1968), examine the main outlines of early modern diplomacy. A starting point for the study of war is Michael Roberts, The Military Revolution, 1560–1660 (1956). A later contribution to the ensuing debate is Geoffrey Parker, Spain and the Netherlands, 1559–1659, rev. ed. (1990). The effects of war are treated in G.N. Clark, War and Society in the Seventeenth Century (1958, reprinted 1985); André Corvisier, Armies and Societies in Europe, 1494–1789 (1979; originally published in French, 1976); H.W. Koch, The Rise of Modern Warfare, 1618–1815 (1981); John Childs, Armies and Warfare in Europe, 1648–1789 (1982); Christopher Duffy, The Army of Frederick the Great (1974); and Jeremy Black, European Warfare, 1660–1815 (1994), and A Military Revolution? Military Change and European Society, 1550–1800 (1991).
The subject has attracted so vast a literature that only a limited selection can be offered. Peter Gay, The Enlightenment, an Interpretation, 2 vol. (1966–69, reprinted 1977), is a magisterial work with a comprehensive bibliography. The scientific revolution and the intellectual climate that fostered the Enlightenment are examined in A. Rupert Hall, From Galileo to Newton, 1630–1720 (1963, reprinted 1981); A. Wolf, A History of Science, Technology, and Philosophy in the Eighteenth Century, 2nd ed., rev. by D. McKie (1952); Basil Willey, The Seventeenth Century Background: Studies in the Thought of the Age in Relation to Poetry and Religion (1934); Anthony Kenny, Descartes: Study of His Philosophy (1968, reissued 1987), Maurice Cranston, John Locke: A Biography (1957, reissued 1985); Frank E. Manuel, A Portrait of Isaac Newton (1968, reprinted 1990); Paul Hazard, The European Mind: The Critical Years, 1680–1715 (1953, reissued 1990; originally published in French, 1935); Alan Charles Kors and Paul J. Korshin (eds.), Anticipations of the Enlightenment in England, France, and Germany (1987); and Ira O. Wade, The Intellectual Origins of the French Enlightenment (1971).
Compressed summaries are given in Norman Hampson, The Enlightenment (1968, reissued 1982); and Robert Anchor, The Enlightenment Tradition (1967, reissued 1979). A broader picture is presented in Roy Porter and Mikuláš Teich (eds.), The Enlightenment in National Context (1981). Ernst Cassirer, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment (1951, reissued 1979; originally published in German, 1932), considers the metaphysical basis of 18th-century thought. Important studies of individual thinkers include Elisabeth Labrousse, Pierre Bayle, 2 vol. (1963–64); Robert Shackleton, Montesquieu: A Critical Biography (1961); Arthur M. Wilson, Diderot: The Testing Years, 1713–1759 (1957); Ira O. Wade, The Intellectual Development of Voltaire (1969); Ronald Grimsley, The Philosophy of Rousseau (1973); Roy Porter, Edward Gibbon: Making History (1988); and S.C. Brown (ed.), Philosophers of the Enlightenment (1979). Peter Gay, The Party of Humanity: Essays in the French Enlightenment (1964, reissued 1971), is a good introduction to the philosophes.
Intellectual life in its broader aspects is explored in Alfred Cobban, In Search of Humanity: The Role of the Enlightenment in Modern History (1960). The production and distribution of the Encyclopédie is examined in Robert Darnton, The Business of Enlightenment: A Publishing History of the Encyclopédie, 1775–1800 (1979), and "low" Enlightenment culture is discussed in his The Literary Underground of the Old Regime (1982). J.L. Talmon, The Rise of Totalitarian Democracy (1952, reprinted 1985), sees the Enlightenment as hostile to the idea of freedom; also iconoclastic is Lester G. Crocker, An Age of Crisis: Man and World in Eighteenth Century French Thought (1959). George Boas, "In Search of the Age of Reason," pp. 1–19 in Earl R. Wasserman (ed.), Aspects of the Eighteenth Century (1965), discusses difficulties in interpreting words such as "reason" and "nature." R.R. Palmer, Catholics & Unbelievers in Eighteenth Century France (1939, reissued 1970), describes the religious counterattack against the Enlightenment. Other views are expressed in Lynn Hunt (ed.), The French Revolution in Culture (1989); and Dena Goodman, The Republic of Letters (1994).
Good general accounts of the experience of other countries include Robert E. Schofield, The Lunar Society of Birmingham: A Social History of Provincial Science and Industry in Eighteenth-Century England (1963); Istvan Hont and Michael Ignatieff (eds.), Wealth and Virtue: The Shaping of Political Economy in the Scottish Enlightenment (1983); Walter H. Bruford, Germany in the Eighteenth Century (1935, reissued 1971); Henri Brunschwig, Enlightenment and Romanticism in Eighteenth-Century Prussia (1974; originally published in French, 1947); Isaiah Berlin, "Herder and the Enlightenment," pp. 47–104, in the above-cited collection edited by Earl R. Wasserman; Franco Venturi, Italy and the Enlightenment: Studies in a Cosmopolitan Century, trans. from Italian (1972); Stuart Woolf, A History of Italy, 1700–1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change (1979, reprinted 1986); Marc Raeff, "The Enlightenment in Russia and Russian Thought in the Enlightenment," pp. 25–47 in J.G. Garrard (ed.), The Eighteenth Century in Russia (1973); Richard Herr, The Eighteenth-Century Revolution in Spain (1958, reprinted 1969); and Henry F. May, The Enlightenment in America (1976). Interaction of thinkers and "enlightened" absolutism is explored in C.B.A. Behrens, Society, Government, and the Enlightenment: The Experiences of Eighteenth-Century France and Prussia (1985); Leonard Krieger, Kings and Philosophers, 1689–1789 (1970); and H.M. Scott (ed.), Enlightened Absolutism: Reform and Reformers in Later Eighteenth-Century Europe (1990).
Robin W. Winks and Thomas Kaiser, Europe, 1648–1815: From the Old Regime to the Age of Revolution (2004); T.C.W. Blanning (ed.), The Nineteenth Century: Europe, 1789–1914 (2000); and Theodore S. Hamerow, The Birth of a New Europe: State and Society in the Nineteenth Century (1983), provides an excellent introductionprovide excellent introductions to the period. Comprehensive coverage is offered in E.J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution, 1789–1848 (1962), The Age of Capital, 1848–1875 (1975, reissued 1984), and The Age of Empire, 1875–1914 (1987). Treatments of the Industrial Revolution and related social developments include Lenard R. Berlanstein (ed.), The Industrial Revolution and Work in Nineteenth-Century Europe (1992); Phyllis Deane, The First Industrial Revolution, 2nd ed. (1979), an economic history; David S. Landes, The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present (1969), more comprehensive and less quantitative, on society; Peter N. Stearns, European Society in Upheaval: Social History Since 1750, 2nd ed. (1975); Sidney Pollard, Peaceful Conquest: The Industrialization of Europe, 1760–1970 (1981); and William L. Blackwell, The Industrialization of Russia: An Historical Perspective, 2nd ed. (1982).
Women's history is reviewed in Susan G. Bell and Karen M. Offen (eds.), Women, the Family, and Freedom, 2 vol. (1983); Louise A. Tilly and Joan W. Scott, Women, Work, and Family (1978, reissued 1987); Bonnie G. Smith, Changing Lives: Women in European History since 1700 (1989); and Richard J. Evans, The Feminists: Women's Emancipation Movements in Europe, America, and Australasia, 1840–1920 (1977), an overview of feminism. Important special topics in family history are covered in Edward Shorter, The Making of the Modern Family (1975); John R. Gillis, Youth and History: Tradition and Change in European Age Relations, 1770–Present (1981); Peter N. Stearns, Old Age in European Society: The Case of France (1976); and Angus McLaren, Birth Control in Nineteenth-Century England (1992), and Sexuality and Social Order (1983); and Rachel Fuchs, Poor and Pregnant in Paris (1992). Analysis of major social classes is provided in Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870–1914 (1976); and E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, new ed. (1968, reissued 1980). Charles Tilly, The Contentious French (1986), studies popular protest patterns. Other important studies include Hugh Cunningham, Leisure in the Industrial Revolution: c. 1780–c. 1880 (1980); and Harvey J. Graff (ed.), Literacy and Social Development in the West (1981).
Patterns of revolution are the subject of R.R. Palmer, The Age of the Democratic Revolution: A Political History of Europe and America, 1760–1800, 2 vol. (1959–64, reprinted 1974); Owen Connelly, French Revolution, Napoleonic Era (1979); and Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (1984). Developments at mid-century are studied in Peter N. Stearns, 1848: The Revolutionary Tide in Europe (1974); and Robin W. Winks and Joan Neuberger, Europe and the Making of Modernity, 1815–1914 (2005). Political trends can be followed in several excellent national histories, including Gordon Wright, France in Modern Times: From the Enlightenment to the Present, 4th ed. (1987); Gordon A. Craig, Germany, 1866–1945 (1978); and Asa Briggs, The Making of Modern England, 1783–1867 (1965). Albert S. Lindemann, A History of European Socialism (1983), examines the vital political trend. Overviews of imperialism can be found in Toni Smith, The Pattern of Imperialism: The United States, Great Britain, and the Late-Industrializing World Since 1815 (1981); and Winfried Baumgart, Imperialism: The Idea and Reality of British and French Colonial Expansion, 1880–1914, rev. ed. (1982; originally published in German, 1975). A.J.P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848–1918 (1954, reprinted 1971); and Arno J. Mayer, The Persistence of the Old Regime: Europe to the Great War (1981), interpret internal European diplomatic patterns. Readable accounts of the origins of the First World War include Laurence Lafore, The Long Fuse: An Interpretation of the Origins of World War I, 2nd ed. (1971); Barbara W. Tuchman, The Proud Tower: A Portrait of the World Before the War, 1890–1914 (1966); and James Joll, The Origins of the First World War (1984). The studies by Fritz Fischer are crucial: Germany's Aims in the First World War (1967; originally published in German, 1961), and The War of Illusions (1975; originally published in German, 1969).
The historical role of Romanticism and Realism in philosophical, cultural, social, and political thought and the development of the modern culture of which they were the precursors is the focus of Eugen Weber, Paths to the Present: Aspects of European Thought from Romanticism to Existentialism (1960); Harold T. Parker, The Cult of Antiquity and the French Revolutionaries: A Study in the Development of the Revolutionary Spirit (1937, reprinted 1965); Crane Brinton, The Political Ideas of the English Romanticists (1962); and Jacques Barzun, Classic, Romantic, and Modern, 2nd rev. ed. (1975); and Nicholas Roe (ed.), Romanticism: An Oxford Guide (2005). Frederic Ewen, Heroic Imagination: The Creative Genius of Europe from Waterloo (1815) to the Revolution of 1848 (1984), gives a broad summary with interpretive detail. Ernst Behler (ed.), Philosophy of German Idealism (1987), supplies both a review of common traits and comparative evaluations. Kenneth R. Johnston and Gene W. Ruoff (eds.), The Age of William Wordsworth: Critical Essays on the Romantic Tradition (1987), offers contrasting views on Romantic literature to 1850. Robert C. Binkley, Realism and Nationalism: 1852–1871 (1935, reprinted 1963); and Carlton J.H. Hayes, A Generation of Materialism, 1871–1900 (1941, reprinted 1983), add to the understanding of political and economic characteristics of the period and interpret its culture. William W. Stowe, Balzac, James, and the Realistic Novel (1983), considers the development of the genre from its inception to its modern transformations.
Bruce Bernard (ed.), The Impressionist Revolution (1986), interprets the broadest aspects of artistic innovation. Maly Gerhardus and Dietfried Gerhardus, Symbolism and Art Nouveau: Sense of Impending Crisis, Refinement of Sensibility, and Life Reborn in Beauty (1979; originally published in German, 1977), covers the last two decades of the 19th century in this excellently illustrated volume. Yvonne Brunhammer, The Art Deco Style (1983), examines the radical change in design characteristic of the new century. Lewis Mumford et al., The Arts in Renewal (1951, reprinted 1969), is a collection of interpretive studies on the historical establishment of modernism in various artistic genres. Henry R. Hitchcock, Modern Architecture: Romanticism and Reintegration (1929, reprinted 1972), offers a prospect and retrospect after a generation of the "International Style."
The scope and volume of literature on the period is so vast that no comprehensive bibliography can be suggested here. Most of the following works, however, contain significant bibliographies of their own. General historical surveys include Geoffrey Barraclough, An Introduction to Contemporary History (1964); Michael D. Biddiss, The Age of the Masses: Ideas and Society in Europe Since 1870 (1977); Jean-Baptiste Duroselle, Europe: A History of Its People (1990; originally published in French, 1990); H. Stuart Hughes and James Wilkinson, Contemporary Europe: A History, 7th ed. (1991); James Joll, Europe Since 1870: An International History, 3rd ed. (1983); and David Thomson, Europe Since Napoleon, 2nd ed. (1962, reprinted 1981). World War I is examined in Spencer Tucker, The Great War, 1914–1918 (1998); C.R.M.F. Cruttwell, A History of the Great War, 1914–1918, 2nd ed. (1936, reissued 1982); J.E. Edmonds, A Short History of World War I (1951, reprinted 1968); Cyril B. Falls, The First World War (1960); and Bernadotte Schmitt and Harold Vedeler, The World in the Crucible, 1914–1939 (1984). Accounts of the Treaty of Versailles are found in H.W.V. Temperley (ed.), A History of the Peace Conference of Paris, 6 vol. (1920–24, reissued 1969); Harold Nicolson, Peacemaking, 1919: Being Reminiscences of the Paris Peace Conference (1933, reissued 1984); John Maynard Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace (1919, reissued 1988); Étienne Mantoux, The Carthaginian Peace: ; or, The Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes (1946, reprinted 1978); Arno Mayer, Politics and Diplomacy of Peacemaking (1967); and Marc Trachtenberg, Reparation in World Politics (1980).
David Clay Large, Between Two Fires: Europe's Path in the 1930s (1990), provides a general overview of the interwar period. Special studies include Charles Maier, Recasting Bourgeois Europe (1975); Benjamin Martin, France and the Après Guerre, 1918–1924 (1999); Eugen Weber, The Hollow Years (1994); Peter Gay, Weimar Culture: The Outsider as Insider (1968, reprinted 1981); H.W. Hodson, Slump and Recovery, 1929–1937: A Survey of World Economic Affairs (1938, reprinted 1983), on the Great Depression; Alan Bullock, Hitler: A Study in Tyranny, rev. ed. (1962); Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini (1981), on dictatorial leadership; Hugh Thomas, The Spanish Civil War, 3rd rev. ed. (1986); and F.P. Walters, A History of the League of Nations, 2 vol. (1952, reprinted in 1 vol., 1986), on the political realities confronted by this organization.
The approach and developments of World War II are summarized in A.J.P. Taylor, The Origins of the Second World War (1961, reissued 1983); Donald Cameron Watt, How War Came: The Immediate Origins of the Second World War, 1938–1939 (1989); Peter Calvocoressi, Guy Wint, and John Pritchard, Total War: The Causes and Courses of the Second World War, 2nd rev. ed. (1989); Martin Gilbert, The Second World War: A Complete History (1989); Gordon Wright, The Ordeal of Total War, 1939–1945 (1968); Michael Marrus, The Holocaust in History (1987); and Raoul Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews (1961).
The postwar situation is examined in Richard Mayne, The Recovery of Europe: From Devastation to Unity (1970), and Postwar: The Dawn of Today's Europe (1983); Roger Morgan, West European Politics Since 1945: The Shaping of the European Community (1972); Derek W. Urwin, Western Europe Since 1945: A Political History, 4th ed. (1989); Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes (1994); and Walter LaFeber, America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945–1992 (1993). Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department (1969, reprinted 1987), discusses, among other things, the Marshall Plan. Henry L. Roberts, Eastern Europe: Politics, Revolution & Diplomacy (1970); and W.W. Rostow, The Division of Europe After World War II, 1946 (1981), focus on the forces that developed the Cold War. Hugh Seton-Watson, The East European Revolution, 3rd ed. (1956), and From Lenin to Khrushchev: The History of World Communism, new ed. (1985), examine developments in eastern Europe and the communist world. V.G. Kiernan, European Empires from Conquest to Collapse, 1815–1960 (1982), examines the dynamics of colonialism. T. Iván Berend, An Economic History of Twentieth-Century Europe: Economic Regimes from Laissez-Faire to Globalization (2006), offers an economic perspective.
The development of European unity is discussed in Sidney Pollard, European Economic Integration, 1815–1970 (1974); Walter Lipgens, A History of European Integration: 1945–1947, trans. from German (1982); Jean Monnet, Memoirs (1978; originally published in French, 1976); R.C. Mowat, Creating the European Community (1973); Miriam Camps, Britain and the European Community, 1955–1963 (1964); and Richard Mayne and John Pinder, Federal Union: The Pioneers (1990). Further insights into the European Union are provided by Desmond Dinan, Ever Closer Union: An Introduction to European Integration, 3rd ed. (2005); and John McCormick, The European Union: Politics and Policies, 4th ed. (2008).


text: Since there is no way to disable TrueVector and it is causing WinAmp to glitch when playing through Software Audio Console, how do I prevent TrueVector from causing the glitching? I have ZoneAlarm set to allow full connection for WinAmp and Software Audio Console, but every time I switch songs in WinAmp there is an obnoxious glitch sound. I would like to eliminate this if possible. When using this combination of programs, the computer is not connected to the internet anyway. It is on a private LAN with one other computer.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
I try to deal in common sense realities. To me if I'm already paying someone to be a security guard the least we can do is give them the tools to be effective at their job.
A Big +1 to Freestaters Post.
Political Reality on "compromise" on a whole assortment of issues, and a great example of how compromise only moves one way (from the individual, to the State) and how today's "this is all we want" is tomorrows "be reasonable, you need to compromise (again)".
Very well said.
I try to deal in common sense realities. To me if I'm already paying someone to be a security guard the least we can do is give them the tools to be effective at their job.
The only answer you could possibly achieve is to go back in time and un-invent guns. Of course, this assumes that your real goal is to reduce crime and criminal violence, and not to simply impose your will on you law-abiding neighbors. If that assumption is true, then your only "answers" are pipe-dreams.
Imagine a woman who is being stalked. She goes to the police and they issue a restraining order. She tries to get a gun for self protection but is rejected or put on a wait list that takes months to get past. This type of thing happens. I want that woman to have the ability to protect herself and feel safe.
Amongst the other Const. Amendments I'd be in favor of is one mandating that ANY and ALLL new legislation must face a minimum of 1 full week (7 days) from the time it's made publicly available for reading, before it can be voted on.
Thinking about how much of our law is now written by special interests, and never even READ by our "legislators" is very, VERY disturbing to me.
Here is my perspective;
Your constitutional rights cannot infringe on my constitutional rights. Freedom of speech does not afford you or me the ability to verbally threaten someone or yell fire in a movie theater when there is none. Irresponsible gun laws and listless enforcement of those laws are a serious threat to the most basic constitutional rights we enjoy.
So as an example, a society which tacitly (at the very least) allows mentally ill citizens with criminal records longer then my arm to purchase assault weapons at gun shows (thanks to loop holes in the laws) is protecting one right at the potential loss of another.
And you do not have the right nor power to infringe upon MY rights simply because you fear someone MIGHT infringe upon yours.
Thats what this boils down to. You want to revoke the rights of 300 million people, because you fear one of those poeple might, one day, infringe upon your rights.
Imagaine if we handled all jurisprudence that way.
In effect, you wish to find Guilty all Americans for a crime that not only has not yet occured (the removal of your rights) but might NEVER occur.
Thats not how it works. WHEN someone takes your rights from you, THEN they face the penalty of Law and potential removal of their rights (freedom, voting, gun ownership, etc).
Not before hand.
I'm shocked that this needs explained to a professional educator.
Yet you do not have the power or right to revoke 300 million Americans right to free speech, in ADVANCE, becaus eone of them MIGHT use their freedom of speech to threaten you or yell fire in a theatre, do you?Freedom of speech does not afford you or me the ability to verbally threaten someone or yell fire in a movie theater when there is none.
Where in any of MY responses did I advocate taking away gun rights for everyone? I am sorry that the caller on Tom Hartman's show was a far left loon. Maybe the answer might be to call his show and set them straight.


text:
It will be quite the photo op come April 2, or the days before, as Pepsi banners, products and vending machines are quickly removed in Ocean City and replaced by those bearing the name of Coca-Cola, which successfully outbid its familiar rival for the town's beverage franchise this week.
Back when Ocean City first went the way of an official drink, it was quite controversial. There were cries that the city was selling out and going overly commercial at the time. I actually recall thinking quite the opposite. That it was a creative way to raise money at that time and was clearly the wave of the future. In the case of this week's announcement, it appears Coca-Cola simply gave the resort more in its bid than Pepsi did. Loyalty and a 10-year relationship with Pepsi only went so far in the end.
Along these lines, these sorts of commercial sponsorships are growing increasingly popular in all aspects of business. It's sort of similar to a trend in the newspaper industry where periodicals reluctantly began offering front-page advertising. It's not something publishers necessarily desired to offer, but turning a blind eye to the revenue potential was not smart business either.
That's why I have long thought Ocean City ought to allocate resources to seeking sponsorships for its major events, which typically lose money for the city but tend to bring people to town and subsequently assist the private sector. Sure, there is a little cheese involved with Nestle's Winterfest of Lights, Miller Lite's Sunfest or Bel-Art's Art's Alive, but sponsorship dollars would surely help offset some of the expenses involved with the events.
It's still unknown exactly how far the union movement will progress among municipal employees, but there appears to be a general sentiment that the Mayor and Council will not decide this matter.
It needs to be made clear here that the council has the authority to make the call, as it did when it extended collective bargaining rights without binding interest arbitration to paramedics and fire personnel a few years after the Fraternal Order of Police scored similar rights at the ballot box but with binding interest arbitration.
The key at the time for the council was that the EMS folks were not seeking binding interest arbitration. Consequently, a public vote was held and it easily passed. It's unclear if the employees at the forefront of this simmering union movement would be willing to accept the same deal. It's worth recalling that at least a few of the current council members were not in elected office when that decision was made, and this council may not be of the same mindset.
Last week, Council President Jim Hall and Councilwoman Margaret Pillas seemed intent on giving voters the say on whether to grant organization rights to employees. If that opinion prevails over a majority of the council, which is likely, another consideration here is whether the council will require town employees to go the petition route, which would require them to obtain 20 percent of the registered voters before it could be placed on the ballot as a referendum.
Sooner or later, it's assumed the council will discuss this issue in public, but you know what they say about people who make assumptions.
Foreign students looking to spend the summer in Ocean City will most likely have to find a new sponsor, as the State Department has banned the Council for Educational Travel USA (CETUSA) from bringing foreign students to this country.
The decision is a result of a five-month investigation of an incident last summer in Hershey, Pa. where about 400 foreign workers were employed in Hershey's chocolate packing plant. During the height of the summer season, hundreds of those workers carried out a walkout from the plant protesting low pay and unhealthy working conditions.
CETUSA was the sponsor of those workers, and the feds clearly sent a message to it and other organizations like it that they have to be more attuned to what their participants are going through and their working conditions. CETUSA, like dozens of other private companies, participate in the State Department's summer work program that requires it to monitor these foreign students.
As a result of the Hershey incident, the State Department is planning to issue new regulations documenting the list of occupations prohibited for foreign summer workers. The list, according to an article in yesterday's New York Times, will reportedly include most construction jobs and others shown to be hazardous.
"We want to make sure that sponsors are not putting the labor aspect in the primary position, when it should be the cultural aspect," Rick Ruth, acting deputy assistant secretary of state, told the New York Times.
According to Ruth, who said the federal government will boost program oversight through the hiring of additional employees, the probe found foreign worker complaints were largely ignored by CETUSA and even met with threats over Visas being cancelled if the workers became too vocal.
On the Ocean City front, the local ramifications are unclear. This week's news obviously means CETUSA will not be involved this summer, and it's the chief sponsor for most foreign workers who come here.
Yesterday's call to regional manager Annemarie Conestabile, who has been involved with foreign workers for years in Ocean City, was not returned prior to deadline.


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Never miss another 'Ray Mears' show
An Evening with Ray Mears - The Outdoor Life: Ray Mears
Ray Mears is perhaps the foremost expert of bushcraft and survival and no doubt the widest-travelled!
Over the past two decades Ray has become recognised as an authority on the subject and has become a household name through his various television series, including Trips Money Can't Buy with Ewan McGregor.
Don't miss this captivating theatre show in which Ray talks about his life and shares stories from his many years surviving the wilderness.
Image © Niall McDiarmid
This event takes place at Liverpool Philharmonic Hall, which has achieved Bronze Status for disabled access from Attitude Is Everything.
Ray Mears
Recognised worldwide as an authority on bushcraft and survival, Ray acquired his unique skills through his work in some of the world's most uninhabitable and harshest environments.
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Venue Facts
Venue: Liverpool Philharmonic Hall
Disabled Access: Bronze Status
Website: liverpoolphil.com
Email: ...
Enquiries: 0151 210 2895
Bookings: 0151 709 3789
Disabled Bookings: 0151 709 3789
→ Liverpool Central 8 min walk
→ Lime Street 10 min walk


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Microphone Preamplifier
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ADC Dynamic Range (AWTD, 48 kHz Sample Rate): 107dB
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Internal Sample Frequency Selections (kHz):44.1, 48
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Weight: 6 lbs. (2.72 KG)
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Comments about PreSonus DigiMax D8 8-Channel Preamplifier:
I just got my hands on this unit today and I couldn't believe how easy it was to get up and running. I wanted to add 8 more mic input channels to my Digidesign Digi002 Rack ( PC running Windows XP Home), And wanted the best for my budget. And I made the right decision with the Digimax D8. I only had to run one ADAT(Optical) cable from the Digimax D8 ADAT output, to the ADAT input on my Digi002 Rack. And, BAM, I was ready to go. I looked for this wiring diagram online,but couldn't find one. After installation and wiring is done just turn on the D8,then the 002 Rack,then the computer (in that order). If you hear clicking/popping noise, Open ProTools,click Hardware,Setup,and set the clock to ADAT. You may need to restart. Presonus makes very good preamps and the D8 is no exception. These preamps sound just as good as the Digidesign. The D8 is advertised as an addition to the Digidesign Digi003 and other DAW's,but the Digi 002R is not mentioned. I am here to testify,that it works perfectly. Another note: Presonus has very good customer service. They tell you to call back if needed.


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British Schools Hold Parents Accountable for their Children's Actions
Should Parents Be Responsible For Kids' Actions in School?
Sit down and behave yourself will take on a new meaning in British schools this year. Under a government plan, parents of children enrolled in state schools will be required to sign a Home School Agreement regarding rules on attendance, behavior, school uniforms and homework. Should kids break the rules, their parents could face court proceedings and a fine up to $1,600. In explaining the reasoning for the new rules, the British schools secretary said:
If the large majority of parents are doing the right thing but a small minority do not engage you can have one lesson for 30 kids disrupted by one child. Every parent will have to, as part of the admissions process, say they take on board the obligations in the Home School Agreement, and every parent will be expected to reaffirm that every year.
In a rather unique twist, parents will have the ability to complain about other moms and dads that are not complying with the agreement. If the parents are found guilty, the courts can force them to attend parenting classes to ensure better behavior. Would you want to see such rules enforced in the United States?


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Motorola atrix articles
Motorola Atrix HD 4G LTE Android Smartphone Review
The new Motorola Atrix HD has some seriously stiff competition in AT&T's smartphone lineup with the Samsung Galaxy S III and the HTC One X. The Atrix HD has most of the specs to match the top tier Android smartphones, but does it put them together well enough to be a real competitor?
The answer to that question is a bit of yes and a bit of no. The Atrix HD excels in certain areas, but doesn't quite hit the mark in others. Fortunately, its $99 price tag makes it a great value, and it is one to be considered for those who don't want to shell out upwards of $200 on a new smartphone.


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Leake struggles, giving up eight runs in four innings
Bruce error allows three runs to score in second inning
By Adam McCalvy / MLB.com
GOODYEAR, Ariz. -- Matt Garza pitched six quality innings and the Brewers backed him with plenty of early offense, beating Mike Leake and the Reds, 9-1, at Goodyear Ballpark on Sunday.
The Brewers tallied nine hits -- including six doubles -- in four innings against Leake, who was charged with eight runs, seven earned, in his first loss of the spring.
Most of the damage came in the second inning, when Milwaukee sent nine men to the plate and scored six runs. Kevin Mattison delivered a two-run double amid the Brewers' big rally, and three more runs scored when Jonathan Lucroy hit a single to right field that got by Jay Bruce for a three-base error.
"His stuff was up and it was flat," Reds manager Bryan Price said of Leake. "He had good velocity. He threw some good cutters. He left some curveballs up, some fastballs up. It was two stories. The first inning, he had three ground-ball outs. In the second inning, he had I think five extra-base hits -- most of them to the gap. … His arm looked good. He was healthy. He'll make his next start and should be ready to go for the season."
Lyle Overbay broke out of an 0-for-26 slump with three hits on the same day he was informed he'd made the team. Garza entered the day with a 19.06 ERA but was very sharp, holding Cincinnati to a run on four hits, with two walks and six strikeouts. He'd struck out only four batters in his three previous Cactus League starts.
"That was good to see from Garza and we played a nice, clean game, made some nice plays," said Brewers manager Ron Roenicke, whose club had committed nine errors over its previous two games. "It was a good one."
Up next: Brandon Phillips has hits in each of his last four games and has hit homers in three of four of those games. Phillips will return to the lineup when the Reds host the Indians on Monday at 3:05 p.m. CT, airing on MLB.TV. Alfredo Simon will make the start for Cincinnati against Carlos Carrasco.
Adam McCalvy is a reporter for MLB.com. Read his blog, Brew Beat, and follow him on Twitter at @AdamMcCalvy. This story was not subject to the approval of Major League Baseball or its clubs.


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MonTREP Projects
WMD Terrorism Database
The Monterey WMD Terrorism Database is the largest open-source catalog of worldwide incidents involving the acquisition, possession, threat, and use of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) by non-state actors. Maintained by MonTREP, the database includes more than 1,100 incidents -- from 1900 to the present -- that relate to the use of chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) materials as possible weapons.
The database is updated regularly on the basis of information obtained from hundreds of monitored sources -- including news services, academic and trade journals, government reports, books, conferences proceedings, Internet sites and unpublished sources -- in a variety of languages, including Arabic, Chinese, English, Farsi, French, German, Korean, Russian, and Spanish.


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Canon is recalling a small number of PowerShot A530 and A540
digital cameras that run the risk of short-circuit which leads to overheating.
Affected cameras can suffer from extremely hot battery doors and drastically
reduced battery life.
Canon warns that the spring that holds the battery door on
affected camera can become so hot that it could possibly cause burns.
The PowerShot A530 and A540 cameras affected by the recall
have serial numbers that start with "21", "22",
"23" and "24". The serial number can be found at the bottom
of the camera. Canon will repair all models affected by the recall free of
charge no matter if the camera is in warranty or not.
To make arrangements to have your camera repaired, customers
are urged to contact Canon's toll-free call center at 1-800-828-4040.


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Full Calendar
Facebook: APU Alumni Association
Posted by: Office of Alumni and Parent Relations
It's one of APU's best-loved traditions and it just won't be the same without you! Mark your calendar and plan to come for the weekend to celebrate the spirit of community here at Azusa Pacific!
For a full list of events and to register, click here.


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Hicks taking advantage of infield audition
By AJ Cassavell / MLB.com
GLENDALE, Ariz. -- Brandon Hicks emphatically stated his case for a roster spot Sunday afternoon at Camelback Ranch.
The 28-year-old infielder crushed a 1-1 offering from reigning National League Cy Young Award winner Clayton Kershaw into the Bermuda grass behind right field, giving the Giants an early lead and likely turning a few more heads.
Given the Giants' past struggles against the Dodgers' ace, they could use just about anyone who can hit Kershaw. Right now, Hicks is in contention for a utility infield spot -- at least one of which is up for grabs on the Major League roster.
"He's got some experience, and he's got some power," manager Bruce Bochy said. "He lets it go. He's done a good job with second and short, and we'll probably work him at third a little bit. You'd like to have as many options as you can, and he's certainly one of them."
Hicks has gotten a fair shake in the position battle this spring. He's one of just two Giants to appear in nine Cactus League games. (The other is outfielder Juan Perez).
And Hicks is taking full advantage of that playing time, too. He's hitting .429 with a monstrous .929 slugging percentage.
"When you get at least two at-bats a day, that's great, but even when you only get that one, you've got to make the most of it," Hicks said before he knocked in all three Giants runs Sunday. "So just try and slow the game down and do what you can. ... I'm slowly feeling more and more comfortable."
Hicks has shown plenty of patience at the plate as well, with four walks this spring, including one with the bases loaded Sunday. Conversely, however, he has struck out six times -- accounting for all but two of his outs.
Everyday second baseman Marco Scutaro is still battling back problems, and if they continue to linger through Opening Day, that could clear up roster room for Hicks. So what exactly does Hicks feel like he needs to do to earn a spot in a crowded race?
"Show them I can play all the infield positions and play good defense, and just keep having consistent at-bats," Hicks said. "I need to cut my strikeouts down. I've struck out more than I would like to early on. I've got to keep having consistent at-bats and put the ball in play."
Bumgarner dominates Giants Future Stars
SCOTTSDALE, Ariz. -- Madison Bumgarner was sharp and top prospect Kyle Crick couldn't find the strike zone, as a split Giants squad knocked off the "Giants Future Stars," 8-0, on Sunday at Scottsdale Stadium.
Bumgarner, only 24 himself, tossed four innings, allowing a hit and two walks while striking out five. The outing obviously won't count toward his Cactus League totals, but Bumgarner hasn't allowed a run in nine innings this spring, and his WHIP (walks plus hits per inning pitched) sits at 0.67.
Crick, on the other hand, couldn't make it out of the first inning. The 21-year-old right-hander faced seven hitters and allowed five runs on a hit and four walks. He threw 35 pitches, including two wild pitches, and only 15 went for strikes.
First-base prospect Angel Villalona led the Futures squad with two hits, and first-round pick Christian Arroyo also picked up a knock.
Roger Kieschnick homered for the Giants, and Brett Krill went 2-for-3 with two RBIs and a walk.
Pence, Morse given day off to rest injuries
SCOTTSDALE, Ariz. -- Giants outfielders Hunter Pence (left shoulder) and Michael Morse (right calf) were both out of the lineup against the Dodgers on Sunday, as manager Bruce Bochy gave them a day off to recover.
So what exactly should anyone read into these injuries?
Well, absolutely nothing if you ask either of them. The corner-outfield pair gave practically identical responses when asked how serious their ailments were.
"If it was the season, I could go, but you want to get it fully healed," Pence said.
"If it were the regular season, I'd definitely play today," said Morse.
Sporting a tight wrap around his ankle and calf Sunday, Morse added that he no longer feels any soreness at all. The newest Giants outfielder couldn't recall a specific play that might have triggered it. Instead, he simply noticed discomfort while standing in the outfield Friday, and he was promptly removed after letting Bochy know.
Pence, meanwhile, was initially slated to play Sunday, but after a discussion with Bochy, the pair decided to play it safe, and a new lineup card was tacked to the team's bulletin board with Tyler Graham in right field.
"It's a small left shoulder thing," Pence said. "[Bochy's] got so many things to think about, so he's just being cautious. Everything is good."
Pence tweaked the shoulder while swinging and missing during a sixth-inning at-bat against Kansas City on Friday. He launched his first homer of the spring on the next pitch, making him 1-for-1 with a home run since the injury.
"Actually, I wouldn't label it an injury," Pence clarified.
Romo refining changeup in early spring outings
SCOTTSDALE, Ariz. -- Sergio Romo hasn't yet unveiled his slider to opposing hitters this spring, and that's a little like saying Lynyrd Skynyrd hasn't yet unveiled "Free Bird" to fans at a concert.
It's Romo's go-to pitch when he needs an out, it's been the best pitch in his arsenal, and -- most of all -- it's proven to work.
"It's not like I haven't been practicing it or anything," Romo said Sunday. "I don't need to throw it in a game for me to sit there and know that I've got it."
Romo's woeful spring numbers are almost certainly the result of his refusal to throw the pitch. After he allowed five runs without recording an out Saturday, Romo's Cactus League ERA ballooned to 33.00 with a WHIP (walks plus hits per inning pitched) of 4.67 in four outings.
But Romo isn't reaching into the well for his slider just yet. He's been throwing a strict fastball-changeup mix with the hopes of developing his changeup into a reliable third option.
Last season, Romo threw that changeup only 6.5 percent of the time, according to FanGraphs. But that number has risen in each of the past three years. If his work this spring pays off, he's hoping it'll rise again.
"It's coming along," Romo said. "I'm just working, you know what I'm saying? And I feel like I'm making progress, I feel like I'm throwing the ball well. I'm not worried about stat line."
By no means did Romo struggle last season, although he did record his highest ERA (2.54) since 2009. He recorded 38 saves and posted a 1.08 WHIP.
But Romo was flat-out dominant from 2010-12, and he's hopeful that adding another trusted pitch to his repertoire will help him get back to that level in '14.
"That's the reason why I'm trying to use it -- so that I can be more of a complete pitcher," Romo said. "It's not so that I can use it more, but so that I have it, so that when I do need it, I can go to it."
AJ Cassavell is a reporter for MLB.com. Follow him on Twitter @ajcassavell. This story was not subject to the approval of Major League Baseball or its clubs.


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Former San Bernardino International Airport developer Scot Spencer has waived extradition, and should return to San Bernardino this week for arraignment, prosecutor Robert Brown said.
"He is en route or is shortly going to be en route, and I expect he'll be arraigned in the next couple of days," Brown said of Spencer, adding that Schyler Beaty, an investigator from his office, and FBI agents are tasked with bringing Spencer to San Bernardino from Florida.
Spencer, 48, and his business affiliate Felice Luciano, 69, were charged Friday with multiple felonies including criminal conspiracy and perjury in connection with corruption at the airport. Spencer was arrested Sunday in Boca Raton, Fl,, where he has been living with his parents since his ouster from the airport in October.
Meanwhile, Luciano, whom District Attorney Michael Ramossaid was a fugitive during a Monday news conference at his office, is expected to be surrendering to authorities soon, Brown said.
"I have had some contact with his attorney. I suspect (Luciano) is going to surrender himself," said Brown. "We've had some discussions about him surrendering himself and that's all I'm prepared to say at this moment.
Brown declined to disclose the name of Luciano's attorney.
Spencer stands accused of conspiring with Luciano to bilk the San Bernardino International Airport Authority out of $1.75 million. Spencer, prosecutors allege, filed a fraudulent claim with the Airport Authority in 2008 saying his companies, SBD Aircraft Services and Norton Aircraft Maintenance Services, lost out on a lease agreement with the Democratic National Committee after the airport mistakenly leased a hangar intended for Spencer's companies to a blimp manufacturer.
Spencer alleged in his claim, which prosecutors say was a sham, that Luciano's company, Unique Aviation, was to charter the jet for the Democtratic National Committee, which was to lease the aircraft for three months at a rate of $250,000 a month. But the Democratic National Committee's legal counsel subsequently informed district attorney investigator Schyler Beaty that the Committee had no such lease agreement with Spencer in 2008, Beaty wrote in his 13-page report that served as the basis for Spencer's arrest and the criminal charges being filed against him and Luciano.
Spencer's attorney, David Willingham, did not return repeated telephone calls to his office seeking comment.
Reach Joe via email, call him at 909-386-3874, or find him on Twitter @SBCountyNow.


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Hi People!
I found the chant very familiar and peaceful.
can anybody help identify what chant or which region the chant is from?
Good day!
identify title of chant in video?
A place to post videos, pictures, and any other sort of Buddhist or non-Buddhist media.
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7 posts • Page 1 of 1
Re: identify title of chant in video?
南無觀世音菩薩, nán wú (mo) guān shì yīn pú sà (Homage to the Observer/Contemplator of the World's Sounds Bodhisattva, Namo Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva)
A common chant in the Chinese Mahayana Buddhist world used as a mindfulness / contemplation of Buddha / Bodhisattva practice
A common chant in the Chinese Mahayana Buddhist world used as a mindfulness / contemplation of Buddha / Bodhisattva practice
Re: identify title of chant in video?
thank you!
Re: identify title of chant in video?
hello again!
i have another question. more of chanting/music related.
i found 2 different chants. but both have very similar tones.
this tone of chanting seems to be quite popular, i have heard it in temples and maybe funerals.
Namo Guan Shi Yin Bodhisattva(Chanting)
Chanting of Amituofo
i am very interested know more about the different kinds musical tonalities that accompany the chants.
can someone lead me in the direction to more information or what they are called?
i especially like this particular mode of chanting. fast or slow pace. i still find the melody very peaceful.
Thank you!
i have another question. more of chanting/music related.
i found 2 different chants. but both have very similar tones.
this tone of chanting seems to be quite popular, i have heard it in temples and maybe funerals.
Namo Guan Shi Yin Bodhisattva(Chanting)
Chanting of Amituofo
i am very interested know more about the different kinds musical tonalities that accompany the chants.
can someone lead me in the direction to more information or what they are called?
i especially like this particular mode of chanting. fast or slow pace. i still find the melody very peaceful.
Thank you!
Re: identify title of chant in video?
thanks for the info and the link to the Buddhist seminar!
is the videos above fan bei type of chant? within fan bei, there is still so many different tone, pacing and melody.
how would the senior monk/nun direct or tell to the group to chant in a manner similar to the chanting videos above?
for example a choral director would tell the mass choir to sing in a g major.
is the videos above fan bei type of chant? within fan bei, there is still so many different tone, pacing and melody.
how would the senior monk/nun direct or tell to the group to chant in a manner similar to the chanting videos above?
for example a choral director would tell the mass choir to sing in a g major.
Re: identify title of chant in video?
In a way, yes, and the context of what the Venerable Master Xing Yun meant was more on how recitation/chanting can be accomodated to various life situations and methods.is the videos above fan bei type of chant? within fan bei, there is still so many different tone, pacing and melody.
It's quite a process....how would the senior monk/nun direct or tell to the group to chant in a manner similar to the chanting videos above?
for example a choral director would tell the mass choir to sing in a g major.
1. Before the start of the chanting session or liturgical celebration, about 5-15 mins before the commencement, the lead chanter or a designated usher/hospitality host would do a short briefing for the Assembly (especially for newbies and visitors) on the liturgical event for the day/evening, introducing the how to's and so forth and some might even add a quick commentary on the ritual on its history, significance, the mechanics of when, where, how, what to do, page numbers and so forth.
When the lead chanter and/or co-presiding Dharma Host is leading, the rest of the chanting team members and the Assembly are discouraged from vocalizing ahead or after to prevent confusion/chaos and to allow for a harmonious uniformity and conformity. This goes for all other actions like bowing, kneeling, standing, sitting and walking circumambulations.
2. Other than the above, indications of when to be silent, when to start chanting and other gestures of standing, circumambulatory walking, sitting, bowing, hands to palm, relaxing the palms and so forth are all done by listening to the lead chanter intone/chant the opening/starting, standard usage of the Dharma instruments like the hand bell, great chime bowl, drum/bell by the lead chanter or a member of the chanting team at the front altar area. Or for some specific movements, the usher would intone 'Bow!', 'Palms to Hand', 'Arise!'
3. By usage of the reference chanting text provided which is common in content both for the lead chanter & team plus the Assembly. Some of it have the full marks indicated of when to chant, intone, silence and the various body movements. Please refer to attached pics as below. First pic is on the Three Refuges and the second one on the Incense Praise. Another sample from another organisation here
4. By frequent attendance of such chanting sessions and liturgical celebrations, familiarity and repetition aids one in getting accustomed to the standard procedures, thereby aiding the lead chanter & team for a smoother leading and practice. Another way is to collect chanting and ritual CDs and DVDs and by watching and following these aids, it's another way that some places make recordings and albums by the lead chanter and team to educate and disseminate such information and practice.
5. There are chanting classes that are available in some places that teaches one on the how to's on:
a. purpose of Dharma chanting
b. how to recognise tunes and tones & teaching the standard musical notes used by them
For example, the opening of the chanting session normally starts with beating the big drum in three sets drumming according to this partial passage from the Flower Adornment Sutra, one word per drum beat: (bear in mind that all of these are in Chinese, I am providing the English translation here)
"If one wishes to understand fully, all Buddhas of the Three Periods of Time, Buddha Buddha Buddha Buddha Buddha...'
(here, as one gets to the 'Buddha', the drum beat gradually goes softer and softer and fades off and after the third set, it ends with a fourfold beat of 'Amita Buddha' or another fourfold 'Buddha, Buddha, Buddha, Buddha')
Another one: certain intervals between chanting, the drummer will pick up on this interval by drumming one beat to each word:
Three Periods of All Buddhas, Buddha Buddha Buddha Buddha Buddha....Amita Buddha followed by the lead chanter resting the hitting stick on side the great chime bowl and the assistant lead chanter does one knock on the wooden fish or for certain parts, the hand bell stick rested on the side of the handbell. These motions are not without meaning, in the former it means that the coming portion of the chanting is utilising the wooden fish, like continuation of reciting a text with wooden fish hitting and in the latter, it is utilising the hand bell, usually used in parts where the Three Refuges or certain Dharma verses are chanted.
Another example, in the case of an Incense Offering Praise, the hand bell or the hand flat gong is used with the wooden fish (the first verse)
'Lu Xiang Zha Re' (The censer with incense lighted)
'Lu' is intoned and stretched to the count of 1-2-3-4, then moving on to 'Xiang' with two strikes of the hand bell/hand flat gong in 1-2 and silent counts of 3-4 and then moves on immediately to 'Zha' by one hit of the wooden fish & cymbals, and then count 1-2 with two strikes of the hand bell/hand flat gong and silent count of 3-4 before moving on immediately to 'Re' by hitting the great chime bowl, wooden fish & cymbals.
Dynamics of the above:
i. Each Dharma instrument is managed by one person, the lead chanter is always in charge of the great chime bowl, the assistant lead chanter, the wooden fish
ii.. Each member of the chanting team must listen and time the tune and tone counts as per the text to blend in and await his/her turn to use the designated Dharma instrument
iii. So, teamwork is crucial here, although the lead chanter is at the forefront, h/she must be attentive to the rest of the team members and the text.
It is important to note here that different monastic Orders will use different styles, tunes and tones, such is the liturgical flexilbility. E.g for the same Incense Praise chant, the same tune style can have variants: the common tune, a slightly different stretched version of the common tune and the usual count of 1-2-3-4 can be changed to 1-2-3 and other styles. Some will use the plain tone, some will use an ocean wave style where one uses several tones for one tune and other combos.
So, the result is a monastic from Monastery/Temple A may not be able to be a lead chanter in Monastery B but probably just join in as part of the common Assembly unless Monastery B is a sister chapter of A or that h/she is trained in another format. So, put together 3 monastics from A, B & C and you get three styles of chanting.
c. How to handle various Dharma instruments appropriately
d. if one is interested to be a designated lead chanter or part of the chanting team, one can attend the ongoing practice/rehearsal classes held before a major celebration and so forth.
e. some places offer study commentaries on the various Dharma Repentance texts on its history, content, significance and so forth as part of the class
See below for sample vids as explained above.
Addendum Information
a. So basically, there's a presiding lead chanter who has a back up assistant lead chanter. Sometimes, when there's one or up until a few visiting/invited senior monastic or an abbot/abbess, then the co-presiding Dharma Host(s) [who will normally wear the red precept sash with a long rosary & tassel in the back] will be given certain parts to lead with the original presiding lead chanter still in charge.
Now, this team can comprise of these dynamics:
i. an all monastic team of monks only
ii. an all monastic team of nuns only
iii. a mix of monks and laymen
iv. a mix of nuns and laywomen
v. a mix of monks or nuns & laymen and women
vi. the co-presiding Dharma Host can be an Abbot/Abbess
See sample pic below
b. The order of the chanting assembly in this tradition is as follows:
i. Divided mainly into 2 sides: male & female, the former taking the west/right side & the latter taking the east/left side
ii. So, the lead chanter will take his/her place on the west side, where a Dharma instrument known as the great chime bowl is placed and the assistant lead chanter will stand at east side, where the wooden fish is. The co-presiding Dharma Host will normally stand in the empty space center of the Assembly, as one can see in the above pic. In some special days of annual liturgical celebrations, one can see the co-presiding Dharma Host with 2 monastics behind him and 4-6 laity members to represent the Fourfold Assembly of monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen when presenting certain offerings in the celebration. See a sample pic below.
iii. Order of standing/sitting in the Assembly is according to Ordination seniority for monastics and type of Precepts for the laity
For example, on the male side, the first row may comprise of monks and from left to right, according to ordination seniority and then the laymen on the second row, from left to right, those with Bodhisattva Precepts first, then those with Five Precepts, then those with less than Five Precepts and finally those with Refuge only.
All of these categories are in their respective ritual robes and after these, in successive back/later rows, come those who belong to the earlier lay categories who come for the chanting session without wearing the optional ritual robes and those who are non Buddhist visitors/friends. In reality, not all places follow such order and there may be variances from place to place. But as far as the chanting team is concerned, one willl always see them in ritual tobes.
c. Basic sample observances and guidelines
i. Only the chanting team members are allowed to use the respective designated Dharma instruments under the guidance of the presiding lead chanter and the co-presiding Dharma Host, if present for the same reasons as above. See pic below for the basic set of Dharma instruments used (although there are more varities.)
Left to right:
hand drum (there's also the larger ground level drum paired with a bell on the side), a pair of cymbals, hand flat gong, wooden fish, hand bell and great chime bowl
ii. It is also said that the level of music/sound produced by the usage of Dharma instruments must be mindful and should not drown out the vocalised Dharma words from the texts. Hence, the Buddha Dharma is given precedence whilst utilising sound/music as an offering to the Triple Gem and all sentient beings.
iii. Decorum is expected from all members of the chanting team and the Assembly as a form of elegance adorment, discipline and mindfulness. How the texts are chanted/sung/intoned, the Dharma instruments held and used, personal attentiveness to the session and so forth are important considerations for Dharma practice.
Samples vids fanbei style: the first one featuring the Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva Repentance and the other the Fo Guang Shan Monastic Choir singing an excerpt praise to the Five Directions Buddhas from another rite known as the Yogacara Flaming Mouths.
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