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History of Buddhism
2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Religious movements, traditions and organizations
The History of Buddhism spans from the 6th century BCE to the present, starting with the birth of the Buddha Siddhartha Gautama. This makes it one of the oldest religions practiced today. Throughout this period, the religion evolved as it encountered various countries and cultures, adding to its original Indian foundation Hellenistic as well as Central Asian, East Asian, and Southeast Asian cultural elements. In the process, its geographical extent became considerable so as to affect at one time or another most of the Asian continent. The history of Buddhism is also characterized by the development of numerous movements and schisms, foremost among them the Theravada, Mahāyāna and Vajrayana traditions, punctuated by contrasting periods of expansion and retreat.
Life of the Buddha
According to the Buddhist tradition, the historical Buddha Siddharta Gautama was born to the Shakya clan, at the beginning of the Magadha period (546–324 BCE), in the plains of Lumbini, Southern Nepal. He is also known as the Shakyamuni (literally "The sage of the Shakya clan").
After an early life of luxury under the protection of his father, Śuddhodana, the ruler of Kapilavastu (later to be incorporated into the state of Magadha), Siddharta entered into contact with the realities of the world and concluded that real life was about inescapable suffering and sorrow. Siddharta renounced his meaningless life of luxury to become an ascetic. He ultimately decided that asceticism was also meaningless, and instead chose a middle way, a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.
Under a fig tree, now known as the Bodhi tree, he vowed never to leave the position until he found Truth. At the age of 35, he attained Enlightenment. He was then known as Gautama Buddha, or simply "The Buddha", which means "the enlightened one".
For the remaining 45 years of his life, he travelled the Gangetic Plain of central India (region of the Ganges/Ganga river and its tributaries), teaching his doctrine and discipline to an extremely diverse range of people.
The Buddha's reluctance to name a successor or to formalise his doctrine led to the emergence of many movements during the next 400 years: first the schools of Nikaya Buddhism, of which only Theravada remains today, and then the formation of Mahayana, a pan-Buddhist movement based on the acceptance of new scriptures.
Early Buddhism
Before the royal sponsorship of Ashoka the Great in the 3rd century BCE, Buddhism seems to have remained a relatively minor phenomenon, and the historicity of its formative events is poorly established. Two formative councils are supposed to have taken place, although our knowledge of them is based on much later accounts. The councils tend to explain the formalization of the Buddhist doctrine, and the various subsequent schisms inside the Buddhist movement.
1st Buddhist council (5th c. BCE)
The first Buddhist council was held soon after the death of the Buddha under the patronage of king Ajatasatru of the Magadha empire, and presided by a monk named Mahakasyapa, at Rajagriha (today's Rajgir). The objective of the council was to record the Buddha's sayings ( sutra) and codify monastic rules (vinaya): Ananda, one of the Buddha's main disciples and his cousin, was called upon to recite the discourses of the Buddha, and Upali, another disciple, recited the rules of the vinaya. These became the basis of the Pali Canon, which has been the orthodox text of reference throughout the history of Buddhism.
2nd Buddhist council (383 BCE)
The second Buddhist council was convened by King Kalasoka and held at Vaisali, following conflicts between the traditional schools of Buddhism and a more liberal interpretational movement called the Mahasanghikas. The traditional schools considered the Buddha as a human being who reached enlightenment, which could be most easily attained by monks following the monastic rules and practicing the teaching for the sake of overcoming suffering and attaining Arahantship. The secessionist Mahasangikas, however, tended to consider this approach too individualistic and selfish. They considered the objective of becoming an arhat insufficient, and instead proposed that the only true goal was to reach full buddhahood, in a sense opening the way to future Mahāyāna thought. They became proponents of more relaxed monastic rules, which could appeal to a large majority of monastic and lay people (hence their name the "great" or "majority" assembly).
The council ended with the rejection of the Mahasanghikas. They left the council and maintained themselves for several centuries in northwestern India and Central Asia according to Kharoshti inscriptions found near the Oxus and dated c. 1st century CE.
Ashokan proselytism (c. 261 BCE)
The Mauryan emperor Ashoka the Great (273–232 BCE) converted to Buddhism after his bloody conquest of the territory of Kalinga (today's Orissa) in eastern India. Regretful of the horrors brought by the conflict, the king decided to renounce violence, and propagate the faith by building stupas and pillars urging for the respect of all animal life, and enjoining people to follow the Dharma. He also built roads, hospitals, resthouses, universities and irrigation systems around the country. He treated his subjects as equals regardless of their religion, politics or caste.
This period marks the first spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the plates and pillars left by Ashoka (the Edicts of Ashoka), emissaries were sent to various countries in order to spread Buddhism, as far as the Greek kingdoms in the West, in particular the neighboring Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and possibly even farther to the Mediterranean.
3rd Buddhist council (c.250 BCE)
King Ashoka convened the third Buddhist council around 250 BCE at Pataliputra (today's Patna). It was held by the monk Moggaliputta. The objective of the council was to reconcile the different schools of Buddhism, to purify the Buddhist movement, particularly from opportunistic factions which had been attracted by the royal patronage, and to organize the dispatch of Buddhist missionaries throughout the known world.
The Pali canon (Tipitaka, or Tripitaka in Sanskrit, literally the "Three Baskets"), which comprises the texts of reference of traditional Buddhism and is considered to be directly transmitted from the Buddha, was formalized at that time. It consists of the doctrine (the Sutra Pitaka), the monastic discipline (Vinaya Pitaka) and an additional new body of subtle philosophy (the Abhidharma Pitaka).
The efforts of Ashoka to purify the Buddhist faith also had the effect of segregating against other emerging movements. In particular, after 250 BCE, the Sarvastivadin (who had been rejected by the 3rd council, according to the Theravada tradition) and the Dharmaguptaka schools became quite influential in northwestern India and Central Asia, up to the time of the Kushan Empire in the first centuries of the common era. The Dharmaguptakas were characterized by a belief that Buddha was separate, and above, the rest of the Buddhist community. The Sarvastivadin believed that past, present, and future are all simultaneous.
Hellenistic world
Some of the Edicts of Ashoka inscriptions describe the efforts made by Ashoka to propagate the Buddhist faith throughout the Hellenistic world, which at that time formed an uninterrupted continuum from the borders of India to Greece. The Edicts indicate a clear understanding of the political organization in Hellenistic territories: the names and location of the main Greek monarchs of the time are identified, and they are claimed as recipients of Buddhist proselytism: Antiochus II Theos of the Seleucid Kingdom (261–246 BCE), Ptolemy II Philadelphos of Egypt (285–247 BCE), Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia (276–239 BCE), Magas of Cyrene (288–258 BCE), and Alexander II of Epirus (272–255 BCE).
- "The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas (5,400-9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni (Sri Lanka)." ( Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika).
Furthermore, according to Pali sources, some of Ashoka's emissaries were Greek Buddhist monks, indicating close religious exchanges between the two cultures:
- "When the thera (elder) Moggaliputta, the illuminator of the religion of the Conqueror (Ashoka), had brought the (third) council to an end (...) he sent forth theras, one here and one there: (...) and to Aparantaka (the "Western countries" corresponding to Gujarat and Sindh) he sent the Greek ( Yona) named Dhammarakkhita". ( Mahavamsa XII).
Ashoka also issued Edicts in the Greek language as well as in Aramaic. One of them, found in Kandahar, advocates the adoption of "Piety" (using the Greek term Eusebeia for Dharma) to the Greek community:
- "Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka) made known (the doctrine of) Piety (Greek:εὐσέβεια, Eusebeia) to men; and from this moment he has made men more pious, and everything thrives throughout the whole world."
- (Trans. from the Greek original by G.P. Carratelli)
It is not clear how much these interactions may have been influential, but some authors have commented that some level of syncretism between Hellenist thought and Buddhism may have started in Hellenic lands at that time. They have pointed to the presence of Buddhist communities in the Hellenistic world around that period, in particular in Alexandria (mentioned by Clement of Alexandria), and to the pre-Christian monastic order of the Therapeutae (possibly a deformation of the Pali word " Theravada"), who may have "almost entirely drawn (its) inspiration from the teaching and practices of Buddhist asceticism" (Robert Lissen).
Buddhist gravestones from the Ptolemaic period have also been found in Alexandria, decorated with depictions of the Dharma wheel (Tarn, "The Greeks in Bactria and India"). Commenting on the presence of Buddhists in Alexandria, some scholars have even pointed out that "It was later in this very place that some of the most active centers of Christianity were established" (Robert Linssen "Zen living").
In the 2nd century CE, the Christian dogmatist Clement of Alexandria recognized Bactrian Buddhists ( Sramanas) and Indian Gymnosophists for their influence on Greek thought:
- "Thus philosophy, a thing of the highest utility, flourished in antiquity among the barbarians, shedding its light over the nations. And afterwards it came to Greece. First in its ranks were the prophets of the Egyptians; and the Chaldeans among the Assyrians; and the Druids among the Gauls; and the Sramanas among the Bactrians ("Σαρμαναίοι Βάκτρων"); and the philosophers of the Celts; and the Magi of the Persians, who foretold the Saviour's birth, and came into the land of Judaea guided by a star. The Indian gymnosophists are also in the number, and the other barbarian philosophers. And of these there are two classes, some of them called Sramanas ("Σαρμάναι"), and others Brahmins ("Βραφμαναι")." Clement of Alexandria "The Stromata, or Miscellanies" Book I, Chapter XV
The Two Fourth Councils
A Fourth Council is said to have been convened in the reign of the Kushan emperor Kanishka, around 100 CE at Jalandhar or in Kashmir. Because Therevada believes the The Fourth Council of Kashmir introduced unauthentic sutras as authentic, and it was itself not present at this Fourth Council to prevent this, Theravāda Buddhism does not recognize the authenticity of this council, and sometimes they call it the "council of heretical monks". Theravada Buddhism had its own Fourth Council in Sri Lanka. Therefore there are two Fourth Councils: one in Sri Lanka (Theravada), and one in Kashmir (Sarvastivadin).
It is said that for the Fourth Council of Kashmir, Kanishka gathered 500 monks headed by Vasumitra, partly, it seems, to compile extensive commentaries on the Abhidharma, although it is possible that some editorial work was carried out upon the existing canon itself. The main fruit of this Council was the redaction of Agamas and complilation of the vast commentary known as the Mahā-Vibhāshā ("Great Exegesis"), an extensive compendium and reference work on a portion of the Sarvāstivādin Abhidharma.
Scholars believe that it was also around this time that a significant change was made in the language of the Sarvāstivādin canon, by converting an earlier Prakrit version into Sanskrit. Although this change was probably effected without significant loss of integrity to the canon, this event was of particular significance since Sanskrit was the official holy language of Brahmanism in India, and was also being used by other thinkers (regardless of their specific religious or philosophical allegiance), thus enabling a far wider audience to gain access to Buddhist ideas and practices. For this reason, all major (Mahayana) Buddhist scholars in India thereafter wrote their commentaries and treatises in Sanskrit. Therevada however never switched to Sanskrit, partly because Buddha explicitly forbade translation of his discourses into Sanskrit because it was an elitist religious language (like Latin was in Europe before). He wanted his monks to use a local language instead; a language which could be understood by all. Over time however, the language of the Theravadin scriptures ( Pali) became a scholarly or elitist language as well.
Asian expansion
In the areas east of the Indian subcontinent (today's Burma), Indian culture strongly influenced the Mons. The Mons are said to have been converted to Buddhism around 200 BCE under the proselytizing of the Indian king Ashoka, before the fission between Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism. Early Mon Buddhist temples, such as Peikthano in central Burma, have been dated between the 1st and the 5th century CE.
The Buddhist art of the Mons was especially influenced by the Indian art of the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, and their mannerist style spread widely in South-East Asia following the expansion of the Mon kingdom between the 5th and 8th centuries. The Theravada faith expanded in the northern parts of Southeast Asia under Mon influence, until it was progressively displaced by Mahayana Buddhism from around the 6th century CE.
Sri Lanka was allegedly proselytized by Ashoka's son Mahinda and six companions during the 2nd century BCE. They converted the king Devanampiya Tissa and many of the nobility. This is when the Mahavihara monastery, a centre of Sinhalese orthodoxy, was built. The Pali Canon was put in writing in Sri Lanka during the reign of king Vittagamani (r. 29–17 BCE), and the Theravada tradition flourished there, harbouring some great commentators such as Buddhaghosa (4th–5th century). Although Mahayana Buddhism gained some influence at that time, Theravada ultimately prevailed, and Sri Lanka turned out to be the last stronghold of Theravada Buddhism, from where it would expand again to South-East Asia from the 11th century.
There is also a legend, not directly validated by the edicts, that Ashoka sent a missionary to the north, through the Himalayas, to Khotan in the Tarim Basin, then the land of the Tocharians, speakers of an Indo-European language.
Rise of the Sunga (2nd–1st c.BCE)
The Sunga dynasty (185–73 BCE) was established in 185 BCE, about 50 years after Ashoka's death. After deposing King Brhadrata (last of the Mauryan rulers), military commander-in-chief Pusyamitra Sunga took the throne. An orthodox Brahmin, Sunga was allegedly hostile towards Buddhists and allegedly persecuted the Buddhist faith. He is recorded as having "destroyed monasteries and killed Monks" (Divyavadana, pp. 429–434): 84,000 Buddhist stupas which had been built by Ashoka were "destroyed" (R. Thaper), and 100 gold coins were offered for the head of each Buddhist monk (Indian Historical Quarterly Vol. XXII, p. 81 ff cited in Hars.407). A large number of Buddhist monasteries ( viharas) were said to have been converted to Hindu temples, in such places as Nalanda, Bodhgaya, Sarnath, or Mathura.
During the period, Buddhist monks deserted the Ganges valley, following either the Northern road (Uttarapatha) or the Southern road (Daksinapatha). Conversely, Buddhist artistic creation stopped in the old Magadha area, to reposition itself either in Northwest area of Gandhara and Mathura, or in the Southeast around Amaravati. Some artistic activity also occurred in central India, as in Bharhut, to which the Sungas may or may not have contributed.
Greco-Buddhist interaction (2nd c. BCE–1st c. CE)
In the areas west of the Indian subcontinent, neighboring Greek kingdoms had been in place in Bactria (today's northern Afghanistan) since the time of the conquests of Alexander the Great around 326 BCE: first the Seleucids from around 323 BCE, then the Greco-Bactrian kingdom from around 250 BCE.
The Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius I invaded India in 180 BCE as far as Pataliputra, establishing an Indo-Greek kingdom that was to last in various part of northern India until the end of the 1st century BCE. Buddhism flourished under the Indo-Greek kings, and it has been suggested that their invasion of India was intended to show their support for the Mauryan empire, and to protect the Buddhist faith from the alleged religious persecutions of the Sungas (185–73 BCE).
One of the most famous Indo-Greek kings is Menander (reigned c. 160–135 BCE). He apparently converted to Buddhism and is presented in the Mahayana tradition as one of the great benefactors of the faith, on a par with king Ashoka or the later Kushan king Kanishka. Menander's coins bear the mention "Saviour king" in Greek, and sometimes designs of the eight-spoked wheel. Direct cultural exchange is also suggested by the dialogue of the Milinda Panha between Menander and the monk Nagasena around 160 BCE. Upon his death, the honour of sharing his remains was claimed by the cities under his rule, and they were enshrined in stupas, in a parallel with the historic Buddha ( Plutarch, Praec. reip. ger. 28, 6). Several of Menander's Indo-Greek successors inscribed the mention "Follower of the Dharma" in the Kharoshthi script on their coins, and depicted themselves or their divinities forming the vitarka mudra.
The interaction between Greek and Buddhist cultures may have had some influence on the evolution of Mahayana, as the faith developed its sophisticated philosophical approach and a man-god treatment of the Buddha somewhat reminiscent of Hellenic gods. It is also around that time that the first anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha are found, often in realistic Greco-Buddhist style: "One might regard the classical influence as including the general idea of representing a man-god in this purely human form, which was of course well familiar in the West, and it is very likely that the example of westerner's treatment of their gods was indeed an important factor in the innovation" (Boardman, "The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity" ).
Rise of Mahayana (1st c.BCE–2nd c.CE)
The rise of Mahayana Buddhism from the 1st century BCE was accompanied by complex political changes in northwestern India. The Indo-Greek kingdoms were gradually overwhelmed, and their culture assimilated by the Indo-Scythians, and then the Yuezhi, who founded the Kushan Empire from around 12 BCE.
The Kushans were supportive of Buddhism, and a fourth Buddhist council was convened by the Kushan emperor Kanishka, around 100 CE at Jalandhar or in Kashmir, and is usually associated with the formal rise of Mahayana Buddhism and its secession from Theravada Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism does not recognize the authenticity of this council, and it is sometimes called the "council of heretical monks".
It is said that Kanishka gathered 500 bhikkhus in Kashmir, headed by Vasumitra, to edit the Tripitaka and make references and remarks. Allegedly, during the council there were all together three hundred thousand verses and over nine million statements compiled, and it took twelve years to complete. This council did not rely on the original Pali canon (the Tipitaka). Instead, a set of new scriptures was approved, as well as fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine. The new scriptures, usually in the Gandhari vernacular and the Kharosthi script, were rewritten in the classical language of Sanskrit, to many scholars a turning point in the propagation of Buddhist thought.
The new form of Buddhism was characterized by an almost God-like treatment of the Buddha, by the idea that all beings have a Buddha-nature and should aspire to Buddhahood, and by a syncretism due to the various cultural influences within northwestern India and the Kushan Empire.
Mahayana expansion (1st c.CE–10th c.CE)
From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahayana was to flourish and spread in the East from India to South-East Asia, and towards the north to Central Asia, China, Korea, and finally to Japan in 538 CE.
After the end of the Kushans, Buddhism flourished in India during the dynasty of the Guptas (4th-6th century). Mahayana centers of learning were established, especially at Nalanda in north-eastern India, which was to become the largest and most influential Buddhist university for many centuries, with famous teachers such as Nagarjuna. The Gupta style of Buddhist art became very influential from South-East Asia to China as the faith was spreading there.
Indian Buddhism had weakened in the 6th century following the White Hun invasions and Mihirkulas persecution.
Xuanzang reports in his travels across India during the 7th century of Buddhism being popular in Andhra, Dhanyakataka, and Dravida which today rougly correspond to the modern day Indian states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. While reporting many deserted stupas in the area around modern day Nepal and the persecution of buddhists by Ssanka in the Kingdom of Gouda. (In modern day West Bengal.) Xuanzang compliments the patronage of Harshavardana during the same period. After Harshavardanas kingdom, the rise of many small kingdoms that lead to the rise of the Rajputs across the gangetic plains and marked the end of Buddhist ruling clans along with a sharp decline in royal patronage until a revival under the Pala Empire in the Bengal region. Here Mahayana Buddhism flourished and spread to Bhutan and Sikkim between the 8th and the 12th century before the Palas collapsed under the assault of the Hindu Sena dynasty. The Palas created many temples and a distinctive school of Buddhist art. Xuanzang noted in his travels that in various regions Buddhism was giving way to Jainism and Hinduism. By the 10th century Buddhism had experienced a sharp decline beyond the Pala realms in Bengal under a resurgent Hinduism and the incorporation in Vaishnavite Hinduism of Buddha as the 9th incarnation of Vishnu.
A milestone in the decline of Indian Buddhism in the North occurred in 1193 when Turkic Islamic raiders under Muhammad Khilji burnt Nalanda. By the end of the 12th century, following the Islamic conquest of the Buddhist strongholds in Bihar, and the loss of political support coupled with social and caste pressures, the practice of Buddhism retreated to the Himalayan foothills in the North and Sri Lanka in the south. Additionally, the influence of Buddhism also waned due to Hinduism's revival movements such as Advaita, the rise of the bhakti movement and the missionary work of Sufis.
Central and Northern Asia
Central Asia
Central Asia had been influenced by Buddhism probably almost since the time of the Buddha. According to a legend preserved in Pali, the language of the Theravada canon, two merchant brothers from Bactria, named Tapassu and Bhallika, visited the Buddha and became his disciples. They then returned to Bactria and built temples to the Buddha (Foltz).
Central Asia long played the role of a meeting place between China, India and Persia. During the 2nd century BCE, the expansion of the Former Han to the west brought them into contact with the Hellenistic civilizations of Asia, especially the Greco-Bactrian Kingdoms. Thereafter, the expansion of Buddhism to the north led to the formation of Buddhist communities and even Buddhist kingdoms in the oases of Central Asia. Some Silk Road cities consisted almost entirely of Buddhist stupas and monasteries, and it seems that one of their main objectives was to welcome and service travelers between east and west.
The Hinayana traditions first spread among the Turkic tribes before combining with the Mahayana forms during the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE to cover modern-day Pakistan, Kashmir, Afghanistan, eastern and coastal Iran, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan. These were the ancient states of Gandhara, Bactria, Parthia and Sogdia from where it spread to China. Among the first of these Turkic tribes to adopt Buddhism was the Turki- Shahi who adopted Buddhism as early as the 3rd century BCE. It was not, however, the exclusive faith of this region. There were also Zoroastrians, Hindus, Nestorian Christians, Jews, Manichaeans, and followers of shamanism, Tengrism, and other indigenous, nonorganized systems of belief.
Various Nikaya schools persisted in Central Asia and China until around the 7th century CE. Mahayana started to become dominant during the period, but since the faith had not developed a Nikaya approach, Sarvastivadin and Dharmaguptakas remained the Vinayas of choice in Central Asian monasteries.
Various Buddhism kingdoms rose and prospered in both the Central Asian region and downwards into the Indian sub-continent such as Kushan Empire prior to the White Hun invasion in the 5th century where under the King Mihirkula they were heavily persecuted.
Buddhism in Central Asia started to decline with the expansion of Islam and the destruction of many stupas in war from the 7th century. The Muslims accorded them the status of dhimmis as "people of the Book", such as Christianity or Judaism and Al-Biruni wrote of Buddha as prophet "burxan".
Buddhism saw a surge during the reign of Mongols following the invasion of Genghis Khan and the establishment of the Il Khanate and the Chagatai Khanate who brought their Buddhist influence with them during the 13th century, however within a 100 years the Mongols would convert to Islam and spread Islam across all the regions across central asia.
Buddhism expanded westward into Arsacid Parthia, at least to the area of Merv, in ancient Margiana, today's territory of Turkmenistan. Soviet archeological teams have excavated in Giaur Kala, near Merv, a Buddhist chapel, a gigantic Buddha statue, as well as a monastery.
Parthians were directly involved in the propagation of Buddhism: An Shigao (c. 148 CE), a Parthian prince, went to China, and is the first known translator of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese.
Tarim Basin
The eastern part of central Asia ( Chinese Turkestan, Tarim Basin, Xinjiang) has revealed extremely rich Buddhist works of art (wall paintings and reliefs in numerous caves, portable paintings on canvas, sculpture, ritual objects), displaying multiple influences from Indian and Hellenistic cultures. Serindian art is highly reminiscent of the Gandharan style, and scriptures in the Gandhari script Kharosthi have been found.
Central Asians seem to have played a key role in the transmission of Buddhism to the East. The first translators of Buddhists scriptures into Chinese were either Parthian (Ch: Anxi) like An Shigao (c. 148 CE) or An Hsuan, Kushan of Yuezhi ethnicity like Lokaksema (c. 178 CE), Zhi Qian and Zhi Yao, or Sogdians (Ch: SuTe/粟特) like Kang Sengkai. Thirty-seven early translators of Buddhist texts are known, and the majority of them have been identified as Central Asians.
Central Asian and East Asian Buddhist monks appear to have maintained strong exchanges until around the 10th century, as shown by frescoes from the Tarim Basin.
These influences were rapidly absorbed however by the vigorous Chinese culture, and a strongly Chinese particularism develops from that point.
Buddhism probably arrived in China around the 1st century CE from Central Asia (although there are some traditions about a monk visiting China during Asoka's reign), and through to the 8th century it became an extremely active centre of Buddhism.
The year 67 CE saw Buddhism's official introduction to China with the coming of the two monks Moton and Chufarlan. In 68 CE, under imperial patronage, they established the White Horse Temple (白馬寺), which still exists today, close to the imperial capital at Luoyang. By the end of the second century, a prosperous community had been settled at Pengcheng (modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu).
The first known Mahayana scriptural texts are translations made into Chinese by the Kushan monk Lokaksema in Luoyang, between 178 and 189 CE. Some of the earliest known Buddhist artifacts found in China are small statues on "money trees", dated circa 200 CE, in typical Gandharan style (drawing): "That the imported images accompanying the newly arrived doctrine came from Gandhara is strongly suggested by such early Gandhara characteristics on this "money tree" Buddha as the high ushnisha, vertical arrangement of the hair, moustache, symmetrically looped robe and parallel incisions for the folds of the arms." ("Crossroads of Asia" p209)
Buddhism flourished during the beginning of the Tang Dynasty (618–907). The dynasty was initially characterized by a strong openness to foreign influences, and renewed exchanges with Indian culture due to the numerous travels of Chinese Buddhist monks to India from the 4th to the 11th century. The Tang capital of Chang'an (today's Xi'an) became an important centre for Buddhist thought. From there Buddhism spread to Korea, and Japanese embassies of Kentoshi helped gain footholds in Japan.
However foreign influences came to be negatively perceived towards the end of the Tang Dynasty. In the year 845, the Tang emperor Wu-Tsung outlawed all "foreign" religions (including Christian Nestorianism, Zoroastrianism, and Buddhism) in order to support the indigenous Taoism. Throughout his territory, he confiscated Buddhist possessions, destroyed monasteries and temples, and executed Buddhist monks, ending Buddhism's cultural and intellectual dominance.
Pure Land and Chan Buddhism, however, continued to prosper for some centuries, the latter giving rise to Japanese Zen. In China, Chan flourished particularly under the Song dynasty (1127–1279), when its monasteries were great centers of culture and learning.
Today, China boasts one of the richest collections of Buddhist arts and heritages in the world. UNESCO World Heritage Sites such as the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang in Gansu province, the Longmen Grottoes near Luoyang in Henan province, the Yungang Grottoes near Datong in Shanxi province, and the Dazu Rock Carvings near Chongqing are among the most important and renowned Buddhist sculptural sites. The Leshan Giant Buddha, carved out of a hillside in the 8th century during Tang Dynasty and looking down on the confluence of three rivers, is still the largest stone Buddha statue in the world.
Buddhism was introduced around 372 CE, when Chinese ambassadors visited the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo, bringing scriptures and images. Buddhism prospered in Korea, and in particular Seon ( Zen) Buddhism from the 7th century onward. However, with the beginning of the Confucean Yi Dynasty of the Joseon period in 1392, Buddhism was strongly discriminated against until it was almost completely eradicated, except for a remaining Seon movement.
Japan discovered Buddhism in the 6th century when Korean monks traveled to the islands together with numerous scriptures and works of art. The Buddhist religion was adopted by the state in the following century.
Being geographically at the end of the Silk Road, Japan was able to preserve many aspects of Buddhism at the very time it was disappearing in India, and being suppressed in Central Asia and China.
From 710 CE numerous temples and monasteries were built in the capital city of Nara, such as the five-story pagoda and Golden Hall of the Horyuji, or the Kofuku-ji temple. Countless paintings and sculptures were made, often under governmental sponsorship. The creation of Japanese Buddhist art was especially rich between the 8th and 13th century during the periods of Nara, Heian, and Kamakura.
From the 12th and 13th, a further development was Zen art, following the introduction of the faith by Dogen and Eisai upon their return from China. Zen art is mainly characterized by original paintings (such as sumi-e and the Enso) and poetry (especially haikus), striving to express the true essence of the world through impressionistic and unadorned "non-dualistic" representations. The search for enlightenment "in the moment" also led to the development of other important derivative arts such as the Chanoyu tea ceremony or the Ikebana art of flower arrangement. This evolution went as far as considering almost any human activity as an art with a strong spiritual and aesthetic content, first and foremost in those activities related to combat techniques ( martial arts).
Buddhism remains very active in Japan to this day. Around 80,000 Buddhist temples are preserved and regularly restored.
South-East Asia
During the 1st century CE, the trade on the overland Silk Road tended to be restricted by the rise in the Middle-East of the Parthian empire, an unvanquished enemy of Rome, just as Romans were becoming extremely wealthy and their demand for Asian luxury was rising. This demand revived the sea connections between the Mediterranean and China, with India as the intermediary of choice. From that time, through trade connection, commercial settlements, and even political interventions, India started to strongly influence Southeast Asian countries. Trade routes linked India with southern Burma, central and southern Siam, lower Cambodia and southern Vietnam, and numerous urbanized coastal settlements were established there.
For more than a thousand years, Indian influence was therefore the major factor that brought a certain level of cultural unity to the various countries of the region. The Pali and Sanskrit languages and the Indian script, together with Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism, Brahmanism, and Hinduism, were transmitted from direct contact and through sacred texts and Indian literature such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
From the 5th to the 13th century, South-East Asia had very powerful empires and became extremely active in Buddhist architectural and artistic creation. The main Buddhist influence now came directly by sea from the Indian subcontinent, so that these empires essentially followed the Mahayana faith. The Sri Vijaya Empire to the south and the Khmer Empire to the north competed for influence, and their art expressed the rich Mahayana pantheon of the Bodhisattvas.
Srivijayan empire (5th–15th century)
Srivijaya, a maritime empire centered at Palembang on the island of Sumatra in Indonesia, adopted Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism under a line of rulers named the Sailendras. Yijing described Palembang as a great centre of Buddhist learning where the emperor supported over a thousand monks at his court. Atisha studied there before travelling to Tibet as a missionary.
Sriviijaya spread Buddhist art during its expansion in Southeast Asia. Numerous statues of Bodhisattvas from this period are characterized by a very strong refinement and technical sophistication, and are found throughout the region. Extremely rich architectural remains are visible at the temple of Borobudur (the largest Buddhist structure in the world, built from around 780 CE), in Java, which has 505 images of the seated Buddha. Srivijaya declined due to conflicts with the Chola rulers of India, before being destabilized by the Islamic expansion from the 13th century.
Khmer Empire (9th–13th century)
Later, from the 9th to the 13th century, the Mahayana Buddhist and Hindu Khmer Empire dominated much of the South-East Asian peninsula. Under the Khmer, more than 900 temples were built in Cambodia and in neighboring Thailand. Angkor was at the centre of this development, with a temple complex and urban organization able to support around one million urban dwellers. One of the greatest Khmer kings, Jayavarman VII (1181–1219), built large Mahayana Buddhist structures at Bayon and Angkor Thom.
Following the destruction of Buddhism in mainland India during the 11th century, Mahayana Buddhism declined in Southeast Asia, to be replaced by the introduction of Theravada Buddhism from Sri Lanka.
Emergence of the Vajrayana (5th century)
Vajrayāna Buddhism, also called Tantric Buddhism, first emerged in eastern India between the 5th and 7th centuries CE. It is sometimes considered a sub-school of Mahayana and sometimes a third major "vehicle" (Yana) of Buddhism in its own right. The Vajrayana is an extension of Mahayana Buddhism in that it does not offer new philosophical perspectives, but rather introduces additional techniques (upaya, or 'skilful means'), including the use of visualizations and other yogic practices. Many of the practices of Tantric Buddhism are also derived from Hinduism (the usage of mantras, yoga, or the burning of sacrificial offerings). This school of thought was founded by the Brahmin Padmasambhava.
Early Vajrayana practitioners were forest-dwelling mahasiddas who lived on the margins of society, but by the 9th century Vajrayana had won acceptance at major Mahayana monastic universities such as Nalanda and Vikramshila. Along with much of the rest of Indian Buddhism, the Vajrayana was eclipsed in the wake of the late 12th century Muslim invasions. It has persisted in Tibet, where it was wholly transplanted from the 7th to 12th centuries and became the dominant form of Buddhism to the present day, and on a limited basis in Japan as well where it evolved into Shingon Buddhism.
Theravada Renaissance (11th century CE— )
From the 11th century, the destruction of Buddhism in the Indian mainland by Islamic invasions led to the decline of the Mahayana faith in South-East Asia. Continental routes through the Indian subcontinent being compromised, direct sea routes between the Middle-East through Sri Lanka and to China developed, leading to the adoption of the Theravada Buddhism of the Pali canon, introduced to the region around the 11th century CE from Sri Lanka.
King Anawrahta (1044–1077); the historical founder of the Burmese empire, unified the country and adopted the Theravada Buddhist faith. This initiated the creation of thousands of Buddhist temples at Pagan, the capital, between the 11th and 13th century. Around 2,000 of them are still standing. The power of the Burmese waned with the rise of the Thai, and with the seizure of the capital Pagan by the Mongols in 1287, but Theravada Buddhism remained the main Burmese faith to this day.
The Theravada faith was also adopted by the newly founded ethnic Thai kingdom of Sukhothai around 1260. Theravada Buddhism was further reinforced during the Ayutthaya period (14th–18th century), becoming an integral part of the Thai society.
In the continental areas, Theravada Buddhism continued to expand into Laos and Cambodia in the 13th century. However, from the 14th century, on the coastal fringes and in the islands of South-East Asia, the influence of Islam proved stronger, expanding into Malaysia, Indonesia, and most of the islands as far as the southern Philippines.
However, since 1966 with Soeharto's rise of power in the aftermath of the bloody events after the so called "September 30th, 1965 murders", allegedly executed by the Communists Party, there has been a remarkable renaissance of Buddhism in Indonesia. This is partly due to the Soeharto's New Order's requirements for the people of Indonesia to adopt one of the five official religions: Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Hinduism or Buddhism. Today it is estimated there are some 10 millions Buddhists in Indonesia. A large part of them are people of Chinese ancestry.
Expansion of Buddhism to the West
After the Classical encounters between Buddhism and the West recorded in Greco-Buddhist art, information and legends about Buddhism seem to have reached the West sporadically. During the 8th century, Buddhist Jataka stories were translated into Syriac and Arabic as Kalilag and Damnag. An account of Buddha's life was translated in to Greek by John of Damascus, and widely circulated to Christians as the story of Barlaam and Josaphat. By the 1300s this story of Josaphat had become so popular that he was made a Catholic saint.
The next direct encounter between Europeans and Buddhism happened in Medieval times when the Franciscan friar William of Rubruck was sent on an embassy to the Mongol court of Mongke by the French king Saint Louis in 1253. The contact happened in Cailac (today's Qayaliq in Kazakhstan), and William originally thought they were wayward Christians (Foltz, "Religions of the Silk Road").
Major interest for Buddhism emerged during colonial times, when Western powers were in a position to witness the faith and its artistic manifestations in detail. European philosophy was strongly influenced by the study of oriental religions during that period.
The opening of Japan in 1853 also created a considerable interest for the arts and culture of Japan, and provided access to one of the most thriving Buddhist cultures in the world.
Buddhism started to enjoy a strong interest from the general population in the West during the 20th century, following the perceived failure of social utopias, from Fascism to Marxism. After the Second World War, the focus of progress tended to shift to personal self-realization, on the material as well as spiritual plane.
In this context, Buddhism has been displaying a strong power of attraction, due to its tolerance, its lack of deist authority and determinism, and its focus on understanding reality through self inquiry. According to the latest census it is now the fastest growing religion in Britain.


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I recently read a quote that stated... " We create our tomorrow by what we DREAM today."
I love it. This is true on so many levels, so MANY levels. To dream, to be a dreamer, to believe that dreams can and will come true is more than just a saying. Placing actions behind your dream whether it's creating a 30-60-90 day plan or finding a mentor to help you chart a roadmap toward your dream and believing in a positive outcome can transform a dream into reality. Of course, it's my opinion and testimony that faith when added to your "dream-achieving" plan yields --without a doubt—successful results.

subset: commoncrawl


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Latest News
Policies and procedures
Student Handbook
See AIE's Student Handbook.
Policies applicable to international students
Complaints & Appeals Policy (328 KB)
Completion within Expected Duration of Study Policy (206 KB)
Critical Incident Policy (225 KB)
Deferment, Suspension and Cancellation of Enrolment Policy (348 KB)
Monitoring Course Progress Policy (235 KB)
Refund policy (221 KB)
Transfer Between Registered Providers Policy (228 KB)
Policies regarding VET-FEE HELP & VET Student Loans
2016 AIE Quality Indicator Annual summary Report (272 KB)
2017 AIE Quality Indicators Annual Summary Report.pdf (311 KB)
AIE Academic Grievance Policy (155 KB)
AIE Fairness Policy and Processes (48 KB)
AIE Non-Academic Grievance Policy (155 KB)
Personal Information Procedures (45 KB)
AIE Statement of Tuition Assurance
AIE Refund & Remittance Policy
Quality Indicators and Audit Reports
2017 AIE Quality Indicators Annual Summary Report.pdf (311 KB)
2016 AIE Quality Indicator Annual summary Report (272 KB)
AIE Registration Audit Report (910 KB)
2013 AIE Quality Indicators (209 KB)
2013 Qualification Completions Report (212 KB)
ABN 51 084 159 437, RTO No. 88021, CRICOS Provider Code: 02406F


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Sponsoring children in need is breaking the cycle of poverty. Compassion International exists as a Christian child advocacy ministry that releases children from spiritual, economic, social and physical poverty and enables them to become responsible, fulfilled Christian adults. Today, Compassion helps more than 1 million children in 25 countries.
Sunday, April 7, 2013
Purity Jepkemoi Wangari from Kenya
Purity Jepkemoi Wangari lives in Kenya and is 14 years old. We have sponsored Purity since June 2011. Purity is the only sponsored child that we have that has a physical disability. Her left leg has been crippled since birth. Purity's letters are always in English. I believe that she writes them herself although there is always a translators name at the bottom of the letters. I need to ask Purity if the translator just reviews the letters or actually helps write them. I am thinking that Purity writes her own letters in English since Jojo does and they are about the same age even though they are in different countries.
We usually receive 3 or 4 letters from Purity each year. Purity actually transferred from one Compassion program to another in May of 2012. She writes that she has made many new friends and that the move was based on her father finding employment in the new town that they are living in. Purity often writes about needing prayers for rain so that there are crops to grow and enough food for everyone. She worries a lot about her family, school, community and country. She is an old soul but I think her surroundings and life have forced her to worry about adult matters at an early age.
Posted by Blackvelvetrav at 11:59 AM
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What diagnostic imaging tests are useful in the evaluation of patients following prior spinal surgery
The sequence of imaging studies in the postoperative patient is similar to assessment for primary spine surgery. Imaging studies are indicated to confirm the most likely cause of symptoms based on a comprehensive history and physical examination.
• Radiographs. Upright posteroanterior (PA) and lateral spine radiographs are the initial imaging study. Lateral flexion-extension radiographs play a role in the diagnosis of postoperative instability or pseudarthrosis. Assessment of spinal deformities is best accomplished with standing 36-inch PA and lateral radiographs
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), and CT-myelography. The most appropriate study is selected based on the patient's symptoms, the presence or absence of spinal implants, and the specific spinal problem requiring assessment. MRI provides optimal visualization of the neural elements and associated bony and soft tissue structures. However, MRI is subject to degradation by metal artifact that may arise from microscopic debris remaining at the initial surgical site or from spinal implants (especially non-titanium implants). CT remains the optimal test to assess bone detail and is the preferred test for diagnosis of pseudarthrosis. CT-myelography is of great utility in evaluation of the previously operated spine. It provides excellent visualization of the thecal sac and nerve roots in addition to osseous structure even in the presence of spinal deformity or extensive metallic spinal implants
• Technetium bone scans. Although this study may provide valuable information for the diagnosis of infection and metastatic disease, it has little utility in planning revision spine procedures due to lack of spatial resolution
• Discography. May be helpful in confirming the disc as a pain generator for axial pain symptoms and can play a role in assessment of degenerative disc changes above or below a prior spinal fusion
How To Win Your War Against Back Pain
Knowing the causes of back pain is winning half the battle against it. The 127-page eBook, How To Win Your War Against Back Pain, explains the various causes of back pain in a simple manner and teaches you the various treatment options available. The book is a great pain reliever in itself. The sensible, practical tips that it presents will surely help you bid good-bye to back pain forever.


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|Sissinghurst, June 2012
On Wednesday I did another job application and didn't go to badminton, which always makes me slightly less cheerful. The interview for the first job I've applied for is looming, and I have to get my interview presentation ready for Thursday when it has to be emailed to the recruitment panel. I have very foolishly volunteered to do a CPD presentation to my colleagues all about how a new lot of equations are now favoured over the old lot of equations for estimating energy requirements, and it's on Wednesday and I haven't even started looking at the equations, let alone the evidence behind their use. I have no idea when I'll have time for this, let alone my tax return and various other important items of home-based administration.
On the other hand, Mr A and I celebrated our birthdays on Thursday with dinner at Queans, the local restaurant that gained such a great review from a celebrated newspaper restaurant critic. But directly before dinner I went to donate blood again, and after pricking one finger and finding my iron level was borderline they had to draw some blood to evaluate it a different way, and then said I was OK to donate. So I turned up at the restaurant with plasters everywhere, and then halfway through dinner I had a funny turn and had to put my head between my knees. Despite all this I thought it was a delightful dinner, and my duck breast was cooked to perfection. I'd definitely love to go there again, but Mr A was less impressed, perhaps because his expectations were higher and partly because he had to choose a vegetarian starter (I always underestimate his desire for animal flesh). I'm wondering whether it's worth carrying on donating blood, but perhaps will do so in future only when no other activities are planned for the hours to follow.
It seems incredibly dense, but I have only just realised why it has been difficult to maintain the frequency of my blog posting. When I started the first, student blog, I had already left work to do the degree. It is only since starting this blog that I have been working full time. Naturally there are fewer hours for leisure now that I am occupied all through the day. I don't know why it's taken me this long to cotton on.


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Showing 4 of 4 results for Cas Holmes
Unfolding landscapes – cloth, paper and stitch (SSS08051)
4 to 10 August 2018. Taking inspiration from both material and place, explore the use of layers in found textiles and papers to create folding forms and objects inspired by the land and landscape. Print, dye, collage and stitch will transform the ord...
Paper, text and image – art textiles (SWE08395)
7 to 9 December 2018. Taking inspiration from everyday domestic objects or natural forms as a starting point, develop a study on a small canvas with a still life or nature inspired theme. You will explore ways of transferring images, creating layers,...
Personal journals – sourcing inspiration for textiles (S3D08400)
10 to 13 December 2018. Discover ways of creating and exploiting your journals and sketchbooks as a starting point for mixed media, textile-based projects or three-dimensional designs. Using unconventional drawing techniques, collage and photography,...
Land-marks – mixed media, cloth and stitch (S3D08495)
3 to 6 February 2019. Be inspired by the colours, textures and shapes found in the natural or urban landscape. Using mark-making, print, collage, free machine embroidery, hand stitch and other processes, create surfaces to combine into mixed media te...


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(Short story by Boots Tirol. Part of "VERMILLION and other 'colorful' stories")
It is incorrect to say that when David saw her again, he choked.
He was sipping his martini, watching the sea breeze play with the white cloth draped on the cabana, his elbow casually resting on the table, when Amina sat down across him and smilingly announced her arrival with a "Tada!"
He was not so surprised to see her to elicit the gasp that made him choke on his drink. It was just that her eyes were so beautiful.
What surprised him was why he didn't really notice them before. It was usually her smile—the smile she was wearing now – that captured his attention.
It was forty past four. The afternoon sunlight made her brown eyes so much lighter that he could clearly see her irises had dark brown streaks and tiny specks of yellow in them.
Her eyes were looking at him now, waiting for him to say something. He stared back at them. Are they hazel? No, they're almost orange.
No, amber. He decided. Amber like sweet dark honey…
"It's impolite to stare, Dave" she said, her smile widening.
"I know... But your beauty renders me helpless," David said, regaining his composure. He reached out for a table napkin and wiped his mouth.
She laughed gleefully. "You haven't changed one bit! God, I missed you!" she playfully slapped his arm. "I'm so glad Dally organized this whole reunion thing. Ang galing no?"
You have not changed too. You still think I'm joking all the time. "Yeah… And you haven't changed. The beautiful Amina... Late as usual." David hid his smile, pausing to see her reaction.
"Oi, I'm early for the dinner party naman." She pouted.
David chuckled. "Don't worry, I was also late. When I got here, most of the guys were already drunk." He grinned, pointing to the empty liquor bottles at the side of the table.
"Well, better late than never." She shrugged.
"Yeah… that's a good motto" He teased. "Thirsty?"
"No, thanks. I had coffee on the plane."
"Naks. The jet-setter. Where did you go this time, again–
"Hoy, Vietnam was two years ago – was that the last time we saw each other?— Anyway, I just came back from Gibraltar."
"Sorry I couldn't keep track, Miss World Traveler," he leaned towards her and lightly pinched her nose. "Gibraltar, huh? Isn't that a rock?"
She laughed out loud. He felt a gust of fresh air swirl around his neck and under his ears. Her amber eyes sparkled when she laughed. They reminded him of refreshing iced tea on a hot summer day. God, she's so beautiful. Was she always this beautiful?
"Earth to David!" she waved her right hand. Her eyes grew serious. "I know geography isn't your thing, but am I as boring as Professor Quinto?"
"Sorry… It's just that… um…" David stammered.
"Uh… uh…" Damnit. Say something David. He cleared his throat. "Um. Are you wearing colored contact lenses?"
She chuckled. "No, oi. Why would I wear lenses when I have such beautiful eyes?" she good-humoredly batted her eyelashes.
"Oh… It's just that I didn't notice before that they were so uh…" Beautiful… Pretty… Captivating… "…uh… light colored." He raised his glass to hide his reddening face.
"Well, that's because you don't see things under your nose!" she teasingly accused him.
He laughed. Witty. That was what she always said when he would tease her for being small and called her "little woman". She said his being tall was a disadvantage because he was always losing his stuff. He was five foot ten. That would make a lot of things under his nose. She had been the one to remind him of his keys, his wallet, his phone, his books. She was always the one to… She was always the… He shook his head, stopping his thoughts.
He took a long sip, and he slowly put down his drink. "Not all things. Not all things," he managed to defend himself while he absent-mindedly circled his finger around the rim of his glass.
"Yeah… not all, but you don't notice most things…" she softly countered "… or some people… some little people," she mumbled. She narrowed her eyes and looked away.
David looked up, sensing the change of mood. He silently followed her gaze. The tide had risen and began to destroy a few sandcastles on the beach. Three of their friends were chatting by the water's edge while their toddlers splashed near them. The breeze was getting colder. The sun was beginning to set.
Then he looked back at her. The sunset illuminated her tanned skin, creating a reddish glow that made her look fragile yet strong. Her lips were slightly frowning, reminding him that she can be really stubborn. He smiled as he recalled their many all-night debates. Wisps of her long wavy hair escaped her ponytail. He half-expected that she would fix them up, a movement so natural which he found so elegant -- her slender arms gracefully raised to her head, her neck bend down, her fingers dexterously twisting and tying.
He felt giddy as if he had just consumed a whole bottle of champagne. He remembered feeling like this before. He remembered he had reasons why he had brushed it aside. But he could not recall any of it now. He took a deep breath and exhaled. He let his unfinished thoughts go... She was always the one. God. She was always the one.
He hesitantly reached out to gently touch her arm. "Y'know, once in a while I do notice important things," he whispered.
She glanced back at him. Her eyes matched the approaching sunset— intense but melancholic.
She smiled weakly, "You didn't notice the engagement ring on my finger."
It is thus incorrect to say that when David saw her again, he choked. He simply could not breathe.
He did not move. He did not look down at her hand. He could not dare.
"Dan followed me to
David did not laugh. His pulse was racing. Blood was drumming in his ears. What will happen if I tell her now? What if I'll tell her now…Tell her now. "It's now or never," he murmured. He paused to take a deep breath…
"Huh? Well, yes. You're right. That's what I told myself. It's now or never" She spoke softly and slowly. "I realized that I wasn't getting any younger… That I should get silly fantasies out of my head…"
She looked at him and continued when he didn't respond. "I don't know why I'm explaining myself. But you see, getting married is always a risk... There'll always be questions. Don't get me wrong, Dan is a great guy and what we have is special. It's just that… I was waiting for… I don't know… something." She paused. "Then I realized I can't wait all my life. I should just go ahead and plunge, y'know…and just commit to what I have with Dan… for the rest of my life."
David froze in his seat. Oh God. She's the one… she's the one… the one who'll get away.
"Congratulations" David managed to say.
"Thank you." She said smiling. "Though it took you more than ten minutes to say that. It's better late than never."
Not if it's too late. Not if it's too late. David sighed to himself.
He fixed his eyes on her pretty amber eyes.
She held his gaze.
David did not blink until his eyes hurt.
(P.S. This is a work in progress. Please do leave your comments/corrections. Thanks!)


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- How many hours per week do you spend communicating with your peers via email?
- How long are typical meetings?
- How many meetings do you attend in a week?
- How would you rate the effectiveness of the meetings? (On a scale of 1-5, 5 being the most productive)
- Are you comfortable in discussing with your manager possible suggestions for improvement, and if not, why?
- Have you ever been confused by corporate messages delivered via email? Please explain and give specific examples.
These simple survey questions are provided to give the company a better understanding of problems with our corporate communication. There has been a culture of ambiguity and confusion, and the company would like to improve on its current communication standards. Employees are asked to fill out the survey, and respond back when convenient. The survey is the most appropriate tool for communicating with the broad employee base, and it also provides a way to communicate with employees from all work schedules and locations. Surveymonkey.com would be a quick resource, and would help to disseminate the survey quickly. Follow-up will be in the next few weeks, and we will discuss the possibility of further action.


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Last Thursday we went to the Coldplay concert! We both really love the band and were pumped to see affordable tickets. We had to sit on the lawn at the very back of the amphitheatre, but it was nice to have room to stretch out and relax. It was made even better when Coldplay came back to us! I have never seen a band do that before but it was a thrill for those of us at the back (especially the annoying high school groupies and drunk college students back there with us). We saw the technies preparing an area with guitars and stuff only about ten feet away from us, so we had to brace ourselves to be tramped. We were dead right. After being smashed, shoved, and having to punch some girl in the butt, we found a place to breathe. But here is our proof:
You can see sweat pouring down Chris Martin's face. Eww.
Just in case anyone reading this is a fan, here is a clip.


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With the first round of employer mandates required by the Affordable Care Act (ACA) set to begin in 2015, a new survey finds that employers appear more informed about their companies' options for providing health insurance.
Sixty-nine percent of U.S. employers report being "very informed" about their options under the ACA in 2014, as compared to only 37 percent in 2013.
The results come by way of an annual survey of employee benefits decision-makers by the nonprofit Transamerica Center for Health Studies. The 2014 survey was conducted in March and April, with the findings report, Pulse Check on Employer Preparedness for the ACA, released in May.
Among small businesses, the survey revealed that only six in 10 (59 percent) of those with fewer than 50 full-time equivalent employees are aware of the new Small Business Health Options Program (SHOP), compared to eight of 10 businesses overall (79 percent).
"This may be an area where more education is needed," said Hector De La Torre, executive director of the Transamerica Center. "Small businesses with fewer than 50 full-time equivalent employees are currently the only businesses eligible to participate in SHOP, yet four in 10 do not know about it. Businesses of this size employ nearly 34 million workers, according to the Small Business Administration, so it's a significant gap to address."
The survey found that most employers (64 percent) plan on taking some action to comply with the ACA, with 19 percent planning to change plan options and 17 percent planning to change insurers.
Other key findings from the study include:
Stephen Miller, CEBS, is an online editor/manager for SHRM. Follow him on Twitter @SHRMsmiller.
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You are not permitted to download, save or email this image. Visit image gallery to purchase the image.
Those spoken to said the port's efforts to keep people informed about what was happening were important, but there was concern about how the noise would affect residents.
The township is in for a noisy nine months of hammering from next month when 138 30m-long concrete-filled steel piles are installed to extend the multipurpose wharf.
Each pile will take about a day to install as it is driven into the seabed during the $15 million extension to accommodate the new generation of larger ships.
Port Otago chief executive Kevin Winders said last week the work that would take place between 7am and 7pm on weekdays would be noisy.
No piling work would be done on weekends or statutory holidays.
West Harbour Community Board chairman Steve Walker said the extension had been ''in the wind for a long, long time''.
''It was just a matter of when.''
While the beginning of the work was no surprise, he expected he spoke for everybody in the community when he said: ''I hope the nine months goes rather quickly''.
''It's going to be noisy.''
Mr Walker said he wanted to be assured by Mr Winders the community would be informed about how the work would affect residents, and how long it would take, but he was encouraged by Mr Winder's actions so far.
''He seems very, very keen to communicate what's happening, and I hope he's true to his word he wants Port Otago to be a good community neighbour.
''I'm certainly prepared to give him the benefit of the doubt.''
Carey's Bay Historic Hotel owner Jo Kidston said she was concerned about the effect of the noise on her business.
It would be ''great'' if it could be mitigated.
Ms Kidston said she was pleased the work would not be done before 7am or after 7pm, or on weekends, which was when the hotel was busiest.
''We're just wondering what it's going to mean for our summer trade, because depending on the summer, a lot of people sit outside.''
That included cruise ship passengers, she said.
''Hopefully it doesn't keep people away; it's just a wait and see.''
She did not want to get ''over-wrought about the whole thing''.
''If it comes to the point we're seeing it's really, really bad, then it would be good to know there may be some strategy there to mitigate things.''
Community board member Ange McErlane, who has been the board's representative on a liaison committee with Port Otago since December, and has held the role in the past, said different parts of the area experienced noise from the port differently.
It also depended on the wind direction.
Ms McErlane said it helped that Port Otago told the community about the work, what days it would be done and what the operating hours would be.
When piling had been done in the past, ''the more information they gave people the less likely people were to wonder what was going on''.
''They knew, and they knew what to expect.''
Ms McErlane said until the pile work started it would not be known what the impact of the noise would be.
A webcam Port Otago was installing would also help people see what was going on.


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What they were: Iomega's extremely useful, cleverly marketed high-capacity removable disks -- introduced back in 1994, when 100MB qualified as high capacity. They were never as pervasive as floppies, but they must be the most popular, most loved proprietary disk format of all time.
What happened: The same things that happened to floppy disks, only more slowly -- and complicated by the malfunction ominously known as the click of death. When cheap CD burners made it easy to store 650MB on a low-cost disc that worked in nearly any computer, Zip started to look less capacious and cost-efficient. And then USB drives -- which offered more storage than Zip and required no drive at all -- came out. Along the way, Iomega launched new disk formats such as Jaz, PocketZip and Rev, but they failed to recapture the Zip magic.
Current whereabouts: Iomega seems to be doing fine as a manufacturer of storage products of all sorts. It still sells 250MB and 750MB Zip drives, along with Zip media going all the way back to the original 100MB disks. I confess that I never owned a Zip drive myself -- but I'll still feel a twinge of sadness when they finally go away.
SOURCE: 'Where Are They Now? 25 Computer Products That Refuse to Die' by Harry McCracken.


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Yesterday evening I was drawing for NEW, the improvised musical
Installation of the drawing table before the show.
Four singing actors and three musicians improvise a whole show from a title invented by the public.
The drawings are projected on a screen behind the actors and follow the story.
Next NEW show in Paris : 8th of february, 8th of march, 14th of march (in english) and 15th march.
Next NEW show in Lyon : 10th, 11th and 12th of february.


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This costume was made in a period of just over a month. Every piece of this costume including the shoes were completely hand made. The coat was draped from muslin and the stockings and bodysuit draped on a mannequin.
I premiered this costume at Otakon 2014 and it brought home the award for Best Costume at the Journeyman level.
This costume took 4 yards of velvet, 2 yards of lycra, 7 yards of lace, 4 yards of heavy interfacing, 20 feet of strung pearls and various other materials including silk duponi, cotton sateen, mesh, leather and vinyl.
[I will be be linking to several posts on how this was made]


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Proceeds from the ongoing coal block auctions are likely to cross Rs 2 lakh crore, surpassing CAG´s estimate of Rs 1.86 lakh crore loss on account of the allocation of blocks without auction during the UPA regime.
´Likely proceeds from coal block auctions (may) cross Rs 2 lakh crore. These include e-auction proceeds, royalty proceeds and upfront payment,´ Coal Secretary Anil Swarup said.
´Apart from above, around Rs 97,000 crore of additional tariff benefit will accrue to the consumers of power through reverse auction of coal blocks,´ he added. His remarks come at a time when the government is set to garner over Rs 11,300 crore from sale of two mines including Utkal C to Monnet Power, on the fifth day of the second tranche of auctions. The government kitty swelled by an estimated s 9,537.22 crore from sale of Utkal C mine in Odisha to Monnet Power Company earlier in the day. Bidding for Lohari block in Palamu district of Jharkhand is underway and as per present bid price of Rs 1,992 a tonne, it will cross revenue of Rs 1,800 crore.
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The International City/ County Management Association (ICMA) has joined as a supporting organization of the Values and Guiding Principles for Public Procurement.
ICMA was founded in 1914 and supports more than 9,000 city, town, and county experts and other individuals and organizations throughout the world. The management decisions made by ICMA's members affect 185 million individuals living in thousands of communities, from small villages and towns to large metropolitan areas.(www.icma.org).
This is another exciting step in the Values and Guiding Principles project, as well as the development of the Standards of Practice for Public Procurement.


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Catenarian Selebritas the Real Berdiet Weird
Reese Witherspoon: baby food
Although it looks strange, according to the recognition Whiterspoon, the diet is successful. Inamorato handsome actor Jake Gyllenhaal is eat normal food for adults only once a day. After that, he chose the cream soup, fruits (apples and oranges), boiled chicken and boiled vegetables.
In fact, baby food, including one type of food is very healthy because it is rich in vitamins. In addition, this dietary pattern also allows us to get enough fiber, calories, and protein.
Liz Hurley: soup special
See the appearance, many people will take this one section of women are still about 25 years. Hurley would like to know a secret so that the body can get semolek it? He appeared to have a special soup recipe creation itself.
Boil two potatoes, one onion, cloves, and chicken soup are the size of IM in the pot. Add salt and pepper, and heat until boiling. So, enter the three bunch celery before the soup from the stove top.
Beyoncé Knowles: herb lemon
During the ten days, Beyonce did not allowed any food other than eat the concoction made of lemon, maple syrup, water, and cayenne. Each time you feel hungry, troubadour song''Hello''this must be the fluid is.
The result, he successfully eliminate the body weight of 14 kilograms in two weeks, before a role in the movie musical''Dreamgirls''. However, this diet does not afford sufficient demand we will be key elements such as protein, fatty acid, and vitamins.


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egg shaped mobile home is concept is by a 24 year old architect in Beijing, China to come up with a solution to living rent-free. It cost around $1,000 to make and it is only big enough to fit a bed and a few belongings; but the solar panel is enough to power a lamp.
Although it is very clever and a step up than a sleeping bag and a cardboard box as provides more protection and comfort than, it seem like it would be a below living out of a van and most modern cities would never allow it due to zoning, not to mention health code issues depending on how he collects, stores and disposes of his "personal waste" (and I don't mean takeout containers). Photo by: AFP / Getty Images


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We have no records of past relationships for Ben Lynch.
Ben Lynch is a 45 year old American Football (American) Player born on 18th November, 1972 in Santa Rosa, CA. His zodiac sign is Scorpio
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to add information, pictures and relationships, join in discussions and get credit for your contributions.
Benjamin John Lynch (born November 18, 1972 in Santa Rosa, California) is a former professional American football center who played four seasons in the National Football League for the San Francisco 49ers.
Help keep Ben Lynch profile up to date.
Connect any celebrity with Ben Lynch to see how closely they are linked... romantically!


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This feature appears every week on the Baltimore Sports Blitz. It's just like "What They're Saying About the Ravens," but it includes blogger Matt Vensel saying something about what those people are saying. Got it?
--- ESPN's Jamison Hensley thinks the Ravens need to get Ray Rice more involved after the bye week.
"The Ravens running back hasn't received more than 20 carries in a game this season. He hasn't been a big part of the passing game, either, with seven catches over the past three games. It's not like Rice is ineffective when he gets the ball. His 4.9 yards per carry is fourth-best among running backs with at least 100 carries. Rice also leads the team in yards after the catch. With Joe Flacco's inconsistency, the Ravens have to go back to their most reliable weapon," wrote Hensley, my former colleague here at The Baltimore Sun.
Matt's take: There is no question the Ravens have to get Rice more involved, and it has more to do with him being one of the most unique and dangerous offensive playmakers in the league and less to do with Flacco being inconsistent away from M&T Bank Stadium. The good news is there is reason to believe they will increase Rice's workload. Rice got 20 or more carries in eight of their final nine games in 2011, including the postseason.


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- This event has passed.
General Contractor Round Robin and Associate Expo
May 12, 2016 @ 2:30 pm - 5:30 pm
Event Navigation
Exclusive Event for AWC Members Only!
Join us for a full afternoon of networking with General & Prime Contractors and our Associate Members.
AWC is holding our Annual Associate Member Expo where you can come learn about the services our Associate members have to offer.
In conjunction with this event we are hosting our "General/Prime Contractor Round Robin"event. This will be a speed networking event where you will have the opportunity to meet representatives from several General Contractors during the afternoon.
Please note: Registering for this event does not register you for a booth. For booth inquiries please email Grace
Contractors Scheduled to Attend so far


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loopable AoI
Filling an A with the old boundary
Filling an A new boundaries
There is a lot in this release so we will start with a list derived from the change logs.
- Fluid objects are in. They are not "stabilized" and look rough. But we can now start with liquid in the scene.
- New boundary parameters have been added and generally work better than the velocity bias parameter. The parameters are a factor to increase boundary force and a clamp value to limit the max value of that force. If the clamp value is greater than one particles can bounce a bit.
- All particle boundary code has been more or less removed.
- The integrator was made more consistent. This mean one more pass per iteration, but is more stable.
- Softbodies are working.... Kind-of. WARNING, this can break your scene, have a backup.
- Note that you still need to subdivide emitters.
Next is the boundary code. I'm a lot happier with these parameters to control boundaries than the velocity bias. The boundary factor is just a simple multiplier on the base force and clamp simple clamps the value. So the default is that the boundary has a effect of one on the surface. If we set the multiplier to say 1.5 and leave the clamp at one. Then the "thinness" of max effect is now larger. But the magnitude of the maximum effect is the same. If we let clamp be larger than one then the boundary gets a little spring to it and can push particles back rather than stop them from traveling though the boundary.
But what about softbodies! Well first of all its a long way from finished. Ok so not that long. But this really is a alpha alpha stage in that I does delete data from the scene and generally does not like anything other than full rebakes every time. So here are the guidelines:
- Don't use high poly/vertex count objects.
- Keep the spring stiffness high. About 5000-100000.
- If the object collapses the simulation will go unstable.
- If you want fluid interactions, then you will need to up the mass values to more than 1 on the softbodies. Also smaller time steps will be needed.
- Every time you make a change to the scene rebake.
- Once a object is set to softbody its animation tracks may get deleted. You cannot move the object around the scene. Reload the scene and position the object before adding it as a softbody.
- Vertex are mass. If you have a lot of vertexs at one end, thats the heavy end.
- avoid long and short vertexs in the same model.
Now I often get complaints with the large number of options. That is the deal at this stage. I/We need to be able to work out what works and what does not. The only way to do that easily is have the options available to try in different situations.
Happy AoI'ing....
Oh, I almost forgot, the plugin is here:
The Plugin


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NOT GUILTY: Native Journalist Jenni Monet cleared of #NoDAPL related charges, including criminal trespassing and engaging in a riot Read More
Social Issues
Alleged war-whoops as Quinault tribal member Jimmy Smith-Kramer killed after hit by a truck in alleged racially-charged confrontation Read More
The Perfect Native American Memorial Day
May 28, 2018 ·
Former Second Lieutenant and Native Veteran Vincent Schilling: My Version of The Perfect Native American Memorial Day Read More
Native foster families are needed: The State of Utah is one example, there are an estimated 130 Native children in state custody, but less than 20 Native foster kinship... Read More
There are seven Native American heroes now in the Statuary Hall. Billy Frank, Jr. deserves a spot too. Read More
Robert Robedeaux, who was shopping at Hibbett Sports in Owasso, Oklahoma filmed himself being escorted off the property by three police officers, he says it was racially motivated Read More
Cherokee student Nicolas Rojas showed his tribal ID to a security guard who refused to give it back or offer an explanation. Marymount California University President apologizes. Read More
Robert Wood Johnson Foundation CEO Richard Besser: "In honoring Washington and Kansas City's football teams, we became part of the problem. Our organization won't honor racism anymore." Read More
After Mohawk Brothers incident - School Apologizes, American Indian Graduate Center Expresses Disappointment, Heavy Metal Band Cattle Decapitation gives brothers guest list access for life for wearing their ... Read More
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05 November, 2011
If you want it, sing it loud.
There's so much going on in my life right now. Literally, mentally and, generally socially. I mean, school work, course work, homework, clubs, priorities, friends, relationships, the demise of relationships, staying up late, being tired, being sad, being wired, being happy, being ME. I love it, but at the same time I can feel people slipping away. I've changed a lot this year, and I don't think that most of it is bad, but I know that I've come to lose friends, and alienate people. Sometimes, I feel sorry for them, for myself and guilty, for not realising, and not trying harder. But, then, I think that, really, I haven't lost EVERYONE, so the people I have lost obviously don't want to try either. I just wish I didn't keep losing or forgetting the most important people/person/thing. It's odd. <3
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Thursday, May 8, 2008
ANTM: Cycle 10 Episode 12 Ready for My Close-Up (Photos)
2 comments:
- SODA said...
Anya's pic was the ONLY one that looked like she was being followed by the paparazzi she looks like she was running from them...i like it...but I'm still on Team Whitney!!!
- May 10, 2008 at 11:29 AM
- AcousticSoul said...
Ms. J used to clown the hell out of Ms Dominque. I'm glad she left. I liked her alright, but she looked so much older than she really was.
ANTM non winners have been more successful than the winners anyway. You may be seeing her somewhere around.
- May 11, 2008 at 8:31 AM
Subscribe to: Post Comments (Atom)


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FRANK JOHNSTON of The Washington Post has been named Photographer of the Year by the White House News Photographers' Association.
In a question-and-answer session, Johnston discussed facets of his career leading up to this honor. Q. This is the third time you've won this prestigious award. What were the other years; what were the winning pictures? A.In 1978, I won with a series of pictures on the drought in the Southwest. In 1979, with the pictures from Jonestown, Guyana. This year my series on the return to Vietnam was chosen. I consider myself very fortunate and am very appreciative of these awards. The competition in this contest is very stiff. Q. What kind of equipment are you currently using? A. I'm using the Canon T-90 system. It's an absolutely incredible camera. If you doubt it, you're wrong. I keep discovering all kinds of good things it will do. I carry two bodies and a full complement of lenses, from 15mm to 600mm. I also carry an M Leica for 35 and 50mm work. Both lenses are Sumacrons. Q. How did you get started in photography? A. I had some lucky breaks. My dad was chief photographer on the Philadelphia Inquirer, and some of my earliest memories were of running around the paper's darkroom. Even when I was a little older I used to terrorize the darkroom; I'd sneak up on the photographers working in the lab and smack them with wet cotton balls. I remember the time may father had to rescue me from a trash can where an irate photog had stuffed me. Q. When did you start shooting pictures? A. My first camera was an Ansco box that my father gave me when I was six years old. I burned up film like crazy. Anytime anyone slipped me a roll, it would be shot in no time.
But my dad saw that my interest was real, and when I was 12, he bought me an old Anniversary Speed Graphic, and had it totally redone. No fancy extras on it, no rangefinder, just a footage scale. He gave me three 4x5 holders that had been his, and took me off to shoot pictures.
We went down to the waterway near Chester, Pa. I set my camera up on a tripod and made pictures of tankers near the shore.
I was processing my own film by this time. I used DK-50 for negs and an Omega D-2 enlarger.
By the time I was 14, I had started to shoot some Ektachrome, and was learning how to process color. More important, I was learning about color generally. How to shoot it, how to light it, how to load it.
In high school I worked for the yearbook and even did a little freelancing at proms. I worked part-time at a commercial studio, and learned a lot more. They kept me on full-time during the summers. I liked what I was doing, but felt the desire to return to journalism. I was a sometime messenger for UPI United Press International and that helped me get my foot in the door.
I went to the University of Pennsylvania, then entered the Marine Corps Reserve in 1962. When I came out in May of 1963, UPI picked up my option and sent me to Austin, Texas. I was just in time for coverage of a really wild series of news stories.
Like so many others, I was in a state of shock after the assassination of President Kennedy. But I didn't seem to have the time to stay shocked. Too much happened too quickly.
I remember the day I was supposed to testify at the Jack Ruby trial. Things were running behind, and there was no room left to sprawl in the witness room. I walked back past the courtroom, down a corridor, and almost collided with a guy holding a woman by the throat and a huge pistol at her head. It was my first hostage situation. I was just about to start shooting pictures when I was shoved from behind by an AP Associated Press photographer and into another room.
I ducked out of a window, went down the fire escape carrying a Nikon with a 200. The gunman went through the court building and out on the street, just as I came off the fire escape. He kept moving, dragging the hostage, gun to her head, with him. I followed him through the 200, and as he passed me, I saw a detective stalking him from on top of a line of cars. When the detective jumped him, I had a good set of pictures -- just like on TV. Q. Then what? And where? A. UPI sent me back to Philadelphia where I spent the next 18 months. I learned a lot in 1964. I covered my first political convention and learned a good bit about administration of a gigantic photo operation. This was followed up immediately by the Philadelphia riots. I went into that action alongside of Frank Rizzo former Philadelphia police chief and mayor and was able to make a series of pictures on the looting. Q. Then? A. Vietnam for 13 months.
Now, before we say anything more about Vietnam, let me tell you about a recent discussion with some high-ranking military. It's a kind of a conversation I've had before and really makes me angry.
These military people spoke long and loud about the media and coverage of Vietnam. They spoke of inaccuracies and showmanship, and seemed to single out photographers for being particularly inaccurate. I resent this. Completely and totally. I challenged them, as I do anyone, to show me a forged picture from Vietnam; to show me an inaccurate picture from Vietnam; to show me any picture that in anyway hurt our war effort or to show how any picture, even out of context, was less than honest.
The roll call of photographers killed in action in Vietnam is long and honorable. Considerably more honorable than their misguided critics. Pictures still do not lie.
In fact, there are those of us who feel that a memorial to those dead photographers would now be in order. Not just our own, but those of all countries.Q. Tell us about this year's winning pictures; your return to Vietnam 10 years after the fall. A. Just getting into the country was a problem. I made the only flight from Bangkok that the Vietnamese would let me on -- by about 5 minutes.
The return was very emotional. I saw things that I hadn't seen in 17 years and remembered a lot. I had made a long list of requests for pictures, figuring that if I was allowed 1 percent I'd be in clover. Instead, they allowed me about 90 percent of my requests. Q. Such as? A. High on my list was to meet Ho Chi Minh's personal photographer. He was alive and well and living in Hanoi. We had a super conversation for about three hours. We talked photography. Q. What was denied? A. I had asked to return to the church at Anhoa. I had been there in May of 1967 with the First Battalion, 9th Marines. Seven hundred Marines went in and only 43 came out. The authorities told me that the church had been destroyed and the area was still dangerous because of mines. Q. Currently? A. It's my turn to cover the White House. Q. Next? A. Let's talk again next year.
Carl Kramer, former director of photography for The Washington Post, will try to answer your photography questions in his column, but cannot reply individually.


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In a traditional e-learning setting, learners learn the content in a secluded, self-paced environment. Here, learners have little chance of meeting their fellow learners to share their learning experiences. On the other hand, collaborative learning encourages active learning where each learner has an opportunity to take an active part in learning activities.
Benefits of collaborative learning: It occurs at various levels.
Boosts social interactivity:
The foundation for collaborative learning is interaction among learners. Learners cherish social interaction. In an academic or a corporate environment, learners from various locations come onto a learning platform. This gives them an opportunity to expand their social network by building trust. This eventually helps them with their career growth.
Organizations and academic institutions have realized that the key to successful e-learning programs is to integrate collaborative learning tools. Tools such as Wikis, shared videos, message boards, etc. can make learning more engaging and appealing to learners.
Facilitates the learning process:
Since in collaborative learning, learners share a platform, they can complement each others' shortcomings. In case a learner finds it difficult to understand a concept, he can get his partner's help instead of directly approaching his instructor. This can alleviate the pain of learning a grueling subject alone.
However, here trust between the learners matters. Unless they believe in one another, they do not share the information. This can apply both to academic and corporate environments. This is what the management should deal with. They should ensure that peer competition is under check for the greater good of all learners.
Helps learners mine information:
As learners from various locations get connected to a single learning platform, they can have various perspectives on a single topic. This helps them broaden their outlook overcoming the narrow prejudices emanating from local environment. Also, it helps learners with information mining from brainstorming sessions.
Provides learners with first-hand learning experience:
With collaborative e-learning, learners can familiarize themselves with concepts first hand. For instance, learners learning a foreign language can practice their language skills with native speakers. This will boost their learning experience and keep them motivated.
With these benefits, collaborative e-learning has the potential to take e-learning in academic as well as corporate settings to further stages of significance and utility.
Do share your thoughts on the same.


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- Package Weight: 0.242kg (0.53lb.)
- Package Size: 28cm x 42cm x 5cm (11.02in x 16.54in x 1.97in)